IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 58, NO.
4, APRIL 2011
Overview of Multi-MW Wind Turbines
and Wind Parks
Marco Liserre, Senior Member, IEEE, Roberto Cárdenas, Senior Member, IEEE,
Marta Molinas, Member, IEEE, and José Rodríguez, Fellow, IEEE
Abstract—Multimegawatt wind-turbine systems, often orga-
nized in a wind park, are the backbone of the power gener-
ation based on renewable-energy systems. This paper reviews
the most-adopted wind-turbine systems, the adopted generators,
the topologies of the converters, the generator control and grid
connection issues, as well as their arrangement in wind parks.
Index Terms—Control, generators, power converters, wind
parks, wind turbine.
I. I NTRODUCTION
E LECTRICITY production from wind turbines has been
the focus of considerable attention when it comes to the
fulfillment of renewable-energy targets set by governments
worldwide. Multimegawatt (multi-MW) wind turbines, often
organized in wind parks, are the main solution to achieve these
goals [1]. In the last years, the focus has been shifted toward
offshore resources not only due to the higher wind-energy
potential but also because of the limitations and the polemic
issues raised around environmental impacts of land-based wind
turbines. In addition to efficiency and reliability, which are
generally required for all conversion systems onshore, the size
and the weight of components will be of extreme importance
for offshore installations, considering that expensive platforms
must be placed to support the total weight of the structure
and all the components of the wind-energy conversion system.
In that sense, state-of-the-art conversion systems developed
and installed worldwide in land-based wind turbines will not
necessarily be the most-suitable ones offshore in terms of the
weight, the size, and the reliability.
Fig. 1 shows some of the several options available for the
implementation of a variable-speed wind-energy conversion
system (WECS). The generators conventionally used in large
WECSs are the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) [1]–[3],
the cage induction generator (IG), and the synchronous genera-
tor (SG) [3]. The power electronics shown in Fig. 1 correspond
to a back-to-back converter. Notice that the connection of the
Manuscript received June 8, 2010; revised November 9, 2010; accepted
December 13, 2010. Date of publication January 6, 2011; date of current
version March 11, 2011. The work of R. Cárdenas was supported by Fondecyt
Chile under Grant 1085289.
M. Liserre is with the Polytechnic University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy
(e-mail: liserre@gmail.com).
R. Cárdenas is with the University of Santiago de Chile, 9170124 Santiago,
Chile (e-mail: rcd@ieee.org).
M. Molinas is with the Norwegian University of Science and Technology
(NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway (e-mail: marta.molinas@elkraft.ntnu.no).
J. Rodríguez is with the Federico Santa Maria Technical University,
Valparaiso, Chile (e-mail: jrp@usm.cl).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2010.2103910
0278-0046/$26.00 © 2011 IEEE
1081
power electronics in a DFIG is different from that required for
the SG and the IG. Finally, as shown in Fig. 1, the WECS
might be connected to a large utility, a microgrid (weak grid),
or a stand-alone load (which is rather unusual for a large wind
turbine).
This paper aims at giving an update of the most-recent trends
regarding generators, power converters, and their control with
respect to overviews already published in the past years [2],
[3]. On the other hand, this paper highlights the most-recent
issues in terms of inertia emulation, energy storage, harmonics,
faults/unbalances, and system-oriented approach for a wind-
park design.
In Section II, an overview of wind-turbine systems is pre-
sented. In Section III, the power-converter topologies are dis-
cussed. The control systems of some of the electrical machines
used in WECSs are presented in Section IV. In Section V, some
grid-connection issues are analyzed. A discussion of offshore-
park collection systems is presented in Section VI. Finally, the
conclusions are presented in Section VII.
II. W IND -T URBINE S YSTEM OVERVIEW
The most-common wind-turbine systems and the control
issues (as depicted in Fig. 1) are reviewed here [1]–[4]. Wind-
turbine systems directly coupled to the grid and/or without
any power converter directly or indirectly controlling the rotor
speed will not be taken into consideration.
The electrical generators currently used for the implementa-
tion of multi-MW WECSs are the DFIG, the cage IG, and the
SG. A short overview of these generators is also presented here.
A. DFIG
The DFIG is widely used for variable-speed generation and
is one of the most important generators for wind-energy appli-
cations [3]–[8]. Nowadays, this topology has a fraction of the
wind-energy market, which is close to 50%.
For a typical DFIG, the power converters are connected to the
rotor and, for a restricted speed range, are rated at a fraction of
the machine nominal power [5], [6], i.e., typically 30% of this
value. The speed range is limited, and slip rings are required
in order to connect the machine-side converter to the rotor. For
WECSs based on DFIGs, gearboxes are still required because
a multipole low-speed DFIG is not technically feasible [3].
The WECS speed is regulated, adjusting the electrical torque
via the rotor-side converter. The speed regulation is mostly
used to optimize the power extraction from the wind. However,
1082 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 58, NO. 4, APRIL 2011
Fig. 1. Wind-turbine systems and their control.
the possibility of controlling the active power and the reactive
power gives to this system the rolling capacity on the grid
[9]–[11] because the active-power injection is controlled not
only with the pitch or active stall but also via the machine-side
pulsewidth-modulation (PWM) converter.
A DFIG-based WECS can contribute to the short-circuit
power because the stator is directly coupled to the grid. There-
fore, during a grid fault, relatively high currents may be pro-
duced in the DFIG stator windings. This could be an advantage
from the viewpoint of simplicity to coordinate the overcurrent
protection. However, to have the DFIG stator directly connected
to the grid may limit the capacity of this generator to stay
connected to the system, reducing the power injection and
acting as a rolling capacity in the grid, which can be used to
restore the system stability after the fault. To improve the fault
handling capacity, usually, a crowbar is adopted in order to limit
to a safe level the currents and voltages in the rotor circuit
where the back-to-back power converter is used [12], [13].
The three-phase rotor winding is thus short-circuited via the
closed crowbar switch, transforming the DFIG in a standard IG.
Nevertheless, it has to be considered that, during the switching
operation, the high currents produced may cause sudden torque
loads on the drive train.
Most major wind-turbine producers manufacture WECSs
based on DFIGs. However, the difficulties associated in com-
plying with grid-fault ride-through requirements may limit its
use in the future [14], [15].
B. Squirrel Cage Induction Machine
The squirrel-cage IG (SCIG) is a very popular machine due
to its mechanical simplicity and robust construction [3]. The
rotor is provided by metallic bars, which are resistant to the
effects of dirt and vibration. Unlike the DFIG, no brushes are
required for the operation of this machine, and little mainte-
nance is necessary [3], mainly bearing lubrication only.
