2014 5th IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Europe (ISGT Europe), October 12-15, Istanbul
Charging Strategies to Minimize the Energy
Cost for an Electric Vehicle Fleet
Van-Linh NGUYEN Tuan TRAN-QUOC
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, G2Elab Univ. Grenoble Alpes,
F-38000 Grenoble CEA/INES
and CEA/INES, France 50 Avenue du Lac Léman Seddik.bacha@g2elab.grenoble
Van-Linh.NGUYEN F-73377 Le Bourget-du-Lac,
@g2elab.grenoble-inp.fr France
QuocTuan.Tran@cea.fr
Abstract— In the paper, we consider the charging scheduling of
the electric vehicles (EVs) at a charging station with multiple
charge points. The charging station is equipped with
photovoltaic (PV) generator and can buy or sell energy to power
grid. The paper proposes charging strategies to reduce the
charging cost of the charging station under time-varying
electricity price signals. These strategies are based on the
interruption (on/off) or on the modulation of EV charging
power. By dividing the daytime in many intervals, a binary
linear programming and a linear programming is used,
respectively for each strategy, to manage the charging plan of
the vehicles. The first application is used for reducing total
energy cost in daytime. The second application is proposed to
limit the charging power and reducing total energy cost
simultaneously during a time defined by DSO (or another
operator). The proposed method takes into account the random
time arrival and random time departure of vehicle. The
performance of the proposed strategies is validated by
simulations for a charging station of 50 electric vehicles in real
time conditions.
Index Terms-- Binary linear programming, EV charging
management, electric vehicle, energy cost, photovoltaic
I. INTRODUCTION
In the future, it is expected that a lot of the electric vehicles
(EVs) will connect to the grid, in general to the distribution
network. However, the charging of the electric vehicle can
have negative impacts on the grid such as voltage, load curve,
power loss, renewable integration and harmonics propagation
are shown in [1]–[6]. This paper is dedicated to one aspect:
coordination of EVs and photovoltaic for reduce the energy
cost of one charging station.
In [7], an EV charging algorithm based on the price signal
and transformer capacity is presented to minimize the cost for
the EV owner and, at the same time, avoid any overloading
problem. But the vehicles are charged at home and difficult to
apply on one charging station. In [8], charging station with
978-1-4799-7720-8/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE
Seddik BACHA Ngoc-An LUU
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, G2Elab Univ. Grenoble Alpes, G2Elab
F-38000 Grenoble, France F-38000 Grenoble
and CEA/INES, France
-inp.fr Ngoc-An.Luu
@g2elab.grenoble-inp.fr
PV, the proposed energy management to achieve a minimum
daily utility cost of charging station, based on the EV load
forecasting model. But the arrival time of EVs are random
variables, so the methods seem not reality.
In this paper, the charging of EVs in a charging station
equipped with PV generator is considered in Fig.1. The
parking not only buy electricity to charge EVs, but it can sell
power to the grid when PV photovoltaic (EPV) is greater than
the demand for EVs (EEV).
It supposes that all EV batteries should be filled at the end
of the afternoon when cars leave the parking. The charging
station is connected to the distribution grid via an aggregator.
One example of aggregator is shown in [9]. In this paper, the
charging management of EVs in order to determine a planning
of EVs switched on or off (interruption strategy) is proposed
following a signal of the aggregator received from the
Distribution System Operator (DSO). Another strategy is
proposed with the modulation of charging power (modulation
strategy).
For electric vehicle fleet charging, different scheduling
strategies are used. Authors list various quadratic
programming methods [10][11], and genetic algorithms [12].
In almost all papers, two approaches on charging method is
used by authors. Firstly, these algorithms are used to
determine the EV charging start time of each EV [10][12][13],
and the vehicle is charged continuously at constant power
until the battery is filled. Secondly, these algorithms determine
the charging rate (if this can be tuned) [11] and the vehicle is
charged continuously at all time until the battery is filled. In
both these approaches, there is no interruption in the charging
process.
This paper proposes a new approach that divides the
charging time into many intervals with a constant or variable
charging power which is fixed by the chargers. At each
interval of time, the aggregator sends out the decision to the

