INDIVIDUAL SPORTS

ARCHERY

ARCHERY is the art, practice, or skill of

propelling arrows with the use of a bow, from Latin arcus.
Historically, archery has been used for hunting and combat,
while in modern times, its main use is that of a competitive
sport and recreational activity. A person who participates in
archery is typically known as an "archer" or a "bowman", and
one who is fond of or an expert at archery can be referred to
as atoxophilite.

History
The bow seems to have been invented in the later Paleolithic or early Mesolithicperiods. The oldest
indication for its use in Europe comes from the Stellmoor (de) in the Ahrensburg valley (de) north
of Hamburg, Germany and dates from the latePaleolithic, about 10,000–9000 BCE. The arrows were
made of pine and consisted of a mainshaft and a 15–20 centimetres (5.9–7.9 inches) long fore shaft
with a flintpoint. There are no definite earlier bows; previous pointed shafts are known, but may have
been launched by spear-throwers rather than bows. The oldest bows known so far come from
the Holmegård swamp in Denmark. Bows eventually replaced the spear-thrower as the predominant
means for launching shafted projectiles, on every continent except Australia, though spear-throwers
persisted alongside the bow in parts of the Americas, notably Mexico and among the Inuit.Bows and
arrows have been present in Egyptian culture since its predynastic origins. In the Levant, artifacts
which may be arrow-shaft straighteners are known from theNatufian culture, (c. 12,800–
10,300 BP (before present)) onwards. The Khiamianand PPN A shouldered Khiam-points may well
bearrowheads.Classical civilizations,notably the
Assyrians, Armenians, Persians, Parthians,Indians, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese fielded large
numbers of archers in their armies. The English longbow proved its worth for the first time in
Continental warfare at the Battle of Crécy.[2] In the Americas archery was widespread at European
contact. Archery was highly developed in Asia. The Sanskrit term for archery, dhanurveda, came to
refer to martial arts in general. In East Asia, Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea was
well known for its regiments of exceptionally skilled archers areas.
Eighteenth-century revival
Early recreational archery societies included the Finsbury Archers and the Kilwinning Papingo,
established in 1688. The latter held competitions in which the archers had to dislodge a wooden
parrot from the top of an abbey tower. The Company of Scottish Archers was formed in 1676 and is
one of the oldest sporting bodies in the world. It remained a small and scattered pastime, however,
until the late 18th century when it experienced a fashionable revival among the aristocracy.
Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, formed the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781,
with the patronage of George, the Prince of Wales.

Archery societies were set up across the country, each with its own strict entry criteria and
outlandish costumes. Recreational archery soon became extravagant social and ceremonial events
for the nobility, complete with flags, music and 21 gun salutes for the competitors. The clubs were
"the drawing rooms of the great country houses placed outside" and thus came to play an important
role in the social networks of local elites. As well as its emphasis on display and status, the sport
was notable for its popularity with females. Young women could not only compete in the contests but
retain and show off their sexuality while doing so. Thus, archery came to act as a forum for
introductions, flirtation and romance.[13] It was often consciously styled in the manner of
a Medieval tournament with titles and laurel wreaths being presented as a reward to the victor.
General meetings were held from 1789, in which local lodges convened together to standardise the
rules and ceremonies. Archery was also co-opted as a distinctively British tradition, dating back to
the lore of Robin Hood and it served as a patriotic form of entertainment at a time of political tension
in Europe. The societies were also elitist, and the new middle class bourgeoisie were excluded from
the clubs due to their lack of social status.

After the Napoleonic Wars, the sport became increasingly popular among all classes, and it was
framed as a nostalgic reimagining of the preindustrial rural Britain. Particularly influential was
Sir Walter Scott's 1819 novel, Ivanhoe that depicted the heroic character Lockseley winning an
archery tournament.[14]

A modern sport
The 1840s saw the first attempts at turning the recreation into a modern sport. The first Grand
National Archery Societymeeting was held in York in 1844 and over the next decade the extravagant
and festive practices of the past were gradually whittled away and the rules were standardised as
the 'York Round' - a series of shoots at 60, 80, and 100 yards. Horace A. Ford helped to improve
archery standards and pioneered new archery techniques. He won the Grand National 11 times in a
row and published a highly influential guide to the sport in 1856.Towards the end of the 19th century,
the sport experienced declining participation as alternative sports such
as croquet and tennis became more popular among the middle class. By 1889, just 50 archery clubs
were left in Britain, but it was still included as a sport at the 1900 Paris Olympics.[15]

In the United States, primitive archery was revived in the early 20th century. The last of the Yahi
Indian tribe, a native known as Ishi, came out of hiding in California in 1911.[16][17] His doctor, Saxton
Pope, learned many of Ishi's traditional archery skills, and popularized them.[18][19] The Pope and
Young Club, founded in 1961 and named in honor of Pope and his friend, Arthur Young, became
one of North America's leading bowhunting and conservation organizations. Founded as a nonprofit
scientific organization, the Club was patterned after the prestigious Boone and Crockett Club and
advocated responsible bowhunting by promoting quality, fair chase hunting, and sound conservation
practices.

From the 1920s, professional engineers took an interest in archery, previously the exclusive field of
traditional craft experts.[20] They led the commercial development of new forms of bow including the
modern recurve and compound bow. These modern forms are now dominant in modern Western
archery; traditional bows are in a minority. In the 1980s, the skills of traditional archery were revived
by American enthusiasts, and combined with the new scientific understanding. Much of this
expertise is available in the Traditional Bowyer's Bibles (see Additional reading). Modern game
archery owes much of its success to Fred Bear, an American bow hunter and bow manufacturer

Mythology
Deities and heroes in several mythologies are described as archers, including the
Greek Artemisand Apollo, the Roman Diana and Cupid, the Germanic Agilaz, continuing in legends
like those ofWilhelm Tell, Palnetoke, or Robin Hood. Armenian Hayk and Babylonian Marduk,
Indian Arjuna,Abhimanyu, Eklavya, Karna, Rama, and Shiva, and Persian Arash were all archers.
Earlier Greek representations of Heracles normally depict him as an archer.

The Nymphai Hyperboreioi (Νύμφαι Ὑπερβόρειοι) were worshipped on the Greek island of Delos as
attendants of Artemis, presiding over aspects of archery; Hekaerge (Ἑκαέργη), represented
distancing, Loxo (Λοξώ), trajectory, and Oupis (Οὖπις), aim.[22] The

In East Asia, Yi the archer and his apprentice Feng Meng appear in several early Chinese
myths,[23]and the historical character of Zhou Tong features in many fictional forms. Jumong, the
firstTaewang of the Goguryeo kingdom of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, is claimed by legend to
have been a near-godlike archer. Archery features in the story of Oguz Khagan.

In West African Yoruba belief, Osoosi is one of several deities of the hunt who are identified with
bow and arrow iconography and other insignia associated with archery.
Equipment
Types of bow
While there is great variety in the construction details of bows (both historic and modern), all bows
consist of a string attached to elastic limbs that store mechanical energy imparted by the user
drawing the string. Bows may be broadly split into two categories: those drawn by pulling the string
directly and those that use a mechanism to pull the string.

Directly drawn bows may be further divided based upon differences in the method of limb
construction, notable examples being self bows, laminated bows and composite bows. Bows can
also be classified by the bow shape of the limbs when unstrung; in contrast to simple straight bows,
a recurve bow has tips that curve away from the archer when the bow is unstrung. The cross-section
of the limb also varies; the classic longbow is a tall bow with narrow limbs that are D-shaped in cross
section, and the flatbow has flat wide limbs that are approximately rectangular in cross-section. The
classic D-shape comes from the use of the wood of the yew tree. The sap-wood is best suited to the
tension on the back of the bow, and the heart-wood to the compression on the belly. Hence, a cross-
section of a yew longbow shows the narrow, light-coloured sap-wood on the 'straight' part of the D,
and the red/orange heartwood forms the curved part of the D, to balance the mechanical
tension/compression stress. Cable-backed bows use cords as the back of the bow; the draw weight
of the bow can be adjusted by changing the tension of the cable. They were widespread
among Inuit who lacked easy access to good bow wood. One variety of cable-backed bow is the
Penobscot bow or Wabenaki bow, invented by Frank Loring (Chief Big Thunder) about 1900.[24] It
consists of a small bow attached by cables on the back of a larger main bow.

Modern recurve bow (Takedown)

Compound bows are designed to reduce the force required to hold the string at full draw, hence
allowing the archer more time to aim with less muscular stress. Most compound designs use cams
or elliptical wheels on the ends of the limbs to achieve this. A typical let-off is anywhere from 65%–
80%. For example, a 60-pound bow with 80% let-off will only require 12 pounds of force to hold at
full draw. Up to 99% let-off is possible.[25] The compound bow was invented by Holless Wilbur Allen in
the 1960s (a US patent was filed in 1966 and granted in 1969) and it has become the most widely
used type of bow for all forms of archery in North America.

Mechanically drawn bows typically have a stock or other mounting, such as thecrossbow. They are
not limited by the strength of a single archer and larger varieties have been used as siege engines.

Types of arrows and fletching

The most common form of arrow consists of a shaft with an arrowhead attached to the front end and
with fletchings and a nock attached to the other end. Arrows across time and history are normally
carried in a container known as a quiver, which can take many different forms. Shafts of arrows are
typically composed of solid wood, bamboo fiberglass, aluminium alloy, carbon fiber, or composite
materials. Wooden arrows are prone to warping. Fiberglass arrows are brittle, but can be produced
to uniform specifications easily. Aluminium shafts were a very popular high-performance choice in
the latter half of the 20th century due to their straightness, lighter weight, and subsequently higher
speed and flatter trajectories. Carbon fiber arrows became popular in the 1990s and are very light,
flying even faster and flatter than aluminium arrows. Today, arrows made up of composite materials
are the most popular tournament arrows at Olympic Events, especially the Easton X10 and A/C/E.

The arrowhead is the primary functional component of the arrow. Some arrows may simply use a
sharpened tip of the solid shaft, but it is far more common for separate arrowheads to be made,
usually from metal, stone, or other hard materials. The most commonly used forms are target points,
field points, and broadheads, although there are also other types, such as bodkin, judo, and blunt
heads.

Shield cut straight fletching – here the hen feathers are barred red

Fletching is traditionally made from bird feathers. Also solid plastic vanes and thin sheetlike spin
vanes are used. They are attached near the nock (rear) end of the arrow with thin double sided tape,
glue, or, traditionally, sinew. Three fletches is the most common configuration in all cultures, though
as many as six have been used. Two will result in unstable arrow flight. When three-fletched the
fletches are equally spaced around the shaft with one placed such that it is perpendicular to the bow
when knocked on the string (though with modern equipment, variations are seen especially when
using the modern spin vanes). This fletch is called the "index fletch" or "cock feather" (also known as
"the odd vane out" or "the knocking vane") and the others are sometimes called the "hen feathers".
Commonly, the cock feather is of a different color. However, if archers are using fletching made of
feather or similar material, they may use same color vanes, as different dyes can give varying
stiffness to vanes, resulting in less precision. When four-fletched, often two opposing fletches are
cock feathers and occasionally the fletches are not evenly spaced.

The fletching may be either parabolic (short feathers in a smooth parabolic curve)
or shield (generally shaped like half of a narrow shield) cut and is often attached at an angle, known
as helical fletching, to introduce a stabilizing spin to the arrow while in flight. Whether helicial or
straight fletched, when natural fletching (bird feathers) are used it is critical that all feathers come
from the same side of the bird. Oversized fletching can be used to accentuate drag and thus limit the
range of the arrow significantly; these arrows are called flu-flus. Misplacement of fletching can often
change the arrow's flight path dramatically.

Bow string
Dacron and other modern materials offer high strength for their weight and are used on most modern
bows. Linen and other traditional materials are still used on traditional bows. Almost any fiber can be
made into a bow string. The author of "Arab Archery" suggests the hide of a young, emaciated
camel.[26] Njál's saga describes the refusal of a wife, Hallgerður, to cut her hair in order to make an
emergency bowstring for her husband, Gunnar Hámundarson, who is then killed.

Protective equipment

A right-hand finger tab to protect the hand while the string is drawn.

Most archers wear a bracer (also known as an arm-guard) to protect the inside of the bow arm from
being hit by the string and prevent clothing from catching the bow string. The bracer does not brace
the arm; the word comes from the armoury term "brassard", meaning an armoured sleeve or badge.
The Navajo people have developed highly ornamented bracers as non-functional items of
adornment.[27]Some archers (mostly women) also wear protection on their chests, called chestguards
or plastrons. The myth of the Amazons was that they had one breast removed to solve this
problem.Roger Ascham mentions one archer, presumably with an unusual shooting style, who wore
a leather guard for his face.[29]

The drawing digits are normally protected by a leather tab, glove, or thumb ring. A simple tab of
leather is commonly used, as is a skeleton glove. Medieval Europeans probably used a complete
leather glove.[30]

Eurasiatic archers who used the thumb or Mongolian draw protected their thumbs, usually with
leather according to the author of Arab Archery,[31] but also with special rings of various hard
materials. Many surviving Turkish and Chinese examples are works of considerable art. Some are
so highly ornamented that the users could not have used them to loose an arrow. Possibly these
were items of personal adornment, and hence value, remaining extant whilst leather had virtually no
intrinsic value and would also deteriorate with time. In traditional Japanese archery a special glove is
used, provided with a ridge which is used to draw the string

Release aids
A release aid is a mechanical device designed to give a crisp and precise loose of arrows from a
compound bow. In the most commonly used, the string is released by a finger-operated trigger
mechanism, held in the archer's hand or attached to their wrist. In another type, known as a back-
tension release, the string is automatically released when drawn to a pre-determined tension.

Stabilizers
Stabilizers are mounted usually on the front of the bow below the handle and on the right side, below
the handle to help aiming by keeping the bow steady.

Shooting technique and form

The standard convention on teaching archery, is to hold the

bow depending upon eye dominance (though in
modern Kyudo all archers are trained to hold the bow in the
right hand). Therefore, if you were right eye dominant, you
would hold the bow in the left hand, and draw the string with
the right hand. Not everybody agrees with this line of thought,
though. A smoother, and more fluid release of the string
produces the finest and most consistently repeatable shots, and therefore determines the accuracy
of the arrow flight. There are some who believe that the hand with the greatest dexterity, should be
the hand that draws and releases the string. Either eye can be used for aiming, and even the less
dominant eye can be trained over time to effectively become the more dominant. This can be
achieved by retraining with the use of an eye-patch over the dominant eye as a temporary measure.

The hand that holds the bow is referred to as the bow hand and its arm the bow arm. The opposite
hand is called the drawing hand or string hand. Terms such asbow shoulder or string
elbow follow the same convention.

If shooting according to eye dominance, then right-eye-dominant archers, shooting in a conventional

way, will hold the bow with their left hand.

If shooting according to hand dexterity, then the string will be drawn with whichever hand possesses
the greatest dexterity, regardless of eye dominance.

Modern form
To shoot an arrow, an archer first assumes the correct stance. The body should be at or nearly
perpendicular to the target and the shooting line, with the feet placed shoulder-width apart. As an
archer progresses from beginner to a more advanced level other stances such as the "open stance"
or the "closed stance" may be used, although many choose to stick with a "neutral stance". Each
archer will have a particular preference but mostly this term indicates that the leg furthest from the
shooting line will be a half to a whole foot-length from the other foot, on the ground.

To load, the bow is pointed toward the ground, tipped slightly clockwise of vertical (for a right handed
shooter) and the shaft of the arrow is placed on the arrow rest or shelf. The back of the arrow is
attached to the bowstring with the nock (a small locking groove located at the proximal end of the
arrow). This step is called "nocking the arrow". Typical arrows with three vanes should be oriented
such that a single vane, the "cock feather", is pointing away from the bow, to improve the clearance
of the arrow as it passes the arrow rest.

A compound bow is fitted with a special type of arrow rest, known as a launcher, and the arrow is
usually loaded with the cock feather/vane pointed either up, or down, depending upon the type of
launcher being used.

The bowstring and arrow are held with three fingers, or with a mechanical arrow release. Most
commonly, for finger shooters, the index finger is placed above the arrow and the next two fingers
below, although several other techniques have their adherents around the world, involving three
fingers below the arrow, or an arrow pinching technique. Instinctive shooting is a technique
eschewing sights and is often preferred by traditional archers (shooters of longbows and recurves).
In either the split finger or three finger under case, the string is usually placed in either the first or
second joint of the fingers.
Another type of string hold, used on traditional bows, is the type favoured by the Mongol warriors,
known as the "thumb release", style. This involves using the thumb to draw the string, with the
fingers curling around the thumb to add some support. To release the string, the fingers are opened
out and the thumb relaxes to allow the string to slide off the thumb. When using this type of release,
the arrow should rest on the same side of the bow as the drawing hand i.e. Left hand draw = arrow
on left side of bow.

The bow is then raised and drawn, with varying alignments used for vertical versus slightly canted
bow positions. This is often one fluid motion for shooters of recurves and longbows which tends to
vary from archer to archer, although for a compound shooter, there is often a slightly-jerky
movement occurring during the drawback of the arrow at around midpoint where the draw weight is
at its maximum, before relaxing into a comfortable stable full draw position. The string hand is drawn
towards the face, where it should rest lightly at the chosen fixed anchor point. This point is consistent
from shot to shot and is usually at the corner of the mouth, on the chin, to the cheek, or to the ear,
depending upon one's preferred shooting style. The bow arm is held outwards toward the target. The
elbow of this arm should be rotated so that the inner elbow is perpendicular to the ground, though
archers with hyper extendable elbows tend to angle the inner elbow toward the ground as
exemplified by the Korean archer Jang Yong-Ho. This keeps the forearm out of the way of the
bowstring.

In modern form, the archer stands erect, forming a "T". The archer's lower trapezius muscles are
used to pull the arrow to the anchor point. Some modern bows will be equipped with a mechanical
device, called a clicker, which produces a clicking sound when the archer reaches the correct draw
length. In contrast, traditional English Longbow shooters step "into the bow", exerting force with both
the bow arm and the string hand arm simultaneously, especially when using bows having draw
weights from 100 lbs to over 175 lbs. Heavily-stacked traditional bows (recurves, long bows, and the
like) are released immediately upon reaching full draw at maximum weight, whereas compound
bows reach their maximum weight in or around mid-draw, dropping holding weight significantly at full
draw. Compound bows are often held at full draw for a short time to achieve maximum accuracy.

The arrow is typically released by relaxing the fingers of the drawing hand (see Bow draw), or
triggering the mechanical release aid. Usually the release aims to keep the drawing arm rigid, the
bow hand relaxed, and the arrow is moved back using the back muscles, as opposed to using just
arm motions. An archer should also pay attention to the recoil or follow through of his or her body, as
it may indicate problems with form (technique) that affect accuracy.
Aiming Methods

From Hokusai Manga, 1817

There are two main forms of aiming in archery: using a

mechanical or fixed sight, or barebow.

Mechanical sights can be affixed to the bow to aid in aiming.

They can be as simple as a pin, or may use optics with
magnification. They usually also have a peep sight (rear sight)
built into the string which aids in a consistent anchor point.
Modern compound bows automatically limit the draw length
which gives a consistent arrow velocity while traditional bows
allow great variation in draw length. Mechanical methods to
make a traditional bow's draw length consistent are sometimes
used. Barebow archers often use a sight picture which includes the target, the bow, the hand, the
arrow shaft and the arrow tip, as seen at the same time by the archer. With a fixed "anchor point"
(where the string is brought to, or close to, the face), and a fully extended bow arm, successive
shots taken with the sight picture in the same position will fall on the same point. This allows the
archer to adjust aim with successive shots in order to achieve accuracy. Modern archery equipment
usually includes sights. Instinctive aiming is used by many archers who use traditional bows. The
two most common forms of a non-mechanical release are split-finger and three-under. Split-finger
aiming requires the archer to place the index finger above the nocked arrow, while the middle and
ring fingers are both placed below. Three-under aiming places the index, middle, and ring fingers
under the nocked arrow. This technique allows the archer to better look down the arrow since the
back of the arrow is closer to the dominant eye, and is commonly called "gun barreling" (referring to
common aiming techniques used with firearms).

When using short bows, or shooting from horseback, it is difficult to use the sight picture. The archer
may look at the target but without including the weapon in the field of accurate view. Aiming then
involves hand/eye coordination which includes proprioception and motor/muscle memory, similar to
that used when throwing a ball. With sufficient practice, such archers can normally achieve good
practical accuracy for hunting or for war.[33] Aiming without a sight picture may allow more rapid
shooting.

Instinctive shooting is a style of shooting that includes the barebow aiming method that relies
heavily upon the subconscious mind, proprioception, and motor/muscle memory to make aiming
adjustments; the term used to refer to a general category of archers who did not use a mechanical or
fixed sight.
Physics

Mongol archers during the time of the Mongol conquests used a smaller
bow suitable for horse archery.

When a projectile is thrown by hand, the speed of the projectile

is determined by thekinetic energy imparted by the thrower's
muscles performing work. However, the energy must be
imparted over a limited distance (determined by arm length)
and therefore (because the projectile is accelerating) over a
limited time, so the limiting factor is not work but rather power,
which determined how much energy can be added in the
limited time available. Power generated by muscles, however,
is limited by force–velocity relationship, and even at the optimal contraction speed for power
production, total work done by the muscle will be less than half of what could be done if the muscle
were contracting over the same distance at very slow speeds, resulting in less than 1/4 the projectile
launch velocity possible without the limitations of the force–velocity relationship.

When a bow is used, the muscles are able to perform work much more slowly, resulting in greater
force and greater work done. This work is stored in the bow aselastic potential energy, and when the
bowstring is released, this stored energy is imparted to the arrow much more quickly than can be
delivered by the muscles, resulting in much higher velocity and, hence, greater distance. This same
process is employed by frogs, which use elastic tendons to increase jumping distance. In archery,
some energy is dissipated through elastic hysteresis, reducing the overall amount released when the
bow is shot. Of the energy remaining, some is dampened both by the limbs of the bow and the
bowstring. Depending on the elasticity of the arrow, some of the energy is also absorbed by
compressing the arrow, primarily because the release of the bowstring is rarely in line with the arrow
shaft, causing it to flex out to one side. This is because the bowstring accelerates faster than the
archer's fingers can open, and consequently some sideways motion is imparted to the string, and
hence arrow nock, as the power and speed of the bow pulls the string off the opening fingers. Even
with a release aid mechanism some of this effect will usually be experienced, since the string always
accelerates faster than the retaining part of the mechanism. This results in an in-flight oscillation of
the arrow in which its center flexes out to one side and then the other repeatedly, gradually reducing
as the arrow's flight proceeds; this can be clearly seen in high-speed photography of an arrow at
discharge. A direct effect of these energy transfers can clearly be seen when dry firing. Dry firing
refers to releasing the bow string without a nocked arrow. Because there is no arrow to receive the
stored potential energy, all the energy stays in the bow. It has been suggested that dry firing may
cause physical damage to the bow such as cracks and fractures, and because most bows are not
specifically made to handle the high amounts of energy dry firing produces, should never be
attempted.

Snake Indians - testing bows, circa 1837 by Alfred Jacob Miller,

the Walters Art Museum

Modern arrows are made to a specified 'spine', or stiffness

rating, to maintain matched flexing and hence accuracy of aim.
This flexing can be a desirable feature, since, when the spine
of the shaft is matched to the acceleration of the bow(string),
the arrow bends or flexes around the bow and any arrow-rest,
and consequently the arrow, and fletchings, have an un-
impeded flight. This feature is known as thearcher's paradox. It
maintains accuracy, for if part of the arrow struck a glancing blow on discharge, some inconsistency
would be present, and the excellent accuracy of modern equipment would not be achieved.

The accurate flight of an arrow is dependent on its fletching. The arrow's manufacturer (a "fletcher")
can arrange fletching to cause the arrow to rotate along its axis. This improves accuracy by evening
pressure buildups that would otherwise cause the arrow to "plane" on the air in a random direction
after shooting. Even though the arrow be made with extreme care, the slightest imperfection, or air
movement, will cause some unbalanced turbulence in air flow. Consequently, rotation creates an
equalization of such turbulence, which, overall, maintains the intended direction of flight i.e.
accuracy. This rotation is not to be confused with the rapid gyroscopic rotation of a rifle bullet. If the
fletching is not arranged to induce rotation, it will still improve accuracy by causing a restoring drag
any time the arrow tilts away from its intended direction of travel from the initial.

The innovative aspect of the invention of the bow and arrow was the amount of power delivered to
an extremely small area by the arrow. The huge ratio of length vs cross sectional area coupled with
velocity made the arrow orders of magnitude more powerful than any other hand held weapon until
firearms were invented (the same principle of concentrating a large kinetic energy on a small area
continues to be used in modern anti-tank weaponry in the form of the long rod penetrator). Arrows
may be designed to spread or concentrate force, depending on their applications. Practice arrows,
for instance, can use a blunt tip that spreads the force over a wider area to reduce the risk of injury
or limit penetration. Arrows designed to pierce armor in the Middle Ages would use a very narrow
and sharp tip ("bodkinhead") to concentrate the force. Arrows used for hunting would use a narrow
tip ("broadhead") that widens further, to facilitate both penetration and a large wound.
Hunting
Bow hunting

A modern compound hunting bow

Using archery to take game animals is known as "bow

hunting". Bow hunting differs markedly from hunting with
firearms, as the distances between the hunter and the game
are much shorter in order to ensure a humane kill. The skills
and practices of bow hunting therefore emphasize very close
approach to the prey, whether by still hunting, stalking, or
waiting in a blind or tree stand. In many countries, including
much of the United States, bow hunting for large and small
game is legal. Bow hunters generally enjoy longer seasons
than are allowed with other forms of hunting such as black
powder, shotgun, or rifle. Usually, compound bows are used for large game hunting and may feature
fiber optic sights and other enhancements. Using a bow and arrow to take fish is known as "bow
fishing".

Modern competitive archery

Competitive archery involves shooting arrows at a target for accuracy from a set distance or
distances. This is the most popular form of competitive archery worldwide and is called target
archery. A form particularly popular in Europe and America isfield archery, shot at targets generally
set at various distances in a wooded setting. Para-Archery is an adaptation of archery for athletes
with a disability. It is governed by the World Archery Federation (WA), and is one of the sports in the
SummerParalympic Games. There are also several other lesser-known and historical forms of
archery, as well as archery novelty games and flight archery, where the aim is to shoot the greatest
distance.
Athletics (sport)
.

Athletics is an exclusive collection

of sporting events that involve
competitive running, jumping, throwing,
and walking. The most common types of
athletics competitions are track and field, road
running, cross country running, and race
walking. The simplicity of the competitions, and
the lack of a need for expensive equipment,
makes athletics one of the most commonly
competed sports in the world. Athletics is mostly
an individual sport, with the exception of relay
races and competitions which combine athletes'
performances for a team score, such as cross
country.
Organized athletics are traced back to the Ancient Olympic Games from 776 BC, and most modern
events are conducted by the member clubs of the International Association of Athletics Federations.
The athletics meeting forms the backbone of the modern Summer Olympics, and other leading
international meetings include the IAAF World Championships and World Indoor Championships,
and athletes with a physical disability compete at the Summer Paralympics and the IPC Athletics
World Championships.

Etymology
The word athletics is derived from the Ancient Greek ἀθλητής (athlētēs, "combatant in public
games") from ἆθλον ("Athlon", "prize") or ἆθλος ("athlos", "competition").[1] Initially, the term was used
to describe athletic contests in general—i.e. sporting competition based primarily on human physical
feats. In the 19th century, the term athletics acquired a more narrow definition in Europe and came
to describe sports involving competitive running, walking, jumping and throwing. This definition
continues to be the most prominent one in the United Kingdom and most of the areas of the
former British Empire. Furthermore, foreign words in many Germanic and Romance
languages which are related to the term athletics also have a similar meaning.

In much of North America, athletics is synonymous with sports in general maintaining a more historic
usage of the term. The word "athletics" is rarely used to refer to the sport of athletics in this
region. Track and field is preferred, and is used in the United States and Canada to refer to all
athletics events, including racewalking and marathon running.
History
Antiquity and middle Ages

A copy of the Ancient Greek statue Discobolus, portraying a discus thrower

Athletic contests in running, walking, jumping and throwing are

among the oldest of all sports and their roots
are prehistoric. Athletics events were depicted in the Ancient
[2]

Egyptian tombs inSaqqara, with illustrations of running at the Heb

Sed festival and high jumping appearing in tombs from as early as
of 2250 BC.[3] The Tailteann Games were an ancient Celtic festival
inIreland, founded around 1800 BC, and the thirty-day meeting
included running and stone-throwing among its sporting events.[4] The original and only event at the
first Olympics in 776 BC was a stadium-length running event known as the stadion. This later
expanded to include throwing and jumping events within the ancient pentathlon. Athletics
competitions also took place at other Panhellenic Games, which were founded later around 500
BC.[5]

The Cotswold Olimpick Games, a sports festival which emerged in 17th century England, also
featured athletics in the form of sledgehammer throwing contests.[6] Annually, from 1796 to
1798, L'Olympiade de la République was held in revolutionary France, and is an early forerunner to
the modern summer Olympic Games. The premier event of this competition was a running event, but
various ancient Greek disciplines were also on display. The 1796 Olympiade marks the introduction
of the metric system into sport.[7]

Modern era
The Royal Military College, Sandhurst has claimed to be the first to adopt this in 1812 and 1825, but
without any supporting evidence. The earliest recorded meeting was organised
at Shrewsbury, Shropshire in 1840 by the Royal Shrewsbury SchoolHunt. There are details of the
meeting in a series of letters written 60 years later by C.T. Robinson, who was a pupil there from
1838 to 1841. The Royal Military Academy at Woolwich held an organised competition in 1849, and
a regular series of closed meetings open only to undergraduates, was held by Exeter College,
Oxford from 1850.[8] The first open sports meeting to include athletic competitions was held in
Wenlock, Shropshire in 1850 and organised by Wenlock Olympian Society. Except for the two World
Wars years and the austerity years, these Games have been held continuously up to the present
day.
The 100 metres sprint at the 1896 Summer Olympics.

The first modern-style indoor athletics meetings were recorded shortly after in the 1860s, including a
meet at Ashburnham Hall in London which featured four running events and a triple jump
competition.[10][11]

The Amateur Athletic Association (AAA) was established in England in 1880 as the first national
body for the sport of athletics and began holding its own annual athletics competition – the AAA
Championships. The United States also began holding an annual national competition – the USA
Outdoor Track and Field Championships – first held in 1876 by the New York Athletic
Club.[12] Athletics became codified and standardised via the English AAA and other general sports
organisations in the late 19th century, such as the Amateur Athletic Union (founded in the US in
1888) and the Union des sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques(founded in France in 1889).