The SCIG was widely used in fixed-speed WECS [3] (first
Danish wind turbines), and it is still used for variable-speed
wind-energy generation [3], [16]–[18]. The IG with a frequency
converter is completely decoupled from the grid, and as a
consequence, this system has a complete rolling capacity. The
control system of a WECS based on a SCIG and on back-to-
back converters could be designed to avoid increasing the short-
circuit power because the control loops limit the fault current at
the grid-side converter output.
The main drawbacks of the SCIG are in the fact that two full-
power converters are required for the operation of this machine
and that a multipole direct-drive operation is not technically
feasible [3]. Therefore, SCIGs do not have the advantage of
variable-speed operation using reduced-size power converters
(as in the DFIG); SCIGs can neither be used in direct-driven
WECS [as in permanent-magnet generators (PMGs)]. Hence,
as shown later in Table III, the number of WECS producers
manufacturing topologies based on SCIGs is relatively low.
C. SG
SGs are considered one of the most-promising technologies
[3], [19] for multi-MW wind-energy systems. Excitation is pro-
vided either with rotor windings or permanent magnets. Hence,
full-scale power converters (FSCs) are needed, and a reduced-
scale converter for the excitation is required for synchronous
machines without permanent magnets.
In Table I, some characteristics of three of the most−popular
wind generators, in the 3-MW power range, are presented and
compared [20], [21]. It is assumed that the DFIG-based WECS
uses a three-stage gearbox. For all the generators shown in
Table I, it is assumed that back-to-back power converters are
used to interface the wind generators to the grid. The cost, the
weight, the size, and the losses of the generators are evaluated
using a value between 0% and 100%, where the value of 100%
corresponds to a standard WECS implemented with a DFIG and
a three-stage gearbox.
As discussed in Table I, the most-efficient generator is the
direct-drive permanent-magnet SG (PMSG) with power losses
of about 65% of that of a typical DFIG-based WECS [21].
However, in terms of costs, weight, and size, the DFIG has
advantages over the direct-drive generators. Nevertheless, the
LISERRE et al.: OVERVIEW OF MULTI-MW WIND TURBINES AND WIND PARKS
TABLE I
T HREE G ENERATORS U SED IN L ARGE W IND T URBINES
reliability problems associated with a three-stage gearbox, the
slipping rings, and the brushes make the DFIG generator rather
unsuitable for applications where the logistic could be a prob-
lem and robustness is of paramount importance, e.g., offshore
wind parks. Moreover, as discussed before, there are some
difficulties in providing the ride-through capability with this
generator.
The generator with the largest weight and size is the conven-
tional rotor-excited SG. However, there is at least one wind-
turbine manufacturer, which is Enercon, successfully using
this technology [22]. Currently, this company manufactures
3- and 6-MW WECSs equipped with annular SGs. A wind
turbine of 7.5 MW is currently under development by Enercon,
considering the same type of generator [23].
Multipole PMSGs with full-power back-to-back converters
appears to be the configuration to be adopted by most of the
large wind-turbine manufactures in the near future, gradually
replacing the doubly fed generator as the main generator in the
wind-energy market. An additional advantage of direct-drive
generators is the noise reduction achieved when the gearbox is
eliminated from the WECS [24]. For offshore applications, the
increased reliability and elimination of possible oil spills from
the gearbox is another advantage.
D. Multibrid Concept
With the increase in the WECS rated power, the direct-drive
operation of generators might require electrical machines of
very large size, weight, and cost. In this case, the topology
introduced by the German company Multibrid is an interesting
concept, which may offer some advantages for the manufactur-
ing of large WECSs in the future.
Multibrid (now Areva) developed a WECS composed of a
medium-speed PMSG and a single-stage gearbox with a gear
ratio of about 6–10 [23], [25]. This allows reducing the weight
and the size of the generators combined with the advantages
of using a gearbox technology, which is lighter, more reliable,
and cheaper than that of the standard three-stage gearbox with
a typical ratio of 80–100 times.
In [25], the characteristics of two 3-MW generators designed
to operate with a single-stage gearbox are compared with a
direct-drive PMSG for the same power range. One of the
generators compared is a DFIG designed for a medium-speed
operation, which is not commercially available and has been
proposed in [25] as a possible alternative for high-power WECS
applications. The other machine is a medium-speed PMSG.
A summary is presented in Table II. As shown in this table,
the “Multibrid” concept may achieve substantial reduction in
the size and the weight of the generators used in high-power
1083
TABLE II
C OMPARISON OF G ENERATORS C ONSIDERING A
S INGLE -S TAGE G EARBOX
WECS. However, the efficiency is reduced because of the gear-
box power losses, and this has to be considered in the evaluation
of WECSs implemented using the Multibrid concept.
WECSs manufactured with single-stage gearboxes and
PMSGs are commercially available, e.g., the 5-MW M5000
Multibrid and the 3-MW WinWinD [23].
Another solution for very high power operation is currently
being investigated and developed [26]. The high-temperature
superconductor (HTS) generator can be built with at least twice
the power-to-weight ratio of the generators that are available
nowadays. This is achieved using superconductors, with a
current capacity much higher than that of copper wires. A large
10-MW WECS (the Sea Titan) composed of a direct-drive HTS
generator is currently being developed for offshore applications
by the Austrian-based company WindTec [23], [26].
E. Control Issues
The two subsystems, i.e., the electrical and mechanical ones,
that compose the WECS are characterized by different control
goals but interact in view of the main aim, i.e., the control of
the power injected into the grid. The electrical control system
regulates the supply of the active/reactive power to the grid
[9]–[11], [18]. The electrical system also provides overload
protection.
The mechanical subsystem is responsible of the power lim-
itation (with pitch adjustment), the maximum energy capture,
the speed limitation, and the reduction of the acoustical noise
[27], [28]. In fact, the power has to react based on a set point
given by the power-grid dispatch center or locally with the
goal to maximize the production based on the available wind
power [28].
The control of the WECS electrical subsystem (see Fig. 1)
can be divided into three different stages. The first stage in-
cludes the basic functions that guarantee the proper operation of
the power converters, hence taking care of voltages and currents
on the generator side, in the intermediate direct-current (dc) link
if present, and on the grid side [2].
The second stage includes the WECS specific functions,
hence the maximization and the limitation of the power. The
1084 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 58, NO. 4, APRIL 2011
control of the WECS is organized such that below the maximum
power production, the wind turbine will typically vary the speed
proportional to the wind speed and keep the pitch angle fixed
[27]. At very low wind, the speed of the turbine will be fixed at
the maximum allowable slip in order not to have overvoltage.