individual charging port in order to connect or disconnect the
vehicle for the interruption strategy. Another strategy, the
aggregator sends a set point power of each vehicle for a
modulation strategy. Fig.2 illustrates the interruption strategy
principle. As show in Fig. 2a, with 6 EVs in the parking, these
EVs need to fully charge between 7am to 7pm. If the charging
duration is not divided in intervals, the peak consumption can
reach 18kW (3x6=18 kW). Now, with a good planning
strategy of multiplying the charging intervals (Fig. 2b), the
peak consumption can be reduced to 12 kW.
Figure 1. System considered: grid, electric vehicle fleet and PV plant
Based on this strategy, the paper proposes a control for
two applications for power peak shaving. The first application
is proposed to reduce the peak consumption of an EV fleet
during the day time. The second application is the same as the
first application but it can take into account of limit of the
charging power during a time defined by DSO (or another
operator). These two objectives can be carried out by the same
energy management scheme.
Figure 2. Charging power of 6 EVs in case (a) without management and (b)
with management (interruption of charging power)
II. FORMULATION
A. Considered parameters for EV charging
1) Charging considerations
The electric vehicle is connected to the charging station at
the charging start time Tstart. The charging strategy of EVs
2
must guarantee that every vehicle is be charged to full
capacity (ex: SOC=100%) before the charging stop time Tstop.
In this paper, the charging start time is randomly varying
between 7h and 9h with a normal distribution. The charging
stop time is randomly varying between 17h and 19h with a
normal distribution. The initial SOC of EVs is randomly
variying between 20 and 80% with a uniform distribution (Fig.
2).
Figure 3. Distribution of charging start time and EV SOC
All vehicles use the slow charging mode, the power is
generally equal to 3 kW (16 A) with the maximal charging
time about 8 hours [14]. The vehicle will be connected to the
grid via a charging station according to modes 2 or 3 of
standard IEC 61851-1 [15]. According to this standard, the
charging station consists of a box, an outlet and a dedicated
circuit. The vehicle is connected directly to the electrical grid
via a specific socket and a dedicated circuit. A control and
protection function is also installed permanently in the
installation.
2) Charging profile
The common charging profiles used for lithium-ion (Li-
ion) batteries are constant current (CC) and constant voltage
(CV) charging. During CC charging, the current is regulated at
a constant value until the battery cell voltage reaches a certain
voltage level. Then, the charging is switched to CV charging,
and the battery is charged with a trickle current applied by a
constant voltage[16], [17]. When the battery reaches 70%
SOC, the charging switches from CC to CV charging. But in a
real case, the charging profiles can be different. For example,
a charging profile with two power levels is used in [18]. A
linear approach for Lithium battery is used in [12], in which
the relation between charging duration and SOC is determined
by :
୫ୟ୶
ୡ୦ୟ୰୥ୣ ൌ ሺͳ െ ଴ ሻ ሺͳሻ
ୡ୦ୟ୰୥ୣ
Tcharge is the time needed to fully charge the battery (h)
SOC0 is the initial state of charge (%)
Emax is the rated capacity of the battery (kWh)
Pcharge is the charging power.
For example, a EV with Pcharge=3kW, Emax=24kWh,
SOC0=50% results in Tcharge=4h.
At the initial charging time, by using (1), the charging
duration is calculated by the management system. Based on
Tcharge, Tstart and Tstop, at each time interval the management
system will calculate and decide whether EV will be charged
(on) or not (off).
 3

With a given daytime begin at Tbegin and stop at Tfin, the
charging time is DT= Tfin - Tdeb. If a given step time of
simulation is ΔT (ex: 10 min or 30 min), the number of
intervals NT of simulation is DT/ΔT.
B. Interruption strategy (on/off)
In this application, the management system determines
the charging planning of each EV in order to minimize the
total energy cost of the parking. The management system
determines when each EVi is activated (on) or deactivated
(off). A binary charging variable Xit in the interval t is used
to indicate the operation state of EVi. If Xit=1 then EVi is
Ct is electricity price purchased from the grid at
interval t (Euros/kWh)
PDSOt is the power limit imposed by DSO at interval t
In case EPV < EEV, inequality (8) mean that at a moment t,
the management system receives a signal sent from DSO in
order to reduce of the total power to a given value during a
determined duration ( for example, some hours or all
daytime).
Once the optimization is complete and the values of Xit are
obtained, we can calculate the power consumption of the
charging station (the power transferred through the point of
common coupling PCC) at the time interval t is:


turned on and if Xit=0 then EVi is turned off.
For each EVi, the necessary charging time Ti is
determined by (1). The relation between Xit and Ti is:
୒౐
෍ ୧୲ ‫ כ‬ο ൌ ୧ ሺʹሻ
୲ୀଵ
Grid operators encourage self-consumption which means
maximizing the PV energy to charge EVs. Then, we consider
two different cases:
• If EPV > EEV, all EVs must be charged by PV, PV
remainder is sold to the grid.
• However, if EPV < EEV, first, all the PV energy must
be used to charge EVs, the rest is purchased from the grid.
The objective function to minimize the total energy cost
of the charging station:
୒౐ ୒ు౒
 ൌ ‹ ቌ෍ ୲ ෍ሺ୉୚୧ ୧୲ ሻቍሺ͵ሻ
୲ୀଵ ୧ୀଵ
୥୰୧ୢ୲ ൌ ෍ሺ‹ ‹– ሻ െ –
‹ൌͳ
Finally, the electricity cost cans be obtained:
‘•– ൌ ෍ ୲ ୥୰୧ୢ୲ ൅ ෍ ୔୚ ୥୰୧ୢ୲ ሺͳͳሻ
୔ౝ౨౟ౚ౪ வ଴ ୔ౝ౨౟ౚ౪ ழ଴
Where:
CPV is the photovoltaic electricity price sold to the grid
(Euros/kWh)
Problem (3) with constraints (4)-(10) is a binary linear
programming. To solve this problem, we use a branch-and-
bound algorithm that uses linear programming (LP) relaxation
presented in [19][20] and [21].The bounds are provided by LP
relaxations, and for branching we choose an integer variable
that is fractional in the LP solution with a Best-Node First
strategy [22]. In [22], the author presents an LP relaxation that
uses the basic simplex algorithm [23] and dual simplex
algorithm [21] for re-optimizing. Fig. 4 presents the algorithm
to solve the problem.

If EPV > EEV, the constraints are:

୒ు౒
‫ۓ‬
ۖ ෍ ୉୚୧ ୧୲ ൑ ୲ ™‹–Š‫ א –׊‬ሺͶሻ
ۖ ୧ୀଵ
 ୒౐
‫ ۔‬෍  ‫ כ‬ο ൌ  ሺͷሻ
୧୲ ୧
ۖ
ۖ ୲ୀଵ
‫  ە‬୧୲ ‫ א‬ሼͲǡͳሽሺ͸ሻ
If EPV < EEV, the constraints are:
୒ు౒
‫ۓ‬
ۖ ෍ ୉୚୧ ୧୲ ൒ ୲ ™‹–Š‫  א –׊‬ሺ͹ሻ
ۖ ୧ୀଵ
ۖ ୒ు౒
ۖ
෍ ୉୚୧ ୧୲ െ ୲ ൑ ୈୗ୓୲ ™‹–Š‫ א –׊‬ሺͺሻ

‫ ۔‬୧ୀଵ
ۖ ୒౐
ۖ ෍  ‫ כ‬ο ൌ  ሺͻሻ
ۖ ୧୲ ୧
ۖ ୲ୀଵ
‫ ە‬୧୲ ‫ א‬ሼͲǡͳሽሺͳͲሻ
Where:
NEV is the number of vehicles Figure 4. Algorithm for searching optimal solution
PEVi the rated power of vehicle i
Xit is a binary variable (0 or 1)
D is a set of charging time.
 4