An athletics competition was included in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 and it has been as
one of the foremost competitions at the quadrennial multi-sport event ever since. Originally for men
only, the 1928 Olympics saw the introduction of women's events in the athletics programme.
Athletics is part of the Paralympic Games since the inaugural Games in 1960. Athletics has a very
high profile during major championships, especially the Olympics, but otherwise is less popular.

An international governing body, the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF), was founded
in 1912; it adopted its current name, the International Association of Athletics Federations, in 2001.
The IAAF established separate outdoor World Championships in 1983. In modern times, athletes
can receive money for racing, putting an end to the so-called "amateurism" that existed before.

The Comité International Sports des Sourds had been formed by 1922, to govern international deaf
sports, including athletics.[13]

The first organized international competitions for athletes with a physical disability (not deaf) began
in 1952, when the first international Stoke Mandeville Games were organized for World War II
veterans.[13][14] This only included athletes in a wheelchair. This inspired the first Paralympics Games,
held in 1960. Competitions would over time be expanded to include mainly athletes
with amputations, cerebral palsy and visual impairment, in addition to wheelchair events.
Events
The International Association of Athletics Federations, the sport's governing body, defines athletics
in five disciplines: track and field, road running, race walking, cross country running, and mountain
running.[15] All forms of athletics are individual sports with the exception of relay races. However,
athletes' performances are often tallied together by country at international championships, and in
the case of cross country the finishing times of the top athletes from each team or country are
combined to declare a team victor.

Track and field

A typical track and field stadium with an oval running track and a grassy
inner field

Track and field competitions emerged in the late 19th century

and were typically contested between athletes who were
representing rival educational institutions,military
organizations and sports clubs. [16]
Participating athletes may compete in one or more events,
according to their specialities. Men and women compete separately. Track and field comes in both
indoor and outdoor formats, with most indoor competitions occurring in winter, while outdoor events
are mostly held in summer. The sport is defined by the venue in which the competitions are held –
the track and field stadium.

A variety of running events are held on the track which fall into three broad distance
categories: sprints, middle-distance, and long-distance track events. Relay races feature teams
comprising four runners each, who must pass a baton to their team-mate after a specified distance
with the aim of being the first team to finish. Hurdlingevents and the steeplechase are a variation
upon the flat running theme in that athletes must clear obstacles on the track during the race. The
field events come in two types – jumping and throwing competitions. In throwing events, athletes are
measured by how far they hurl an implement, with the common events being the shot
put, discus, javelin, and hammer throw. There are four common jumping events: the long
jump and triple jump are contests measuring the horizontal distance an athlete can jump, while
the high jump and pole vault are decided on the height achieved. Combined events, which include
the decathlon (typically competed by men) and heptathlon (typically competed by women), are
competitions where athletes compete in a number of different track and field events, with each
performance going toward a final points tally.

The most prestigious track and field contests occur within athletics championships and athletics
programmes at multi-sport events. The Olympic athletics competition and World Championships in
Athletics, and the Paralympic athletics competitionand IPC World Championships in Athletics, are
the highest and most prestigious levels of competition in track and field. Track and field events have
become the most prominent part of major athletics championships and many famous athletes within
the sport of athletics come from this discipline. Discrete track and field competitions are found
at national championships-level and also at annual, invitational track and field meets. Meetings
range from elite competitions – such as those in the IAAF Diamond League series – to basic all
comers track meets, inter-sports club meetings and schools events, which form the grassroots of
track and field.

Road running
Road running competitions are running events (predominantly long distance) which are mainly
conducted on courses ofpaved or tarmac roads, although major events often finish on the track of a
main stadium. In addition to being a commonrecreational sport, the elite level of the sport –
particularly marathon races – are one of the most popular aspects of athletics. Road racing events
can be of virtually any distance, but the most common and well known are the marathon, half
marathon, 10 km and 5 km. The marathon is the only road running event featured at the IAAF World
Championships in Athletics and the Summer Olympics, although there is also an annual IAAF World
Half Marathon Championships. The marathon is also the only road running event featured at the IPC
Athletics World Championships and the Summer Paralympics. The World Marathon Majors series
includes the five most prestigious marathon competitions at
the elite level – the Berlin, Boston, Chicago, London, and New
York City marathons.

Runners in the popular National Marathon race in Washington, D.C.

The sport of road running finds its roots in the activities

of footmen: male servants who ran alongside the carriages
of aristocrats around the 18th century, and who also ran
errands over distances for their masters. Foot
racing competitions evolved from wagers between aristocrats, who pitted their footman against that
of another aristocrat in order to determine a winner. The sport became professionalised as footmen
were hired specifically on their athletic ability and began to devote their lives to training for the
gambling events. The amateur sports movement in the late 19th century marginalised competitions
based on the professional, gambling model. The1896 Summer Olympics saw the birth of the modern
marathon and the event led to the growth of road running competitions through annual events such
as the Boston Marathon (first held in 1897) and the Lake Biwa Marathon and Fukuoka Marathons,
which were established in the 1940s. The 1970s running boom in the United States made road
running a common pastimeand also increased its popularity at the elite level.[17]

Ekiden contests – which originated in Japan and remain very popular there – are a relay race
variation on the marathon, being in contrast to the typically individual sport of road running.

Cross country running

Competitors mid-race at a boys high school event in the United States

Cross country running is the most naturalistic of the sports in

athletics as competitions take place on open-air courses over
surfaces such as grass, woodlandtrails, and earth. It is both an
individual and team sport, as runners are judged on an
individual basis and a points scoring method is used for teams.
Competitions are typically long distance races of 4 km (2.5 mi)
or more which are usually held in autumn and winter. Cross
country's most successful athletes often compete in long-
distance track and road events as well.

The Crick Run in England in 1838 was the first recorded instance of an organised cross country
competition. The sport gained popularity in British, then American schools in the 19th century and
culminated in the creation of the first International Cross Country Championships in 1903.[18] The
annual IAAF World Cross Country Championships was inaugurated in 1973 and this remains the
highest level of competition for the sport. A number of continental cross country competitions are
held, with championships taking place in Asia, Europe, North America and South America. The sport
has retained its status at the scholastic level, particularly in the United Kingdom and United States.
At the professional level, the foremost competitions come under the banner of the IAAF Cross
Country Permit Meetings.

While cross country competitions are no longer held at the Olympics, having featured in the athletics
programme from 1912–1924, it has been present as one of the events within the modern
pentathlon competition since the 1912 Summer Olympics. One variation on traditional cross country
is mountain running, which incorporates significant uphill and/or downhill sections as an additional
challenge to the course. Fell running and Orienteering are other competitive sports similar to cross
country, although they feature an element of navigation which is absent from the set courses of
cross country.

Racewalking
 A track-side judge monitoring technique at the 1912 Summer Olympics.

Racewalking is a form of competitive walking that usually takes

place on open-air roads, although running tracks are also
occasionally used. Racewalking is the only sport in athletics in
which judges monitor athletes on their technique. Racewalkers
must always have a foot in contact with the ground and their
advancing leg must be straightened, not bent at the knee –
failure to follow these rules results in disqualification from the
race.[19]

Racewalking finds its roots in the sport of pedestrianism which emerged in the late 18th century in
England. Spectators would gamble on the outcome of the walking competitions. The sport took on
an endurance aspect and competitions were held over long distances or walkers would have to
achieve a certain distance within a specified time frame, such as Centurion contests of walking 100
miles (160 km) within 24 hours.[19] During this period, racewalking was frequently held on athletics
tracks for ease of measurement, and the1908 Summer Olympics in London saw the introduction of
the 3500-metre and 10-mile walks. Racewalking was briefly dropped from the Olympic programme
in 1928, but the men's 50 kilometres race walk has been held at every Olympic Games but one since
1932. The men's 20 kilometres race walk was added to the Olympic athletics schedule in 1956 and
the women's event was first held in 1992. The most common events in modern competition are over
10 km, 20 km and 50 km on roads, although women's 3 km and men's 5 km are held on indoor
tracks.

The highest level racewalking competitions occur at the IAAF World Championships in Athletics and
at the Summer Olympics, although the sport also has its own separate major competition – the IAAF
World Race Walking Cup – which has been held since 1961. The IAAF World Race Walking
Challenge forms the primary seasonal competition – athletes earn points for their performances at
ten selected racewalking competitions and the highest scoring walkers are entered into that
year's IAAF Race Walking Challenge Final.

Categories
 Under 23, under the age of 23 years (only for EAA)
 Junior, under the age of 20 years (for IAAF

Athletes with disabilities

Athletes with physical disabilities have competed at separate international events since 1952.
The International Paralympic Committee governs the competitions in athletics, and hosts
theParalympic Games, which have continued since 1960.[13][14]

Competitors at elite level competitions, are classified by disability, to arrange athletes with a similar
disability in the same event. A classified T12 athlete for example, is a track athlete with a visual
impairment.[20]

 F = Field athletes
 T = Track athletes

 11–13 – Visual impairment. Compete with a sighted guide.

 20 – Intellectual disability
 31–38 – Cerebral palsy
 41–46 – Amputation, and others (including athletes with dwarfism)
 51–58 – Wheelchair

In wheelchair racing athletes compete in lightweight racing chairs. Most major marathons have
wheelchair divisions and the elite racers consistently beat the runners on foot. The speed of wheel
chair racers has caused difficulties for race organisers in properly staggering their start times
compared to runners. A collision between Josh Cassidy (a wheelchair racer) and Tiki Gelana (a
leading female marathoner) at the 2013 London Marathon brought the issue into the spotlight again.

Occasionally, athletes with a disability excel to compete with able bodied athletes. Legally
blind Marla Runyan ran in the 2000 and 2004 Olympics and won a gold medal in the 1500 metres at
the 1999 Pan American Games. Oscar Pistorius, a double amputee, has competed in the 2012
Olympics. At the 2011 World Championships Pistorius successfully made it to the 400 metres semi-
final round and won a silver medal as part of South Africa's 4x400 metres relay team. In Masters
athletics it is far more common to make an accommodation for athletes with a disability. Blind Ivy
Granstrom set numerous Masters world records while being guided around the track.

Venues
Professional athletics almost exclusively takes place in one of three types of venue: stadiums, set
courses on grass or woodland, and road-based courses. Such venues ensure that events take place
in a relatively standardised manner, as well as improving the safety of athletes and enjoyment for
spectators. At a more basic level, many forms of athletics demand very little in terms of venue
requirements; almost any open space or area of field can provide a suitable venue for basic running,
jumping and throwing competitions.
Track and field stadium

A typical layout of an outdoor track and field stadium

A standard outdoor track is in the shape of a stadium,[22] 400

metres in length, and has at least eight lanes 1.22 m in width.
Older track facilities may have nonstandard track lengths, such
as 440 yards (402.3 m) (common in the United States).
Historically, tracks were covered by a dirt running surface.
Modern All-weather running tracks are covered by a synthetic
weather-resistant running surface, which typically consists of
rubber (either black SBR or colored EPDM granules), bound by polyurethane or latex resins. Older
tracks may be cinder-covered.

A standard indoor track is designed similarly to an outdoor track, but is only 200 metres in length and
has between four and eight lanes, each with width between 0.90 m and 1.10 m.[23] Often, the bends
of an indoor track will be banked to compensate for the small turning radius. However, because of
space limitations, indoor tracks may have other nonstandard lengths, such as 160-yard (146.3 m)
indoor track at Madison Square Garden used for the Millrose Games. Because of space limitations,
meetings held at indoor facilities do not hold many of athletics events typically contested outdoors.

Cross country courses

A cross country race taking place at a snowy park in the United States.

There is no standardised form of cross country course and

each venue is significantly defined by the environment it
contains – some may be relatively flat and featureless, while
others may be more challenging with natural obstacles, tight
turns, and undulating ground. While a small number of
purpose-built courses exist, the vast majority of cross country
running courses are created by cordoning a specific area
within any open natural land, typically
a park, woodland or greenspace near asettlement. [24]

At the elite and professional level, courses must be looped and each lap must be between 1750 m
and 2000 m in length. Severe obstacles such as deep ditches, high barriers and thick undergrowth
not normally present; the course should be able to be completed whilst remaining on foot
throughout. In order to maintain the sport's distinction from road running, the usage of unnatural
or macadamised surfaces is generally kept to a minimum or avoided entirely.[24]

Due to the fact that the majority of races take place on areas of grass, soil, mud or earth, weather
conditions can significantly affect the difficulty of cross country courses, as snow and rain reduces
traction and can create areas of standing water.

Road courses

A typical road running course on the inner-city roads of Toronto

The surface of road races is highly important and the IAAF

dictate that the courses must be along man-made roads,
bicycle paths or footpaths. Courses set along major roads of
cities are typical of road running events, and traffic is usually
cordoned off from the area during the competition. While soft
ground, such as grass, is generally avoided, races may start
and finish on soft ground or within a track and field stadium. Road racing courses come in two
primary types: looped and point-to-point. Courses may be measured and designed to cover a
standardised distance, such as 10 km (6.2 mi), or they may simply follow a set route between two
landmarks.[25]

Road running courses over 5 km usually offer drinks or refreshment stations for runners at
designated points alongside the course and medical professionals are present at the courses of
major races due to the health risks involved with long-distance running.[25]

Elite road walks are conducted on closed loop courses (usually loops of 2,000 or 2,500 meters).
Refreshment stations are also present over long distance walking competitions, with drinks being
available on every lap for races longer than 10 km.[26]

Organizations
Since its foundation in 1912, the international governing body for athletics has been the International
Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). It was initially known as the International Amateur
Athletics Federation but changed later its name to reflect that the sport had moved away
from amateurism towards professionalism in the late 1970s. The IAAF has 213 member nations and
territories, which are divided into six continental areas (or area associations).[27] The six association
areas are for Asia, Africa, Europe, Oceania, North America and South America. The sports within
athletics do not have their own independent governing bodies at either international or continental
level and, instead, all fall under the athletics authorities.[28]
 Map of the six continental federations of the IAAF

 AAA – Asian Athletics Association

 CAA – Confederation of African Athletics

 CONSUDATLE – South American Athletics

Confederation

 NACACAA – North America, Central America and Caribbean Athletic Association

 EAA – European Athletics Association

 OAA – Oceania Athletics Association

National level athletics organisations are responsible for the regulation of the sport within their
respective countries and most major competitions have some form of permit or approval from their
national body.

Competitions
Athletics competitions can be broadly divided into three types: international championships, national
championships, and annual meetings and races. Athletics at international championships, or Games,
represent the pinnacle of competition within the sport, and they are contested between athletes
representing their country or region. The organisation of these competitions is usually overseen by
either a world, continental, or regional athletics governing body. Athletes gain entry into these
competitions by earning selection from their national athletics governing body, which is generally
done by assessing athletes via their past achievements or performances at a national selection
event. National championships are annual competitions endorsed by a national governing body
which serve the purpose of deciding the country's best athlete in each event. Annual one-day
meetings and races form the most basic level of competition and are the most common format of
athletics contests. These events are often invitational and are organised by sports organisations,
sports promoters, or other institutions.

Competitions typically feature only one of the sports within athletics. However, major outdoor
international athletics championships and athletics competitions held as part of multi-sport
events usually feature a combination of track and field, road running and racewalking events
International championships

Olympic Games
The athletics competition underway at the main stadium of the 2008
Summer Olympics

The modern Summer Olympics was the first event at which a

global athletics competition took place. All the four major
sports within athletics have featured in the Olympic athletics
programme since its inception in 1896, although cross country
has since been dropped. The Olympic competition is the most
prestigious athletics contest, and many athletics events are
among the most watched events at the Summer Olympics. A
total of 47 athletics events are held at the Olympics, 24 for men and 23 for women (as of London
2012). The events within the men's and women's programmes are either identical or have a similar
equivalent, with the sole exception being that men contest the 50 km race walk.[29]

Paralympic Games

The Summer Paralympics include athletes with a physical disability. Track and field, and road events
have featured in the Paralympic athletics programme since its inception in 1960. The Paralympic
competition is the most prestigious athletics contest where athletes with a physical disability
compete.

Athletics at the Paralympic Games also include wheelchair racing where athletes compete in
lightweight racing chairs. Athletes with a visual impairment compete with a sighted guide. At
the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London, for the first time at an international athletics event, the
guides will receive medals,[30] such as the pilots in cycling, and the guides at theParalympic Winter
Games have done for a while.

World Championships

The IAAF World Championships in Athletics is the primary global athletics championships held by
IAAF. The biennial competition was first held in 1983 and now features an event programme which
is identical to the Olympics. Thus, road running, racewalking and track and field are the sports which
feature at the competition. Cross country running has its own discrete global championships –
the IAAF World Cross Country Championships – which has been held annually since 1973.
The IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athletics is a biennial athletics championships which
features solely indoor track and field events. The foremost separate road running event is the
annual IAAF World Half Marathon Championships(formerly World Road Running Championships).
While not having official world championship status, the biennial IAAF World Race Walking
Cup fulfils a similar role for the sport of racewalking. Outdoor track and field is the only sport in
athletics that does not have a its own distinct global championship which is separate from other
types of athletics, although the IAAF Continental Cup (a quadrennial competition between
continental teams) is composed entirely of outdoor track and field events.

Other world championships include the IAAF World Junior and World Youth Championships in
Athletics, which are for athletes under-19 and under-17, respectively. World Masters
Athletics conducts the World Masters Athletics Championshipsfor athletes in 5-year age divisions
over the age of 35. The now defunct IAAF World Road Relay Championships served as the global
event for ekiden marathon relay races.

Elite athletes with a physical disability compete at the IPC Athletics World Championships and at the
Commonwealth Games.

Commonwealth Games

Athletics is one of the sports at the quadrennial Commonwealth Games competition. It has been a
Commonwealth Games sport since the inaugural edition of the event's precursor, the 1930 British
Empire Games. It is a core sport and must be included in the sporting programme of each edition of
the Games.

Universiade

Athletics is one of the sports at the biennial summer Universiade competition. It has been one of the
event's competed sports since the inaugural edition.

Culture and media

Ancient Greek pottery showing the javelin and the discus throw

Athletics, and its athletes in particular, has been artistically

depicted since ancient times – one of the surviving instances
include runners and high jumpers in the motifs of Ancient
Egyptiantombs dating from 2250 BC. Athletics was much
respected in Ancient Greece and the events within the ancient
pentathlon provided inspiration for large statues such as
the Discobolus andDiscophoros, and for motifs on countless vase
and pottery works. Aristotle discussed the significance of the
pentathlon in his treatise Rhetoric and reflected on the athlete
aesthetic of the period: "a body capable of enduring all efforts, either of the racecourse or of bodily
strength...This is why the athletes in the pentathlon are most beautiful".[31]

Films about athletics are overwhelmingly focused on running events: the 1962 film The Loneliness of
the Long Distance Runner (based on the book of the same name) explores cross country running as
a means of escape. Chariots of Fire, perhaps one of the most well-known athletics films, is a
fictionalised account of Eric Liddell and Harold Abrahams's chase for sprint gold medals at the 1924
Olympics. Track and field has been the subject of American films such as Personal Best (1981)
and Across the Tracks(1991). Biopics are found within the genre,
including Prefontaine (regarding Steve Prefontaine) and Jim Thorpe – All-American (1951)
featuring Burt Lancaster as Thorpe. Documentaries are also common with examples such as 2007
filmSpirit of the Marathon, which follows runners' preparations for the 2005 Chicago Marathon.

Running commemorative coin

Books on the subject are predominantly non-fiction, and tend

towards the forms of training manuals and historical accounts
of athletics. The story of the four-minute mile has been a
particularly popular subject, spawning books such as The
Perfect Mile and 3:59.4: The Quest to Break the Four Minute
Mile.

Athletics journalism has spawned a number of

dedicated periodicals including Athletics Weeklyand Race
Walking Record, both of which were first published in
England in the early 1940s, andTrack & Field News which was first published in the United States in
1948. Runner's World has been in print since 1966 and the Track & Field Magazine of
Japan (Rikujyo Kyogi Magazine) is another long-running publication.

Athletics events have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins. One of the recent
samples is the €10 Greek Running commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004
Summer Olympics. In the obverse of the coin, a modern athlete figure appears in the foreground,
shown in the starting position, while in the background two ancient runners are carved in a manner
that gives the appearance of a coin that is "worn" by time. This scene originally appeared on a black-
figure vase of the 6th century BC.
Eskrima
Eskrima, Arnis, and Kali are umbrella terms for the traditional martial arts of
the Philippines ("Filipino Martial Arts,"or FMA) that emphasize weapon-based
fighting with sticks, knives and other bladed weapons, and various improvised weapons. It is also
known as Estoque (Spanish for rapier), Estocada (Spanish for thrust or stab) and Garrote (Spanish
for club). In Luzon they may go by the name of Arnis de Mano, Pananandata (use of
weapons), Sinawali(Pampanga, "to
weave"), Sitbatan (Pangasinan), Didya and Kabaroan (Ilocosregion). In the Visayas and Mindanao,
these martial arts have been referred to
as Eskrima, Kali, Kaliradman, Pagaradman and Kalirongan. Kuntaw andSilat are separate
martial arts that have been practiced in the islands.
It also includes hand-to-hand combat, joint locks, grappling and weapon disarming techniques.
Although in general, emphasis is put on weapons for these arts, some systems put empty hands as
the primary focus and some old school systems do not teach weapons at all.[2] For the purpose of
convenience, this article will use the term Eskrima throughout.

Etymology

Eskrima masters along with students in Cebu City,

Philippines

For all intents and purposes, Eskrima, Arnis and Kali

all refer to the same family of Filipino weapon-based
martial arts and fighting systems.

Both eskrima and arnis are loansfrom Spanish and

ultimately fromOld Frankish:

 Eskrima (also spelledEscrima) is a

Filipinization of the Spanish word for fencing,
(esgrima). [3][4]

 Arnis comes from arnes, Old Spanish for armor (harness is an archaic English term for armor
which comes from the same roots as the Spanish term). It is derived from the armor costumes
used in Moro-moro stage plays where actors fought mock battles using wooden swords.
Allegedly, the practice of weaponry by the peasants or Indios was banned by the Spaniards
during colonial times and the Moro-moro stick fights were a "disguised" form of continued
practice of indigenous martial arts.[5]
Multiple theories exist on the origin of term Kali:

 One belief is that the word comes from tjakalele,[6] a tribal style of stick-fencing from Indonesia.
This is supported by the similarities between tjakalele and eskrima techniques, as well as
Mindanao's proximity to Indonesia.
 Kali may be a portmanteau of the Cebuano words "kamot", or "kamay" meaning hand in
Tagalog, and "lihok", meaning motion.[7][8]
 In the Ilocano dialect, kali means to dig and to stab.[9]
 There exist numerous similar terms of reference for martial arts such as kalirongan,
"kalibanga", kaliradman andpagkalikali.[10] These may be the origin of the term kali or they may
have evolved from it.[6]
 In his book KALI - History of a Forbidden Filipino Fighting Arts, Fred Lazo put forward
that Kali was an ancient root word for blade, and that the Filipino words for right hand (kanan)
and left hand (kaliwa) are contractions of the terms "way of the blade" (kali daanan) and "without
blade" (kali wala) as weapons are usually held with the right hand and the left hand is typically
empty.[11]
 In their book Cebuano Eskrima: Beyond the Myth however, Dr. Ned Nepangue and Celestino
Macachor contend that the term Kali in reference to Filipino martial arts did not exist until the
1960s when two well-known eskrimadors in the United States popularized it to distinguish what
they taught from other styles.
 Since eskrima and arnis are derived from Spanish words, the preference for the term kali by
foreigners may be due to its lack of a definitive foreign origin and an attempt to preserve
authenticity of a name that has otherwise been lost to history.

Practitioners of the arts are called eskrimador (male) or eskrimadora (female) for those who call their
art eskrima, arnisadorfor those who call theirs arnis, and kalista or mangangali for those who
practice kali.

Origins
As Eskrima was an art usually practiced by the peasant or commoner class (as opposed
to nobility or warrior classes), most practitioners lacked the scholarly education to create any kind of
written record. While the same can be said of many martial arts, this is especially true for Eskrima
because almost all of its history is anecdotal, oral or promotional. The origin of Eskrima can be
traced back to the fighting systems used by Filipinos during conflicts among the various Prehispanic
kingdoms. Settlers and traders travelling through the Malay Archipelago brought the influence
of silat as well as Chinese, Arab and Indian martial arts.[12][13] Some of the population still practice
localized Chinese fighting methods known as kuntaw.
It has also been theorized that the Filipino art of Eskrima may have roots with India and that it was
brought to the Philippines by people who traveled through Indonesia and Malaysia to the Philippine
islands. Indonesian Tjakalele and Malay Silat Melayu are two forms of combat said to have been
introduced to the Philippines via these regions.[14] Silambam, a stick/staff based ancient martial art
of India influenced many martial arts in Asia like Silat. As such, Eskrima may share ancestry with
these systems—some Eskrima moves have similarities to the short stick (kali or kaji) and other
weapon based fighting styles of Silambam.

What is known for certain is that when the Spaniards first arrived in the Philippines, they saw an
already-developed weapons-based martial arts practiced by the natives.

Among the earliest written records of Filipino martial arts comes from the
Spanish conquistadors who fought native tribesmen armed with sticks and knives. [15]
Driven back to
their ships, the European colonists had to resort to fire-arms to defeat the Filipinos.[15] In
1521, Ferdinand Magellan was killed in Cebu at the Battle of Mactan by the forces of Datu Lapu-
Lapu, the Mactan king. Although some eskrimadors hold that Lapu-Lapu killed Magellan in a sword-
fight, the only eyewitness account of the battle by chronicler Antonio Pigafetta tells that he was
stabbed in the face and the arm with spears and overwhelmed with multiple warriors who hacked
and stabbed at him:

The natives continued to pursue us, and picking up the same spear four or six times, hurled it at us
again and again. Recognizing the captain, so many turned upon him that they knocked his helmet off
his head twice, but he always stood firmly like a good knight, together with some others. Thus did we
fight for more than one hour, refusing to retire farther. An Indian hurled a bamboo spear into the
captain's face, but the latter immediately killed him with his lance, which he left in the Indian's body.
Then, trying to lay hand on sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because he had been wounded
in the arm with a bamboo spear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves upon him.
One of them wounded him on the left leg with a large cutlass, which resembles a scimitar, only being
larger. That caused the captain to fall face downward, when immediately they rushed upon him with
iron and bamboo spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our comfort,
and our true guide. When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see whether we were all
in the boats. Thereupon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated, as best we could, to the
boats, which were already pulling off.[16]

Sources differ on the degree to which Eskrima was affected by the Spanish colonization. The fact
that many Eskrima techniques have Spanish names (and the name of the art itself which comes
from the Spanish term for fencing, esgrima) adds fuel to the debate, but this can be explained
as Spanish was the lingua franca of the Philippines until the early 20th century. One of the apparent
influences from Spanish styles is the espada y daga (sword and dagger) method, but some disagree
as Filipino espada y daga appears to be distinct from European rapier and dagger techniques; the
stances are different as weapons used in Eskrima are typically shorter than European swords.[17] For
example, According to Grandmaster Federico Lazo†(1938-2010), unlike in European historical
fencing, there is no lunging in the Northern IlocanoKabaroan style of Eskrima—it is more of an
evasive art. On the other hand, having done comparative studies, Kalis Ilustrisimo archivist Romeo
Macapagal estimates that perhaps 40% of the blade-oriented style of Antonio "Tatang" Ilustrisimo†
(1904-1997) may have descended from European styles.[18]

After the Spanish colonized the Philippines, a decree was set that prohibited natives from carrying
full-sized swords (such as the Kris and the Kampilan). Despite this, the elite and other underground
practitioners found ways to maintain and keep the arts alive.

To circumvent the decree, some practitioners used sticks made out of rattan rather than swords, as
well as small knives wielded like swords. Some of the arts were hidden from the Spaniards and
passed down through familial or communal ties, usually practiced under the moonlight or right under
the Spaniards noses by disguising them as entertainment like with choreographed dances such as
the Sakuting stick dance[19] or during mock battles at Moro-moro (Moros y Cristianos) stage plays.
Due to the way the arts were then clandestinely practiced, one apparent effect of Spanish
subjugation and disarmament of the civilian population was the evolution of unique and complex
stick-based techniques in the Visayas andLuzon regions (unlike Southern Mindanao which retains
almost exclusively blade-oriented techniques as it was never fully conquered and disarmed by the
Spaniards and Americans).[20]

Although the turbulent and conflict-fraught history and environment of the Philippines enabled
eskrima to develop into an efficient art, this has changed in the sense that some systematization
allowed easier and quicker teaching of the basics. With the exception of a few older and more
established systems, it was previously common to pass the art from generation to generation in an
informal approach. This has made attempts to trace the lineage of a practitioner difficult. For
example,Antonio Illustrisimo seemed to have learned to fight while sailing around the Philippines,
while his nephew and student Floro Villabrille claimed to have been taught by a blind Moro princess
in the mountains; a claim later refuted by the older Illustrisimo. Both have since died.

Modern history

Various Filipino knives.

The Philippines has what is known as a blade culture. Unlike in

the West whereMedieval and Renaissance combative and self-
defense blade arts have gone extinct (having devolved
into sport fencing with the advent of firearms), blade fighting in
the Philippines is a living art. Local folk in the Philippines are
much more likely to carry knives than guns. They are
commonly carried as tools by farmers, used by street vendors to prepare coconuts, pineapples,
watermelons, other fruits and meats, and balisongs are cheap to procure in the streets as well as
being easily concealed. In fact, in some areas in the countryside, carrying a farming knife like
theitak or bolo was a sign that one was making a living because of the nature of work in those
areas.[24] In the language of Palau, the term for Filipino is chad ra oles which literally means "people
of the knife" because of Filipinos' reputation for carrying knives and using them in fights.[25]

Philippine–American War
Americans were first exposed to eskrima during the Philippine–American War in events such as
the Balangiga massacrewhere most of an American company was hacked to death or seriously
injured by bolo-wielding guerillas in Balangiga, Eastern Samar or in battles in Mindanao where an
American serviceman was decapitated by a Moro warrior even after he emptied his .38 Long
Colt caliber revolver into his opponent. That and similar events led to the request and the
development of the M1911 .45 ACP by Col. John T. Thompson, Louis La Garde and John
Browning which had more stopping power.[26][27]

World War II
During World War II, many Filipinos fought the Japanese hand to hand with their blades as guerilla
fighters or as military units under the USAFFE like the Bolo Battalion (now known as the Tabak
Division).