A pitch-angle controller will limit the power when the turbine
reaches the nominal power.
The third stage includes extra functions that will become cru-
cial in the future power system, characterized by a significant
inflow of the distributed power generation. In fact, the WECS
is expected to contribute and improve the power quality, to
offer an energy storage to buffer the energy production, and
to contribute to the grid stability with the inertia-emulation
functionality. In this sense, the transmission-system operator
may also provide a supervisory command to take advantage of
these extra functions when required.
F. Inertia Emulation and Droop Control
In a typical power system, the grid frequency is controlled
by the conventional power plants. However, with the increasing
penetration of wind energy, it is expected than, in the near
future, some grid-frequency support will be provided by the
WECSs.
There are several publications related to the subject of fre-
quency support using WECSs [29]–[32]. Most of the proposed
methods use the kinetic energy stored in the wind-turbine
rotating mass to provide additional power to the grid in case
of frequency variation.
In power system, the inertia constant H is used instead of
inertia J. Constant H is defined as [30]
Ek Jωr2
H= = (1)
S 2S
where S is the nominal apparent power of the WECS, J is the
rotor inertia, and ωr is the rotating speed. As shown by (1)
H is equal to the time that a WECS can supply the nominal
power using the kinetic energy stored in the rotor. As reported
in [30], the inertia constants for WECSs are in the range of
2–6 s. Meanwhile, H for a typical power-system generator is in
the range of 2–9 s. Therefore, WECSs do not reduce the amount
of kinetic energy stored in the system.
In some publications, it is suggested to control the WECS to
maintain a reserve of the active power ΔPw , e.g., regulating the
pitch angle to avoid extracting the maximum power from the
wind [29]. Using this power reserve, the frequency regulation
is accomplished by regulating the wind-generator electrical
torque to [29], [30]
dfgrid
Te∗ = Trefω + Kd (fgrid − fref ) + Kei (2)
dt
where the first term Trefω represents the torque demand for the
normal steady-state operation of the power system when the
grid frequency fgrid is equal to the reference frequency. This
torque demand might be obtained, for instance, from a look-up
table where a relationship between the rotational speed and the
demanded output power is stored.
The second term represents the droop torque. In a typical
system, when the power is unbalanced (e.g., there is more
power consumption than power generation), the grid frequency
changes. In this case, the droop torque is increased/decreased
in order to support the generation. In [30], it is suggested to
activate the droop torque only when the grid frequency exceeds
some predefined limits.
The last term corresponds to the inertia emulation. In this
case, the torque demand is varied according to the rate of the
change in the grid frequency. This component emulates the
inertia response of a conventional synchronous machine [29].
In [30], Ke is constant. In [29], [31], and [32], it is proposed to
change Kei with the grid frequency.
The performance of the control law [see (2)] has been evalu-
ated, through simulation, in [29]–[32]. In these publications, it
is reported that the frequency variations, produced when one
of the power-system conventional generators is tripped, are
smaller when the droop torque and the inertia-emulation torque
are considered. Moreover, the system total-inertia constant H
is increased when the last two terms of (2) are used.
G. Energy Storage and Power Smoothing
Because the power supplied by a WECS is proportional to
the cube of the wind velocity, the wind-speed variability can
produce unacceptable variations on the power or the voltages
supplied into a stand-alone load or weak grid [33]. Power
smoothing is accomplished by supplying a compensating power
ΔPc from an energy-storage system (ESS) as
Pgrid = Pw + ΔPc . (3)
The compensating power is regulated in order to reduce or
eliminate the variability in power Pw (captured from the wind),
maintaining Pgrid almost constant.
Several topologies have been proposed in the literature for
the ESS and power-electronic interfaces required to interface
the energy storage to the system [33]–[36]. For instance, the
ESS can be implemented using flywheels [33], [36], superca-
pacitors [34], [35], lead–acid batteries, and superconducting
magnetic storage devices [34].
The energy storage can be connected to the alternating-
current (ac) grid or to the dc link of the variable-speed WECS.
For instance, in [34], supercapacitors are connected to the dc
link of a back-to-back converter. In [36], the compensation is
achieved by connecting a flywheel-based energy storage to the
ac grid using back-to-back converters. In [35], supercapacitors
are connected to the dc link of the full-power back-to-back
converter required for the connection of a PMG to the grid.
As reported in [34], an energy buffer can be also used to
improve the low-voltage ride-through capability of WECSs.
The WECS can also store energy in its dc-link and in the inertia
of the machine accepting that the speed increases.
III. P OWER -C ONVERTER T OPOLOGIES
Table III shows the commercial WECSs that are available
in the market for power ranges between 1.5 and 3 MW. These
LISERRE et al.: OVERVIEW OF MULTI-MW WIND TURBINES AND WIND PARKS 1085

TABLE III
S UMMARY OF THE C OMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE WECS IN THE 1.5- TO 3-MW R ANGE
1086 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 58, NO. 4, APRIL 2011
Fig. 2. Power-converter topology for the DFIG.
WECSs are manufactured by 44 companies in 163 models. For
instance, as shown in Table III, the Canadian company AAER
manufactures six models of WECSs (models A1650–A2000)
with power ranges between 1.65 and 2.0 MW. In Table III, the
label “NM” stands for “number of models”
According to the information depicted in Table III, in the
power range of 1.5–3 MW, there are 60 models of WECSs
implemented using DFIGs, including a model with a stator
winding designed for direct connection to a medium-voltage
grid (a WECS manufactured by the Spanish company Acciona).
There are 66 models implemented with PMSGs, 18 models
implemented with IGs (cage or wound-rotor machines), and
19 models of WECSs implemented using wound-rotor SGs
with external excitation.
Regarding power converters, most of the WECSs presented
in Table III are equipped with back-to-back converters based on
low-voltage insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) switches
(typically 1700-V devices for a 690-V rated voltage). A few
exceptions are shown in Table III, e.g., WECSs implemented
with a variable ratio gearbox (Dewind) and fixed-speed SGs.
From Table III, it is concluded that back-to-back converters
implemented with low-voltage IGBTs are the most-important
power-electronic topology for that power range. However, as
discussed in Section III-B, it is not convenient to use low-
voltage converters for high-power WECSs.
Aside from the WECS shown in Table III, there is a 2.3-MW
prototype for offshore applications, which is currently being
tested. This is the floating HyWind system designed by Siemens
for deep-sea applications.