C. Modulation strategy quarter of 2014). The price of electricity and the power of PV
For the interruption strategy in the previous section, the are assumed known (by forecasting).
charging power of each EV can take only two possible values: The following part presents the simulation results for two
0 or 3 kW in each time interval. In this section, the objective is applications with the interruption (Fig.5-Fig.11) and
to minimize the total energy cost of the charging station with a modulation strategy (Fig.12-Fig.14) of charging power. The
strategy that permits to modulate the charging power of each maximal power PV and DSO limiting power is given in
EV for each interval. This strategy is expected for electric cars TABLE I, and results of simulation cost are presented in
in the future when the new technology giving the ability to TABLE II. Cases 1 and 3 corresponds to the case EPV<EEV,
change continuously the charging power between 0 and 3 kW. Case 2 corresponds to EPV>EEV. Cases 1 and 2 correspond to
The real variable Yit presents the charging power of the the interruption of charging power and case 3 corresponds to
EVi at the interval t. the modulation of charging power.
With the same argument as the interruption strategy, the
TABLE I. SIMULATION PARAMETERS
objective function to minimize the total energy cost of the Cost (Euros) Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
charging station is:
୒౐ ୒ు౒ PPV max (kW) 70 85 65
 ൌ ‹ ቌ෍ ୲ ෍ ୧୲ ቍሺͳʹሻ Limit PDSO (kW) 60 - 50
୲ୀଵ ୧ୀଵ
1) Interruption strategy
If EPV > EEV, the constraints are: In this part, all EVs are managed by the interruption
୒ు౒
‫ۓ‬ (on/off) of charging power, two cases 1 and 2 are studied:
ۖ ෍ ୧୲ ൑ ୲ ™‹–Š‫ א –׊‬ሺͳ͵ሻ EPV<EEV (Fig.5-10) and EPV>EEV (Fig.11). We can see in
ۖ ୧ୀଵ Fig.5-7, to reduce the energy cost, the algorithm plans
 ୒౐ charging vehicles to the time base price (15h to 18h).
‫ ۔‬෍  ‫ כ‬ο ൌ  ሺͳͶሻ Fig.5 and Fig.11 show that with management strategy, all
୧୲ ୧
ۖ the PV energy is used to charge EVs.
ۖ ୲ୀଵ
‫ Ͳ ە‬൑ ୧୲ ൑ ୉୚୧̴୫ୟ୶ ሺͳͷሻ Fig.10 and results in TABLE II show that the algorithm
If EPV < EEV, the constraints are: has the possibility of coordinating two functions
୒ు౒ simultaneously: minimizing the cost and limit the peak
‫ۓ‬ consumption. In Fig.10, when management strategy is not
ۖ ෍ ୧୲ ൒ ୲ ™‹–Š‫  א –׊‬ሺͳ͸ሻ performed, the grid power reaches 80kW (cyan curve). With
ۖ ୧ୀଵ
ۖ ୒ు౒ management strategy, when there is not the limit power of
ۖ DSO, the grid power reaches 140kW (blue curve). When
෍ ୧୲ െ ୲ ൑ ୈୗ୓୲ ™‹–Š‫ א –׊‬ሺͳ͹ሻ
 there is the signal of DSO, the grid power is limited to 60 kW
‫ ۔‬୧ୀଵ (red curve) according to the set point of DSO in TABLE I,
ۖ ୒౐ the cost increases slightly to 12.85 Euros compared to 12.25
ۖ ෍  ‫ כ‬ο ൌ  ሺͳͺሻ
ۖ ୧୲ ୧ Euros in case without DSO.
ۖ ୲ୀଵ Case 2 (Fig.11) is interesting, instead of paying energy
‫ Ͳ ە‬൑ ୧୲ ൑ ୚୉୧ౣ౗౮ ሺͳͻሻ 11.07 Euros, the parking can win an amount of 7.15 Euros.
Where: 150
0.3

Ei=(1-SOC0)*Emax: energy need to fully charging EVi

Electricity price (Euros/kWH)

Finally, the electricity cost purchased from the grid is the 120

same as (11).
Ptotal (kW)