Some of the grandmasters who are known to have used their skills in World War II are Antonio
Illustrisimo, Leo Guiron,Teodoro "Doring" Saavedra, brothers Eulogio and Cacoy Cañete, Timoteo
"Timor" Maranga, Sr, Jesus Bayas and Balbino Tortal Bonganciso.[34]

Spread
The arts had no traditional belting or grading systems as they were taught informally. In fact, it was
said that to proclaim a student a "master" was considered ridiculous and a virtual death warrant as
the individual would become challenged left and right to potentially lethal duels by other eskrimadors
looking to make names for themselves. Belt ranking was a recent addition adopted from Japanese
arts such as Karate and Judo which had become more popular with Filipinos. They were added in
order to give structure to the systems and to be able to compete in attention for students -- Filipino
martial artswere at the brink of extinction via obscurity with the general populace by the mid to late
20th century due to urbanization,modernization and colonial mentality (Filipinos' tendency to look
down on things of local origin).

With regards to its spread outside the Philippines, eskrima was brought to Hawaii and California as
far back as the 1920s by Filipino migrant workers. Its teaching was kept strictly within Filipino
communities until the late 1960s when masters such as Angel Cabales began teaching it to others.
Even then, instructors teaching eskrima in the 1960s and 70s were often reprimanded by their elders
for publicly teaching a part of their culture that had been preserved through secrecy.

In recent years, there has been increased interest in eskrima for its usefulness when defending
against knives and other street encounters. As a result, many systems of eskrima have been
modified in varying degrees to make them more marketable to a worldwide audience. Usually this
involves increased emphasis on locking, controls, and disarms, focusing mainly on aspects of self-
defense. However, most styles follow the philosophy that the best defense is a good offense.
Modern training methods tend to de-emphasize careful footwork and low stances, stressing the
learning of techniques as opposed to more direct (and often lethal) tactics designed to instantly end
an encounter.

Duels
One of the most important practices in classical eskrima was dueling, without any form of protection.
The matches were preceded by cock-fighting and could be held in any open space, sometimes in a
specially constructed enclosure. Eskrimadors believe this tradition pre-dates the colonial period,
pointing to similar practices of kickboxing matches in mainland Indochina as evidence. Spanish
records tell of such duelling areas where cock-fights took place. The founders of most of the popular
eskrima systems were famous duelists and legends circulate about how many opponents they killed.
In rural areas throughout the Philippines today, modern eskrima matches are still held in dueling
arenas. In bigger cities, recreations of duels are sometimes held at parks by local eskrima training-
halls. These demonstrations are not choreographed beforehand but neither are they full-contact
competitions.

In modern times, public dueling has been deemed illegal in the Philippines to reduce legal problems
that arose from injury or death.

Organization

Notable Eskrimadors from Balintawak lineage: (from left to

right)"Chito" Velez, "Meo" de la Rosa, "Nene" Gaabucayan,
"Anciong" Bacon, Ray la Victoria, "Bobby" Taboada, Teofilo
Velez at Fort San Pedro, Cebu City (c. 1976). The photos
were taken by "Johnny" Chiuten

After decades of lobbying and overdue recognition,

Arnis/Eskrima/Kali was proclaimed as the official
National Martial Art and Sport of the Philippines in
January 2010.
There are 2 main types of Eskrima practiced as a sport. The most common system used
internationally is that of the WEKAF (World Eskrima Kali Arnis Federation), established 1989. The
less recent one is the Arnis Philippines[36] (ARPI) system, established in 1986, and was most
prominently used during the 2005 Southeast Asian Games.

WEKAF
The WEKAF system works on a 10-point must systemsimilar to boxing where participants spar with
live sticks while wearing a long padded vest with skirt and sleeves and a helmet similar
to Kendo headgear. Hitting below the thigh is prohibited. This format has sometimes been criticized
because it emphasizes a heavy offense at the expense of defensive techniques sometimes with
players raining blows on each other without defending, giving rise to the impression that combatants
are merely hitting each other in a disorganized way. This has been tackled by introducing a 'four
second rule', to prevent constant and unrealistic attacks, and judges are not to score the same strike
if used more than twice in succession. fighters will be warned and points removed for continuing
after 2 warnings, but still the fights can easily come down to an unrealistic attack from an unskilled
fighter impressing the judges with many body hits after taking two or three clear, strong hits to the
hands and head.

This is, to some, an antithesis to traditional training methods, where training in footwork and
arm/weapon movements are intricate and precise and any part of an opponent's body is fair game.
As a consequence, WEKAF tournaments may be seen as not promoting the original art. Moreover,
participants have been known to suffer broken bones and injured tendons due to the fact that live
sticks are used, so the older system is considered to be more hardcore and less safe. Another
complaint about the WEKAF system is that it uses the 10-point must system which is more
subjective depending on who is judging. Favoritism among judges and players is a common
complaint with this scoring system due to its subjectivity.

Since the WEKAF system is more risky, it is preferred by many practitioners who want to test
themselves. The WEKAF system is the most widely used format internationally.

ARPI
The Arnis Philippines system uses foam-padded sticks about an inch in diameter with thin rattan
cores roughly a centimeter in diameter. These sticks are meant to break before serious injury
occurs. For protection, the same headgear used in the WEKAF system, and a large groin guard is
required for males. Vests (optional for men, required for women), optional armguards, shinguards
and leg wraps are used. Scoring is more similar to fencing where fighters are separated after solid
clean hits are made (observed by multiple judges stationed at different positions to be able to
observe if the hits were clean and unblocked and able to determine the strength of the strike by the
loudness of the impact). Alternative ways to score are to disarm one's opponent or to force him to
step outside the ring.
The entire body from head to toe is fair game as targets, except for the back of the head which is
less protected by the headgear. Stabs to the face are not allowed because the thin rattan core may
penetrate the padding and slip through the grills of the headgear and go into the player's eye.
Thrusts to the body score points but are harder to present to judges for scoring because they make
less noise and it is difficult to determine impact.

Punches, kicks and throws are not allowed, nor is prolonged clinching to prevent the opponent from
striking (similar to Western Boxing) in order to keep the game moving and more interesting for the
audience who may not appreciate the fine and practical aspects of grappling. Disarms must be
performed quickly and cleanly in order to be counted. Because the legs are legal targets, in lighter
weight divisions, complex evasion and deep lunges where players lie horizontal with the torso almost
touching the floor to extend reach are often seen.

The emphasis of the ARPI system is on safety for the players as it is applying to become a
recognized Olympic sport likejudo, karate, taekwondo, wrestling, boxing, and fencing.

Even though padded sticks are used in the sport, players regularly retain large bruises that last for
weeks and sometimes minor injuries to joints and because of the sheer amount of force generated
by conditioned practitioners. Sometimes the stuffing commonly comes off from the harder hitting
players and one cause of injury is when a player is struck by the exposed rattan core. Still, these are
relatively minor as compared to injuries sustained when practitioners spar with live sticks.

One major problem with the ARPHI system is that because the padded sticks with light rattan cores
are used, they tend to flex and "lag", thus making the experience significantly different from using a
live stick and in that sense, lessens the "realism" of this system. This is acceptable though as again,
the emphasis is on safety.

Like the sayaw (meaning "dance") in the WEKAF system, the ARPI system has a separate single
and team choreographed division called Anyo (Tagalog for 'forms'). Aside from the visual appeal,
practical combative applications must be clearly seen so as to avoid looking like just majorettes in
marching bands who just twirl batons and dance (a concept similar to the Floreio("flourish") aspect
of Capoeira and to Tricking which are more for show than practicality).

Others[
In another variation that simulates knife fights, competitors use false blades edged with lipstick to
mark where an opponent has been struck. These matches are considered more similar to traditional
duels than the WEKAF point-system.

Weapons
Eskrima students start their instruction by learning to fight with weapons, and only advance to
empty-hand training once the stick and knife techniques have been sufficiently mastered. This is in
contrast to most other well-known Asian martial arts but it is justified by the principle that bare-
handed moves are acquired naturally through the same exercises as the weapon techniques,
making muscle memory an important aspect of the teaching. It is also based on the obvious fact that
an armed person who is trained has the advantage over a trained unarmed person, and serves to
condition students to fight against armed assailants. Most systems of eskrima apply a single set of
techniques for the stick, knife, and empty hands, a concept sometimes referred to as motion
grouping. Since the weapon is seen as simply an extension of the body, the same angles and
footwork are used either with or without a weapon. The reason for this is probably historical,
because tribal warriors went into battle armed and only resorted to bare-handed fighting after losing
their weapons.

Many systems begin training with two weapons, either a pair of sticks or a stick and a wooden knife.
These styles emphasise keeping both hands full and never moving them in the same direction, and
trains practitioners to become ambidextrous. For example, one stick may strike the head while the
other hits the arm. Such training develops the ability to use both limbs independently, a skill which is
valuable even when working with one weapon.

A core concept and distinct feature of Filipino martial arts is the Live Hand. Even when as a
practitioner wields only one weapon, the extra hand is used to control, trap or disarm an opponent's
weapon and to aid in blocking, joint locking and manipulation of the opponent or other simultaneous
motions such as bicep destruction with the live hand.

Sticks

A pair of rattan sticks

The most basic and common weapon in eskrima

is the yantok. They are typically constructed
from rattan, an inexpensive stem from a type
ofSoutheast Asian vine. Hard and durable yet
lightweight, it shreds only under the worst abuse and will not splinter like wood, making it a safer
training tool. This aspect makes it useful in defence against blades.Kamagong (ironwood or ebony)
and bahi (heart of the palm) are sometimes used after being charred and hardened. These
hardwoods are generally not used for sparring, however, as they are dense enough to cause serious
injury, but traditional sparring does not include weapon to body contact. The participants are skilled
enough to parry and counterstrike, showing respect in not intentionally hitting the training partner. In
North America and Europe, eskrima practitioners wear head and hand protection while sparring with
rattan sticks, or otherwise use padded batons. Some modern schools use sticks made out of
aluminium or other metals, or modern high-impact plastics.
Impact weapons

 Baston, olisi, yantok: stick ranging from twenty-four to twenty-eight inches long.
 Largo mano yantok: longer stick ranging from twenty-eight to thirty-six inches
 Dulo y dulo: short stick about four to seven inches in length, held in the palm of the hand
 Bankaw: six-foot pole. Staves can be used to practice sword techniques
 Wooden dagger measuring 12 to 14 inches (300 to 360 mm)
 Panangga: shield
 Improvised weapons: Wood planks, steel pipes, umbrellas, flashlights, rolled-up magazines/
newspapers, books, cellular phones, tennis rackets, butt of billiards cue, bottles, coffee mugs,
chair legs, tree branches or twigs, etc.

Edged weapons

Traditional bolos from the Visayas islands (ginunting on the left, and
threetalibongs).

Baraw is a Cebuano term used in the art of Eskrima that

means knife or dagger. The term Baraw is more commonly
used on the Cebu Island in the Visayan region whereas other
islands and regions more commonly use the term Daga but
both terms are often interchangeable within the Filipino martial
arts community.

The terms Baraw and Daga can be used either as Solo Baraw or Solo Dagaassociated with single
knife fighting and defence systems, Doble Baraw or Doble Daga associated with the double knife
fighting systems or even with a combination of long and short weapons e.g. stick and dagger fighting
systems Olisi Baraw or sword and dagger fighting systems Espada y Daga.

 Daga/Cuchillo (Spanish for dagger and knife) or Baraw/ Pisaw: daggers or knives of different
shapes and sizes
 Balisong: fan knife or butterfly knife from Barrio Balisong in Batangas province. The handle is
two-piece and attaches to a swivel that folds to enclose the blade when shut.
 Karambit: claw-shaped Indo-Malay blade held by inserting the finger into a hole at the top of the
handle.
 Bolo: a knife/sword similar to a machete
 Pinuti: a type of sword from Cebu blade shaped similar to a Sundang but elongated.
 Iták or sundáng: a farm or house hold bladed implement, it's blade has a pronounced belly,
chisel ground edge with the handle angled down.
 Barong: wide flat leaf shaped blade commonly used by women.
 Binakoko: long blade named after a porgy fish
 Dinahong palay: has a very narrow blade shape similar to a rice leaf.
 Kalis or Kris: Indo-Malay dagger, often given a wavy blade, it is most commonly used in the
southern provinces
 Kampilan: fork-tipped sword, popular in the southern Philippines
 Sibat: spear
 Improvised weapons: Icepicks, box cutters, screwdrivers, scissors, broken bottles, pens, car
keys (using the push knife grip)
Flexible weapons

 Sarong: a length of fabric wrapped around the waist

 Ekut: handkerchief
 Tabak-toyok: chained sticks/ flail or nunchaku
 Latigo (Spanish for whip): consisting of a handle between 8 and 12 inches (200 and 300 mm),
and a lash composed of a braided thong 3–20 ft (0.91–6.10 m) long. The "fall" at the end of the
lash is a single piece of leather 10–30 inches (250–760 mm) in length.[37]
 Improvised weapons: Belt, bandana, handkerchiefs, shirts, towels/socks with hard soap
bars/rocks, ropes, power cables, etc.

Ranges
Most systems recognize that the technical nature of combat changes drastically as the distance
between opponents changes, and generally classify the ranges into at least three categories. Each
range has its characteristic techniques and footwork. Of course, some systems place more
emphasis on certain ranges than others, but almost all recognize that being able to work in and
control any range is essential. The Balintawak style for example, uses long-, medium- and short-
range fighting techniques, but focuses on the short-range.

In order to control the range, and for numerous other purposes, good footwork is essential. Most
eskrima systems explain their footwork in terms of triangles: normally when moving in any direction
two feet occupy two corners of the triangle and the step is to the third corner such that no leg
crosses the other at any time. The shape and size of the triangle must be adapted to the particular
situation. The style of footwork and the standing position vary greatly from school to school and from
practitioner to practitioner. For a very traditional school, very conscious of battlefield necessities,
stances will usually be very low, often with one knee on the ground, and footwork will be complex,
involving many careful cross-steps to allow practitioners to cope with multiple opponents. The
Villabrille and San Miguel styles are usually taught in this way. Systems that have been adapted to
duels or sporting matches generally employ simpler footwork, focusing on a single opponent. North
American schools tend to use much more upright stances, as this puts less stress on the legs, but
there are some exceptions.

Strikes
Many Filipino systems focus on defending against and/or reacting to angles of attack rather than
particular strikes. The theory behind this is that virtually all types of hand-to-hand attacks
(barehanded or with a weapon) will hit or reach a combatant via these angles of attack and it is
reasoned that it is more efficient to learn to defend against different angles of attack rather than
learning to defend against particular styles, particular techniques or particular weapons. For
instance, the technique for defending against an attack angle that comes overhead from the right is
very similar whether the attacker uses barefists, a knife, a sword or a spear.

Older styles gave each angle a name, but more recent systems tend to simply number them. Many
systems have twelve standard angles, though some have as few as 5, and others as many as 72.
Although the exact angles, the order in which they are numbered (numerado), and the manner in
which they're executed vary from system to system, most are based upon Filipino cosmology. These
standard angles are used to describe exercises; to aid memorization, a standard series of strikes
from these angles called an abecedario (Spanish for "alphabet") is often practiced. These are
beginner strikes or the "ABC's" of eskrima.

Some angles of attack and some strikes have characteristic names.

 San Miguel is a forehand strike with the right hand, moving from the striker's right shoulder
toward their left hip. It is named after Saint Michael or the Archangel Michael, who is often
depicted holding a sword at this angle. This is the most natural strike for most untrained people.
It is commonly referred to as "angle #1," in systems where striking angles are numbered for
training purposes, because it is presumed to be the most probable angle of attack.
 Sinawali is the signature double-stick weaving movement associated with Arnis and Eskrima
named after the woven coconut or palm leaves called sawali that comprise the walls of nipa
hut dwellings. It is commonly seen in double-stick continuous attack-parry partner
demonstrations.
 Another signature technique is the Redonda which is a continuous circular downward-striking
double-stick twirling technique.
 A redonda (Spanish for "round") is a strike that whips in a circle to return to its point of origin.
This is especially useful when using sticks rather than swords, such a strike allows extremely
fast strikes but needs constant practice.
 An abanico (Spanish for fan) or witik is a strike that is executed by flicking the wrist 180
degrees in a fan-shaped motion. This kind of strike can be very quick and arrive from
unexpected angles.
 Pilantik is a strike executed by whipping the stick around the wrist over the head in a motion
similar to the abanico, but in alternating 360 degree strikes. It is most useful when fighters are in
grappling range and cannot create enough space for normal strikes.
 Hakbang (Filipino for "step") is a general term for footwork. For example, hakbang paiwas is
pivoting footwork, whilehakbang tatsulok is triangle stepping.
 Puño (Spanish for "fist", "hilt", or "handle") is a strike delivered with the butt of the weapon. It
usually targets a nerve point or other soft spot on the opponent but in skilled hands, the puño
can be used to shatter bones.

It is to be noted that many of the Eskrima techniques have Spanish names because Spanish was
the lingua franca spoken during colonial times among the natives who spoke over 170 different
dialects in the archipelago's 7,100+ islands.

Eskrima techniques are generally based on the assumption that both the student and their opponent
are very highly trained and well prepared. For this reason, eskrima tends to favor extreme caution,
always considering the possibility of a failed technique or an unexpected knife. On the other hand,
the practitioner is assumed to be able to strike very precisely and quickly. The general principle is
that an opponent's ability to attack should be destroyed rather than trying to hurt them to convince
them to stop. Thus many strikes are aimed at the hands and arms, hoping to break the hand holding
the weapon or cut the nerves or tendons controlling it (the concept of defanging the snake), but
strikes to the eyes and legs are important. A popular mnemonic states that "stick seeks bone, blade
seeks flesh".

Mano Mano
Mano Mano is the empty-hand component of Filipino martial arts, particularly eskrima. The term
translates as "hands" or "hand to hand" and comes from the Spanish word mano (hand). It is also
known as suntukan or panununtukan in Luzon andpangamot in the Visayas, as well as De
Cadena or Cadena de Mano in some FMA systems. American colonists referred to it as "combat
judo".

Mano mano also includes kicking, punching, locking, throwing and dumog (grappling). Filipino
martial artists regard the empty hands as another weapon and all the movements of mano mano are
directly based on weapon techniques. In eskrima, weapons are seen as an extension of the body so
training with weapons naturally leads to proficiency in bare-handed combat. For this reason, mano
mano is often taught in the higher levels of eskrima after weapons training has been mastered
because advanced students are expected to be able to apply their experience with weapons to
unarmed fighting. This not always the case though, as some systems of Eskrima start with (and at
times only consist of) empty hands fighting.

Some notable masters of Mano Mano include:

 Antonio Illustrisimo
 Venancio "Anciong" Bacon
 Rey Galang
 Leo Tortal Gaje
 Edgar Sulite
Kicking
Paninipa, Pagsipa, Pananadiyak, Pagtadiyak, and Sikaran (all terms for "kicking" in various regions,
dialects and styles) are components of eskrima which focuses on knees, tripping, low-line kicks and
stomps. Pananjakman is also a term used inFilipino-American-developed and Western FMA
systems, usually referring to the system from the Lucky Lucaylucay, Floro Villabrille and Dan
Inosanto blend lineage. Except for the distinct style of Sikaran from the Baras area of the province
of Rizalwhich also uses high kicks, kicking as a separate art is never taught by itself in the
Philippines, and this practice is only done in the West with Pananjakman. Pananjakman is usually
taught together with Panantukan.

Paninipa can be regarded as the study of leg muscles and bones and how they are connected, with
the goal of either inflicting pain or outright breaking or dislocating the bones. Most striking techniques
involve applying pressure to bend the target areas in unnatural ways so as to injure or break them.
Such pressure may be delivered in the form of a heel smash, a toe kick, a stomp, or a knee. Targets
include the groin, thighs, knees, shins, ankles, feet and toes. The upper body is used only for
defensive maneuvers, making pananadiyak ideal for when combatants are engaged in a clinch.
When used effectively, the strikes can bring an opponent to the ground or otherwise end an
altercation by making them too weak to stand.

Fundamental techniques include kicking or smashing the ankle to force it either towards or away
from the opposite foot (severe supination or pronation, respectively), heel-stomping the top of the
foot where it meets the lower leg so as to break or crush the numerous bones or otherwise disrupt
the opponent's balance, and smashing the opponents knee from the side to break the knee (with
severe supination and pronation as the desired result).

Drills
Several classes of exercises, such as sombrada, contrada, sinawali, hubud-lubud and sequidas,
initially presented to the public as a set of organized drills by the Inosanto school, are expressly
designed to allow partners to move quickly and experiment with variations while remaining safe. For
example, in a sumbrada drill, one partner feeds an attack, which the other counters, flowing into a
counterattack, which is then countered, flowing into a counterattack, and so on. The hubud-
lubud or hubad-lubad from Doce Pares is frequently used as a type of "generator" drill, where one is
forced to act and think fast. Initially, students learn a specific series of attacks, counters, and
counter-attacks. As they advance they can add minor variations, change the footwork, or switch to
completely different attacks; eventually the exercise becomes almost completely free-form. Palakaw,
from the Balintawak style, are un-choreographed and random defensive and offensive moves.
Palakaw in Cebuano means a walk-through or rehearsing the different strike angles and defenses. It
may be known as corridas or striking without any order or pattern. Disarms, take-downs, and other
techniques usually break the flow of such a drill, but they are usually initiated from such a sequence
of movements in order to force the student to adapt to a variety of situations. A common practice is
to begin a drill with each student armed with two weapons; once the drill is flowing, if a student sees
an opportunity to disarm their opponent, they will, but the drill will continue until both students are
empty-handed. Some drills use only a single weapon per pair, and the partners take turns disarming
each other. Seguidas drills, taken from the San Miguel system, are sets of hitting and movement
patterns usually involving stick and dagger.

Rhythm, while an essential part of eskrima drills, is given more emphasis in the United States and
Europe where a regular beat serves a guide for students to follow. To ensure the safety of the
participants, most drills are done at a constant pace which is increased as the students progress.
The rhythm, together with the southern Filipino attire of a vest and sashed pants, is commonly
mistaken to be some sort of tradition when practicing eskrima in the Philippines – perhaps incorrectly
derived from traditional rhythm-based dances or an attempt to add a sense of ethnicity. Eskrima is
usually practiced in the Philippines without a rhythm, off-beat or out of rhythm. The diversity of
Filipino martial arts means that there is no officially established standard uniform in eskrima.

The Live Hand

The live hand is the opposite hand of the practitioner that does not contain the main weapon. The
heavy usage of the live hand is an important concept and distinguishing hallmark of Eskrima. Even
(or especially) when empty, the live hand can be used as a companion weapon by Eskrima
practitioners. As opposed to most weapon systems like fencing where the off-hand is hidden and not
used to prevent it from being hit, Eskrima actively uses the live hand for trapping, locking, supporting
weapon blocks, checking, disarming, striking and controlling the opponent.

The usage of the live hand is one of the most evident examples of how Eskrima's method of starting
with weapons training leads to effective empty hand techniques. Because of Doble Baston (double
weapons) or Espada y Daga (sword andparrying dagger) ambidextrous weapon muscle memory
conditioning, Eskrima practitioners find it easy to use the off-hand actively once they transition from
using it with a weapon to an empty hand.
Doble baston
Doble baston, and less frequently doble olisi, are common names for a group of techniques involving
two sticks. The art is more commonly known around the world as Sinawali meaning "to weave". The
term Sinawali is taken from a matting calledsawali that is commonly used in the tribal Nipa Huts
which is made up of woven pieces of palm leaf and used for both flooring and walls.

This technique requires the user to use both left and right weapons in an equal manner; many co-
ordination drills are used to help the practitioner become more ambidextrous. It is the section of the
art that is taught mainly at the intermediate levels and above and is considered one of the most
important areas of learning in the art.

Sinawali
Sinawali refers to the activity of "weaving", as applied Eskrima with reference to a set of two-person,
two-weapon exercises.

Sinawali exercises provide eskrima practitioners with basic skills and motions relevant to a mode of
two-weapon blocking and response method called Doblete. Sinawali training is often introduced to
novices in order to develop certain fundamental skills including: body positioning and distance
relative to an opponent, rotation of the body and the proper turning radius, recognition of one’s
center of gravity, eye–hand coordination, target perception and recognition, increased ambidexterity,
recognition and performance of rhythmic structures for upper body movement, and muscular
developments important to the art, especially, the wrist and forearm regions. It helps teach the
novice eskrimador proper elbow positioning while swinging a weapon.

Cross-training
The Chinese and Malay communities of the Philippines have practiced eskrima together
with kuntaw and silat for centuries, so much so that many North Americans mistakenly believe silat
to have originated in the Philippines.

Some of the modern styles, particularly doce pares and modern arnis contain some elements
of Japanese martial arts such as joint locks, throws, blocks, strikes, and groundwork, taken
from: jujutsu, judo, aikido and karate as some of the founders obtained black belt Dan grades in
some of these systems. Some Eskrima styles are complementary with Chinese wing chun, or
Japanese aikido because of the nervous system conditioning and body mechanics when striking,
twirling or swinging sticks.

In Western countries, it is common for eskrima to be practiced in conjunction with other martial arts,
particularly wing chun,jeet kune do or silat. As a result, there is some confusion between styles,
systems and lineage because some people cross-train without giving due credit to the founders or
principles of their arts. For example, American kenpo and kajukenbo cross-training traces back to
the interactions between Chinese, Japanese and Filipino immigrants in territorial/pre-statehood
Hawaii, and to a lesser extent in other parts of the United States. Another one is the cross-training
between eskrima and Jeet Kune Do Concepts as headed by Dan Inosanto, going according to the
maxim "Absorb what is useful, reject what is useless", and also as Bruce Lee chose Eskrima as the
weapon system for his art jeet kune do.[citation needed]

Proponents of such training say the arts are very similar in many aspects and complement each
other well. It has become marketable to offer eskrima classes in other traditional Asian martial arts
studios in America but some practitioners of other eskrima styles often dismiss these lessons as
debased versions of original training methods.

Notable Styles
Practiced in the Philippines

 Balintawak Eskrima – Founded in 1952 by Venancio "Anciong" Bacon after internal dispute
amongst some of the original founders of the original Doce Pares club.
 Bakbakan International – Founded by Antonio Diego, Rey Galang, Christopher Ricketts, senior
students of Tatang Ilustrisimo.
 De Campo Uno-Dos-Tres Orihinal (De Campo 1-2-3) – founded by Jose Caballero.
 Doce Pares Eskrima – Originally encompassed 12 styles and was founded by the Saavedra and
Cañete families in 1932. There are now several Doce Pares groups headed by various members
of the Cañete family.
 Eskrido – Founded by Ciriaco "Cacoy" Cañete, the last living founder and the highest ranking
master of Doce Pares Eskrima.
 Garimot Arnis – Led by Gat Puno Abon "Garimot" Baet.
 Kali Ilustrisimo – Founded by Antonio "Tatang" Ilustrisimo; important as the ancestor of many
current Eskrima systems.
 Kombatan – founded by Ernesto Presas, brother of Remy Presas.
 Lameco Eskrima – Founded by Edgar Sulite. The name comes from the three ranges of the
system, Largo (Spanish for "long"), Medio ("medium"), and Corto ("short"). It is a composite of
many systems with heavy influence from De Campo 1-2-3 and Kali Illustrisimo.
 Modern Arnis – Founded by Remy Presas which has its roots in the Presas family and
Balintawak system. It is revolutionary for having pioneered a system that made teaching of Arnis
easier for students as old-school systems were often very painful for the student, thus making it
hard to attract students and keep the arts alive.
 Pekiti Tirsia Kali – Founded by Conrado Tortal and carried on by Leo Tortal Gaje, inheritor of the
family system of the Tortal clan. The name means "to cut into pieces at close range", although it
 includes techniques for all ranges. One of the most recognized blade-oriented systems. It is the
system used by the Philippine Marine Corps Force Recon Battalion.
 San Miguel Eskrima – As one of the founders (together with the famous Doring and Ensong
Saavedra) of the Labangon Fencing Club in 1920 and later the Doce Pares Club in 1932,
Filemon "Momoy" Cañete created the blade based San Miguel Eskrima as his personal
expression of the Doce Pares art and methodology.
International Systems

 Inosanto Kali – developed by Dan Inosanto from various other styles; he does not call it a
system in its own right, but rather a blend of systems from John Lacoste and others.

 Latigo y Daga – Whip and dagger method founded by Tom Meadows.

 Dog Brothers – a group notorious for their Gatherings which feature full-contact stick fighting and
minimal protection.

 Sayoc Kali – founded by Baltazar "Bo" Sayoc, the system promotes the "all blade, all the time"
methodology of Filipino Martial Arts. The family system is now led by Christopher Sayoc.

 Counterpoint Tactical System – also known as CTS the system founded by Zach Whitson is a
weapon-based integrated martial art designed for the street with emphasis on real-world tactical
counter offense in all ranges. ZW is a Grand Master in Cacoy Doce Pares system (awarded by
Ciriaco "Cacoy" Canete 2014); Mataas na Guro in Pekiti Tirsia Kali (awarded by Tuhon Bill
McGrath 2004) and a Senior Professor in American Kenpo (awarded by Huk Planas).