A. Power Converters for DFIGs
As discussed in Section II-A, the variable-speed operation
of DFIGs is achieved with a power converter designed for
about 30% of the nominal power. Therefore, the commercially
available DFIG of up to 6 MW are equipped with back-to-
back converters designed for a low-voltage operation (690 V).
A transformer is typically used to interface the WECSs to the
grid (see Fig. 2).
There are some converters particularly manufactured for the
control of DFIGs, e.g., the water-cooled Prowind topology of
the company Converteam [37]. These converters are designed
for 690 V, with a modular technology that allows the parallel
connection of several back-to-back converters to increase the
total power. Another off-the-shelf solution for DFIGs is the
ACS800 converter manufactured by ABB with a power range of
Fig. 3. Power-converter topology with full-scale converter organized in
parallel units.
1–3.8 MW and 525–690 V, which allows the control of DFIGs
up to ≈ 6 MW [39].
The power density of the converter typically used for DFIGs
is not appropriate for offshore applications where the weight
and the space are of paramount importance. For instance, the
AC800 converter has a power density of about 0.43 MW/m3
[39]. The power converter Alstom has a power density of
0.24 MW/m3 [39]. A higher power density can be obtained
using multilevel converters as discussed in [40] and [41], where
the application of neutral-point-clamped (NPC) converters is
proposed for DFIG-based WECSs. The main advantage of
this topology is that the converter is directly connected to a
medium-voltage grid (with voltages between 1 and ≈5 kV).
The medium-voltage operation allows a substantial reduction
in the current handled by the devices.
Another solution proposed to increase the power density
is to use all silicon power converters. In this topology, the
bulky dc-link capacitors are not required, and this increases
the power density. Recently, the control of DFIGs using matrix
converters has been proposed in [42] and [43]. Nevertheless,
more research is required for the successful application of direct
and indirect matrix converters to high-power WECSs, for in-
stance, to investigate the performance of these converters for the
ride-through operation. Difficulties associated with complying
with the ride-through requirement may arise from the fact that
matrix converters do not have dc-link capacitors, and this pro-
duces a more-direct coupling between wind generators and the
grid [42].
B. FSCs
Variable-speed WECSs implemented with PMSGs, SGs, and
SCIGs are connected to the grid using full-power converters.
The approach currently used is to implement a back-to-back
topology using several converter modules connected in parallel,
as shown in Fig. 3. Parallel modules also provide redundancy
because, if one of the modules fails, the system can still provide
a part of the power. Finally, the commutation of different
modules could be synchronized to reduce harmonics using
interleaved modulation.
The Spanish company Gamesa is using a 4.5-MW con-
verter system composed of six modules, each one of which is
LISERRE et al.: OVERVIEW OF MULTI-MW WIND TURBINES AND WIND PARKS
TABLE IV
L ARGE W IND T URBINES FOR O FFSHORE A PPLICATIONS
implemented with low-voltage IGBTs [39], [44]. Every con-
verter module has its own circuit breaker, chokes, filters, mea-
suring system, and control unit [39]. According to [39] and
[44], the power density achieved is 0.58 MW/m3 , which is
about 30% smaller than similar systems manufactured by ABB
and Vacon.
However, the new generation of WECSs will substantially
increase the power range. Table IV shows some of the most
powerful wind turbines, which are either available or currently
under development mainly for offshore applications [23] (the
10-MW Britannia manufactured by Clipper Wind Power will
be used in “Round Three” in U.K., 2011). As depicted in the
table, the nominal power is expected to reach 10 MW in the near
future, with direct-drive WECSs of 6 MW already available in
the market.
Considering the future increase in the power size, the connec-
tion of the parallel low-voltage module is no longer convenient.
For instance, a 7.5-MW power converter operating at 690 V is
handling ≈6300 A. Moreover, because of the large voltage drop
in the cables, the power-converter modules have to be installed
in the nacelle close to the wind generator [45], [46] using a large
fraction of the available space and increasing the nacelle total
weight.
To increase the power density, some alternatives have been
discussed in the literature. For instance, in [45] and [47], the
research realized in ABB is presented. A full-power back-
to-back NPC converter implemented using integrated gate-
commutated thyristors (IGCTs) is compared with the
performance obtained by using 6- or 12-pulse bridge rectifiers
in the PMSG side followed by a single NPC power converter
in the grid side. It is concluded that bridge rectifiers have
many drawbacks, e.g., torque pulsations of frequencies below
200 Hz in the mechanical structure, high harmonic distortion
in the stator currents, increased eddy-current losses in the rotor,
and even demagnetization of the permanent magnets at a rela-
tively low load [3], [48]–[50]. In [45], it is concluded that four-
quadrant three-level back-to-back converters are appropriate
for high-power WECSs (see Fig. 4). However, further research
in the subject is required because there is still some room to
improve the power density using novel converter topologies.
For instance, as reported in [55], a two-quadrant rectifier in the
1087
Fig. 4. Power-converter topology with full-scale converter.
PMSG side, providing sinusoidal stator currents, could reduce
the cost and increase the power density of the FSC.
There are already some commercial solutions for the con-
trol of high-power WECSs. ABB has developed the PCS6000
wind-power converter, which is designed for medium-voltage
applications (defined as 1–5 kV in [47]) and implemented with
two NPC inverters connected in a back-to-back configuration.
PC6000 is water-cooled and designed for a power range of
up to 8 MW. The grid-side inverter uses an optimized-pulse-
pattern PWM to eliminate the distortion created by the low-
order harmonics [47]. IGCTs with reduced power losses are
used for this implementation. Efficiencies of about 98% are
claimed for this converter [45], [47].
Another commercial implementation of an NPC back-to-
back converter is reported in [51]. The MV7000 converter is a
solution offered by Converteam. The converter is implemented
using power-pack IGBTs, which is a proprietary technology
developed by this company. The power range is similar to that
achieved with ABB PC6000.
The German company Enercon is using a proprietary solu-
tion for the FSC provided in the WECSs manufactured by this
company. The converter in the annular SG side is a rectifier.
A small-scale power converter is used to regulate the rotor
field current to maintain a constant dc voltage. The front-
end converter is a four-quadrant inverter providing sinusoidal
currents to the grid. However, no information about the power
density and the total harmonic distortion in the generator side
is available. The Britannia 10-MW WECS, currently under
development, is also going to be equipped with a full-power
converter similar to that used by Enercon, i.e., a rectifier in the
machine side and a four-quadrant inverter providing sinusoidal
currents to the grid.