The algorithm is the same as the interruption strategy (Fig. 90

4) but now a linear programming is used instead of the 0.2

binary integer programming because Yit is now real variable. 60

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Price

Opt without DSO
30
The simulations are carried out with charging stations in a Opt with DSO
Without management
parking of 50 electric vehicles in normal charge (3kW). The 0
PV
0.1
capacity of each EV is 24kWh. EV charging can be switched 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Time (H)
on or switched off each 10 minutes. The charging start time is
varied randomly with a normal distribution in the parking Figure 5. Electricity price, PV power and total charging power of vehicle
fleet in case case 1
between Tbegin= 7am and Tfin= 7pm. The charging stop time is
randomly varied between 5pm and 7pm with a normal In Fig.11, when the optimization strategy is not performed,
distribution. The initial SOC of EVs is randomly varied the power drawn from the electrical network can reaches 60
between 20% and 80% with a uniform distribution. The price kW because PPV<PEV from 8am to 11h30am. But with the
of photovoltaic electricity price sold to the grid CPV = 0.14
Euros/kWh [24] (photovoltaic electricity prices for the first
 5

optimization strategy, PPV•PEV all the daytime, so the 150 Opt without DSO
charging station does not drawn the electrical from the grid. Opt with DSO
Without management
50
100
45

Pgrid (kW)
40

35 50

30
EV

25
0
20

15
-50
10 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
5 Time (H)

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Figure 10. Parking lot power drawn from the electrical network in case 1
Time (H)
0.3
Figure 6. Time charging schedule of EVs for the case 1 (without DSO)

Electricity price (Euros/kWh)

Price
With management
50 Without management
45 PV

Ptotal (kW)
40

35 0.2

30
EV

25

20

15

10 0 0.1
8 10 12 14 16 18
5
Time (H)
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Time (H) Figure 11. Electricity price, PV power and total charging power of vehicle
fleet in case case 2
Figure 7. Time charging schedule of EVs for the case 1 (with DSO)

100

TABLE II. ENERGY COST IN TREE SIMULATIONS CASES

80
Cost (Euros) Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
SOC (%)

Without
60 37.19 11.07 35.63
management
Optimization
12.25 14.13
40 without DSO
- 7.15
Optimization
12.85 15.33
20 with DSO
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Time (H)
Fig. 8-9 presents the evolution of EVs’ SOC over time.
Figure 8. Evolution of EV SOC for the case 1 (without DSO) After charging stop time Tstop of each vehicle, almost all
100 batteries are filled. Some batteries’SOCs are less than 100%
90
but superior to 99%, which is due to rounding of the time Ti in
80
equation (2).
The computation time is about 2 to 3s (CPU Intel Core i7-
SOC (%)

70
2600 CPU 3.4GHz 4G RAM, using MatLab version
60
7.14.0.739). It gives the possibility to apply this optimization
50 algorithm in real time with a large number of EVs. When new
40 cars arrive or leave, the management system updates the data
30 and repeats the optimization algorithm.
20 In this paper, a time interval of 10 minutes is used. This
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Time (H)
time interval can be changed (ex: 30 minutes) according to the
EV technologies. This algorithm can be applied for a daytime
Figure 9. Evolution of EV SOC for the case 1 (with DSO) or a nighttime with different values of Tstart and Tstop.
2) Modulation strategy
In this part, all EV are managed by the modulation of
charging power of each EV for each interval.
 6

IV. CONCLUSION
155 0.3
150 Price
Opt without DSO
EV management algorithms are formulated and executed
Opt with DSO in order to reduce the energy cost of the charging station.

Electricity price (Euros/kWh)

Without management
PV
These strategies are based on the interruption or modulation
of the charging power. By dividing the daytime in many
100
intervals, to manage the charging plan of the vehicles, a
Ptotal (kW)

binary linear programming and a linear programming has

0.2
been used, respectively for the interruption of charging power
and the modulation of charging power. For future work, when
50 there are two types of charges (interruption and modulation)
in the charging station at the same time, it is necessary to
develop a mixed integer programming to manage the
charging plan of the vehicles.
0
8 10 12 14 16 18
0.1 The simulation results show that with the proposed
Time (H) charging management, the cost can be reduced about 60%
compare the case without management.
Figure 12. Electricity price, PV power and total charging power of vehicle
fleet in case case 3 Base on PV power and electricity price forecasting, the
proposed strategy reduce the cost and encourage self-
150
consumption simultaneously: maximize the energy of PV to
Opt without DSO
Opt with DSO charge EVs.
100
Without management It has been shown that the proposed algorithm is carried out
Pgrid (kW)

with a fast computing time and can be applied for a large

50 number of EVs with satisfactory results. This proposition can
be applied for different scenarios such as daytime and
0 nighttime.

-50
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