The Arnis Law

Republic Act No. 9850 of the Congress of the Philippines, approved on December 11, 2009 declares
Arnis as the national sport and martial art of the Philippines for promoting patriotism, nationalism and
appreciation of the role of national heroes and symbols in the historical development of the
country.[38] Because of this law, Arnis becomes a pre-requisite for P.E. classes in most colleges in the
Philippines.
Badminton

Badminton is a racquet sport played by either two

opposing players (singles) or two opposing pairs
(doubles), who take positions on opposite halves of a
rectangular court divided by a net. Players score points
by striking ashuttlecock with their racquet so that it
passes over the net and lands in their opponents' half of
the court. Each side may only strike the shuttlecock once
before it passes over the net. A rally ends once the
shuttlecock has struck the floor, or if a fault has been
called by either the umpire or service judge or, in their
absence, the offending player, at any time during the
rally.[1]
The shuttlecock (or shuttle) is a feathered (or, mainly in
uncompetitive games, plastic) projectile whose unique
aerodynamic properties cause it to fly differently from the
balls used in most racquet sports; in particular, the
feathers create much higher drag, causing the
shuttlecock to decelerate more rapidly than a ball. Shuttlecocks have a much higher top speed,
when compared to other racquet sports. Because shuttlecock flight is affected by wind, competitive
badminton is played indoors. Badminton is also played outdoors as a casual recreational activity,
often as a garden or beach game.
Since 1992, badminton has been an Olympic sport with five events: men's and women's singles,
men's and women's doubles, and mixed doubles, in which each pair consists of a man and a
woman. At high levels of play, especially in singles, the sport demands excellent fitness: players
require aerobic stamina, agility, explosive strength, speed and precision. It is also a technical sport,
requiring good motor coordination and the development of sophisticated racquet movements.[2]

History and development

Game of battledore and shuttlecockin 1804

Battledore and
Shuttlecock. 1854
, from theJohn Leech Archive[3]

The beginnings of badminton can be traced to the mid-1800s inBritish India, where it was created by
British military officers stationed there.[4] Early photographs show Englishmen adding a net to the
traditional English game ofbattledore and shuttlecock. The sport is related to ball badminton, which
originated in Tamil Nadu, and is similar to Hanetsuki which originated in Japan. Being particularly
popular in the British garrison town Poona (now Pune), the game also came to be known
as Poona.[4][5] Initially, balls of wool referred as ball badminton were preferred by the upper classes in
windy or wet conditions, but ultimately the shuttlecock stuck. This game was taken by retired officers
back to England where it developed and rules were set out.
Although it appears clear that Badminton House, Gloucestershire, owned by the Duke of Beaufort,
has given its name to the sports, it is unclear when and why the name was adopted. As early as
1860, Isaac Spratt, a London toy dealer, published a booklet, Badminton Battledore – a new game,
but unfortunately no copy has survived.[6] An 1863 article in The Cornhill Magazine describes
badminton as "battledore and shuttlecock played with sides, across a string suspended some five
feet from the ground".[7] This early use has cast doubt on the origin through expatriates in India,
though it is known that it was popular there in the 1870s and that the first rules were drawn up in
Poonah in 1873.[6][7] Another source cites that it was in 1877 at Karachi in (British) India, where the
first attempt was made to form a set of rules.[8]
As early as 1875, veterans returning from India started a club in Folkestone. Until 1887, the sport
was played in England under the rules that prevailed in British India. The Bath Badminton Club
standardized the rules and made the game applicable to English ideas. J.H.E. Hart drew up revised
basic regulations in 1887 and, with Bagnel Wild, again in 1890.[6] In 1893, the Badminton Association
of England published the first set of rules according to these regulations, similar to today's rules, and
officially launched badminton in a house called "Dunbar" at 6 Waverley Grove, Portsmouth, England
on September 13 of that year.[9] They also started the All England Open Badminton Championships,
the first badminton competition in the world, in 1899.
The International Badminton Federation (IBF) (now known as Badminton World Federation) was
established in 1934 with Canada, Denmark, England, France, the Netherlands, Ireland, New
Zealand, Scotland, and Wales as its founding members. India joined as an affiliate in 1936. The
BWF now governs international badminton and develops the sport globally.
While initiated in England, competitive men's badminton in Europe has traditionally been dominated
by Denmark. Asian nations, however, have been the most dominant ones worldwide. China,
Indonesia, South Korea, and Malaysia along with Denmark are among the nations that have
consistently produced world-class players in the past few decades, with China being the greatest
force in both men's and women's competition in recent years.

Rules
Playing court dimensions
The court is rectangular and divided into halves by a net. Courts are usually marked for both singles
and doubles play, although badminton rules permit a court to be marked for singles only.[10] The
doubles court is wider than the singles court, but both are of same length. The exception, which
often causes confusion to newer players, is that the doubles court has a shorter serve-length
dimension.
The full width of the court is 6.1 metres (20 ft), and in singles this width is reduced to 5.18 metres
(17 ft). The full length of the court is 13.4 metres (44 ft). The service courts are marked by a centre
line dividing the width of the court, by a short service line at a distance of 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 inch)
from the net, and by the outer side and back boundaries. In doubles, the service court is also
marked by a long service line, which is 0.76 metres (2 ft 6 inch) from the back boundary.
The net is 1.55 metres (5 ft 1 inch) high at the edges and 1.524 metres (5 ft) high in the centre. The
net posts are placed over the doubles sidelines, even when singles is played.
The minimum height for the ceiling above the court is not mentioned in the Laws of Badminton.
Nonetheless, a badminton court will not be suitable if the ceiling is likely to be hit on a high serve.
Equipment rules
Badminton rules restrict the design and size of racquets and shuttlecocks. Badminton rules also
provide for testing a shuttlecock for the correct speed:
3.1
To test a shuttlecock, hit a full underhand stroke which makes contact with the shuttlecock
over the back boundary line. The shuttlecock shall be hit at an upward angle and in a
direction parallel to the side lines.
3.2
A shuttlecock of the correct speed will land not less than 530 mm and not more than 990 mm
short of the other back boundary line.
Scoring system and service

The legal bounds of a badminton court during various stages of a rally for singles and doubles games.
Serving
Each game is played to 21 points, with players scoring a point whenever they win a rally
regardless of whether they served[10] (this differs from the old system where players could
only win a point on their serve and each game was played to 15 points). A match is the best
of three games.
At the start of the rally, the server and receiver stand in diagonally oppositeservice
courts (see court dimensions). The server hits the shuttlecock so that it would land in the
receiver's service court. This is similar to tennis, except that a badminton serve must be hit
below waist height and with the racquet shaft pointing downwards, the shuttlecock is not
allowed to bounce and in badminton, the players stand inside their service courts unlike
tennis.
When the serving side loses a rally, the serve immediately passes to their opponent(s) (this
differs from the old system where sometimes the serve passes to the doubles partner for
what is known as a "second serve").
In singles, the server stands in their right service court when their score is even, and in
her/his left service court when her/his score is odd.
In doubles, if the serving side wins a rally, the same player continues to serve, but he/she
changes service courts so that she/he serves to a different opponent each time. If the
opponents win the rally and their new score is even, the player in the right service court
serves; if odd, the player in the left service court serves. The players' service courts are
determined by their positions at the start of the previous rally, not by where they were
standing at the end of the rally. A consequence of this system is that, each time a side
regains the service, the server will be the player who did not serve last time.
Scoring
When the server serves, the shuttlecock must pass over the short service line on the
opponents' court or it will count as a fault.
If the score reaches 20-all, then the game continues until one side gains a two point lead
(such as 24–22), up to a maximum of 30 points (30–29 is a winning score).
At the start of a match, the shuttlecock is cast and the side towards which the shuttlecock is
pointing serves first. Alternatively, a coin may be tossed, with the winners choosing whether
to serve or receive first, or choosing which end of the court to occupy, and their opponents
making the leftover the remaining choice.
In subsequent games, the winners of the previous game serve first. Matches are best out of
three: a player or pair must win two games (of 21 points each) to win the match. For the first
rally of any doubles game, the serving pair may decide who serves and the receiving pair
may decide who receives. The players change ends at the start of the second game; if the
match reaches a third game, they change ends both at the start of the game and when the
leading player's or pair's score reaches 11 points.
The server and receiver must remain within their service courts, without touching the
boundary lines, until the server strikes the shuttlecock. The other two players may stand
wherever they wish, so long as they do not block the vision of the server or receiver.
Lets
If a let is called, the rally is stopped and replayed with no change to the score. Lets may
occur because of some unexpected disturbance such as a shuttlecock landing on court
(having been hit there by players on an adjacent court) or in small halls the shuttle may
touch an overhead rail which can be classed as a let.
If the receiver is not ready when the service is delivered, a let shall be called; yet, if the
receiver attempts to return the shuttlecock, he shall be judged to have been ready.

Equipment

Rackets
Badminton rackets are lightweight, with top quality racquets weighing between 70 and
95 grams (2.4 to 3.3 ounces) not including grip or strings.[11][12] They are composed of many
different materials ranging from carbon fibre composite (graphite reinforced plastic) to solid
steel, which may be augmented by a variety of materials. Carbon fibre has an excellent
strength to weight ratio, is stiff, and gives excellent kinetic energy transfer. Before the
adoption of carbon fibre composite, racquets were made of light metals such as aluminium.
Earlier still, racquets were made of wood. Cheap racquets are still often made of metals
such as steel, but wooden racquets are no longer manufactured for the ordinary market,
because of their excessive mass and cost. Nowadays, nanomaterials such
as fullerene and carbon nanotubes are added to rackets giving them greater durability.[citation
needed]

There is a wide variety of racquet designs, although the laws limit the racquet size and
shape. Different racquets have playing characteristics that appeal to different players. The
traditional oval head shape is still available, but an isometrichead shape is increasingly
common in new racquets.
Strings
Badminton strings are thin, high performing strings in the range of about 0.62 to 0.73 mm
thickness. Thicker strings are more durable, but many players prefer the feel of thinner
strings. String tension is normally in the range of 80 to 160 N (18 to 36 lbf). Recreational
players generally string at lower tensions than professionals, typically between 80 and 110 N
(18 and 25 lbf). Professionals string between about 110 and 160 N (25 and 36 lbf). Some
string manufacturers measure the thickness of their strings under tension so they are
actually thicker than specified when slack. Ashaway Micropower is actually 0.7mm but
Yonex BG-66 is about 0.72mm.
It is often argued that high string tensions improve control, whereas low string tensions
increase power.[13] The arguments for this generally rely on crude mechanical reasoning,
such as claiming that a lower tension string bed is more bouncy and therefore provides more
power. This is in fact incorrect, for a higher string tension can cause the shuttle to slide off
the racquet and hence make it harder to hit a shot accurately. An alternative view suggests
that the optimum tension for power depends on the player:[11] the faster and more accurately
a player can swing their racquet, the higher the tension for maximum power. Neither view
has been subjected to a rigorous mechanical analysis, nor is there clear evidence in favour
of one or the other. The most effective way for a player to find a good string tension is to
experiment.
Grip
The choice of grip allows a player to increase the thickness of their racquet handle and
choose a comfortable surface to hold. A player may build up the handle with one or several
grips before applying the final layer.
Players may choose between a variety of grip materials. The most common choices
are PU synthetic grips or towelling grips. Grip choice is a matter of personal preference.
Players often find that sweat becomes a problem; in this case, a drying agent may be
applied to the grip or hands, sweatbands may be used, the player may choose another grip
material or change his/her grip more frequently.
There are two main types of grip: replacement grips and overgrips. Replacement grips are
thicker, and are often used to increase the size of the handle. Overgrips are thinner (less
than 1 mm), and are often used as the final layer. Many players, however, prefer to use
replacement grips as the final layer. Towelling grips are always replacement grips.
Replacement grips have an adhesive backing, whereas overgrips have only a small patch of
adhesive at the start of the tape and must be applied under tension; overgrips are more
convenient for players who change grips frequently, because they may be removed more
rapidly without damaging the underlying material.

A shuttlecock with a plastic skirt

Shuttlecock
A shuttlecock (often abbreviated to shuttle; also called a birdie) is a high-dragprojectile, with
an open conical shape: the cone is formed from sixteen overlappingfeathers embedded into
a rounded cork base. The cork is covered with thin leatheror synthetic material.
Synthetic shuttles are often used by recreational players to reduce their costs as feathered
shuttles break easily. These nylon shuttles may be constructed with either natural cork or
synthetic foam base, and a plastic skirt.
Shoes
Badminton shoes are lightweight with soles of rubber or similar high-grip, non-marking
materials.
Compared to running shoes, badminton shoes have little lateral support. High levels of
lateral support are useful for activities where lateral motion is undesirable and unexpected.
Badminton, however, requires powerful lateral movements. A highly built-up lateral support
will not be able to protect the foot in badminton; instead, it will encourage catastrophic
collapse at the point where the shoe's support fails, and the player's ankles are not ready for
the sudden loading, which can cause sprains. For this reason, players should choose
badminton shoes rather than general trainers or running shoes, because proper badminton
shoes will have a very thin sole, lower a person's centre of gravity, and therefore result in
fewer injuries. Players should also ensure that they learn safe and proper footwork, with the
knee and foot in alignment on all lunges. This is more than just a safety concern: proper
footwork is also critical in order to move effectively around the court.

Strokes

A player flies high at the Golden Gate Badminton Club (GGBC) in Menlo Park, 2006

Forehand and backhand

Badminton offers a wide variety of basic strokes, and players require a high level of skill to
perform all of them effectively. All strokes can be played either forehand orbackhand. A
player's forehand side is the same side as their playing hand: for a right-handed player, the
forehand side is their right side and the backhand side is their left side. Forehand strokes
are hit with the front of the hand leading (like hitting with the palm), whereas backhand
strokes are hit with the back of the hand leading (like hitting with the knuckles). Players
frequently play certain strokes on the forehand side with a backhand hitting action, and vice
versa.
In the forecourt and midcourt, most strokes can be played equally effectively on either the
forehand or backhand side; but in the rear court, players will attempt to play as many strokes
as possible on their forehands, often preferring to play around-the-head forehand overhead
(a forehand "on the backhand side") rather than attempt a backhand overhead. Playing a
backhand overhead has two main disadvantages. First, the player must turn their back to
their opponents, restricting their view of them and the court. Second, backhand overheads
cannot be hit with as much power as forehands: the hitting action is limited by the shoulder
joint, which permits a much greater range of movement for a forehand overhead than for a
backhand. The backhand clear is considered by most players and coaches to be the most
difficult basic stroke in the game, since precise technique is needed in order to muster
enough power for the shuttlecock to travel the full length of the court. For the same
reason, backhand smashes tend to be weak.
Position of the shuttlecock and receiving player

A player does a forehand service, 2009, Philadelphia.

The choice of stroke depends on how near the shuttlecock is to the net, whether it is above
net height, and where an opponent is currently positioned: players have much better
attacking options if they can reach the shuttlecock well above net height, especially if it is
also close to the net. In the forecourt, a high shuttlecock will be met with a net kill, hitting it
steeply downwards and attempting to win the rally immediately. This is why it is best to drop
the shuttlecock just over the net in this situation. In the midcourt, a high shuttlecock will
usually be met with a powerful smash, also hitting downwards and hoping for an outright
winner or a weak reply. Athletic jump smashes, where players jump upwards for a steeper
smash angle, are a common and spectacular element of elite men's doubles play. In the
rearcourt, players strive to hit the shuttlecock while it is still above them, rather than
allowing it to drop lower. This overhead hitting allows them to play smashes, clears (hitting
the shuttlecock high and to the back of the opponents' court), and dropshots (hitting the
shuttlecock so that it falls softly downwards into the opponents' forecourt). If the shuttlecock
has dropped lower, then a smash is impossible and a full-length, high clear is difficult.
A player prepares for a vertical jump smash

Vertical position of the shuttlecock

When the shuttlecock is well below net height, players have no choice but to hit
upwards.Lifts, where the shuttlecock is hit upwards to the back of the opponents' court, can
be played from all parts of the court. If a player does not lift, his only remaining option is to
push the shuttlecock softly back to the net: in the forecourt this is called a netshot; in the
midcourt or rearcourt, it is often called a push or block.
When the shuttlecock is near to net height, players can hit drives, which travel flat and
rapidly over the net into the opponents' rear midcourt and rearcourt. Pushes may also be hit
flatter, placing the shuttlecock into the front midcourt. Drives and pushes may be played
from the midcourt or forecourt, and are most often used in doubles: they are an attempt to
regain the attack, rather than choosing to lift the shuttlecock and defend against smashes.
After a successful drive or push, the opponents will often be forced to lift the shuttlecock.
Other factors
When defending against a smash, players have three basic options: lift, block, or drive. In
singles, a block to the net is the most common reply. In doubles, a lift is the safest option but
it usually allows the opponents to continue smashing; blocks and drives are counter-
attacking strokes, but may be intercepted by the smasher's partner. Many players use a
backhand hitting action for returning smashes on both the forehand and backhand sides,
because backhands are more effective than forehands at covering smashes directed to the
body. Hard shots directed towards the body are difficult to defend.
The service is restricted by the Laws and presents its own array of stroke choices. Unlike in
tennis, the server's racket must be pointing in a downward direction to deliver the serve so
normally the shuttle must be hit upwards to pass over the net. The server can choose a low
serve into the forecourt (like a push), or a lift to the back of the service court, or a flat drive
serve. Lifted serves may be either high serves, where the shuttlecock is lifted so high that it
falls almost vertically at the back of the court, or flick serves, where the shuttlecock is lifted
to a lesser height but falls sooner.
Deception
Once players have mastered these basic strokes, they can hit the shuttlecock from and to
any part of the court, powerfully and softly as required. Beyond the basics, however,
badminton offers rich potential for advanced stroke skills that provide a competitive
advantage. Because badminton players have to cover a short distance as quickly as
possible, the purpose of many advanced strokes is to deceive the opponent, so that either
he is tricked into believing that a different stroke is being played, or he is forced to delay his
movement until he actually sees the shuttle's direction. "Deception" in badminton is often
used in both of these senses. When a player is genuinely deceived, he will often lose the
point immediately because he cannot change his direction quickly enough to reach the
shuttlecock. Experienced players will be aware of the trick and cautious not to move too
early, but the attempted deception is still useful because it forces the opponent to delay his
movement slightly. Against weaker players whose intended strokes are obvious, an
experienced player may move before the shuttlecock has been hit, anticipating the stroke to
gain an advantage.
Slicing and using a shortened hitting action are the two main technical devices that facilitate
deception. Slicing involves hitting the shuttlecock with an angled racquet face, causing it to
travel in a different direction than suggested by the body or arm movement. Slicing also
causes the shuttlecock to travel more slowly than the arm movement suggests. For
example, a good crosscourt sliced dropshot will use a hitting action that suggests a straight
clear or smash, deceiving the opponent about both the power and direction of the
shuttlecock. A more sophisticated slicing action involves brushing the strings around the
shuttlecock during the hit, in order to make the shuttlecock spin. This can be used to
improve the shuttle's trajectory, by making it dip more rapidly as it passes the net; for
example, a sliced low serve can travel slightly faster than a normal low serve, yet land on
the same spot. Spinning the shuttlecock is also used to create spinning netshots (also
calledtumbling netshots), in which the shuttlecock turns over itself several times (tumbles)
before stabilizing; sometimes the shuttlecock remains inverted instead of tumbling. The main
advantage of a spinning netshot is that the opponent will be unwilling to address the
shuttlecock until it has stopped tumbling, since hitting the feathers will result in an
unpredictable stroke. Spinning netshots are especially important for high level singles
players.
The lightness of modern racquets allows players to use a very short hitting action for many
strokes, thereby maintaining the option to hit a powerful or a soft stroke until the last
possible moment. For example, a singles player may hold his racquet ready for a netshot,
but then flick the shuttlecock to the back instead with a shallow lift when she or he notices
the opponent has moved before the actual shot was played. A shallow lift takes less time to
reach the ground and as mentioned above a rally is over when the shuttlecock touches the
ground. This makes the opponent's task of covering the whole court much more difficult than
if the lift was hit higher and with a bigger, obvious swing. A short hitting action is not only
useful for deception: it also allows the player to hit powerful strokes when he has no time for
a big arm swing. A big arm swing is also usually not advised in badminton because bigger
swings make it more difficult to recover for the next shot in fast exchanges. The use of grip
tightening is crucial to these techniques, and is often described as finger power. Elite players
develop finger power to the extent that they can hit some power strokes, such as net kills,
with less than a 10 cm (4 in) racquet swing.
It is also possible to reverse this style of deception, by suggesting a powerful stroke before
slowing down the hitting action to play a soft stroke. In general, this latter style of deception
is more common in the rearcourt (for example, dropshots disguised as smashes), whereas
the former style is more common in the forecourt and midcourt (for example, lifts disguised
as netshots).
Deception is not limited to slicing and short hitting actions. Players may also use double
motion, where they make an initial racquet movement in one direction before withdrawing
the racquet to hit in another direction. Players will often do this to send opponents in the
wrong direction. The racquet movement is typically used to suggest a straight angle but then
play the stroke cross court, or vice versa. Triple motion is also possible, but this is very rare
in actual play. An alternative to double motion is to use a racquet head fake, where the initial
motion is continued but the racquet is turned during the hit. This produces a smaller change
in direction, but does not require as much time.

Strategy
To win in badminton, players need to employ a wide variety of strokes in the right situations.
These range from powerful jumping smashes to delicate tumbling net returns. Often rallies
finish with a smash, but setting up the smash requires subtler strokes. For example, a
netshot can force the opponent to lift the shuttlecock, which gives an opportunity to smash. If
the netshot is tight and tumbling, then the opponent's lift will not reach the back of the court,
which makes the subsequent smash much harder to return.
Deception is also important. Expert players prepare for many different strokes that look
identical, and use slicing to deceive their opponents about the speed or direction of the
stroke. If an opponent tries to anticipate the stroke, he may move in the wrong direction and
may be unable to change his body momentum in time to reach the shuttlecock.
Doubles
Both pairs will try to gain and maintain the attack, smashing downwards when possible.
Whenever possible, a pair will adopt an ideal attacking formation with one player hitting
down from the rearcourt, and his partner in the midcourt intercepting all smash returns
except the lift. If the rearcourt attacker plays a dropshot, his partner will move into the
forecourt to threaten the net reply. If a pair cannot hit downwards, they will use flat strokes in
an attempt to gain the attack. If a pair is forced to lift or clear the shuttlecock, then they must
defend: they will adopt a side-by-side position in the rear midcourt, to cover the full width of
their court against the opponents' smashes. In doubles, players generally smash to the
middle ground between two players in order to take advantage of confusion and clashes.
At high levels of play, the backhand serve has become popular to the extent that forehand
serves have become fairly rare at a high level of play. The straight low serve is used most
frequently, in an attempt to prevent the opponents gaining the attack immediately. Flick
serves are used to prevent the opponent from anticipating the low serve and attacking it
decisively.
At high levels of play, doubles rallies are extremely fast. Men's doubles is the most
aggressive form of badminton, with a high proportion of powerful jump smashes and very
quick reflex exchanges. Because of this, spectator interest is sometimes greater for men's
doubles than for singles.
Singles
The singles court is narrower than the doubles court, but the same length. Since one person
needs to cover the entire court, singles tactics are based on forcing the opponent to move
as much as possible; this means that singles strokes are normally directed to the corners of
the court. Players exploit the length of the court by combining lifts and clears with drop shots
and net shots. Smashing tends to be less prominent in singles than in doubles because the
smasher has no partner to follow up his effort and is thus vulnerable to a skillfully placed
return. Moreover, frequent smashing can be exhausting in singles where the conservation of
a player's energy is at a premium. However, players with strong smashes will sometimes
use the shot to create openings, and players commonly smash weak returns to try to end
rallies.
In singles, players will often start the rally with a forehand high serve or with a flick serve.
Low serves are also used frequently, either forehand or backhand. Drive serves are rare.
At high levels of play, singles demands extraordinary fitness. Singles is a game of patient
positional manoeuvring, unlike the all-out aggression of doubles.
Mixed doubles
In mixed doubles, both pairs typically try to maintain an attacking formation with the woman
at the front and the man at the back. This is because the male players are usually
substantially stronger, and can therefore produce smashes that are more powerful. As a
result, mixed doubles require greater tactical awareness and subtler positional play. Clever
opponents will try to reverse the ideal position, by forcing the woman towards the back or
the man towards the front. In order to protect against this danger, mixed players must be
careful and systematic in their shot selection.[14]
At high levels of play, the formations will generally be more flexible: the top women players
are capable of playing powerfully from the back-court, and will happily do so if required.
When the opportunity arises, however, the pair will switch back to the standard mixed
attacking position, with the woman in front and men in the back.

A men's doubles match. The blue lines are those for the badminton court. The other coloured lines denote
uses for other sports – such complexity being common in multi-use sports halls.

The BWF organizes several international competitions, including the Thomas Cup, the
premier men's international team event first held in 1948–1949, and the Uber Cup, the
women's equivalent first held in 1956–1957. The competitions now take place once every
two years. More than 50 national teams compete in qualifying tournaments within
continental confederations for a place in the finals. The final tournament involves 12 teams,
following an increase from eight teams in 2004.
The Sudirman Cup, a gender-mixed international team event held once every two years,
began in 1989. Teams are divided into seven levels based on the performance of each
country. To win the tournament, a country must perform well across all five disciplines
(men's doubles and singles, women's doubles and singles, and mixed doubles).
Like association football (soccer), it features a promotion and relegation system in every
level.
Badminton was a demonstration event in the 1972 and 1988 Summer Olympics. It became
an official Summer Olympic sport at the Barcelona Olympics in 1992 and its gold medals
now generally rate as the sport's most coveted prizes for individual players.
In the BWF World Championships, first held in 1977, currently only the highest ranked 64
players in the world, and a maximum of four from each country, can participate in any
category. In both the Olympic and BWF World competitions restrictions on the number of
participants from any one country have caused some controversy because they sometimes
result in excluding elite world level players from the strongest badminton nations. The
Thomas, Uber, and Sudirman Cups, the Olympics, and the BWF World (and World Junior
Championships), are all categorized as level one tournaments.
At the start of 2007, the BWF introduced a new tournament structure for the highest level
tournaments aside from those in level one: the BWF Super Series. This level two
tournament series, a tour for the world's elite players, stages twelve open tournaments
around the world with 32 players (half the previous limit). The players collect points that
determine whether they can play in Super Series Final held at the year end. Among the
tournaments in this series is the venerable All-England Championships, first held in 1900,
which was once considered the unofficial world championships of the sport.[15]
Level three tournaments consist of Grand Prix Gold and Grand Prix event. Top players can
collect the world ranking points and enable them to play in the BWF Super Series open
tournaments. These include the regional competitions in Asia (Badminton Asia
Championships) and Europe (European Badminton Championships), which produce the
world's best players as well as the Pan America Badminton Championships.
The level four tournaments, known as International Challenge, International Series and
Future Series, encourage participation by junior players.[16]

Comparisons with other racquet sports

Badminton is frequently compared to tennis. The following is a list of uncontentious
comparisons:

 In badminton a match consist of 3 games and each game is played up to 21 points. In

tennis a match consist of 6 games and each game is played up to 4 points. If both team
are tied for "game point", they must play until one team achieves a two point advantage.
However, the maximum point that a badminton game can go up to is 30 points. In
tennis, if we assume both players are scoring "deuces", then there is no maximum point,
as the game must continue until a player receives a two point advantage to be declared
the winner.
 In tennis, the ball may bounce once before the player hits it; in badminton, the rally ends
once the shuttlecock touches the floor.
 In tennis, the serve is dominant to the extent that the server is expected to win most of
his service games (at advanced level & onwards); a break of service, where the server
loses the game, is of major importance in a match. In badminton a server has far less
advantage, and is unlikely to score an 'ace' (unreturnable serve).
 In tennis, the server is allowed two attempts to make a correct serve; in badminton, the
server is allowed only one attempt.
 The tennis court is larger than the badminton court.
 Tennis racquets are about four times as heavy as badminton racquets, 10–12 ounces
(approximately 284–340 grams) versus 2–3 ounces (70–105 grams).[17][18] Tennis balls
are more than eleven times heavier than shuttlecocks, 57 grams versus 5 grams.[19][20]
 The fastest recorded tennis stroke is Samuel Groth's 163.4 mph (263 km/h)
serve,[21] whereas the fastest badminton stroke during gameplay was Fu Haifeng's
206 mph (332 km/h) recorded smash.[22]
Comparisons of speed and athletic requirements
Statistics such as the smash speed, above, prompt badminton enthusiasts to make other
comparisons that are more contentious. For example, it is often claimed that badminton is
the fastest racquet sport.[citation needed] Although badminton holds the record for the fastest initial
speed of a racket sports projectile, the shuttlecock decelerates substantially faster than
other projectiles such as tennis balls. In turn, this qualification must be qualified by
consideration of the distance over which the shuttlecock travels: a smashed shuttlecock
travels a shorter distance than a tennis ball during a serve.
While fans of badminton and tennis often claim that their sport is the more physically
demanding, such comparisons are difficult to make objectively because of the differing
demands of the games. No formal study currently exists evaluating the physical condition of
the players or demands during game play.
Comparisons of technique
Badminton and tennis techniques differ substantially. The lightness of the shuttlecock and of
badminton rackets allow badminton players to make use of the wrist and fingers much more
than tennis players; in tennis the wrist is normally held stable, and playing with a mobile
wrist may lead to injury. For the same reasons, badminton players can generate power from
a short racket swing: for some strokes such as net kills, an elite player's swing may be less
than 5 cm (2 in). For strokes that require more power, a longer swing will typically be used,
but the badminton racket swing will rarely be as long as a typical tennis swing.
It is often asserted that power in badminton strokes comes mainly from the wrist. This is a
misconception and may be criticised for two reasons. First, it is strictly speaking a category
error: the wrist is a joint, not a muscle; the forearm muscles control its movement. Second,
wrist movements are weak when compared to forearm or upper arm movements.
Badmintonbiomechanics have not been the subject of extensive scientific study, but some
studies confirm the minor role of the wrist in power generation, and indicate that the major
contributions to power come from internal and external rotations of the upper and lower
arm.[23] Modern coaching resources such as the Badminton England Technique DVD reflect
these ideas by emphasising forearm rotation rather than wrist movements.[24]
Distinctive characteristics of the shuttlecock
The shuttlecock differs greatly from the balls used in most other racquet sports.
Aerodynamic drag and stability
 The feathers impart substantial drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate greatly over
distance. The shuttlecock is also extremely aerodynamically stable: regardless of initial
orientation, it will turn to fly cork-first, and remain in the cork-first orientation.
One consequence of the shuttlecock's drag is that it requires considerable skill to hit it the
full length of the court, which is not the case for most racquet sports. The drag also
influences the flight path of a lifted (lobbed) shuttlecock: the parabola of its flight is heavily
skewed so that it falls at a steeper angle than it rises. With very high serves, the shuttlecock
may even fall vertically.
Spin
Balls may be spun to alter their bounce (for example, topspin and backspin in tennis) or
trajectory, and players may slice the ball (strike it with an angled racket face) to produce
such spin; but, since the shuttlecock is not allowed to bounce, this does not apply to
badminton.
Slicing the shuttlecock so that it spins, however, does have applications, and some are
particular to badminton. (See Basic strokes for an explanation of technical terms.)