C. Future Trends in Power Converters for
Wind-Power Generation
The back-to-back current-source rectifiers and the current-
source inverter topology must be also studied for high-power
application in the range of 5–10 MW. Some recent works
have demonstrated that this solution is feasible, as discussed
in [52] and [53]. The prevalence of one particular power-
converter topology in the wind-energy industry is related to the
compromise between the cost and the performance.
Regarding the power-electronic devices, it is likely that new
technologies will increase the power density of medium-voltage
converters. For instance, the reverse-conducting IGBT (bimode
insulated-gate transistor) is reported to increase the power
density up to 50% [54]. The high-power technology IGCT may
1088 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 58, NO. 4, APRIL 2011

also have advantages, for instance, improved fault handling

capabilities [54].
Finally, the increase power density and reliability can be also
obtained using novel power-converter topologies; for instance,
in [55], experimental results obtained with a 6-MW converter
prototype are reported. This prototype is a five-level hybrid-
converter-based active NPC converters. To increase the density,
the machine-side converter is a two-quadrant three-level rec-
tifier unit. The authors claim that this topology achieves one
of the most-compact designs for wind-energy applications ever
reported.

IV. C ONTROL OF G ENERATORS

Here, the control of generators for wind-turbine applications
is reviewed.

A. DFIGs
As reported in [5], [42], and [43], the DFIG is usually
controlled using a vector-control scheme oriented along the
stator flux [5]. However, the stator-voltage orientation is also
feasible [56]. As shown at the bottom of Fig. 5, an estimation
of the stator flux can be obtained as
 power capture are also feasible [30]–[32], e.g., the frequency-
ψ̂s = (vs − Rs is )dt (4)
where vs is the grid voltage and is is the stator current. A
bandpass filter is usually applied to implement (4), avoiding the
drift produced by low-frequency components in vs and is . From
the α−β components of the stator flux, the electrical angle is
obtained from θe = tan−1 (ψβ /ψα ). Alternatively, θe can be
calculated from a system based on a phase-lock loop [57]. This
provides better performance when the DFIG is connected to
relatively weak grids, with distorted or unbalanced voltages
[4], [57].
The slip angle, used to modulate/demodulate the rotor
currents and voltages, is calculated using
θsl = θe − θr . (5)
For the control system shown in Fig. 5, the rotor-position
angle is measured by a position encoder. However, a sensorless
operation is feasible, for instance, using some of the model-
reference adaptive system (MRAS) observer proposed in [58]–
[60], to estimate the rotor position and speed.
For stator-flux orientation, the q-axis rotor current regulates
the machine electrical torque, and the d-axis rotor current regu-
lates the magnetizing power supplied to the rotor. In Fig. 5, con-
ventional proportional–integral controllers are used to regulate
the rotor currents. Nevertheless, other controllers are suitable
for this application [60].
In a grid-connected DFIG, the torque current irq is typi-
cally controlled to drive the WECS to the point of maximum
aerodynamic efficiency [17]. A well-known strategy to achieve
this goal (in steady state) is to regulate the machine electrical
torque proportional to the square of the rotational speed [17]
(see Fig. 5). However, other control strategies for regulating the
Fig. 5. Variable-speed generation system based on doubly fed induction
machines and back-to-back converters.
control strategies discussed in Section II-F.
The reactive power supplied by the DFIG to the grid is
regulated using the direct rotor current ird [9]. For instance, if
ird ≈ 0, the machine is entirely magnetized from the stator, and
the reactive power is drawn from the utility. Another approach
to regulate the direct rotor current is to maximize the WECS
efficiency, reducing the iron, switching, conducting, and copper
losses in the generation system [10], [11].
A stand-alone load can be also fed from a vector-controlled
DFIG. For this application the control system depicted in Fig. 5
has to be slightly modified. For instance, for a grid-connected
generation, a stator-flux control loop is not required [5] because
this flux is a function of the grid voltage. On the other hand, for
a stand-alone application, a stator-flux control loop is necessary
[57], [58] to regulate the output-voltage magnitude. Moreover,
for an islanded operation, the electrical angle θe is provided by
a fictitious rotating vector (e.g., by using θe = ωe dt), and the
stator flux (or stator voltage if the control system is oriented
along this vector) is forced to align with this vector [57].
More information about the stand-alone and/or grid-connected
operation of DFIGs is presented in [4], [5], and [57]–[60].
B. SCIG
Fig. 6 shows a typical sensorless vector-control scheme for
the operation of a SCIG in a variable-speed WECS.
The sensorless vector-control system, shown in Fig. 6, is
oriented along the rotor flux vector, with the rotor-position
angle and the rotational speed estimated using an MRAS ob-
server [17], [62], [63]. As discussed in [62], the observer is
based on a current model and a voltage model implemented
using the voltages and the currents measured in the machine
stator. Additionally, a spectral-estimation algorithm (see Fig. 6)
LISERRE et al.: OVERVIEW OF MULTI-MW WIND TURBINES AND WIND PARKS
Fig. 6. Variable-speed WECS based on a cage IG.
can be used to provide an additional speed measurement from
the rotor slot harmonics [63]. The speed obtained from the
spectral-estimation method is used to tune the MRAS observer,
eliminating the steady-state speed error from its output [63].
In the vector-controlled SCIG, the stator torque current isq
also regulates the electrical torque, driving the WECS to the
point of maximum aerodynamic efficiency [17]. Regarding the
direct-axis rotor current, the SCIG is usually operated at full
flux with the nominal magnetizing current supplied from the
machine-side converter. However, in order to improve the effi-
ciency of the WECS by reducing the iron losses, the SCIG may
be operated using some sort of reduced flux-control strategy
during low wind velocities [64].
With minor modifications, the control system in Fig. 6 can
be also used to supply energy to a stand-alone load (as will
be the scenario in the North Sea with wind power providing
energy to oil platforms), controlling the load-side converter to
supply energy of constant voltage and frequency to isolated
loads. Induction machines are also used for controlling a ro-
tating energy storage. For instance, in [33], [65], and [66],
the applications of cage machines driving flywheels (for wind-
diesel applications) are discussed. Power smoothing systems
with cage machines and flywheels are discussed in [33]. The
application of doubly fed induction machines for the control of
flywheel energy storage has been also discussed in [56], using
simulation studies.
C. PMG
PMGs have a good efficiency and a good power-to-size ratio,
and the maintenance is mainly restricted to lubrication of the
bearing [3], [19], [48]–[50], [67], [68]. PMGs can be divided
into several categories, e.g., radial-flux permanent-magnet
machines, machines built with surface-mounted magnets, ma-
chines with damper windings, etc. In all these machines, the
excitation is provided by internal magnets in the rotor. Because
of the magnets, a major operational consideration in PMGs is
to maintain the rotor temperature below the maximum value
allowed by the magnetic material [3].