 Slicing the shuttlecock from the side may cause it to travel in a different direction from
the direction suggested by the player's racket or body movement. This is used to
deceive opponents.
 Slicing the shuttlecock from the side may cause it to follow a slightly curved path (as
seen from above), and the deceleration imparted by the spin causes sliced strokes to
slow down more suddenly towards the end of their flight path. This can be used to
create dropshots and smashes that dip more steeply after they pass the net.
 When playing a netshot, slicing underneath the shuttlecock may cause it to turn over
itself (tumble) several times as it passes the net. This is called a spinning
netshot or tumbling netshot. The opponent will be unwilling to address the shuttlecock
until it has corrected its orientation.
Due to the way that its feathers overlap, a shuttlecock also has a slight natural spin about its
axis of rotational symmetry. The spin is in a counter-clockwise direction as seen from above
when dropping a shuttlecock. This natural spin affects certain strokes: a tumbling netshot is
more effective if the slicing action is from right to left, rather than from left to right.[25

Bodybuilding
Bodybuilding is the use of progressive resistance exercise to control and develop
one'smusculature.[1] An individual who engages in this activity is referred to as a bodybuilder. In
competitive amateur and professional bodybuilding, bodybuilders appear in lineups doing specified
poses, and later perform individual posing routines, for a panel of judgeswho rank competitors based
on criteria such as symmetry, muscularity and conditioning. Bodybuilders prepare for competition
through a combination of dehydration, fat loss, oils, and tanning (or tanning lotions) which make their
muscular definition more distinct. Well-known bodybuilders include Charles Atlas, Steve
Reeves, Reg Park, Arnold Schwarzenegger and Lou Ferrigno. The winner of the annual Mr.
Olympia contest is generally recognized as the world's top male bodybuilder. The title is now held
by IFBBprofessional Phil Heath of the United States.

History

Early years[edit]
Stone-lifting traditions were practiced in ancient Greece and Egypt. Western weight lifting developed
in Europe around 1880 to 1953, with strongmendisplaying feats of strength for the public, and
challenging each other. The focus was not on the make up of their physique, and these strongmen
often had a large stomach and fatty limbs.[2]
Eugen Sandow[edit]
Bodybuilding developed in the late 19th century, promoted in England by the 'Father of Modern
Bodybuilding', German-born Eugen Sandow. He allowed audiences to enjoy viewing his physique in
"muscle display performances". Although audiences were thrilled to see a well-developed physique,
those men simply displayed their bodies as part of strength demonstrations or wrestling matches.
Sandow had a stage show built around these displays through his manager,Florenz Ziegfeld. The
Oscar-winning 1936 musical film The Great Ziegfeld, depicts this beginning of modern bodybuilding,
when Sandow began to display his body for carnivals.
Sandow became so successful at flexing and posing his physique, that he later created several
businesses around his fame and was among the first to market products branded with his name
alone. He was credited with inventing and selling the first exercise equipment for the masses:
machined dumbbells, spring pulleys and tension bands. Even his image was sold by the thousands
in "cabinet cards" and other prints.
Sandow was a perfect "gracilian". This was a standard of ideal body proportions close to those of
ancient Greek and Roman statues – see Golden Mean. Men were judged by how closely they
matched these proportions.
First large-scale bodybuilding competition[edit]
Sandow organised the first bodybuilding contest on September 14, 1901 called the "Great
Competition" which was held in the Royal Albert Hall, London, UK. Judged by himself, Sir Charles
Lawes, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the contest was a great success and with a capacity crowd
many bodybuilding enthusiasts were turned away.[3] The trophy presented to the winner was a
bronze statue of Sandow sculpted by Frederick Pomeroy. The winner was William L. Murray
of Nottingham, England. The most prestigious bodybuilding contest today is the Mr. Olympia, and
since 1968, the winner has been presented with the same bronze statue of Sandow that he himself
presented to the winner at the first contest.
On 16 January 1904, the first large-scale bodybuilding competition in America took place at Madison
Square Garden in New York City. The winner was Al Treloar and he was declared "The Most
Perfectly Developed Man in the World".[4] Treloar won a $1,000 cash prize, a substantial sum at that
time. Two weeks later, Thomas Edison made a film of Al Treloar's posing routine. Edison also made
two films of Sandow a few years before. Those were the first three motion pictures featuring a
bodybuilder. In the early 20th century, Bernarr Macfadden and Charles Atlas, continued to promote
bodybuilding across the world. Alois P. Swoboda was an early pioneer in America.
Notable early bodybuilders[edit]
Many other important bodybuilders in the early history of bodybuilding prior to 1930 include: Earle
Liederman (writer of some of the earliest bodybuilding instruction books), Zishe Breitbart, Georg
Hackenschmidt, Emy Nkemena, George F. Jowett, Finn Hateral (a pioneer in the art of
posing), Frank Saldo, Monte Saldo, William Bankier, Launceston Elliot, Sig Klein, Sgt. Alfred Moss,
Joe Nordquist, Lionel Strongfort (Strongfortism),[5] Gustav Frištenský (the Czech champion), Ralph
Parcaut, a champion wrestler who also authored an early book on "physical culture," and Alan P.
Mead, who became an impressive muscle champion despite the fact that he lost a leg in World War
I. Actor Francis X. Bushman started his career as a bodybuilder and sculptor's model before
beginning his famous silent movie career. Bushman was a disciple of Eugen Sandow.

Model Jackie Coey with Mr. Los Angeles contestant Ed Holovchik (also known as Ed Fury), 1953

1950s and 1960s[edit]

Bodybuilding became more popular in the 1950s and 1960s with the emergence of strength and
gymnastics champions joining the culture, and the simultaneous popularization of muscle training,
most of all by Joe Weider, whose advertising in comic books and other publications encouraged
many young men to undertake weight training to improve their physiques to resemble the comic
books' muscular superheroes. Of notable athletes, US national and gymnastics champion and US
Olympic weightlifting team competitor John Grimek and British strength athlete Reg Park as winners
of newly created bodybuilding titles such as the Mr. Universe andMr. America competitions paved
the way for others. Magazines such as Strength & Health and Muscular Development were
accompanied by the fame of Muscle Beach, in Santa Monica, California. The casting of some
bodybuilders in movies was another major vehicle for the activity's popularization. Of bodybuilder-
actors perhaps the most famous were Steve Reeves and Reg Park, who were featured in roles
portraying Hercules, Samson and other legendary heroes. Dave Drapergained public fame through a
role in Don't Make Waves, and in appearances in television series such as the Beverly
Hillbillies and The Monkees. Other rising stars in this period were Larry Scott, Serge Nubret,
and Sergio Oliva. The gym equipment and training supplement industries founded by Joe Weider
were complemented by the growth of the International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness (IFBB),
which was co-founded by Joe and his brother Ben. The IFBB eventually displaced the Amateur
Athletic Union's Mr. Universe titles and also that of NABBA, the National Amateur Bodybuilders
Association as the most important and notable contests.

1970s onwards[edit]
New organizations[edit]
In the 1970s, bodybuilding had major publicity thanks to Arnold Schwarzenegger, Franco
Columbu, Lou Ferrigno and others in the 1977 film Pumping Iron. By this time the International
Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness (IFBB) dominated the competitive bodybuilding landscape and
the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) took a back seat.
The National Physique Committee (NPC) was formed in 1981 by Jim Manion,[6] who had just stepped
down as chairman of the AAU Physique Committee. The NPC has gone on to become the most
successful bodybuilding organization in the U.S., and is the amateur division of the IFBB in the
United States. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the decline of AAU sponsored bodybuilding
contests. In 1999, the AAU voted to discontinue its bodybuilding events.
Anabolic/Androgenic Steroid Use[edit]

Ronnie Coleman 8 x Mr. Olympia – 2009

This period also saw the rise of anabolic steroids used both in bodybuilding and many other sports.
In bodybuilding lore, this is partly attributed to the rise of "mass monsters", beginning with Arnold
Schwarzenegger, Sergio Oliva and Lou Ferrigno in the late 1960s and early 1970s and continuing in
the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s with Lee Haney, Dorian Yates, Ronnie Coleman and Markus Ruhl. Also
the emergence of bodybuilders such as Greg Kovacs, Paul DeMayo and Victor Richards who, while
not being particularly successful at the pro level, attained mass and size at levels that were not seen
previously.
Arnold Schwarzenegger at the time of shooting the movie that brought body building to life,
"Pumping Iron" he never said that he did steroids to increase his winning chance but said you have
to do anything you can to get the advantage in competition. But in later interviews he admitted to it
and even said he does not regret using anything. This was a huge impact at the time because
Arnold was the face of bodybuilding at the time and is still considered by some to be the best to ever
do the sport.[7]
To combat this, and in the hopes of becoming a member of the IOC, the IFBB
introduced doping tests for both steroids and other banned substances. Although doping tests
occurred, the majority of professional bodybuilders still used anabolic steroids for competition.
During the 1970s the use of anabolic steroids was openly discussed partly due to the fact they were
legal.[8] However the U.S. Congress in the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990 placed anabolic
steroids into Schedule III of the Controlled substance act (CSA). Similarly in Canada, steroids were
added to the Criminal Code of Canada as a Class IV controlled substance (that class was created
expressly for steroids).
World Bodybuilding Federation[edit]

WBF Logo

Main article: World Bodybuilding Federation

In 1990, wrestling promoter Vince McMahon announced he was forming a new bodybuilding
organization, the World Bodybuilding Federation (WBF). McMahon wanted to bring WWF-style
showmanship and bigger prize money to the sport of bodybuilding. A number of IFBB stars were
recruited but the roster was never very large, with the same athletes competing; the most notable
winner and first WBF champion was Gary Strydom. McMahon formally dissolved the WBF in July
1992. Reasons for this probably included lack of income from the pay-per-view broadcasts of the
WBF contests, slow sales of the WBF's magazine Bodybuilding Lifestyles (which later became WBF
Magazine), and the expense of paying multiple 6-figure contracts as well as producing two TV shows
and a monthly magazine.
Olympic sport discussion[edit]
In the early 2000s, the IFBB was attempting to make bodybuilding an Olympic sport. It obtained full
IOC membership in 2000 and was attempting to get approved as a demonstration event at the
Olympics which would hopefully lead to it being added as a full contest. This did not happen.
Olympic recognition for bodybuilding remains controversial since many argue that bodybuilding is
not a sport.[9]
Recent developments[edit]
In 2003, Joe Weider sold Weider Publications to AMI, which owns The National Enquirer. The
position of president of the IFBB was filled by Rafael Santonja following the death of Ben Weider in
October 2008. In 2004, contest promoter Wayne DeMilia broke ranks with the IFBB and AMI took
over the promotion of the Mr. Olympia contest. Other professional contests emerged in this period,
such as the Arnold Classic, Night of Champions, and the European Grand Prix of Bodybuilding.
In the 1990s and the early 21st century, patterns of consumption and recreation similar to those of
the United States became more widespread in Europe and especially in Eastern Europe following
the collapse of the Soviet Union. This resulted in the emergence of whole new populations of
bodybuilders emerged from former Eastern bloc states.

Areas[edit]
Professional bodybuilding[edit]
Main article: Professional bodybuilding

Frank Zane, a former professional bodybuilder and three-time Mr. Olympia.

In the modern bodybuilding industry, "professional" generally means a bodybuilder who has won
qualifying competitions as an amateur and has earned a "pro card" from their respective
organization. Professionals earn the right to compete in competitions that include monetary prizes.
Depending on the level of success, these bodybuilders may receive monetary compensation from
sponsors, much like athletes in other sports.
Natural bodybuilding

Due to the growing concerns of the high cost, health consequences and illegal nature of steroids
many organizations have formed in response and have deemed themselves "natural" bodybuilding
competitions. In addition to the concerns noted, many promoters of bodybuilding have sought to
shed the "freakish" reputation that the general public perceives of bodybuilding and have
successfully introduced a more mainstream audience to the sport of bodybuilding by including
competitors whose physiques appear much more attainable and realistic.
In natural contests the testing protocol ranges among organizations from polygraph testing (lie
detection) to urinalysis. Penalties also range from organization to organization from suspensions to
strict bans from competition. It is also important to note that natural organizations also have their
own list of banned substances and it is important to refer to each organization's website for more
information about which substances are banned from competition.
There are many natural bodybuilding organizations that exist. Some of the larger ones include
MuscleMania, Ultimate Fitness Events (UFE), INBF/WNBF and INBA/PNBA. These organizations
either have North American or worldwide presence and are not limited to the country in which they
are headquartered.
Other notable natural bodybuilding organization include the NPC and the NANBF. NPC competitions
screen competitors using a polygraph test to ensure fair practices. Though it is not fool-proof,
competitors are selected at random and not all are tested. This is how the NPC differs from the
NANBF. The NANBF takes a more direct approach by taking urine samples from all competitors that
test for steroids and any other substances on the banned list. The NANBF differs from the NPC also
when it comes to judging. The criteria of certain poses differs from organization to organization. The
NANBF even has an elevated calf pose which is specifically unique for their competitions.
Female bodybuilding[edit]

Pro female bodybuilderNikki Fuller performs a side chest pose.

Main article: Female bodybuilding

The first U.S. Women's National Physique Championship, promoted by Henry McGhee and held in
Canton, Ohio in 1978, is generally regarded as the first true female bodybuilding contest – that is,
the first contest where the entrants were judged solely on muscularity.[10]In 1980 the first Ms.
Olympia (initially known as the "Miss" Olympia), the most prestigious contest for professionals, was
held. The first winner was Rachel McLish who had also won the NPC's USA Championship earlier in
the year. The contest was a major turning point for the sport of women's bodybuilding. McLish
inspired many future competitors to start training and competing. In 1985, a movie called Pumping
Iron II: The Women was released. This film documented the preparation of several women for the
1983 Caesars Palace World Cup Championship. Competitors prominently featured in the film were
Kris Alexander, Lori Bowen,Lydia Cheng, Carla Dunlap, Bev Francis, and Rachel McLish. At the
time, Francis was actually a powerlifter, though she soon made a successful transition to
bodybuilding, becoming one of the leading competitors of the late 1980s and early 1990s.
In recent years, the related areas of fitness and figure competition have gained in popularity,
surpassing that of female bodybuilding, and have provided an alternative for women who choose not
to develop the level of muscularity necessary for bodybuilding. Rachel McLish would closely
resemble what is thought of today as a fitness and figure competitor instead of what is now
considered a female bodybuilder. Fitness competitions also have a gymnastic element to them.

Competition
A bodybuilder, Lukas Osladil, posing onstage during a competition. The pose is a variation of the "most muscular".

In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders aspire to develop and maintain an aestheticallypleasing

body and balanced physique.[11][12] In prejudging, competitors do a series of mandatory poses – the
front lat spread, the rear lat spread, the front double biceps, theback double biceps, the side chest,
the side triceps, the Most Muscular (men only), and the thigh-abdominal pose. Each competitor also
performs a routine to display the physique. A posedown is usually held at the end of a posing round,
while judges are finishing their scoring. Bodybuilders spend time practicing their posing, since they
are judged on it.
In contrast to strongman or powerlifting competitions where physical strength is important, or
to Olympic weightlifting, where the main point is equally split between strength and technique,
bodybuilding competitions typically emphasize condition, size and symmetry. Different organizations
emphasize particular aspects of competition, and sometimes have different categories in which to
compete.
Preparations[
Cutting and bulking
The general strategy adopted by most present-day competitive bodybuilders is to make muscle
gains for most of the year (known as the "off-season") and approximately 12–14 weeks from
competition attempt to lose body fat (referred to as "cutting"). The bulking phase entails remaining in
a net positive energy balance (calorie surplus). The amount of a surplus that a person remains in is
based on the person's goals, as a bigger surplus and longer bulking phase will create more fat
tissue. The surplus of calories relative to one's energy balance will ensure that muscles remain in a
state of anabolism. The cutting phase entails remaining in a net negative energy balance (calorie
deficit). The main goal of cutting is to oxidize fat but also to preserve as much muscle as possible.
The larger the calorie deficit, the faster one will lose weight. However, a large calorie deficit will also
create the risk of losing muscle tissue.[13]
The precise effectiveness of the cutting and bulking strategy is unknown, with only limited
observational case studies on the subject. No studies involving precise hypercaloric feeding
combined with resistance exercise have been conducted.
Clean bulking[edit]
Many non-competitive bodybuilders choose not to adopt the conventional strategy, as it often results
in significant unwanted fat gain during the "bulking" phase. The attempt to increase muscle mass in
one's body without any gain in fat is called clean bulking. Competitive bodybuilders focus their efforts
to achieve a peak appearance during a brief "competition season".[citation needed]
Dirty bulking[edit]
"Dirty bulking" is the process of eating at a caloric surplus, without finding the exact number
macronutrients (carbs, fats, and proteins). Weight lifters who are attempting to gain mass quickly
often choose to use the "dirty bulk" method.[14]
Pre-competition[edit]
In the week leading up to a contest, bodybuilders may decrease their consumption
of water, sodium and carbohydrates, the former two to alter how water is retained by the body and
the latter to reduce glycogen in the muscle. The day before the show, water is removed from the
diet, and diuretics may be introduced, while carbohydrate loading to increase the size of the muscles
through replenishment of their glycogen. The goal is to maximize leanness and increase the visibility
of veins, or "vascularity." The appearance of veins is further enhanced immediately before appearing
on stage by darkening the skin through tanning products, and applying oils to the skin to increase
shine. Some competitors will eat sugar-rich foods to increase the visibility of their veins. A final step
is the use of weights to fill the muscles with blood and further increase their size.

Muscle growth[edit]
Bodybuilders use three main strategies to maximize muscle hypertrophy:

 Strength training through weights or elastic/hydraulic resistance

 Specialized nutrition, incorporating extra protein[citation needed] and supplements when necessary
 Adequate rest, including sleep and recuperation between workouts
Weight training[edit]
Main articles: Weight training and Strength training

Weight training causes micro-tears to the muscles being trained [15][citation needed]; this is generally known
as microtrauma. These micro-tears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise,
called delayed onset muscle soreness(DOMS). It is the repair to these micro-trauma that result
in muscle growth. Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout.
However, as muscles become adapted to the exercises, soreness tends to decrease.[16]
Weight training aims to build muscle by prompting two different types of hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic
hypertrophy and myofibrillar hypertrophy. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy leads to larger muscles and so
is favored by bodybuilders more than myofibrillar hypertrophy which builds athletic strength.
Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy is triggered by increasing repetitions, whereas myofibrillar hypertrophy is
triggered by lifting heavier weight.[17] In either case, there is an increase in size and strength of the
muscles (compared to if that same individual does not lift weights at all). However, the emphasis is
different.
Many trainees like to cycle between the two methods in order to prevent the body from adapting
(maintaining a progressive overload), possibly emphasizing whichever method more suits their
goals. I.e, a bodybuilder will use sarcoplasmic hypertrophy most of the time, but may change to
myofibrillar hypertrophy temporarily in order to move past a plateau. However, no real evidence has
been provided to show that trainees ever reach this plateau, and rather was more of a hype created
from 'muscular confusion.'
Nutrition[edit]
The high levels of muscle growth and repair achieved by bodybuilders require a specialized diet.
Generally speaking, bodybuilders require more calories than the average person of the same weight
to provide the protein and energy requirements needed to support their training and increase muscle
mass. A sub-maintenance level of food energy is combined with cardiovascular exercise to
lose body fat in preparation for a contest. The ratios of calories from carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats vary depending on the goals of the bodybuilder.[18]
Carbohydrates[edit]
Carbohydrates play an important role for bodybuilders. Carbohydrates give the body energy to deal
with the rigors of training and recovery. Carbohydrates also promote secretion of insulin, a hormone
enabling cells to get the glucose they need. Insulin also carries amino acids into cells and promotes
protein synthesis.[19] Insulin has steroid-like effects in terms of muscle gains.[citation needed] It is impossible
to promote protein synthesis without the existence of insulin, and which means without
carbohydrates, it is impossible to add muscle mass.[20] Bodybuilders seek out low-
glycemic polysaccharides and other slowly digesting carbohydrates, which release energy in a more
stable fashion than high-glycemic sugars and starches. This is important as high-glycemic
carbohydrates cause a sharp insulin response, which places the body in a state where it is likely to
store additional food energy as fat. However, bodybuilders frequently do ingest some quickly
digesting sugars (often in form of pure dextrose or maltodextrin) after a workout. This may help to
replenish glycogen stores within the muscle, and to stimulate muscle protein synthesis.[21]
Protein[edit]

Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common bodybuilding supplement.

The motor proteins actin and myosin generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles. Current
advice says that bodybuilders should consume 25–30% of protein per total calorie intake to further
their goal of maintaining and improving their body composition.[22] This is a widely debated topic, with
many arguing that 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight per day is ideal, some suggesting that
less is sufficient, while others recommending 1.5, 2, or more.[23] It is believed that protein needs to be
consumed frequently throughout the day, especially during/after a workout, and before
sleep.[24] There is also some debate concerning the best type of protein to take. Chicken, turkey,
beef, pork, fish, eggs and dairy foods are high in protein, as are some nuts, seeds, beans and
lentils. Casein or whey are often used to supplement the diet with additional protein. Whey protein is
the type of protein contained in many popular brands of protein supplements, and is preferred by
many bodybuilders because of its high Biological Value (BV) and quick absorption rates.
However, whey has a bigger effect than Casein on insulin levels. Whey triggers about the double the
amount of insulin release.[25]That effect is somewhat overcome by combining Casein and whey.
Bodybuilders are usually thought to require protein with a higher BV than that of soy, which is
additionally avoided due to its claimed estrogenic properties. Still, some nutrition experts believe that
soy, flax seeds and many other plants that contain the weak estrogen-like compounds
or phytoestrogens can be used beneficially, as phytoestrogens compete with estrogens for receptor
sites in the male body and can block its actions. This can also include some inhibition
of pituitary functions while stimulating the P450 system (the system that eliminates hormones, drugs
and metabolic waste product from the body) in the liver to more actively process and excrete excess
estrogen.[26][27] Cortisol decreases amino acid uptake by muscle, and inhibits protein synthesis.[28]
Some bodybuilders, such as Patrik Baboumian and Robert Cheeke follow a strict vegan diet.
Meals[edit]
Bodybuilders often split their food intake for the day into 5 to 7 meals of roughly equal nutritional
content and attempt to eat at regular intervals (e.g. every 2 to 3 hours). This method can serve two
purposes: to limit overindulging in the cutting phase, and to physically allow for the consumption of
large volumes of food during the bulking phase. Contrary to popular belief, eating more frequently
does not increase basal metabolic rate when compared to the traditional 3 meals a day. While food
does have a metabolic cost to digest, absorb, and store, called the thermic effect of food, it depends
on the quantity and type of food, not how the food is spread across the meals of the day. Well-
controlled studies using whole-body calorimetry and doubly labeled water have demonstrated that
there is no metabolic advantage to eating more frequently.[29][30][31]
Dietary supplements[edit]
Main article: Bodybuilding supplement

The important role of nutrition in building muscle and losing fat means bodybuilders may consume a
wide variety of dietary supplements.[32] Various products are used in an attempt to augment muscle
size, increase the rate of fat loss, improve joint health, increase natural testosterone production,
enhance training performance and prevent potential nutrient deficiencies. There are three major
macronutrients that the human body needs in order for muscle building. The major nutrients-protein,
carbohydrate, and fat-provide the body with energy.[33]
Performance enhancing substances[edit]

Some bodybuilders use drugs such as anabolic steroids and precursor substances such
as prohormones to increase muscle hypertrophy. Anabolic steroids cause muscle hypertrophy of
both types (I and II) of muscle fibers caused likely by an increased synthesis of muscle proteins and
are accompanied with undesired side effects including hepatotoxicity,gynecomastia, acne, male
pattern baldness and a decline in the body's own testosterone production, which can causetesticular
atrophy.[34][35][36] Other performance enhancing substances used by competitive bodybuilders
include human growth hormone (HGH), which can cause acromegaly.
Muscle growth is more difficult to achieve in older adults than younger adults because of biological
aging, which leads to many metabolic changes detrimental to muscle growth; for instance, by
diminishing growth hormone and testosterone. Some recent clinical studies have shown that low-
dose HGH treatment for adults with HGH deficiency changes the body composition by
increasing muscle mass, decreasing fat mass, increasing bone density and muscle strength,
improvescardiovascular parameters, and affects the quality of life without significant side
effects.[37][38][unreliable medical source?][39]
Rest[edit]
Although muscle stimulation occurs in the gym (or home gym) when lifting weights,
muscle growth occurs afterward during rest. Without adequate rest and sleep (7 to 8 hours), muscles
do not have an opportunity to recover and build. About eight hours of sleep a night is desirable for
the bodybuilder to be refreshed, although this varies from person to person.[40]Additionally, many
athletes find a daytime nap further increases their body's ability to build muscle.
Overtraining[edit]
Main article: Overtraining

Overtraining occurs when a bodybuilder has trained to the point where his workload exceeds his
recovery capacity. There are many reasons that overtraining occurs, including lack of adequate
nutrition, lack of recovery time between workouts, insufficient sleep, and training at a high intensity
for too long (a lack of splitting apart workouts). Training at a high intensity too frequently also
stimulates the central nervous system (CNS) and can result in a hyper-adrenergic state that
interferes with sleep patterns.[41] To avoid overtraining, intense frequent training must be met with at
least an equal amount of purposeful recovery. Timely provision of carbohydrates, proteins, and
various micronutrients such as vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, even nutritional supplements are
acutely critical.
It has been argued that overtraining can be beneficial. One article published by Muscle &
Fitness magazine stated that you can "Overtrain for Big Gains". It suggested that if one is planning a
restful holiday and they do not wish to inhibit their bodybuilding lifestyle too much, they should
overtrain before taking the holiday, so the body can rest easily and recuperate and grow.
Overtraining can be used advantageously, as when a bodybuilder is purposely overtrained for a brief
period of time to super compensate during a regeneration phase. These are known as "shock micro-
cycles" and were a key training technique used by Soviet athletes.[42] However, the vast majority of
overtraining that occurs in average bodybuilders is generally unplanned and completely
unnecessary.[43]

Non muscle-developing methods [edit]

Some bodybuilders, particularly at professional level, inject substances such as "site enhancement
oil", commonly known as synthol, to mimic the appearance of developed muscle where it may
otherwise be disproportionate or lagging. This is known as "fluffing".[44][45] Synthol is 85% oil,
7.5% lidocaine, and 7.5% alcohol.[44] It is not restricted, as it is ostensibly sold for topical use only,
and many brands are available on the internet.[46] The use of injected oil to enhance muscle
appearance in the late 20th century was abandoned[citation needed] due to health risks such as sclerosing
lipogranuloma. Its use was revived more recently by bodybuilders.[47][48] Use of synthol can
cause pulmonary embolisms, nerve damage, infections, stroke,[44]and the formation of oil-
filled granulomas, cysts or ulcers in the muscle.[48][49][50] Sesame oil is often used, which can cause
allergic reactions such as vasculitis.[51] An aesthetic issue is drooping of muscle under gravity.[46]

Boomerang
A typical wooden returning boomerang

A boomerang is a thrown tool, typically constructed as a flat aerofoil, that is designed to spin about
an axis perpendicular to the direction of its flight.
A returning boomerang is designed to be thrown in a closed arch path, which returns to the thrower.
It is well known as a weapon used by Indigenous Australians for hunting.
Boomerangs have been historically used for hunting, as well as sport, and entertainment. They are
commonly thought of as an Australian

Description
A boomerang is traditionally a wooden device, although historically boomerang-like devices have
also been made from bones. Modern boomerangs used for sport are often made from thin aircraft
plywood, plastics such as ABS, polypropylene,phenolic paper, or even high-tech materials such
as carbon fibre-reinforced plastics. Boomerangs come in many shapes and sizes depending on their
geographic or tribal origins and intended function. Many people think of a boomerang as the
Australian type, although today there are many types of easier to use boomerangs, such as the
cross-stick; the pinwheel; the tumblestick; the boomabird; and many other less common types.

An important distinction should be made between returning boomerangs and non-returning

boomerangs. Returning boomerangs fly and are examples of the earliest heavier-than-air man-made
flight. A returning boomerang has two or moreairfoil wings arranged so that the spinning creates
unbalanced aerodynamic forces that curve its path so that it travels in anelliptical path and returns to
its point of origin when thrown correctly. While a throwing stick can also be shaped overall like a
returning boomerang, it is designed to travel as straight as possible so that it can be aimed and
thrown with great force to bring down game. Its surfaces therefore are symmetrical and not uneven
like the aerofoils which give the returning boomerang its characteristic curved flight.

The most recognisable type of boomerang is the returning boomerang; while non-returning
boomerangs, throwing sticks (or shaunies) were used as weapons, returning boomerangs have
been used primarily for leisure or recreation. Returning boomerangs were also used as decoy birds
of prey, thrown above long grass to frighten game birds into flight and into waiting nets. Modern
returning boomerangs can be of various shapes or sizes as can be seen in a photo in the Modern
usesection.

Historical evidence also points to the use of non-returning boomerangs by the Native Americans of
California and Arizona, and inhabitants of southern India for killing birds and rabbits.[2] Indeed, some
boomerangs were not thrown at all, but were used in hand to hand combat by Indigenous
Australians.[3] Ancient Egyptian examples, however, have been recovered and experiments have
shown that they functioned as returning boomerangs.[4]

Boomerangs can be variously used as hunting weapons, percussive musical

instruments, battle clubs, fire-starters, decoysfor hunting waterfowl, and as recreational play toys.
The smallest boomerang may be less than 10 centimetres (4 in) from tip to tip, and the largest over
180 centimetres (6 ft) in length.[5] Tribal boomerangs may be inscribed and/or painted with designs
meaningful to their makers. Most boomerangs seen today are of the tourist or competition sort, and
are almost invariably of the returning type.

Etymology
The origin of the term is mostly certain, and many researchers have different theories on how the
word entered the Englishvocabulary. One source asserts that the term entered the language in
1827, adapted from an extinct Aboriginal language ofNew South Wales, Australia, but mentions a
variant, wo-mur-rang, which it dates from 1798.[6] The boomerang was first encountered by western
people at Farm Cove (Port Jackson), Australia, in December 1804 where its use as a weapon was
witnessed during a tribal skirmish:[7]

...the white spectators were justly astonished at the dexterity and incredible force with which a bent,
edged waddy resembling slightly a turkish scimytar, was thrown by Bungary, a native distinguished
by his remarkable courtesy. The weapon, thrown at 20 or 30 yards [18 or 27 m] distance, twirled
round in the air with astonishing velocity, and alighting on the right arm of one of his opponents,
actually rebounded to a distance not less than 70 or 80 yards [64 or 73 m], leaving a horrible
contusion behind, and exciting universal admiration.

—final paragraph on page; archaic language reinterpreted here

David Collins listed "Wo-mur-rāng" as one of eight aboriginal "Names of clubs" in 1798.[8] A
1790 anonymous manuscript onaboriginal languages of New South Wales reported "Boo-mer-rit" as
"the Scimiter".[9]

In 1822 it was described in detail and recorded as a "bou-mar-rang", in the language of

the Turuwal people (a sub-group of the Dharug) of the Georges River near Port Jackson. The
Turnawal used other words for their hunting sticks but used "boomerang" to refer to a
returning throw-stick.[10] They were also mistakenly referred to as a woomerang, in confusion with the
spear-thrower woomera.[citation needed]

History
Distribution of boomerangs in Australia

Australian Aboriginal boomerangs

The oldest Australian Aboriginal boomerangs are ten thousand years old, but older hunting sticks
have been discovered in Europe, where they seem to have formed part of the stone age arsenal
of weapons.[11]One boomerang that was discovered in Jaskinia Obłazowa in the Carpathian
Mountains in Poland was made of mammoth's tusk and is believed, based onAMS dating of objects
found with it, to be about 30,000 years old.[12][13] King Tutankhamen, the famous Pharaoh of
ancient Egypt, who died over 3,300 years ago, owned a collection of boomerangs of both the
straight flying (hunting) and returning variety.[11]

No one knows for sure how the returning boomerang was first invented, but some modern
boomerang makers speculate that it developed from the flattened throwing stick, still used by
the Australian Aborigines and some other tribal people around the world, including the Navajo
Indians in America. A hunting boomerang is delicately balanced and much harder to make than a
returning one. Probably, the curving flight characteristic of returning boomerangs was first noticed
by stone age hunterstrying to "tune" their throwing sticks to fly straight.[11]

Modern use[edit]
Modern sport boomerangs

Today, boomerangs are mostly used as sporting items. There are different types of throwing
contests: accuracy of return; Aussie round; trick catch; maximum time aloft; fast catch; and
endurance (see below). The modern sport boomerang (often referred to as a 'boom' or 'rang'), is
made of Finnish birch plywood, hardwood, plastic or composite materials and comes in many
different shapes and colours. Most sport boomerangs typically weigh less than 100 grams (3.5 oz),
with MTA boomerangs (boomerangs used for the maximum time aloft event) often under 25 grams
(0.9 oz).

Boomerangs have also been suggested as an alternative to clay pigeons in shotgun sports, where
the flight of the boomerang better mimics the flight of a bird offering a more challenging target.[14]

The modern boomerang is often CAD designed with precision airfoils. The number of "wings" is often
more than 2 as more lift is provided by 3 or 4 wings than by 2.[15][16]

In 1992 German Astronaut Ulf Merbold performed an experiment aboard Spacelab that established
that boomerangs function in zero gravity as they do on Earth. French Astronaut Jean-François
Clervoy aboard MIR repeated this in 1997.[17]In 2008, Japanese astronaut Takao Doi again repeated
the experiment.[18][19]

Hunting[edit]
It is thought by some that the shape and elliptical flight path of the returning boomerang makes it
useful for hunting birds and small mammals, or that noise generated by the movement of the
boomerang through the air, or, by a skilled thrower, lightly clipping leaves of a tree whose branches
house birds, would help scare the birds towards the thrower. It is further supposed by some that this
was used to frighten flocks or groups of birds into nets that were usually strung up between trees or
thrown by hidden hunters.[20] In southeastern Australia, it is claimed that boomerangs were made to
hover over a flock of ducks; mistaking it for a hawk, the ducks would dive away, toward hunters
armed with nets or clubs.[1] Despite these notions and similar claims by a few European writers, there
is no independently contemporaneous record of any aboriginal peoples using a returning boomerang
as a weapon.

Traditionally, most boomerangs used by aboriginal groups in Australia were 'non-returning'. These
weapons, sometimes called "throwsticks" or "kylies", were used for hunting a variety of prey,
from kangaroos to parrots; at a range of about one hundred meters, a 2-kg non-returning boomerang
could inflict mortal injury to a large animal.[1] A throwstick thrown nearly horizontally may fly in a
nearly straight path and could fell a kangaroo on impact to the legs or knees, while the long-necked
emu could be killed by a blow to the neck.[citation needed] Hooked non-returning boomerangs, known as
"beaked kylies", used in northern Central Australia, have been claimed to kill multiple birds when
thrown into a dense flock. It should be noted that throwsticks are used as multi-purpose tools by
today's aboriginal peoples, and besides throwing could be wielded as clubs, used for digging, used
to start friction fires, and are sonorous when two are struck together.

Design

Boomerangs for sale at the 2005 Melbourne Show

A returning boomerang is a rotating wing. Though it is not a requirement that the boomerang be in its
traditional shape, it is usually flat. A falling boomerang starts spinning, and most then fall in a spiral.
When the boomerang is thrown with high spin, the wings produce lift. Because of its rapid spinning,
a boomerang flies in a curve rather than a straight line. When thrown correctly, a boomerang returns
to its starting point.

Returning boomerangs consist of two or more arms, or wings, connected at an angle. Each wing is
shaped as an airfoil.

As the wing rotates and the boomerang moves through the air, this creates airflow over the wings
and this creates lift on both "wings". However, during one-half of each blade's rotation, it sees a
higher airspeed, because the rotation tip-speed and the forward speed add, and when it is in the
other half of the rotation, the tip speed subtracts from the forward speed. Thus if thrown nearly
upright each blade generates more lift at the top than the bottom.[21]

While it might be expected that this would cause the boomerang to tilt around the axis of travel,
because the boomerang has significant angular momentum, gyroscopic effect causes the plane of
rotation to tilt about an axis that is 90 degrees to the direction of flight, and this is what curves the
flight in such a way that it will tend to return.[21]

Thus gyroscopic precession is what makes the boomerang return to the thrower when thrown
correctly. This is also what makes the boomerang fly straight up into the air when thrown incorrectly.
With the exception of long-distance boomerangs, they should not be thrown sidearm or like
a Frisbee, but rather thrown with the long axis of the wings rotating in an almost-vertical plane.

Fast Catch boomerangs usually have three or more symmetrical wings (in the planform view),
whereas a Long Distance boomerang is most often shaped similar to a question mark.[22] Maximum
Time Aloft boomerangs mostly have one wing considerably longer than the other. This feature, along
with carefully executed bends and twists in the wings help to set up an 'auto-rotation' effect to
maximise the boomerang's hover-time in descending from the highest point in its flight.

Some boomerangs have turbulators—bumps or pits on the top surface that act to increase the lift as
boundary layer transition activators (to keep attached turbulent flow instead of laminar separation).

Modern boomerang construction[edit]

The pattern is placed on the plywood so that the wood grain runs across from the tip of one end of
the boomerang to the tip of the other end. Try to get the grain of the outer ply running at 45 degrees
to the length of the arms. If there is any warp in the wood, make sure that this produces dihedral on
the upper side of the boomerang i.e. if the airfoil is uppermost and the boomerang is on a flat
surface, then the wingtips are raised slightly above the surface. (Any anhedral and the boomerang
won't fly). The pattern is traced on to the boomerang with a pencil. The boomerang shape is cut out
of the plywood. This basic cut out is called the blank. An outline is drawn on the top of the blank to
show the areas to be shaped for the leading and trailing edges of the wings. The profiles of the
wings are shaped. The top of the leading edge of each wing is decreased at a 45° angle, while the
rear of the wing is angled down to leave 1–2 mm thick trailing edge. The bottom face of the leading
edge is trimmed back slightly. The tips of the wings are shaped down to the same thickness as the
trailing edge. The various layers of the plywood serve as an outline that helps the worker achieve
equal slopes. A shallow section may also be cut out from the bottom surface of each wing. For
example, this might consist of a 5-cm long strip near the wing tip and behind the leading edge. Using
progressively finer sandpaper, the surface of the boomerang is smoothed carefully. Check the
boomerang for a slight amount of dihedral (2–3 mm) on both wings at this point. If there isn't any,
introduce some by heating the boomerang either over a heat source or a brief spell in the microwave
(about 30 sec on high) - if the boomerang is just about uncomfortably hot to handle, you've got it just
about right. Bend up the tips of the wings and place the boomerang on a flat surface with a coin
under each tip and a weight (bag of sugar?) on the elbow of the boomerang. Allow it to cool for
twenty minutes or more. After spraying the surface with sanding sealer, the surface is smoothed with
fine steel wool. The boomerang is then painted again.
Tuning the flight
The boomerang is then thrown several times to check if it works. The extreme subtleties of
the aerodynamic forces on the light wooden boomerang make it surprisingly difficult to predict how
the finished boomerang will perform. Two apparently identical boomerangs may radically differ in
their flight patterns. For example they may climb uncontrollably, they may fall repeatedly into the
ground, they may exhibit long narrow pattern non-returning flight, or display other erratic behaviour.
The only sure way to know is to flight test them. There are several methods to correct problems, for
example the wing profiles might be adjusted by additional sanding. Plywood boomerangs may be
heated for a short time in a microwave oven which softens the glue between the layers and then can
be carefully intentionally warped. Angle of attack of the leading arm and the dingle arm can be
adjusted, as well as the overall dihedral angle of the wings all with some effect. There are many
other esoteric tuning techniques as well. Tuning boomerangs is more of a slowly learned art than a
science. The quality of the boomerang is also checked throughout this process. A tuned boomerang
that flies well should be handled with respect when not in use. It should be stored carefully on a flat
surface away from too much humidity, direct sunlight, or heat. These conditions can subtly affect the
shape of the boomerang and ruin its flight characteristics, and the boomerang will then need to be
re-tuned.

The hunting boomerang is more delicately balanced and is therefore much harder to make than a
returning one. When thrown this type of boomerang needs to develop no unbalanced aerodynamic
forces that would affect its flight path, so that it will fly true to the target. The curving flight of the
returning boomerang was probably first noticed as an undesirable quality when early hunters tried to
“tune,” their curved throwing sticks to fly arrow straight.

Art boomerang renaissance[edit]

Beginning in the later part of the twentieth century there has been a bloom in the independent
creation of unusually designed art boomerangs. These often have little or no resemblance to the
traditional historical ones and on first sight some of these objects often do not look like boomerangs
at all. The use of modern thin plywoods and synthetic plastics have greatly contributed to their
success. As long as there are somewhere in the object several airfoil contoured surfaces, whether
wing shaped or not, these boomerangs can be thrown and will return. Designs are amazingly diverse
and can range from animal inspired forms, humorous themes, complex calligraphic and symbolic
shapes, to the purely abstract. Painted surfaces are similarly richly diverse.

Throwing technique
A right-handed boomerang is thrown with a counter-clockwise spin causing a counter-clockwise
flight (as seen from above). Conversely, a left-handed boomerang is constructed as a mirror image
with the aerofoils' leading edges on the left side of the wings, as seen from above, causing it to
produce lift when circling clockwise. Although appearing symmetrical from a plan view, the leading
edges are on opposite edges of the wings (leading and trailing) so as to present the leading edges of
the aerofoil to the wind when spinning.

A boomerang school, William Street, Kings Cross, Sydney

Most sport boomerangs are in the range of about 70 to 110 grams (2.5 to 3.9 oz). The range on
most is between 20 and 40 metres (22 and 44 yd). Boomerangs are generally thrown in treeless,
large open spaces that are twice as large as the range of the boomerang. A right- or left-handed
boomerang can be thrown with either hand, but the flight direction will depend upon the boomerang,
not the thrower. Throwing a boomerang with the wrong hand requires a throwing motion that many
throwers may find awkward.

For right-handed boomerangs, throwers first establish the wind and launch direction by first facing
into the wind, slowly turning their head left to right. They then turn between thirty to seventy degrees
clockwise to the right, depending on wind speed (turning farther for stronger winds). The correct
launch orientation makes the boomerang's flight begin by flying into the wind, then having its flight
take it through the "eye of the wind" and finally returning downwind using the wind's speed to help
complete its flight back to the thrower.

The thrower stands sideways with feet-apart, left foot forward, so as to point in the direction of flight.
Holding the right (or left) wing tip, flat side down, using the thumb on top and one to three fingers
below, they tilt the boomerang out at a ten to thirty degree angle from vertical. This angle is called
"layover." Different boomerangs have different flight characteristics, and the bigger the layover the
higher the boomerang will fly.

Cocking the boomerang back to ensure a good spin and stepping sharply forward with the left foot,
the thrower follows through with their right arm and leg as they throw the boomerang overhand in a
similar way to throwing a spear or pitching a baseball, aiming the boomerang by pointing with their
left arm at or just above the horizon. Launching is performed crisply using a whip-like flick with their
index finger, at the end of the throw, to cause quick counter-clockwise spin (seen from above). It is
the spin that makes the boomerang return. The strength of throw and spin must be varied according
to the speed of the wind – the stronger the wind, the less power is required to provide lift enough to
make the return journey. In other words, the stronger the wind, the softer the boomerang is thrown.

The boomerang initially should curve around to the left, climb gently, level out in mid-flight, arc
around and descend slowly, and then finish by popping up slightly, hovering, then stalling near the
thrower. Ideally, it should hover momentarily, to allow the catcher to clamp their hands shut
decisively and firmly on the horizontal boomerang from above and below, sandwiching the centre
between the catcher's hands. In other words, it is possible to avoid painful wing strikes to the hand
by not sticking fingers directly into the edge of the fast-spinning wing rotor.

Contrary to what beginners think, a boomerang should never be thrown level sidearm like a flying
disc, as it will turn abruptly upwards in the direction of the top of its airfoils. It will then climb very high
vertically and at its highest point will quickly lose all lift and descend accelerating very fast like a dive
bomber so that its landing will be vertical and with great force and probably cause damage,
especially to wooden boomerangs which may break into pieces.

Wind speed and direction are very important for a successful throw. A right-handed boomerang is
thrown with the wind on one's left cheek. The angle to the wind depends on the boomerang, but
starting with a 45-degree angle is recommended. Depending on where the boomerang lands, this
angle can be modified so that a closer return is achieved. For example, if the boomerang lands too
far on the left, turn to throw more to the right of the wind the next time. If the return goes over one's
head, then throw softer. If it falls short, then throw harder. As for the wind speed, a light wind of three
to five miles an hour is ideal. If the wind is strong enough to fly a kite, then that is usually too strong
for boomerangs.

Throwers can modify various actions to achieve a closer return according to the conditions; the
throw angle to the wind, the tilt, the power, the spin, and the inclination can be adjusted to vary the
return point so the catch point can be perfected. Facing into the wind, then turning the head slightly
to either side to check for the cooling effect, allows one to assess the wind direction, and thus the
throwing direction, more accurately. For consistency, return to the same throw point and then use a
background target object on the horizon to throw in the same direction relative to the wind each time.

Competitions and records

In international competition, a world cup is held every second year. As of 2010, teams from Germany
and the United States dominated international competition. The individual World Champion title was
won in 2000, 2002 and 2004 by Swiss throwerManuel Schütz. In 2006, Fridolin Frost from Germany
won the title, with Manuel Schütz finishing third.
Competition disciplines
Modern boomerang tournaments usually involve some or all of the events listed below[23] In all
disciplines the boomerang must travel at least 20 metres (66 ft) from the thrower. Throwing takes
place individually. The thrower stands at the centre of concentric rings marked on an open field.

Events include:

 Aussie Round: considered by many to be the ultimate test of boomeranging skills. The
boomerang should ideally cross the 50-metre (160 ft) circle and come right back to the centre.
Each thrower has five attempts. Points are awarded for distance, accuracy and the catch.
 Accuracy: points are awarded according to how close the boomerang lands to the centre of the
rings. The thrower must not touch the boomerang after it has been thrown. Each thrower has
five attempts. In major competitions there are two accuracy disciplines: Accuracy 100 and
Accuracy 50.
 Endurance: points are awarded for the number of catches achieved in 5 minutes.
 Fast Catch: the time taken to throw and catch the boomerang five times. The winner has the
fastest timed catches.
 Trick Catch/Doubling: points are awarded for trick catches behind the back, between the feet,
and so on. In Doubling the thrower has to throw two boomerangs at the same time and catch
them in sequence in a special way.
 Consecutive Catch: points are awarded for the number of catches achieved before the
boomerang is dropped. The event is not timed.
 MTA 100 (Maximal Time Aloft, 100 metres (330 ft)): points are awarded for the length of time
spent by the boomerang in the air. The field is normally a circle measuring 100 m. An alternative
to this discipline, without the 100 m restriction is called MTA unlimited.
 Long Distance: the boomerang is thrown from the middle point of a 40-metre (130 ft) baseline.
The furthest distance travelled by the boomerang away from the baseline is measured. On
returning the boomerang must cross the baseline again but does not have to be caught. A
special section is dedicated to LD below.
 Juggling: as with Consecutive Catch, only with two boomerangs. At any given time one
boomerang must be in the air.
Guinness world distance record
A boomerang was used to set a Guinness World Record with a throw of 1,401.5 feet (427.2
meters) by David Schummy on15 March 2005 at Murrarie Recreation Ground, Australia.[25] This
broke the previous record set by Erin Hemmings who threw an Aerobie 1,333 feet (406.3
meters) on 14 July 2003 at Fort Funston, San Francisco.[26]
Long-distance boomerangs
Long-distance boomerang throwers aim to have the boomerang go the furthest possible
distance while returning close to the throwing point. In competition the boomerang must intersect
an imaginary surface defined as an infinite vertical extrude of a 40-metre (44 yd) large line
centred on the thrower. Outside of competitions, the definition is not so strict, and the thrower is
happy whenever he does not have to travel 50 metres (55 yd) after the throw, to recover the
boomerang.

General properties
Long-distance boomerangs are optimised to have minimal drag while still having enough lift to
fly and return. For this reason, they have a very narrow throwing window, which discourages
many beginners from continuing with this discipline. For the same reason, the quality of
manufactured long-distance boomerangs is often non-deterministic.

Today's long-distance boomerangs have almost all an S or ? – question mark shape and have
a beveled edge on both sides (the bevel on the bottom side is sometimes called an undercut).
This is to minimise drag and lower the lift. Lift must be low because the boomerang is thrown
with an almost total layover (flat). Long-distance boomerangs are most frequently made of
composite material, mainly fibre glass epoxy composites.

Flight path
The projection of the flight path of long-distance boomerang on the ground resembles a water
drop. For older types of long-distance boomerangs (all types of so-called big hooks), the first
and last third of the flight path are very low, while the middle third is a fast climbing followed by a
fast descent. Nowadays boomerangs are made in a way that their whole flight path is almost
planar with a constant climbing during the first half of the trajectory and then a rather constant
descent during the second half.

From theoretical point of view, long-distance boomerangs are interesting also for the following
reason: for achieving a different behaviour during different flight phases, the ratio of the rotation
frequency to the forward velocity has a U-shaped function, i.e. its derivative crosses 0.
Practically, it means that the boomerang being at the furthest point has a very low forward
velocity. The kinetic energy of the forward component is then stored in the potential energy. This
is not true for other types of boomerangs, where the loss of kinetic energy is non-reversible (the
MTAs also store kinetic energy in potential energy during the first half of the flight, but then the
potential energy is lost directly by the drag).

Related terms
 Kylie is one of the Aboriginal words for the hunting stick used in warfare and for hunting
animals.[27] Instead of following curved flight paths, kylies fly in straight lines from the throwers.
They are typically much larger than boomerangs, and can travel very long distances; due to their
size and hook shapes, they can cripple or kill an animal or human opponent. The word is
perhaps an English corruption of a word meaning boomerang taken from one of the Western
Desert languages, for example, the Warlpiri word karli.

Boxing

Boxing is a combat sport in which two people engage in a contest of strength, speed, reflexes,
endurance, and will, by throwing punches at each other, usually with gloved hands.
Amateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth sport and is a common fixture in most
international games—it also has its own World Championships. Boxing is supervised by
a referee over a series of one- to three-minute intervals called rounds. The result is decided when an
opponent is deemed incapable to continue by a referee, is disqualified for breaking a rule, resigns
by throwing in a towel, or is pronounced the winner or loser based on the judges' scorecards at the
end of the contest.
While people have fought in hand-to-hand combat since before the dawn of history, the origin of
boxing as an organized sport may be its acceptance by theancient Greeks as an Olympic game in
BC 688. Boxing evolved from 16th- and 18th-century prizefights, largely in Great Britain, to the
forerunner of modern boxing in the mid-19th century, again initially in Great Britain and later in the
United States.
Early history

Minoan youths boxing, Akrotiri (Santorini) fresco. Earliest documented use of 'gloves'.

See also Ancient Greek boxing

The earliest known depiction of boxing comes from a Sumerian relief from the 3rd millennium
BC.[1] Later depictions from the 2nd millennium BC are found in reliefs from
the Mesopotamian nations of Assyria and Babylonia, and in Hittite art from Asia Minor. The earliest
evidence for fist fighting with any kind of gloves can be found onMinoan Crete (c. 1500–900 BC),
and on Sardinia, if we consider the boxing statuesof Prama mountains (c. 2000–1000 BC).[1]

Boxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome. In order for the fighters to protect themselves
against their opponents they wrapped leather thongs around their fists. Eventually harder leather
was used and the thong soon became aweapon. The Romans even introduced metal studs to the
thongs to make the cestuswhich then led to a more sinister weapon called the myrmex (‘limb
piercer’). Fighting events were held at Roman Amphitheatres. The Roman form of boxing was often
a fight until death to please the spectators who gathered at such events. However, especially in later
times, purchased slaves and trained combat performers were valuable commodities, and their lives
were not given up without due consideration. Often slaves were used against one another in a circle
marked on the floor. This is where the term ring came from. In 393 AD, during the
Roman gladiator period, boxing was abolished due to excessive brutality. It was not until the late
17th century that boxing re-surfaced in London.
Modern boxing
Broughton's rules (1743)[edit]

A straight right demonstrated inEdmund Price's The Science of Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867

Records of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when
the wearing of weapons became common once again and interest in fighting with the fists waned.
However, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different
cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient
Rus called Kulachniy Boy or "Fist Fighting".

As the wearing of swords became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists.
The sport would later resurface in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle
boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight
in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury, and the first English bare-knuckle
champion wasJames Figg in 1719.[2] This is also the time when the word "boxing" first came to be
used. It should be noted, that this earliest form of modern boxing was very different. Contests in Mr.
Figg's time, in addition to fist fighting, also contained fencing and cudgeling. On 6 January 1681, the
first recorded boxing match took place in Britain when Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of
Albemarle (and later Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica) engineered a bout between his butler and his
butcher with the latter winning the prize.

Early fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits, and no referee. In
general, it was extremely chaotic. The first boxing rules, called the Broughton's rules, were
introduced by champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths
sometimes occurred.[3] Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of
30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were
prohibited. Broughton also invented and encouraged the use of "mufflers", a form of padded gloves,
which were used in training and exhibitions. The first paper on boxing was published in the early
1700s by a successful Cornish Wrestler from Bunnyip, Cornwall, named Sir Thomas Parkyns, who
was also a Physics student of Sir Isaac Newton. The paper was actually a single page in his
extensive Wrestling & Fencing manual that entailed a system of headbutting, punching, eye gouging,
chokes, and hard throws not common in modern Boxing.[4] Parkyns added the techniques described
in his paper to his own fighting style.

Tom Cribb vs Tom Molineaux in a re-match for the heavyweight championship of England, 1811

These rules did allow the fighters an advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers; they permitted the
fighter to drop to one knee to begin a 30-second count at any time. Thus a fighter realizing he was in
trouble had an opportunity to recover. However, this was considered "unmanly"[5] and was frequently
disallowed by additional rules negotiated by the Seconds of the Boxers.[6] Intentionally going down in
modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system. Furthermore, as
the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and wristwraps to protect their hands, they used
different punching technique to preserve their hands because the head was a common target to hit
full out as almost all period manuals have powerful straight punches with the whole body behind
them to the face (including forehead) as the basic blows.[7][8]

London Prize Ring rules (1838)[edit]

Main article: London Prize Ring rules

In 1838, the London Prize Ring rules were codified. Later revised in 1853, they stipulated the
following:[9]

 Fights occurred in a 24 feet (7.3 m)-square ring surrounded by ropes.

 If a fighter were knocked down, he had to rise within 30 seconds under his own power to be
allowed to continue.
 Biting, headbutting and hitting below the belt were declared illegal.
Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867)
In 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur
championships held at Lillie Bridgein London for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights.
The rules were published under the patronage of theMarquess of Queensberry, whose name has
always been associated with them.

The June 1894 Leonard–Cushing bout. Each of the six one-minute rounds recorded by the Kinetographwas made
available to exhibitors for $22.50.[10] Customers who watched the final round saw Leonard score a knockdown.

There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be "a fair stand-up boxing match"
in a 24-foot-square or similar ring. Rounds were three minutes with one-minute rest intervals
between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he were knocked down, and wrestling
was banned.

The introduction of gloves of "fair-size" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of
boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists.[11] The gloves
can be used to block an opponent's blows. As a result of their introduction, bouts became longer and
more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing,
countering and angling. Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms
and more on the gloves, the classical forearms outwards, torso leaning back stance of the bare
knuckle boxer was modified to a more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the
hands are held closer to the face.

Modern[edit]

Through the late nineteenth century, the martial art of boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of
dubious legitimacy. Outlawed in England and much of the United States, prizefights were often held
at gambling venues and broken up by police.[12] Brawling and wrestling tactics continued, and riots at
prizefights were common occurrences. Still, throughout this period, there arose some notable bare
knuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics.

The English case of R v. Coney in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning
actual bodily harm, despite the consent of the participants. This marked the end of widespread
public bare-knuckle contests in England.
The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was "Gentleman Jim" Corbett,
who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans.[13]

The first instance of film censorship in the United States occurred in 1897 when several states
banned the showing of prize fighting films from the state of Nevada,[14] where it was legal at the time.

Throughout the early twentieth century, boxers struggled to achieve legitimacy.[citation needed] They were
aided by the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions such as
John L. Sullivan.

Rules
Main article: Marquess of Queensberry rules

The Marquess of Queensberry rules have been the general rules governing modern boxing since
their publication in 1867.

A boxing match typically consists of a determined number of three-minute rounds, a total of up to 12

rounds (formerly 15). A minute is typically spent between each round with the fighters in their
assigned corners receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff. The fight is controlled by
a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their
ability to fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls.

Up to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers,
based on punches that connect, defense, knockdowns, and other, more subjective, measures.
Because of the open-ended style of boxing judging, many fights have controversial results, in which
one or both fighters believe they have been "robbed" or unfairly denied a victory. Each fighter has an
assigned corner of the ring, where his or her coach, as well as one or more "seconds" may
administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds. Each boxer enters into the
ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return
to their corner at the signaled end of each round.

A bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges, and is said to
"go the distance". The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner. With
three judges, unanimous and split decisions are possible, as are draws. A boxer may win the bout
before a decision is reached through a knock-out ; such bouts are said to have ended "inside the
distance". If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether the boxer touches the
canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet as a result of the opponent's
punch and not a slip, as determined by the referee, the referee begins counting until the fighter
returns to his or her feet and can continue.

Should the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled "knocked out" (whether
unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout (KO). A "technical knock-
out" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter
is unable to safely continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend
themselves. Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a "three-knockdown rule", in
which three knockdowns in a given round result in a TKO. A TKO is considered a knockout in a
fighter's record. A "standing eight" count rule may also be in effect. This gives the referee the right to
step in and administer a count of eight to a fighter that he feels may be in danger, even if no
knockdown has taken place. After counting the referee will observe the fighter, and decide if he is fit
to continue. For scoring purposes, a standing eight count is treated as a knockdown.

Ingemar Johansson of Sweden KO's heavyweight champion Floyd Patterson, 26 June 1959.

In general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, or
spitting. The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area with
intent to cause pain or injury. Failure to abide by the former may result in a foul. They also are
prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a
closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the
wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of
the neck or head (called a "rabbit-punch") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes
for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their
opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between).

If a "clinch" – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps his or her opponents arms and holds on to
create a pause – is broken by the referee, each fighter must take a full step back before punching
again (alternatively, the referee may direct the fighters to "punch out" of the clinch). When a boxer is
knocked down, the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the furthest neutral
corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue.

Violations of these rules may be ruled "fouls" by the referee, who may issue warnings, deduct points,
or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic loss, depending on the seriousness and
intentionality of the foul. An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing
usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified. A fighter who suffers an accidental low-
blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be ruled knocked out if they
are unable to continue. Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a "no contest"
result, or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least
three in a four-round fight) have passed.

Unheard of these days, but common during the early 20th Century in North America, a "newspaper
decision (NWS)" might be made after a no decision bout had ended. A "no decision" bout occurred
when, by law or by pre-arrangement of the fighters, if both boxers were still standing at the fight's
conclusion and there was no knockout, no official decision was rendered and neither boxer was
declared the winner. But this did not prevent the pool of ringside newspaper reporters from declaring
a consensus result among themselves and printing a newspaper decision in their publications.
Officially, however, a "no decision" bout resulted in neither boxer winning or losing. Boxing historians
sometimes use these unofficial newspaper decisions in compiling fight records for illustrative
purposes only. Often, media outlets covering a match will personally score the match, and post their
scores as an independent sentence in their report.

Professional vs. amateur boxing

Throughout the 17th through 19th centuries, boxing bouts were motivated by money, as the fighters
competed for prize money, promoters controlled the gate, and spectators bet on the result. The
modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports, and amateur boxing became an
Olympic sport in 1908. In their current form, Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to
three or four rounds, scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed,
regardless of impact, and fighters wear protective headgear, reducing the number of injuries,
knockdowns, and knockouts.[15] Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted
by ringside judges, but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of
an Automated Boxing Scoring System, which introduces scoring objectivity, improves safety, and
arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators. Professional boxing remains by far the
most popular form of the sport globally, though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some
former Soviet republics. For most fighters, an amateur career, especially at the Olympics, serves to
develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career.

Amateur boxing
Amateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games and Commonwealth
Games, and in many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations. Amateur boxing
has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical
damage. Bouts consist of three rounds of three minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth
Games, and three rounds of three minutes in a national ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) bout,
each with a one-minute interval between rounds.

Competitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip or circle across the knuckle.
Each competitor must have their hands properly wrapped, pre-fight, for added protection on their
hands and for added cushion under the gloves. Gloves worn by the fighters must be twelve
ounces in weight unless, the fighters weigh under 165 pounds, thus allowing them to wear 10
ounce gloves. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the
white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands cleanly on the head or torso with sufficient
force is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal
blows. A belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches – any boxer repeatedly
landing low blows below the belt is disqualified. Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use
holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging. If this occurs, the referee separates the
opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being
penalized or ultimately disqualified. Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, if
one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced. [16] Amateur
bouts which end this way may be noted as "RSC" (referee stopped contest) with notations for an
outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury
(RSCH).now as per the new rules headgear is removed as protection in the upcoming games

Professional boxing[edit]
Main article: Professional boxing

Firpo sending Dempsey outside the ring; painting by George Bellows.

Professional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts, typically ranging from ten to
twelve rounds, though four round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club
fighters. There are also some two-[17] and three-round professional bouts,[18] especially in
Australia. Through the early twentieth century, it was common for fights to have unlimited
rounds, ending only when one fighter quit, benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey.
Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of
the twentieth century until theearly 1980s, when the death of boxer Duk Koo Kim eventually
prompted the World Boxing Council and other organizations sanctioning professional boxing to
reduce the limit to twelve rounds.

Headgear is not permitted in professional bouts, and boxers are generally allowed to take much
more damage before a fight is halted. At any time, however, the referee may stop the contest if
he believes that one participant cannot defend himself due to injury. In that case, the other
participant is awarded a technical knockout win. A technical knockout would also be awarded if a
fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit
to continue by a doctor because of the cut. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose
job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut. If a
boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also
awarded a technical knockout victory. In contrast with amateur boxing, professional male boxers
have to be bare chested.[19]

Boxing styles
Definition of style
"Style" is often defined as the strategic approach a fighter takes during a bout. No two fighters'
styles are alike, as it is determined by that individual's physical and mental attributes. There are
three main styles in boxing: out-fighter ("boxer"),brawler (or "slugger"), and In-
fighter ("swarmer"). These styles may be divided into several special subgroups, such as
counter puncher, etc. The main philosophy of the styles is, that each style has an advantage
over one, but disadvantage over the other one. It follows the rock-paper-scissors scenario -
boxer beats brawler, swarmer beats boxer, and brawler beats swarmer.[20]

Boxer/out-fighter[edit]
Heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali is a typical example of an out-fighter.

A classic "boxer" or stylist (also known as an "out-fighter") seeks to maintain distance between
himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and
gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend
to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable
knockout records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to
control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and
exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler.[21] Out-fighters need reach, hand speed,
reflexes, and footwork.

Notable out-fighters include Muhammad Ali, Larry Holmes, Joe Calzaghe, Floyd Mayweather
Jr., Wilfredo Gómez, Salvador Sanchez, Cecilia Brækhus, Gene Tunney,[22] Ezzard
Charles,[23] Willie Pep,[24] Meldrick Taylor, Ricardo Lopez, Roy Jones, Jr., and Sugar Ray
Leonard, Miguel Vazquez. This style was also used by fictional boxer Apollo Creed.

Boxer-puncher[edit]

A boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with a combination
of technique and power, often with the ability to knock opponents out with a combination and in
some instances a single shot. Their movement and tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter
(although they are generally not as mobile as an out-fighter),[25] but instead of winning by
decision, they tend to wear their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score
the knockout. A boxer must be well rounded to be effective using this style.

Notable boxer-punchers include Manny Pacquiao, Wladimir Klitschko, Lennox Lewis, Joe
Louis,[26] Wilfredo Gómez, Oscar de la Hoya, Archie Moore, Miguel Cotto, Nonito Donaire, Sam
Langford,[27] Henry Armstrong,[28] Sugar Ray Robinson,[29] Tony Zale, Carlos Monzón,[30] Alexis
Argüello, Erik Morales, Terry Norris, Marco Antonio Barrera, Naseem Hamed, Thomas
Hearnsand Victor Ortiz.

Counter puncher

Counter punchers are slippery, defensive style fighters who often rely on their opponent's
mistakes in order to gain the advantage, whether it be on the score cards or more preferably a
knockout. They use their well-rounded defense to avoid or block shots and then immediately
catch the opponent off guard with a well placed and timed punch. A fight with a skilled counter-
puncher can turn into a war of attrition, where each shot landed is a battle in itself. Thus, fighting
against counter punchers requires constant feinting and the ability to avoid telegraphing ones
attacks. To be truly successful using this style they must have good reflexes, a high level of
prediction and awareness, pinpoint accuracy and speed, both in striking and in footwork.

Notable counter punchers include Vitali Klitschko, Floyd Mayweather, Jr., Evander
Holyfield, Max Schmeling, Chris Byrd, Jim Corbett, Jack Johnson, Bernard Hopkins, Laszlo
Papp, Jerry Quarry, Anselmo Moreno, James Toney, Marvin Hagler, Juan Manuel
Márquez, Humberto Soto, Roger Mayweather, Pernell Whitaker and Sergio Gabriel Martinez.

Counter punchers usually wear their opponents down by causing them to miss their punches.
The more the opponent misses, the faster they tire, and the psychological effects of being
unable to land a hit will start to sink in. The counter puncher often tries to outplay their opponent
entirely, not just in a physical sense, but also in a mental and emotional sense. This style can be
incredibly difficult, especially against seasoned fighters, but winning a fight without getting hit is
often worth the pay-off. They usually try to stay away from the center of the ring, in order to
outmaneuver and chip away at their opponents. A large advantage in counter-hitting is the
forward momentum of the attacker, which drives them further into your return strike. As such,
knockouts are more common than one would expect from a defensive style.

Brawler/slugger[edit]

Famous brawler George Foreman

A brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring, but makes up for it
through sheer punching power. Mainly Irish, Irish-American, Puerto Rican,Mexican,
and Mexican-American boxers popularized this style. Many brawlers tend to lack mobility,
preferring a less mobile, more stable platform and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast
on their feet. They may also have a tendency to ignore combination punching in favor of
continuous beat-downs with one hand and by throwing slower, more powerful single punches
(such as hooks and uppercuts). Their slowness and predictable punching pattern (single
punches with obvious leads) often leaves them open to counter punches, so successful brawlers
must be able to absorb substantial amounts of punishment. However not all brawler/slugger
fighters are not mobile, some can move around and switch styles if needed but still have the
brawler/slugger style such asWilfredo Gómez, Prince Naseem Hamed and Danny García.

A brawler's most important assets are power and chin (the ability to absorb punishment while
remaining able to continue boxing). Examples of this style include George Foreman, Danny
García, Wilfredo Gómez, Sonny Liston, John L. Sullivan,Max Baer, Prince Naseem Hamed, Ray
Mancini, David Tua, Arturo Gatti, Micky Ward, Michael Katsidis, James Kirkland,Marcos
Maidana, Jake Lamotta, Manny Pacquiao, and Ireland's John Duddy. This style of boxing was
also used by fictionalboxers Rocky Balboa and James "Clubber" Lang.

Brawlers tend to be more predictable and easy to hit but usually fare well enough against other
fighting styles because they train to take punches very well. They often have a higher chance
than other fighting styles to score a knockout against their opponents because they focus on
landing big, powerful hits, instead of smaller, faster attacks. Oftentimes they place focus on
training on their upper body instead of their entire body, to increase power and endurance. They
also aim to intimidate their opponents because of their power, stature and ability to take a
punch.

Swarmer/in-fighter

Undefeated heavyweight championRocky Marciano was an excellent swarmer and in-fighter but also had the
power of a brawler.

In-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called "pressure fighters") attempt to stay close to an

opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts. A successful in-
fighter often needs a good "chin" because swarming usually involves being hit with
many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. In-fighters operate
best at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their
opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms of their
opponents make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for their division have been
relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting.

The essence of a swarmer is non-stop aggression. Many short in-fighters utilize their stature to
their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending at the waist to slip underneath
or to the sides of incoming punches. Unlike blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch
disrupts his balance, permits forward movement past the opponent's extended arm and keeps
the hands free to counter. A distinct advantage that in-fighters have is when throwing uppercuts
where they can channel their entire bodyweight behind the punch; Mike Tyson was famous for
throwing devastating uppercuts. Marvin Hagler was known for his hard "chin", punching power,
body attack and the stalking of his opponents. Some in-fighters, like Mike Tyson, have been
known for being notoriously hard to hit. The key to a swarmer is aggression, endurance, chin,
and bobbing-and-weaving.

Notable in-fighters include Julio César Chávez, Miguel Cotto, Joe Frazier, Danny García, Mike
Tyson, Manny Pacquiao, Saúl Álvarez, Rocky Marciano, Jack Dempsey,[31] Wayne
McCullough, Harry Greb,[32][33] David Tua and Ricky Hatton.

Combinations of styles[edit]
All fighters have primary skills with which they feel most comfortable, but truly elite fighters are
often able to incorporate auxiliary styles when presented with a particular challenge. For
example, an out-fighter will sometimes plant his feet and counter punch, or a slugger may have
the stamina to pressure fight with his power punches.

Style matchups

Louis vs. Schmeling, 1936

There is a generally accepted rule of thumb about the success each of these boxing styles has
against the others. In general, an in-fighter has an advantage over an out-fighter, an out-fighter
has an advantage over a brawler, and a brawler has an advantage over an in-fighter; these form
a cycle with each style being stronger relative to one, and weaker relative to another, with none
dominating, as in rock-paper-scissors. Naturally, many other factors, such as the skill level and
training of the combatants, determine the outcome of a fight, but the widely held belief in this
relationship among the styles is embodied in the cliché amongst boxing fans and writers that
"styles make fights."

Brawlers tend to overcome swarmers or in-fighters because, in trying to get close to the slugger,
the in-fighter will invariably have to walk straight into the guns of the much harder-hitting brawler,
so, unless the former has a very good chin and the latter's stamina is poor, the brawler's
superior power will carry the day. A famous example of this type of match-up advantage would
be George Foreman's knockout victory over Joe Frazier in their original bout "The Sunshine
Showdown".

Although in-fighters struggle against heavy sluggers, they typically enjoy more success against
out-fighters or boxers. Out-fighters prefer a slower fight, with some distance between themselves
and the opponent. The in-fighter tries to close that gap and unleash furious flurries. On the
inside, the out-fighter loses a lot of his combat effectiveness, because he cannot throw the hard
punches. The in-fighter is generally successful in this case, due to his intensity in advancing on
his opponent and his good agility, which makes him difficult to evade. For example, the
swarming Joe Frazier, though easily dominated by the slugger George Foreman, was able to
create many more problems for the boxer Muhammad Ali in their three fights. Joe Louis, after
retirement, admitted that he hated being crowded, and that swarmers like untied/undefeated
champ Rocky Marciano would have caused him style problems even in his prime.

The boxer or out-fighter tends to be most successful against a brawler, whose slow speed (both
hand and foot) and poor technique makes him an easy target to hit for the faster out-fighter. The
out-fighter's main concern is to stay alert, as the brawler only needs to land one good punch to
finish the fight. If the out-fighter can avoid those power punches, he can often wear the brawler
down with fast jabs, tiring him out. If he is successful enough, he may even apply extra pressure
in the later rounds in an attempt to achieve a knockout. Most classic boxers, such as
Muhammad Ali, enjoyed their best successes against sluggers.

An example of a style matchup was the historical fight of Julio César Chávez, a swarmer or in-
fighter, against Meldrick Taylor, the boxer or out-fighter (see Julio César Chávez vs. Meldrick
Taylor). The match was nicknamed "Thunder Meets Lightning" as an allusion to punching power
of Chávez and blinding speed of Taylor. Chávez was the epitome of the "Mexican" style of
boxing. Taylor's hand and foot speed and boxing abilities gave him the early advantage, allowing
him to begin building a large lead on points. Chávez remained relentless in his pursuit of Taylor
and due to his greater punching power Chávez slowly punished Taylor. Coming into the later
rounds, Taylor was bleeding from the mouth, his entire face was swollen, the bones around his
eye socket had been broken, he had swallowed a considerable amount of his own blood, and as
he grew tired, Taylor was increasingly forced into exchanging blows with Chávez, which only
gave Chávez a greater chance to cause damage. While there was little doubt that Taylor had
solidly won the first three quarters of the fight, the question at hand was whether he would
survive the final quarter. Going into the final round, Taylor held a secure lead on the scorecards
of two of the three judges. Chávez would have to knock Taylor out to claim a victory, whereas
Taylor merely needed to stay away from the Mexican legend. However, Taylor did not stay
away, but continued to trade blows with Chávez. As he did so, Taylor showed signs of extreme
exhaustion, and every tick of the clock brought Taylor closer to victory unless Chávez could
knock him out. With about a minute left in the round, Chávez hit Taylor squarely with several
hard punches and stayed on the attack, continuing to hit Taylor with well-placed shots. Finally,
with about 25 seconds to go, Chávez landed a hard right hand that caused Taylor to stagger
forward towards a corner, forcing Chávez back ahead of him. Suddenly Chávez stepped around
Taylor, positioning him so that Taylor was trapped in the corner, with no way to escape from
Chávez' desperate final flurry. Chávez then nailed Taylor with a tremendous right hand that
dropped the younger man. By using the ring ropes to pull himself up, Taylor managed to return
to his feet and was given the mandatory 8-count. Referee Richard Steele asked Taylor twice if
he was able to continue fighting, but Taylor failed to answer. Steele then concluded that Taylor
was unfit to continue and signaled that he was ending the fight, resulting in a TKO victory for
Chávez with only two seconds to go in the bout.

Equipment
Since boxing involves forceful, repetitive punching, precautions must be taken to prevent
damage to bones in the hand. Most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without wrist
wraps and boxing gloves. Hand wraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves
are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more
force than if they did not utilize them. Gloves have been required in competition since the late
nineteenth century, though modern boxing gloves are much heavier than those worn by early
twentieth-century fighters. Prior to a bout, both boxers agree upon the weight of gloves to be
used in the bout, with the understanding that lighter gloves allow heavy punchers to inflict more
damage. The brand of gloves can also affect the impact of punches, so this too is usually
stipulated before a bout.

A mouth guard is important to protect the teeth and gums from injury, and to cushion the jaw,
resulting in a decreased chance of knockout. Both fighters must wear soft soled shoes to reduce
the damage from accidental (or intentional) stepping on feet. While older boxing boots more
commonly resembled those of a professional wrestler, modern boxing shoes and boots tend to
be quite similar to their amateur wrestling counterparts.
 Boxers practice their skills on two basic types of punching bags. A small, tear-drop-shaped
"speed bag" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical
"heavy bag" filled with sand, a synthetic substitute, or water is used to practice power punching
and body blows. In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also utilize sport-
nonspecific training equipment to build strength, speed, agility, and stamina. Common training
equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls.

Boxing matches typically take place in a boxing ring, a raised platform surrounded by ropes
attached to posts rising in each corner. The term "ring" has come to be used as a metaphor for
many aspects of prize fighting in general.

Technique
Stance
The modern boxing stance differs substantially from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and
early 20th centuries. The modern stance has a more upright vertical-armed guard, as opposed
to the more horizontal, knuckles-facing-forward guard adopted by early 20th century hook users
such as Jack Johnson.

Upright stance

Semi-crouch


Full crouch

In a fully upright stance, the boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart and the rear foot a
half-step in front of the lead man. Right-handed or orthodox boxers lead with the left foot and fist
(for most penetration power). Both feet are parallel, and the right heel is off the ground. The lead
(left) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The rear (right) fist is
held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is
tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs and is
often kept slightly offcenter. Wrists are slightly bent to avoid damage when punching and the
elbows are kept tucked in to protect the ribcage. Some boxers fight from a crouch, leaning
forward and keeping their feet closer together. The stance described is considered the
"textbook" stance and fighters are encouraged to change it around once it's been mastered as a
base. Case in point, many fast fighters have their hands down and have almost exaggerated
footwork, while brawlers or bully fighters tend to slowly stalk their opponents.

Left-handed or southpaw fighters use a mirror image of the orthodox stance, which can create
problems for orthodox fighters unaccustomed to receiving jabs, hooks, or crosses from the
opposite side. The southpaw stance, conversely, is vulnerable to a straight right hand.

North American fighters tend to favor a more balanced stance, facing the opponent almost
squarely, while many European fighters stand with their torso turned more to the side. The
positioning of the hands may also vary, as some fighters prefer to have both hands raised in
front of the face, risking exposure to body shots.

Modern boxers can sometimes be seen tapping their cheeks or foreheads with their fists in order
to remind themselves to keep their hands up (which becomes difficult during long bouts). Boxers
are taught to push off with their feet in order to move effectively. Forward motion involves lifting
the lead leg and pushing with the rear leg. Rearward motion involves lifting the rear leg and
pushing with the lead leg. During lateral motion the leg in the direction of the movement moves
first while the opposite leg provides the force needed to move the body.

Punches
There are four basic punches in boxing: the jab, cross, hook and uppercut. Any punch other than
a jab is considered a power punch. If a boxer is right-handed (orthodox), his left hand is the lead
 hand and his right hand is the rear hand. For a left-handed boxer or southpaw, the hand
positions are reversed. For clarity, the following discussion will assume a right-handed boxer.

Jab

Cross - in counter-punch with a looping

hook

Uppercut

 Jab – A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab is
accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 90
degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead
 shoulder can be brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to
guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to
resume a guard position in front of the face.
 The jab is recognized as the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it
provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a
counter punch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not
require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is
often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, harass an
opponent, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added,
moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power. Some notable boxers who
have been able to develop relative power in their jabs and use it to punish or 'wear
down' their opponents to some effect include Larry Holmes and Wladimir Klitschko.
 Cross – A powerful, straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the
rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and traveling towards the target in a
straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the
chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the
inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated counter-clockwise as
the cross is thrown. A measure of an ideally extended cross is that the shoulder of the
striking arm, the knee of the front leg and the ball of the front foot are on the same vertical
plane.[34]
 Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel
turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the
sudden weight transfer is what gives the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step
forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the
guard position resumed. It can be used to counter punch a jab, aiming for the
opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The
cross is also called a "straight" or "right", especially if it does not cross the opponent's
outstretched jab.
 Hook – A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head.
From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (knuckles pointing
forward) and the elbow bent. The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the
chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise
arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target.
 At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon
contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back
into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body and this technique is
sometimes called the "rip" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The
hook may also be thrown with the rear hand. Notable left hookers include Joe
Frazier and Mike Tyson.
Ricardo Dominguez (left) throws anuppercut on Rafael Ortiz (right).[35]

 Uppercut – A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the
torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest
and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising
arc towards the opponent's chin or torso.
 At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-
clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross.
The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to "lift" the opponent's body,
setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is
a deadly combination employing the uppercut to lift the opponent's chin into a vulnerable
position, then the hook to knock the opponent out.

These different punch types can be thrown in rapid succession to form combinations or
"combos". The most common is the jab and cross combination, nicknamed the "one-two
combo". This is usually an effective combination, because the jab blocks the opponent's view of
the cross, making it easier to land cleanly and forcefully.

A large, swinging circular punch starting from a cocked-back position with the arm at a longer
extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a
"roundhouse", "haymaker", or sucker-punch. Relying on body weight and centripetal force within
a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch
that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard.

Wide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the
opponent ample warning to react and counter. For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is
not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or
desperation. Sometimes it has been used, because of its immense potential power, to finish off
an already staggering opponent who seems unable or unlikely to take advantage of the poor
position it leaves the puncher in.

Another unconventional punch is the rarely used bolo punch, in which the opponent swings an
arm out several times in a wide arc, usually as a distraction, before delivering with either that or
the other arm.

An illegal punch to the back of the head or neck is known as a rabbit punch.
 Defense
There are several basic maneuvers a boxer can use in order to evade or block punches,
depicted and discussed below.

Slipping

Bobbing

Blocking (with the arms)

Cover-Up (with the gloves)



Clinching

Footwork

Pulling away

 Slip – Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to
the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders.
This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to "slip" past. Muhammad Ali was famous
for extremely fast and close slips, as was an early Mike Tyson.
A slipper will also most likely be a good counter puncher. Most of the time a slipper will immediately strike their opponent back.

 Sway or fade – To anticipate a punch and move the upper body or head back so that it
misses or has its force appreciably lessened. Also called "rolling with the punch" or "
Riding The Punch".
 Duck or break – To drop down with the back straight so that a punch aimed at the head
glances or misses entirely.
 Bob and weave – Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch.
As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously
shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer
"weaves" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the
 opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called
"bobbing to the outside". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called
"bobbing to the inside". Joe Frazier, Jack Dempsey, Mike Tyson and Rocky Marciano
were masters of bobbing and weaving.
 Parry/block – Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's shoulder, hands or arms as
defensive tools to protect against incoming attacks. A block generally receives a punch
while a parry tends to deflect it. A "palm", "catch", or "cuff" is a defense which
intentionally takes the incoming punch on the palm portion of the defender's glove.
 The cover-Up – Covering up is the last opportunity (other than rolling with a punch) to
avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands
are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso
to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets
incoming punches "roll" off the guard. To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists
against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. This type of
guard is weak against attacks from below.
 The clinch – Clinching is a form of trapping or a rough form of grappling and occurs
when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be
employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or "tie up" the opponent's hands
so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both
hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the
forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the
opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary
match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee. Clinching is technically against the
rules, and in amateur fights points are deducted fairly quickly for it. It is unlikely,
however, to see points deducted for a clinch in professional boxing.

Philly Shell or Shoulder roll defense -This is actually a variation of the cross-arm defense.
The lead arm (left for an orthodox fighter and right for a southpaw) is placed across the torso
usually somewhere in between the belly button and chest and the lead hand rests on the
opposite side of the fighter's torso. The back hand is placed on the side of the face (right
side for orthodox fighters and left side for southpaws). The lead shoulder is brought in tight
against the side of the face (left side for orthodox fighters and right side for southpaws). This
style is used by fighters who like to counterpunch.[36]

To execute this guard a fighter must be very athletic and experienced. This style is so
effective for counterpunching because it allows fighters to slip punches by rotating and
dipping their upper body and causing blows to glance off the fighter. After the punch glances
off, the fighter's back hand is in perfect position to hit their out-of-position opponent. The
shoulder lean is used in this stance. To execute the shoulder lean a fighter rotates and
ducks (to the right for orthodox fighters and to the left for southpaws) when their opponents
punch is coming towards them and then rotates back towards their opponent while their
opponent is bringing their hand back.

The fighter will throw a punch with their back hand as they are rotating towards their
undefended opponent. The weakness to this style is that when a fighter is stationary and not
rotating they are open to be hit so a fighter must be athletic and well conditioned to
effectively execute this style. To beat this style, fighters like to jab their opponents shoulder
causing the shoulder and arm to be in pain and to demobilize that arm. Fighters that used
this defense include Sugar Ray Robinson, Ken Norton (also used this defense), Pernell
Whitaker, James Toney, and Floyd Mayweather Jr.

Less common strategies

 The "rope-a-dope" strategy : Used by Muhammad Ali in his 1974 "the Rumble in the
Jungle" bout against George Foreman, the rope-a-dope method involves lying back
against the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the
opponent to attempt numerous punches. The back-leaning posture, which does not
cause the defending boxer to become as unbalanced as they would during normal
backward movement, also maximizes the distance of the defender's head from his
opponent, increasing the probability that punches will miss their intended target.
Weathering the blows that do land, the defender lures the opponent into expending
energy while conserving his/her own. If successful, the attacking opponent will
eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the boxer can exploit. In modern boxing,
the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged since most opponents are not fooled by it and
few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered
assault. Recently, however, eight-division world championManny Pacquiao skillfully
used the strategy to gauge the power of welterweight titlist Miguel Cotto in November
2009. Pacquiao followed up the rope-a-dope gambit with a withering knockdown.
 Bolo punch : Occasionally seen in Olympic boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which
owes its power to the shortening of acircular arc rather than to transference of body
weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at
rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical
maneuver; this punch is not taught, being on the same plane in boxing technicality as is
the Ali shuffle. Nevertheless, a few professional boxers have used the bolo-punch to
great effect, including former welterweight champions Sugar Ray Leonard, and Kid
Gavilan. Middleweight champion Ceferino Garcia is regarded as the inventor of the bolo
punch.


Bolo punch

Overhand (overcut)

 Overhand right : The overhand right is a punch not found in every boxer's arsenal.
Unlike the right cross, which has a trajectory parallel to the ground, the overhand right
has a looping circular arc as it is thrown over-the-shoulder with the palm facing away
from the boxer. It is especially popular with smaller stature boxers trying to reach taller
opponents. Boxers who have used this punch consistently and effectively include former
heavyweight champions Rocky Marcianoand Tim Witherspoon, as well as MMA
champions Chuck Liddell and Fedor Emelianenko. The overhand right has become a
popular weapon in other tournaments that involve fist striking.
 Check hook : A check hook is employed to prevent aggressive boxers from lunging in.
There are two parts to the check hook. The first part consists of a regular hook. The
second, trickier part involves the footwork. As the opponent lunges in, the boxer should
throw the hook and pivot on his left foot and swing his right foot 180 degrees around. If
executed correctly, the aggressive boxer will lunge in and sail harmlessly past his
opponent like a bull missing a matador. This is rarely seen in professional boxing as it
requires a great disparity in skill level to execute. Technically speaking it has been said
that there is no such thing as a check hook and that it is simply a hook applied to an
opponent that has lurched forward and past his opponent who simply hooks him on the
way past. Others have argued that the check hook exists but is an illegal punch due to it
being a pivot punch which is illegal in the sport.

Floyd Mayweather, Jr. employed the use of a check hook against Ricky Hatton, which sent
Hatton flying head first into the corner post and being knocked down. Hatton managed to get
himself to his feet after the knockdown but was clearly dazed and it was only a matter of
moments before Mayweather landed a flurry of punches which sent Hatton crashing to the
canvas, giving Mayweather a TKO victory in the 10th round and handing Hatton his first
defeat.

Ring corner

Boxer Yusuf Ahmed in corner of the ring.

In boxing, each fighter is given a corner of the ring where he rests in between rounds and
where his trainers stand. Typically, three men stand in the corner besides the boxer himself;
these are the trainer, the assistant trainer and the cutman. The trainer and assistant typically
give advice to the boxer on what he is doing wrong as well as encouraging him if he is
losing. The cutman is a cutaneous doctor responsible for keeping the boxer's face and eyes
free of cuts and blood. This is of particular importance because many fights are stopped
because of cuts that threaten the boxer's eyes.

In addition, the corner is responsible for stopping the fight if they feel their fighter is in grave
danger of permanent injury. The corner will occasionally throw in a white towel to signify a
boxer's surrender (the idiomatic phrase "to throw in the towel", meaning to give up, derives
from this practice).[37] This can be seen in the fight between Diego Corrales and Floyd
Mayweather. In that fight, Corrales' corner surrendered despite Corrales' steadfast refusal.

Medical concerns
See also: Dementia pugilistica and The distance (boxing) § Distance change criticisms

Knocking a person unconscious or even causing concussion may cause permanent brain
damage.[38] There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and
the force likely to kill a person.[39] Since 1980, more than 200 amateur boxers, professional
boxers and Toughman fighters have died due to ring or training injuries.[40] In 1983,
theJournal of the American Medical Association called for a ban on boxing. The editor, Dr.
George Lundberg, called boxing an "obscenity" that "should not be sanctioned by any
civilized society."[41] Since then, the British,[42] Canadian[43] and Australian[44] Medical
Associations also have called for bans on boxing.

Supporters of the ban state that boxing is the only sport where hurting the other athlete is
the goal. Dr. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the British Medical Association, has
supported the BMA's proposed ban on boxing: "It is the only sport where the intention is to
inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on
boxing."[45] Opponents respond that such a position is misguided opinion, stating that
amateur boxing is scored solely according to total connecting blows with no award for
"injury". They observe that many skilled professional boxers have had rewarding careers
without inflicting injury on opponents by accumulating scoring blows and avoiding punches
winning rounds scored 10-9 by the 10-point must system, and they note that there are many
other sports where concussions are much more prevalent.[46] In 2007, one study of amateur
boxers showed that protective headgear did not prevent brain damage,[47] and another found
that amateur boxers faced a high risk of brain damage.[48] The Gothenburg study analyzed
temporary levels of neurofiliment light in cerebral spinal fluid which they conclude is
evidence of damage, even though the levels soon subside. More comprehensive studies of
neurologiocal function on larger samples performed by Johns Hopkins University and
accident rates analyzed by National Safety Council show amateur boxing is a comparatively
safe sport.

In 1997, the American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians was established to

create medical protocols through research and education to prevent injuries in boxing.[49][50]

Professional boxing is forbidden in Norway, Iceland, Iran and North Korea. It was banned
in Sweden until 2007[51] when the ban was lifted but strict restrictions, including four three-
minute rounds for fights, were imposed.[citation needed] It was banned in Albania from 1965 till the
fall of Communism in 1991; it is now legal.

Boxing Hall of Fame

Stamp honoring heavyweight champion Gene Tunney

The sport of boxing has two internationally recognized boxing halls of fame; theInternational
Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF) and the World Boxing Hall of Fame (WBHF), with the IBHOF
being the more widely recognized boxing hall of fame.

The WBHF was founded by Everett L. Sanders in 1980. Since its inception the WBHOF has
never had a permanent location or museum, which has allowed the more recent IBHOF to
garner more publicity and prestige. Among the notable names[citation needed]
in the WBHF
are Ricardo "Finito" Lopez, Gabriel "Flash" Elorde,Michael Carbajal, Khaosai Galaxy, Henry
Armstrong, Jack Johnson, Roberto Durán,George Foreman, Ceferino Garcia and Salvador
Sanchez. Boxing's International Hall of Fame was inspired by a tribute an American town
held for two local heroes in 1982. The town, Canastota, New York, (which is about 15 miles
(24 km) east of Syracuse, via the New York State Thruway), honored former
worldwelterweight/middleweight champion Carmen Basilio and his nephew, former world
welterweight champion Billy Backus. The people of Canastota raised money for the tribute
which inspired the idea of creating an official, annual hall of fame for notable boxers.

The International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota in 1989. The first inductees in
1990 included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray
Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali. Other world-class figures[citation needed]
include
Salvador Sanchez, Fabio Martella, Roberto "Manos de Piedra" Durán, Ricardo
Lopez, Gabriel "Flash" Elorde, Vicente Saldivar, Ismael Laguna, Eusebio Pedroza, Carlos
Monzón, Azumah Nelson, Rocky Marciano, Pipino Cuevas and Ken Buchanan. The Hall of
Fame's induction ceremony is held every June as part of a four-day event.
 The fans who come to Canastota for the Induction Weekend are treated to a number of
events, including scheduled autograph sessions, boxing exhibitions, a parade featuring past
and present inductees, and the induction ceremony itself

Bowling

A ten-pin bowler releases their ball

Playing bowls at West End Bowling Club, UK.