1089
As in cage machines, the PMG may be controlled using
the standard vector control [48]. A sensorless operation is also
feasible in this machine [67], [68], increasing the robustness
and reliability of the WECS.
The main advantages of PMGs, compared with induction
machines, is the feasibility of building PMGs with a large
number of poles and a reasonably small size for a given power
[3], [19]. Therefore, the direct-drive operation is possible with
this machine, eliminating the gearbox from WECSs [19].
V. G RID C ONNECTION
Here, two main issues related to the connection to the grid of
the wind generator are briefly addressed for the previously re-
ported topologies, i.e., harmonics and faults/unbalances, whose
responsibility is of the grid converter [93].
These topics can be addressed at the component level, as
discussed in Section VI, but in the case of wind parks, the
system-level approach is more advisable.
A. Harmonics
Current and voltage harmonics are strictly limited by grid
standards and codes for multi-MW wind turbines. The issue is
treated both at the hardware level (e.g., use of filters) and at the
control level (modulation techniques and harmonic controllers).
The introduction of filters changes the system plant. As a con-
sequence, stability issues are faced, and extra damping, either
passive or active, is needed. The increased power of the WECS
and the consequent limited switching frequency pose stringent
constraints on the filter, modulation, and controller/damping
designs [90]–[92].
B. Faults/Unbalances
Faults are strictly related to unbalance issues; in fact, faults
generally lead to the creation of negative-sequence components
in the voltages/currents.
Until recently, there were no particular requirements for
WECSs to remain connected during voltage sags, and hence,
to avoid large overcurrents, the generator protection tripped
during faults. With the increase in the wind-energy penetration,
the disconnection of wind turbines is no longer feasible without
compromising the stability of the entire power system [2],
[13]–[15], [70]. Therefore, some grid operators, e.g., in Spain
and Germany [15], have issued stringent grid codes requiring
WECSs to remain connected during a typical voltage sag.
As discussed before, one important disadvantage of DFIGs
in variable-speed WECSs is that the machine stator is directly
connected to the grid. Therefore, grid perturbations, faults, and
grid unbalances may severely affect the machine performance
[12], [57]. For instance, in weak grids, the negative-sequence
voltage produces torque pulsations [12] and localized heating
[57] in the machine. This may reduce the life span of a typical
generation system. Control systems to compensate the effects
of unbalances have been presented in [12] for grid-connected
DFIGs and in [57] for the stand-alone generation. In most
of the proposed control schemes for the grid-connected op-
eration, the DFIG rotor currents are regulated to compensate
1090 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 58, NO. 4, APRIL 2011
for some of the problems produced by the negative-sequence
components, e.g., to eliminate the pulsations in the machine
electrical torque.
For stand-alone applications, the grid-side converter may be
used to compensate for the machine-stator negative-sequence
current [57]. If a four-leg converter is used in the load side,
then the stand-alone zero-sequence components could be also
supplied by the power converter, reducing the current in the
machine windings.
When the generator stator is connected to the grid using full-
power converters (see Figs. 3–5), the generator is “isolated”
from the grid, and the effects of grid-voltage unbalances in
the generator are considerable reduced [2], [14], [70]. More-
over, because the grid-side converter is designed for full-power
operation, more margin is available to control the output current
during voltage sags, allowing the WECS to ride through during
a typical grid fault [13], [71].
VI. PARK C OLLECTION S YSTEM : S ERIES V ERSUS
PARALLEL A RRAYS
When moving from land to offshore locations, wind tech-
nology as established today will be posed with new techno-
logical challenges with regard to conversion, collection, and
transmission. When global efficiency is on focus, the collection
systems should not be separately analyzed from the conversion
system as this will strongly affect the offshore-park efficiency.
The choice of the electrical-conversion system will decide the
overall efficiency offshore.
In the current state of the art, wind-park collection grids are
built in a medium-voltage ac (10–33 kV). Today, out of the
54 operative offshore wind parks with a total installed capacity
of 3007 MW, the largest wind park has a 300-MW capacity
installed with a collection grid at 33 kV [72].
According to [73], the series connection of turbines leads
to less transmission losses and increases the power density
without heavy high-power transformers. However, this grid
architecture is reported with high losses in the power-electronic
converters. Therefore, the converter topology and its modu-
lation become the key factors to make the series connection
viable by reducing the losses in the conversion system inside
the nacelle of each wind turbine, as reported in [77].
Due to the long distances, conventional ac transmission
is neither technically nor economically attractive, and high-
voltage dc (HVDC) appears to be the most-suitable option [74],
[79]. The design of the conversion system offshore requires
taking into account not only the efficiency and the reliability
but also the size and the weight, as expensive platforms must
be placed to support the total weight of the structure and the
components of the conversion system. Although several grid
arrays have been proposed for offshore wind parks, series-
or parallel-collection arrays are the two main well-defined
alternatives.
A. Collection Grid Topologies
Recent studies have shown different topologies for the se-
ries connection using line-commutated converters. In [80], a
Fig. 7. Parallel connection of turbines in an offshore wind park.
thyristor-based current-source converter is proposed for the
series connection of wind turbines based on PMSGs. Two
and three turbines were simulated, showing a good per-
formance of this topology. Current-source converters based
on self-commutated switches have been also proposed in
[81], concluding that insulation and optimal management of
transmission-cable losses are important issues to be taken into
account. A comparison between ac and series-dc transmission
was also discussed. A series array based on cycloconverters
using fast thyristors and a medium-frequency transformer was
also proposed in [82]; however, an offshore platform is required
for the ac/dc conversion step. In [83], a medium-frequency link
was proposed, and a control strategy was presented.
In [73], a comparison between different offshore-grid config-
urations, considering operation and investment cost, is reported.
A series connection is presented as an attractive option if the
dc–dc converter technology can maximize the efficiency. The
series configuration presents less cable losses and requires less
conversion stages and investment cost; however, the efficiency
and the reliability in the conversion system must be increased to
make this configuration economically and technically feasible.
In addition, a coordinated control must be used to operate the
system as a series collection requires constant and equal current
in each turbine.
As previously stated, the series collection leads to high losses
in the power-electronic converters [73]. On the other hand, the
parallel connection is a well-known topology, which permits
a more-reliable operation. By connecting in parallel clusters
of series-connected turbines, a good compromise between the
reliability and the efficiency could be achieved on the condition
that losses are reduced in the power-electronic converters [75].
The reduction of losses in the power electronics will then rely
on identifying converter topologies and modulation techniques
that have the potential for reducing the losses in the conversion
system to make series arrays an alternative for offshore collec-
tion grids.
Fig. 7 shows an offshore park in which wind turbines are con-
nected in a conventional parallel array. Turbines are connected
to a low-voltage grid. A high-power transformer is required for
increasing the voltage to a transmission level [79]. Losses in
the HVDC transmission are low because of the high voltage
and the dc. However, losses in the offshore grid are high due to
the low voltage and high current. Only one stage of conversion
is required. To improve the efficiency in the offshore grid, a
medium-voltage power-conversion system can be introduced in
LISERRE et al.: OVERVIEW OF MULTI-MW WIND TURBINES AND WIND PARKS
Fig. 8. Series connection of wind turbines in the offshore park.
the wind turbine. This will improve the basic power-electronic
conversion efficiency and will allow the total elimination of
the wind-turbine transformer. With today’s available medium-
voltage power-conversion systems (at a 3.3- to 4-kV ac or a
5- to 6-kV dc), the wind-turbine transformer can be elimi-
nated, and an efficiency improvement up to 1.4% is achievable.
With even higher medium-voltage levels in the wind-turbine
clusters, further efficiency improvements are possible. Such
higher medium-voltage solutions are an interesting option, but
it remains a technical challenge to build such power-electronic
converters at an attractive cost level [84]. Improvements in the
efficiency by introducing higher voltage levels in the offshore
grid have also been proposed by feasibility studies. An in-
crease from 33 kV (highest voltage currently used in offshore
arrays) to 48 and 66 kV for several grid arrays was inves-
tigated in [85].
Fig. 8 shows an offshore park in which the wind turbines are
connected in series. In this case, losses in the offshore grid are
as low as the losses in the transmission stage. Moreover, the
length of cable is shorter than in the parallel connection. The
offshore platform might not be required, and the investment in
the cable is reduced. With this grid architecture, there will be an
improvement in the efficiency and the weight. However, more
conversion stages are required, and the global efficiency is still
less due to the converter and transformer losses [73]. In order
to better exploit the lower losses’ dc-series grid architecture,
a conversion system in the nacelle, with a higher efficiency
than that reported today, is necessary. The matrix-converter
technology represents such a possible alternative if the topology
is customized so as to eliminate the intermediate dc-conversion
stage of the conventional solutions presented in [73]–[76]. With
a matrix-converter-based solution, as presented in [77], [86],
and [88], an improved efficiency in the conversion system can
be attained, and by that, the series array will be superior in
the global efficiency compared with the parallel one, making
it feasible as the grid architecture for offshore wind parks.
The cluster connection shown in Fig. 9 could increase the
reliability of the system, holding the advantages of both series
and parallel arrays.
The parallel connection can be used for both ac and dc off-
shore grids. In general, the ac grid leads to more losses than dc
grids for the same voltage level and cable resistance. Moreover,
1091
the ac grid could require the ac/ac converter for controlling
the machines, which means even more losses. Fig. 10 shows
these two possibilities for the parallel connection of offshore
grids. A multigenerator turbine, as proposed in [87], fits with
the offshore dc grid.
Furthermore, the multigenerator approach can be used in the
series connection as the one shown in Fig. 8. This approach
can contribute to make relatively high voltage and power lev-
els from each turbine, even with limited voltage and current
ratings of the available semiconductors. On the park level, this
approach can contribute in achieving the transmission voltage
level with a lower number of turbines in each series-connected
cluster. Thus, the high voltage can be achieved without any
dedicated transformer platform.
B. Some Challenges for the Series Connection
The most-clear advantage of the series connection is the
reduction of the offshore-grid losses. Furthermore, in the above-
discussed concept, no platform will be required offshore, and
less cable is used. However, the series connection presents
technological challenges that need to be further investigated.
The variation in the wind velocity will cause variations in
the output power and, therefore, in the output voltage. Con-
sequently, wide voltage-variation capability and coordinated
control are required in the output voltage. On the other hand,
overvoltages are present after a short circuit in one turbine. As
a result of that, a wide variation capability of the output voltage
is required in each turbine.
The insulation in the nacelle of the turbine is a practical
challenge. Some authors have presented some advances related
to this [81], [89], but it remains an open problem for the
research and development community.
VII. C ONCLUSION
This paper has summarized the most-recent research trends
and industrial solutions in the field of the multi-MW wind-
turbine systems and wind parks. Regarding generators and con-
verters, it seems that the most-adopted system is still the doubly
fed generator equipped with a back-to-back converter, due to
the lower weight and cost. However, for large wind-energy
systems mainly designed for offshore applications, where the
robustness, the efficiency, and the reliability are of paramount
importance, the preferred solution has been the direct-drive
SGs, considering PMSGs or machines of the wound-rotor type.
Nevertheless, if the nominal power of the WECSs is sub-
stantially increased in the future, the large (increased) size
and weight of the multipole PMSGs required for direct-drive
operation is likely to be too large for commercial applications.
In this case, other solutions, e.g., the HTS direct-drive generator
or systems based on the “Multibrid” concept, will become
more-attractive alternatives. As an example of this trend, the
10-MW Britannia WECS is designed using a topology similar
to that of the “Multibrid” concept, i.e., considering a smaller
and more-reliable gearbox and a state-of-the-art PMSG.
Regarding control issues, while low-voltage ride through
is still the most-important topic (challenging particularly
1092
Fig. 9. Cluster connection of an offshore wind park with a matrix-converter-based conversion system.
Fig. 10. Possible parallel connection of the offshore grid. (a) Offshore dc grid. (b) Offshore ac grid.
DFIG-based WECSs), ancillary services as grid-frequency sup-
port (e.g., inertia emulation and droop control) and ESSs are
emerging issues.
The most-adopted power-converter topology is still based
on two-level PWM inverters. However, the most-recent
projects of the main wind-turbine manufacturers show a clear
preference toward multilevel and multicell structures to manage
the increasing power of WECSs, with the aim of increasing the
power density particularly for wind parks. Currently, most of
the commercial multilevel power converters offered for wind-
energy applications are based in NPC topologies designed for
nominal voltages of up to 5 kV. However, more research in the
field of multilevel-converter topologies seems to be required in
order to select the best alternatives for high-power wind-energy
systems.
Beyond the current state of the art, direct ac–ac conversion
systems based on the matrix-converter concept are coming
into the picture, calling for new developments in bidirectional
switches and high-frequency transformers. Moreover, here, the
preferable topologies include multigeneration solutions with a
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 58, NO. 4, APRIL 2011
modular conversion system that can make use of the current
state-of-the-art components.
Regarding the offshore-park topology, a system-oriented ap-
proach is suggested in order to increase the power density
of the components in the nacelle and, at the same time, to
minimize the overall losses in the conversion-and-collection
system. One important aspect to remark in the conclusion is that
the conversion–collection system topology, and the offshore-
grid voltage level will critically influence the choice of the
park array when the system is optimized under given targets
and constraints. It is however important to highlight that, in
this respect, there is still a long way to go until the most-
suitable (optimized) solutions for the given cases are identified
and established as solid. However, with the massive ongoing
and imminent developments of offshore wind parks, ad hoc,
rather than generalizable, solutions will be emerging from the
current installations. From these, experience will be learned,
and future developments will benefit from the merging of the
new knowledge emerging from research, expected technologi-
cal developments, and the lessons learned from the field.
LISERRE et al.: OVERVIEW OF MULTI-MW WIND TURBINES AND WIND PARKS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
M. Liserre would like to thank M. Dellapigna, B.Sc. student
in electrical engineering, Politecnico di Bari, Italy, for collect-
ing the information depicted in Table III.
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LISERRE et al.: OVERVIEW OF MULTI-MW WIND TURBINES AND WIND PARKS
Marco Liserre (S’00–M’02–SM’07) received the
M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
from the Polytechnic University of Bari, Bari, Italy,
in 1998 and 2002, respectively.
He has been a Visiting Professor at Aalborg
University, Aalborg, Denmark; Alcala de Henares
University, Alcala de Henares, Spain; and Christian-
Albrechts University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany. He is
currently an Associate Professor at the Polytech-
nic University of Bari, teaching courses on power
electronics, industrial electronics, and electrical ma-
chines. He has published 130 technical papers, 31 of them in international
peer-reviewed journals, three book chapters, and the book Grid Converters
for Photovoltaic and Wind Power Systems (Wiley, 2011). These works have
received more than 1500 citations.
Dr. Liserre is an Associate Editor of the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I N -
DUSTRIAL E LECTRONICS and the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON S USTAINABLE
E NERGY. He is the founder and was the Editor-in-Chief of the IEEE Industrial
Electronics Magazine in 2007–2009. He is the founder and the Chairman of
the Technical Committee on Renewable Energy Systems of the IEEE Industrial
Electronics Society (IES). He is the Vice President responsible for publications
of the IES. He was the recipient of an IES 2009 Early Career Award. He was the
Cochairman of the 2010 International Symposium on Industrial Electronics.
Roberto Cárdenas (S’95–M’97–SM’07) was born
in Punta Arenas, Chile. He received the B.S. degree
from the University of Magallanes, Punta Arenas,
in 1988, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from
the University of Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K., in
1992 and 1996, respectively.
From 1989 to 1991 and 1996 to 2008, he was
a Lecturer at the University of Magallanes. From
1991 to 1996, he was with the Power Electron-
ics, Machines, and Control Group, University of
Nottingham. He is currently a Professor of power
electronics and drives in the Department of Electrical Engineering, University
of Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile. His main interests are in the control of
electrical machines, variable-speed drives, and renewable-energy systems.
Prof. Cárdenas received the Best Paper Award from the IEEE T RANS -
ACTIONS ON I NDUSTRIAL E LECTRONICS in 2004 and the “Ramon Salas
Edward” Award for research excellence from the Chilean Institute of Engineers
in 2009.
1095
Marta Molinas (M’94) received the B.S. degree
in electromechanical engineering from the National
University of Asuncion, San Lorenzo, Paraguay, in
1992, the M.Sc. degree from Ryukyu University,
Okinawa, Japan, in 1997, and the Dr.-Eng. degree
from Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan,
in 2000.
In 1998, she was a Guest Researcher at the Uni-
versity of Padova, Padova, Italy. From 2004 to 2007,
she was a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Norwegian
University of Science and Technology (NTNU),
Trondheim, Norway, where she has been a Professor since 2008. From 2008
to 2009, she was a Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Research
Fellow at the Energy Technology Research Institute, National Institute of
Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan. Her research
interests include wind-/wave-energy conversion systems and power electronics
and electrical machines in distributed energy systems.
Dr. Molinas is an Associate Editor of the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON
P OWER E LECTRONICS, an active reviewer for the IEEE T RANSACTIONS
ON I NDUSTRIAL E LECTRONICS and the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON P OWER
E LECTRONICS , and she is an Administrative Committee member of the IEEE
Power Electronics Society.
José Rodríguez (M’81–SM’94–F’11) received the
B.Eng. degree in electrical engineering from the Uni-
versidad Tecnica Federico Santa Maria (UTFSM),
Valparaiso, Chile, in 1977, and the Dr.-Ing. de-
gree in electrical engineering from the University of
Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany, in 1985.
Since 1977, he has been with the Department of
Electronics Engineering, UTFSM, where he was the
Director of the department from 2001 to 2004, was
the Vice Rector of academic affairs from 2004 to
2005, has been the Rector of the university since
2005, and is also currently a Professor. During his sabbatical leave in 1996,
he was with the Mining Division, Siemens Corporation, Santiago, Chile. He
has extensive consulting experience in the mining industry, particularly in
the application of large drives such as cycloconverter-fed synchronous mo-
tors for semiautogenous grinding mills, high-power conveyors, and controlled
alternating-current drives for shovels and power-quality issues. He has directed
more than 40 research and development projects in the field of industrial
electronics. He has coauthored more than 250 journal and conference papers
and contributed one book chapter. His research group was recognized as one of
the two Centers of Excellence in Engineering in Chile from 2005 to 2008. His
main research interests include multilevel inverters, new converter topologies,
control of power converters, and adjustable-speed drives.
Prof. Rodríguez has been an active Associate Editor of the IEEE T RANS -
ACTIONS ON P OWER E LECTRONICS and the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON
I NDUSTRIAL E LECTRONICS since 2002. He has served as a Guest Editor for
the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I NDUSTRIAL E LECTRONICS in six instances
[Special Sections on Matrix Converters (2002), Multilevel Inverters (2002),
Modern Rectifiers (2005), High-Power Drives (2007), Predictive Control of
Power Converters and Drives (2008), and Multilevel Inverters (2009)]. He was
the recipient of the Best Paper Award from the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON
I NDUSTRIAL E LECTRONICS in 2007 and the Best Paper Award from the IEEE
Industrial Electronics Magazine in 2008.