Bowling refers to a series of sports or leisure activities in which a player rolls or throws a bowling
ball towards a target. In pin bowling variations, the target is usually to knock over pins at the end of a
lane. In target variations, the aim is usually to get the ball as close to a mark as possible. The pin
version of bowling is often played on a flat wooden or other synthetic surface,[1] whilst in target
bowling, the surface may be grass, gravel or a synthetic surface.[2] The most common types of pin
bowling include ten-pin, nine-pin, candlepin, duckpin and five-pin bowling, while in target
bowling, bowls, bocce, carpet bowls, pétanque and boules, both indoor and outdoor varieties, are
popular. Today, the sport of bowling is enjoyed by 95 million people in more than 90 countries
worldwide.

History
Peasants bowling in front of a tavern in the 17th century

The earliest most primitive forms of bowling can be dated back to Ancient Egypt[3]and the Roman
Empire. From records and artifacts in ancient Egypt, going back 3000–5000 years ago, remnants of
bowls used at the time were found.[4] Balls, made of husks of corn, covered in material such as
leather, and bound with string were made. Other balls, made of porcelain, also exist, indicating that
these were rolled along the ground, rather than thrown, due to their size and weight.[4] Some of these
resemble the modern day jack used in target bowl games of today. Bowls games of different forms
are also noted by Herodotus as an invention of the Lydians in Asia Minor.[5] About 2,000 years ago a
similar game evolved between Roman legionaries: it entailed tossing stone objects as close as
possible to other stone objects (this game became popular with Roman soldiers, and eventually
evolved into ItalianBocce, or outdoor bowling).[6]

The first standardized rules for pin bowling were established in New York City, on September 9,
1895.[7] The oldest surviving bowling lanes in the United States is part of the summer estate of Henry
C. Bowen in Woodstock, Connecticut, at Roseland Cottage. The lanes, now part of Historic New
England's Roseland Cottage house museum, dates to the construction of the cottage in 1846. It
contains Gothic Revival architectural elements, in keeping with the style of the entire estate.[8]

Rules for target bowls evolved in each of the countries who had adopted the predominantly British
based game. In 1905, the International Bowling Board was formed, and it subsequent constitution
adopted the Laws of the Scottish Bowling Association, with variations allowed for various regulations
at individual country level.[9] The oldest known bowls green for target style bowling is that which is
now part of the Southhampton Bowling club, in southern England. The use of the land as an area for
recreational bowls dates back to 1299, and was then known as the "Master's Close".[10]

Today, bowling is enjoyed by 95 million people in more than ninety countries worldwide [11] and
continues to grow through entertainment media such as video games for home consoles and
handheld devices.[12]

Variations
Pin Bowling

(video) A man bowling in Japan.

Five main variations are found in North America, varying especially in New Englandand parts
of Canada:

 Ten-pin bowling: largest and heaviest pins, bowled with a large ball with finger holes, and the
most popular size in North America
 See also Introduction to Ten Pin Bowling
 Nine-pin bowling: pins usually attached to strings at the tops, uses a ball without finger holes
 Candlepin: tallest pins, thin with matching ends, and bowled with the smallest and lightest (at
1.1 kg) handheld ball of any bowling sport
 Duckpin: short, squat, and bowled with a handheld ball
 Five-pin bowling: tall, between duckpins and candlepins in diameter with a rubber girdle, bowled
with a handheld ball, mostly found in Canada
Target Bowling

A bowls tournament in Berrigan, New South Wales, Australia

Another form of bowling is usually played outdoors on a lawn. At outdoor bowling, the players throw
a ball, which is sometimes eccentrically weighted, in an attempt to put it closest to a designated point
or slot in the bowling arena. Included in the outdoor category:

 Bocce
 Bowls ("Lawn bowls")
 Carpet Bowls
 Cherokee marbles

 Irish road bowling

 Lane/alley bowling
 Mölkky
 Pétanque

Health benefits
Bowling is an anaerobic type of physical exercise, similar to walking with free weights. Bowling helps
in burning calories and works muscle groups not usually exercised. The flexing and stretching in
bowling works tendons, joints, ligaments, andmuscles in the arms and promotes weight loss. While
most sports are not for elderly people, it is possible to practice bowling very well at advanced ages.

Apart from the physical benefits, it also has psychosocial benefits, strengthening friendships or
creating new ones in groups.[13]

Bowling accessibility
Technological innovation has made bowling accessible to members of the disabled community.

 The IKAN Bowler, a device designed by a quadriplegic engineer named Bill Miller, attaches to a
wheelchair and allows the user to control the speed, direction, and timing of the ten pin bowling
ball's release. The name comes from the Greek work "ikano", which means "enable".[14]
 For Bowls the sport has introduced a number of innovations to enable people with a disability to
participate at all levels of the sport, from social through to Olympic Standards:
 The use of bowling arms and lifters enables bowlers to deliver a bowl minimising the amount
of movement required
 Wheelchair and green manufacturers have produced modified wheel tyres and ramps to
enable wheelchair athletes to access bowls greens.
 Modified conditions of play as outlined in Disability classification in lawn bowls

Introduction to Ten Pin Bowling

Bowling Centers
A bowling center (more commonly known as a bowling alley) is a facility that is equipped to play
the game of bowling. Bowling centers usually have at least two lanes with larger centers having over
80 lanes. Depending on the building, lanes may be laid all on one floor, across multiple floors, or a
setup with a group of lanes facing one direction and another group of lanes facing another direction.
Bowling lanes are laid out in married pairs with each pair sharing a ball return rack, automatic
scoring console, and in some cases a bowler seating setup. Weekly league sessions are normally
contested on one married pair of lanes with equal play for each participant on each lane. In a
tournament, one game will be played on a married pair of lanes and bowlers will change to a new
pair of lanes after every game.

The lane bed is built from either wood or phenolic. A wood lane uses maple for pin decks, the ball
impact zone and the approach while pine is used for the second half of the lane after the impact
zone. The measurement from the foul line to the center axis of the head pin is exactly sixty feet. In
ten pin, the pins are either Surlyn-coated maple or a plastic composite. For small ball bowling, all
pins are now made of plastic composites. The pinsetter varies by game, but have two foundations —
string and free-fall. Most ten-pin, candlepin, and duckpin centers are free fall while five-pin and soft
belly duckpin centers are dominated by string pinsetters. String pinsetters have a lower operating
cost. The ball return consists of a ball tray and an up-ramp. Most ten pin centers and some small ball
centers use a power lift to raise the ball to the tray.

A bowling center requires a lot of space. A single lane requires a footprint of about 620 square feet
including the lane bed, gutters, pit end, pinsetter, ball returns, and approach area. This does not
include space for seating, party rooms, arcades, the concourse, kitchen, administrative areas, fire
safety systems, and other building requirements.

Scoring
The most common bowling is ten pin bowling. In ten pin bowling, matches consist of each player
bowling a "game". Each game is divided into ten "frames". A frame allows a bowler two chances to
knock down all ten pins. The number of pins knocked over in each frame is recorded, a running total
is made as each frame progresses, and the player with the highest score in his/her game wins the
game. Scores can be greater than the actual number of pins knocked over if strikes or spares are
bowled. A "strike" is scored when a player knocks down all pins on the first roll in the frame. Rather
than a score of 10 for the frame, the player's score will be 10 plus the total pins knocked down on the
next two rolls in the next frame(s). A "spare" is scored when all pins are knocked down using both
rolls in the frame. The player's score for that frame will be 10 plus the number of pins knocked down
on the first roll in the next frame. A player who rolls a spare or strike in the last frame is given one or
two more rolls to score additional points, respectively.

Two consecutive strikes is known as a "double" (also known among older bowlers as a hambone,
prior to Pro Bowling Association/ESPN announcers changing it). Three consecutive strikes is known
as a "turkey". Four consecutive strikes is known as a "hambone" (PBA announcing in 2009/2010) or
"four bagger". Five consecutive strikes is known as a "five bagger", "dropping the nickel", or
"Yahtzee" (PBA). Six consecutive strikes is known as a "six-pack" or "Six bagger". Seven or more
follow the "-pack"/"bagger" rule, or is simply called (number of strikes) in a row. A perfect
game consists of 12 consecutive strikes, one for every frame and two more on the extra rolls in the
10th, and results in a score of 300. A clean game is filling every frame with either a spare or a strike.
In many forms of indoor bowling (specifically ten-pin, candlepin, and duckpin), the highest possible
score is 300. In five-pin, the highest possible score is 450.

A common variation of the game is no-tap, a form of bowling where a specific number or more pins
knocked down counts as a strike. Nine or eight pin no-tap is most often used. No-tap in five-pin
awards a strike if the first ball leaves one of the corner pins. Standard only two people plays in the
international tournaments.

Equipment
Types of pins
Five main variations are found in North America, varying especially in New England and parts
of Canada:

 Ten-pin bowling: largest and heaviest pins, bowled with a large ball with finger holes, and the
most popular size in North America
 Nine-pin bowling: pins usually attached to strings at the tops, uses a ball without finger holes
 Candlepin: tallest pins, thin with matching ends, and bowled with the smallest and lightest (at
1.1 kg) handheld ball of any bowling sport
 Duckpin: short, squat, and bowled with a handheld ball
 Five-pin bowling: tall, between duckpins and candlepins in diameter with a rubber girdle, bowled
with a handheld ball, mostly found in Canada
Ball[edit]

Bowling balls vary, depending on the type of bowling game. Ten-pin balls are large, up to 27 inches
in circumference (approximately 8.59 inches diameter), and have as many as twelve holes, typically
three holes. The balls come in various weights from 6 to 16 lbs, with the size and spacing of the
finger holes often smaller on lighter balls to accommodate smaller hands. Different kinds of balls are
available for different styles of bowling. There are balls for hook shots and balls for bowling straight.
The bowling balls meant for hook shots have different core shapes and different chemical covers.
There are a few types of chemical covers that allow a bowling ball to hook more. One of these types
of covers is a resin cover. This resin cover is designed to move and absorb the oil on the lane to
create a path for the bowler where there is less oil, increasing the amount of hook of the bowling
ball. Balls for other games vary, e.g., candlepin balls which fit in the palm of the hand need no holes.
Unlike most sports, the ball can be different weights based upon the player.

All bowling centers provide bowling balls (house balls) - their usage is included in the bowling fee.
For ten pin bowling, the center will provide a fleet of house balls in varying weight and standard grip
sizes while idle lanes have empty ball return racks. Customers that use house balls will pick a ball
that fits from the house ball fleet and place it on the ball rack at the designated lane. When done, the
customer should return the house ball to the house ball racks. In small-ball games, each ball return
contains a quantity of house balls — usually in at most one or two color patterns.

Shoes

Bowling shoes are designed to mimic any style of flat shoe from regular dress shoes to athletic
shoes. The sole of the non sliding foot is generally made of rubber to provide traction, while the
sliding foot's sole is made of a smooth and flat material that allows a bowler to slide into the release
with a rubber heel to allow for braking. Rental shoes are typically leather and rubber on both feet for
durability. These shoes can be bought, but most casual players rent the shoes each visit to a facility.
Players must be very careful while wearing them that the soft material does not get wet or
excessively dirty; if it does get wet or dirty, it will not slide properly, and could damage the approach
surface.[21]

Depending on the bowling center, shoe rental may be included in the cost of bowling or be added as
a separate fee. To discourage theft, bowling shoes are often painted in highly distinctive patterns so
that anyone who does steal them will not be able to wear the shoes in public without making the theft
obvious.[22]

Hand Guard
A full-fledged bowling glove

A bowling guard is a metal wrist support to attain a certain angle to the wrist when releasing the ball;
to hook the ball. There are different types of hand guard, including those with a full metal finger
design and ones with an uncovered portion for the middle and ring fingers. There are also
wristguards. They allow a bowler to keep their wrist locked into place to generate revolutions on a
ball or assist with position and/or weak wrists.[23]

Bags

Traditionally, personal bowling balls are carried in special zippered bags, along with shoes and a
polishing cloth. Some bags are only large enough to fit shoes, while others can accommodate
multiple balls, resembling roller bag luggage.[24][25]

Ball release techniques and delivery styles

Ball Release

There are typically two different ways to roll a ball down the lane.

 Straight
Beginners commonly just bowl the ball straight down the lane, hoping to hit the 1 and 2
pocket or the 1 and 3 pocket. When bowling straight like this, people often hold the ball with
their hand in a "W" shaped form.

 Hook/Curve
The hook or curve ball is commonly used by more advanced players. As the bowler releases
the ball, the ball starts out straight and then "hooks" because of the rotation the bowler puts
on the ball during release. When curving, most people use two fingers and a thumb.

Delivery Styles

There are three different types of styles used when releasing the ball onto the lane. The
three styles are the stroker, cranker and tweener styles.

 Stroker
People who use the stroker style usually keep their feet square to the foul line. Stroking
lessens the ball's spin rate and therefore decreases its hook/curve potential and hitting
power. Strokers use finesse and accuracy.

 Cranker
Crankers try to create as much spin as possible by using a cupped wrist. Bowlers that use
the cranking method often cup their wrist, but open the wrist at the top of the swing. Crankers
often use late timing, meaning the foot reaches the foul line before the ball does; this is
called "plant and pull", hardly using any slide on their last step and pulling the ball upwards
for leverage. Crankers rely on speed and power.
  Tweener
Tweeners are bowlers that release the ball in a way that falls somewhere in between stroking
and cranking. Tweeners often release the ball with a higher backswing than is normally used
by a stroker or a less powerful wrist position than a cranker.

 UFO
The UFO style was create by Taiwanese and widely used in Asia. Unlike other different
types of styles, the flat of UFO's rotation is parallel to the ground. The ball is spun in a
counter-clockwise manner (right handed) and enters the pins close to the middle of the lane,
deflecting and causing pins to scatter rather than fly around. A ball weighing 10-12 pounds is
used.

Bowling safety
Like any other physical activity, warming up helps to prevent injuries. Bowling balls are heavy with
varying weight ranges; to avoid back and wrist injury, they should be picked up with both hands. It’s
also recommended to bend one’s knees while picking up bowling balls to avoid back injuries. Most
bowling ball return mechanisms use a power-lift that includes a spinning wheel, and it is
recommended that bowlers should keep their hands clear of it. Bowlers should also warm up their
fingers before inserting them into a bowling ball, to ensure that their fingers do not get stuck in the
ball.

Even in small ball bowling, balls should be picked up with one hand on each side of the ball — small
balls return to the rack with enough force to smash fingers.

It is very common in bowling to warm up in other sports by stretching the arms and legs. Some ways
bowler stretch is by using the bowling ball as a sort-of medicine ball. They pick up the bowling ball
and put the ball behind their head and stretch their arms. Normally bowlers squeeze the bowling ball.
They also stretch their quadriceps by lifting their leg behind their back. "A warm up should begin with
some light activity to increase blood flow to the muscles" (called "bowling stretches")[28]

It is imperative to keep the soles of bowling shoes dry. If the bowling shoe sole gets wet, it can stick
like glue on an approach and result in the bowler suffering a wipeout or blown knee. The most
common causes of wet bowling shoes tend to be spilled beverages, drips in washrooms and near
concessions, and snowmelt or rainwater tracked into the bowling center. Outdoor footwear should be
removed at the bowling center entrance. All spills should be reported to bowling center staff and
cleaned immediately. A shoe cover is sold in most pro shops for bowlers who still want to wear
bowling shoes while walking around the alley, in the washroom etc. Removable soles are sold with
higher end bowling shoes to combat when a bowling shoe does get wet.

The lane surface carries a high amount of oil (lane conditioner) and is extremely slippery. A bowler
should never cross the foul line at the approach. Only authorized personnel should step past the foul
line, even if it is to pick up a loose item that fell onto the lane.

Bowls

Bowls or lawn bowls is a sport in which the objective is to roll biased balls so that they stop close to
a smaller ball called a "jack" or "kitty". It is played on a pitch which may be flat (for "flat-green bowls")
or convex or uneven (for "crown-green bowls"). It is normally played outdoors (although there are
many indoor venues) and the outdoor surface is either natural grass, artificial turf, or cotula(in New
Zealand).

History

It has been traced certainly to the 13th century, and conjecturally to the 12th. William Fitzstephen (d.
about 1190), in his biography of Thomas Becket, gives a graphic sketch of the London of his day
and, writing of the summer amusements of the young men, says that on holidays they were
"exercised in Leaping, Shooting, Wrestling, Casting of Stones [in jactu lapidum], and Throwing of
Javelins fitted with Loops for the Purpose, which they strive to fling before the Mark; they also use
Bucklers, like fighting Men." It is commonly supposed that by jactus lapidum, Fitzstephen meant the
game of bowls, but though it is possible that round stones may sometimes have been employed in
an early variety of the game - and there is a record of iron bowls being used, though at a much later
date, on festive occasions at Nairn, - nevertheless the inference seems unwarranted. The jactus
lapidum of which he speaks may have been more akin to shotput. It is beyond dispute, however, that
the game, at any rate in a rudimentary form, was played in the 13th century. A manuscript of that
period in the royal library, Windsor (No. 20, E iv.), contains a drawing representing two players
aiming at a small cone instead of an earthenware ball or jack. The world's oldest surviving bowling
green is the Southampton Old Bowling Green, which was first used in 1299.[1]
Another manuscript of the same century has a crude but spirited picture which brings us into close
touch with the existing game.[citation needed] Three figures are introduced and a jack. The first player's
bowl has come to rest just in front of the jack; the second has delivered his bowl and is following
after it with one of those eccentric contortions still not unusual on modern greens, the first player
meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand, as if to urge the bowl to stop short of his own;
the third player is depicted as in the act of delivering his bowl. A 14th-century manuscript, Book of
Prayers, in the Francis Douce collection in the Bodleian Library at Oxford contains a drawing in
which two persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt (Sports and Pastimes) suggests that
the first player's bowl may have been regarded by the second player as a species of jack; but in that
case it is not clear what was the first player's target. In these three earliest illustrations of the pastime
it is worth noting that each player has one bowl only, and that the attitude in delivering it was as
various five or six hundred years ago as it is to-day. In the third he stands almost upright; in the first
he kneels; in the second he stoops, halfway between the upright and the kneeling position.
The game eventually came under the ban of king and parliament, both fearing it might jeopardise the
practice of archery, then so important in battle. Statutes forbidding it and other sports were enacted
in the reigns of Edward III, Richard II and other monarchs. Even when, on the invention of
gunpowder and firearms, the bow had fallen into disuse as a weapon of war, the prohibition was
continued. The discredit attaching to bowling alleys, first established in London in 1455, probably
encouraged subsequent repressive legislation, for many of the alleys were connected with taverns
frequented by the dissolute and gamesters. The word "bowls" occurs for the first time in the statute
of 1511 in which Henry VIII confirmed previous enactments against unlawful games. By a further act
of 1541—which was not repealed until 1845—artificers, labourers, apprentices, servants and the like
were forbidden to play bowls at any time except Christmas, and then only in their master's house
and presence. It was further enjoined that any one playing bowls outside his own garden or orchard
was liable to a penalty of 6s. 8d.(6 shillings and 8 pence), while those possessed of lands of the
yearly value of £100 might obtain licences to play on their own private greens.
In 1864 William Wallace Mitchell (1803–1884), a Glasgow Cotton Merchant, published his "Manual
of Bowls Playing" following his work as the secretary formed in 1849 by Scottish bowling clubs which
became the basis of the rules of the modern game. Young Mitchell was only 11 when he played on
Kilmarnock Bowling green, the oldest club in Scotland, instituted in 1740.
The patenting of the first lawn mower in 1830, in Britain, is strongly believed to have been the
catalyst, world-wide, for the preparation of modern-style greens, sporting ovals, playing fields,
pitches, grass courts, etc. This is turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports,
including lawn bowls, most football codes, lawn tennis and others.[2]
National Bowling Associations were established in the late 1800s. In the then Victorian Colony (now
State of Victoria in Australia), the (Royal) Victorian Bowling Association was formed in 1880 and The
Scottish Bowling Association was established in 1892, although there had been a failed attempt in
1848 by 200 Scottish clubs.
Today the sport is played in over 40 countries with more than 50 member national authorities. The
home of the modern game is still Scotland with the World Bowls centre in Edinburgh at Caledonia
House,1 Redheughs Rigg, South Gyle, Edinburgh, EH12 9DQ.
Game

Drumoak bowling green

Lawn bowls is usually played on a large, rectangular, precisely levelled and manicured grass or
synthetic surface known as a bowling green which is divided into parallel playing strips called rinks.
In the simplest competition, singles, one of the two opponents flips a coin to see who wins the "mat"
and begins a segment of the competition (in bowling parlance, an "end"), by placing the mat and
rolling the jack to the other end of the green to serve as a target. Once it has come to rest, the jack is
aligned to the centre of the rink and the players take turns to roll their bowls from the mat towards
the jack and thereby build up the "head".
A bowl may curve outside the rink boundary on its path, but must come to rest within the rink
boundary to remain in play. Bowls falling into the ditch are dead and removed from play, except in
the event when one has "touched" the jack on its way. "Touchers" are marked with chalk and remain
alive in play even though they are in the ditch. Similarly if the jack is knocked into the ditch it is still
alive unless it is out of bounds to the side resulting in a "dead" end which is replayed, though
according to international rules the jack is "respotted" to the centre of the rink and the end is
continued. After each competitor has delivered all of their bowls (four each in singles and pairs, three
each in triples, and two bowls each in fours), the distance of the closest bowls to the jack is
determined (the jack may have been displaced) and points, called "shots", are awarded for each
bowl which a competitor has closer than the opponent's nearest to the jack. For instance, if a
competitor has bowled two bowls closer to the jack than their opponent's nearest, they are awarded
two shots. The exercise is then repeated for the next end, a game of bowls typically being of twenty-
one ends.
Lawn bowls is played on grass and variations from green to green are common. Greens come in all
shapes and sizes, fast, slow, big crown, small crown and so on.

Scoring
Scoring systems vary from competition to competition. Games can be decided when:

 a player in a singles game reaches a specified target number of shots (usually 21 or 25).
 a team (pair, triple or four) has the higher score after a specified number of ends.
Games to a specified number of ends may also be drawn. The draw may stand, or the opponents
may be required to play anextra end to decide the winner. These provisions are always published
beforehand in the event's Conditions of Play.
In the Laws of the Sport of Bowls[3] the winner in a singles game is the first player to score 21 shots.
In all other disciplines (pairs, triples, fours) the winner is the team who has scored the most shots
after 21/25 ends of play. Often local tournaments will play shorter games (often 10 or 12 ends).
Some competitions use a "set" scoring system, with the first to seven points awarded a set in a best-
or-three or best-of-five set match. As well as singles competition, there can be two (pairs), three
(triples) and four-player (fours) teams. In these, teams bowl alternately, with each player within a
team bowling all their bowls, then handing over to the next player. The team captain or "skip" always
plays last and is instrumental in directing his team's shots and tactics. The current method of scoring
in the professional tour (World Bowls Tour) is sets. Each set consists of nine ends and the player
with the most shots at the end of a set wins the set. If the score is tied the set is halved. If a player
wins two sets, or gets a win and a tie, that player wins the game. If each player wins a set, or both
sets end tied, there is a 3-end tiebreaker to determine a winner.

Swifts Creek Bowls Club

Bias of bowls

Two bowls with club stickers. The jack/kitty is sitting in front of the bowls.

Bowls are designed to travel a curved path because of a weight bias which was originally produced
by inserting weights in one side of the bowl. This is no longer permitted by the rules and bias is now
produced entirely by the shape of the bowl. A bowler determines the bias direction of the bowl in his
hand by a dimple or symbol on one side. Regulations determine the minimum bias allowed, and the
range of diameters (11.6 to 13.1 cm), but within these rules bowlers can and do choose bowls to suit
their own preference. They were originally made from lignum vitae, a dense wood giving rise to the
term "woods" for bowls, but are now more typically made of a hard plastic composite material.
Bowls were once only available coloured black or brown but they are now available in a variety of
colours. They have unique symbol markings engraved on them for identification. Since many bowls
look the same, coloured, adhesive stickers or labels are also used to mark the bowls of each team in
bowls matches. Some local associations agree on specific colours for stickers for each of the clubs
in their area. Provincial or national colours are often assigned in national and international
competitions. These stickers are used by officials to distinguish teams.
Bowls have symbols unique to the set of four for identification. The side of the bowl with a larger
symbol within a circle indicates the side away from the bias. That side with a smaller symbol within a
smaller circle is the bias side toward which the bowl will turn. It is not uncommon for players to
deliver a "wrong bias" shot from time to time and see their carefully aimed bowl crossing
neighbouring rinks rather than heading towards their jack.
When bowling there are several types of delivery. "Draw" shots are those where the bowl is rolled to
a specific location without causing too much disturbance of bowls already in the head. For a right-
handed bowler, "forehand draw" or "finger peg" is initially aimed to the right of the jack, and curves in
to the left. The same bowler can deliver a "backhand draw" or "thumb peg" by turning the bowl over
in his hand and curving it the opposite way, from left to right. In both cases, the bowl is rolled as
close to the jack as possible, unless tactics demand otherwise. A "drive" or "fire" or "strike" involves
bowling with force with the aim of knocking either the jack or a specific bowl out of play - and with the
drive's speed, there is virtually no noticeable (or, at least, much less) curve on the shot. An "upshot"
or "yard on" shot involves delivering the bowl with an extra degree of weight (often referred to as
"controlled" weight or "rambler"), enough to displace the jack or disturb other bowls in the head
without killing the end. A "block" shot is one that is intentionally placed short to defend from a drive
or to stop an oppositions draw shot. The challenge in all these shots is to be able to adjust line and
length accordingly, the faster the delivery, the narrower the line or "green".

Variations of play
Particularly in team competition there can be a large number of bowls on the green towards the
conclusion of the end, and this gives rise to complex tactics. Teams "holding shot" with the closest
bowl will often make their subsequent shots not with the goal of placing the bowl near the jack, but in
positions to make it difficult for opponents to get their bowls into the head, or to places where the
jack might be deflected to if the opponent attempts to disturb the head.

A crown green at Edgworth, Lancashire

There are many different ways to set up the game. Crown Green Bowling utilises the entire green. A
player can send the jack anywhere on the green in this game and the green itself is more akin to a
golf green, with lots of undulation. It is only played with two bowls each, the Jack also has a bias and
is only slightly smaller than the Bowls. The game is played usually to 21-up in Singles and Doubles
format with some competitions playing to 31-up. The Panel (Professional Crown Green Bowls) is
played at the Red Lion, Westhoughton daily and is played to 41-up with greenside betting throughout
play. The game of Crown Green Bowls is looking to grow with the introduction of the Portuguese
Masters in October[when?] and recent interest from Skyto re-televise the sport.[citation needed]
Singles, triples and fours and Australian pairs are some ways the game can be played. In singles,
two people play against each other and the first to reach 21, 25 or 31 shots (as decided by the
controlling body) is the winner. In one variation of singles play, each player uses two bowls only and
the game is played over 21 ends. A player concedes the game before the 21st end if the score
difference is such that it is impossible to draw equal or win within the 21 ends. If the score is equal
after 21 ends, an extra end is played to decide the winner. An additional scoring method is set play.
This comprises two sets over nine ends. Should a player win a set each, they then play a further 3
ends that will decide the winner.
Pairs allows both people on a team to play Skip and Lead. The lead throws two bowls, the skip
delivers two, then the lead delivers his remaining two, the skip then delivers his remaining two bowls.
Each end, the leads and skips switch positions. This is played over 21 ends or sets play. Triples is
with three players while Fours is with four players in each team and is played over 21 ends.
Another pairs variation is 242 pairs (also known as Australian Pairs). In the first end of the game the
A players lead off with 2 bowls each, then the B players play 4 bowls each, before the A players
complete the end with their final 2 bowls. The A players act as lead and skip in the same end. In the
second end the roles are reversed with the A players being in the middle. This alternating pattern
continues through the game which is typically over 15 ends.
Short Mat Bowls is an all-year sport unaffected by weather conditions and it does not require a
permanent location as the rink mats can be rolled up and stowed away. This makes it particularly
appropriate for small communities as it can be played in village halls, schools, sports and social
clubs, hotels and so on. where space is restricted and is also required for other purposes: it is even
played on North Sea oil rigs where space is really at a premium.
Bowls are played by the blind and paraplegic. Blind bowlers are extremely skilful. A string is run out
down the centre of the lane & wherever the jack lands it is moved across to the string and the length
is called out by a sighted marker, when the woods are sent the distance from the jack is called out,
in yards, feet and inches-the position in relation to the jack is given using the clock,12.00 is behind
the jack. The world's best are a match for the best club level sighted bowlers[citation needed].

Competitions

Merewether Bowling Club, Newcastle, New South Wales

The Alberta Male Junior Champion for 2007. Taken at Royal Lawn Bowling Club in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

There is a World Indoor Bowls Championships and also World Bowls Events.
Bowls is one of the "core sports" that must be included at each edition of theCommonwealth Games.
With the exception of the 1966 Games, the sport has been included in all Games since their
inception in 1930. Glasgow, Scotland hosted the 2014 Commonwealth Games, with Jo Edwards
(New Zealand) and Darren Burnett (Scotland) winning the singles gold medals. Gold Coast,
Australia will host the 2018 Commonwealth Games.

References in popular culture

 Blackball – a 2003 comedy film about a young bowls player, based upon Griff Sanders.[4]
 Crackerjack – a 2002 Australian comedy film about a wisecracking layabout who joins a lawn
bowls club in order to be allowed to use a free parking spot but is forced to play bowls with the
much older crowd when the club enters financial difficulty.

Canoeing

WW Open Canoe in Big Water

A family in a canoe

Canoeing is a paddle sport in which you kneel or sit facing forward in an open or closed-
decked canoe, and propel yourself with a single-bladed paddle, under your own power. Kayaking is
a comparable activity in a kayak which usually has a closed deck and is propelled with a double
bladed paddle. In a kayak the paddler typically sits with legs extended forward.[1]
In some situations canoeing refers to both canoeing and kayaking. Other than by the minimum
competition specifications (typically length and width (beam)) and seating arrangement it is difficult
to differentiate most competition canoes from the equivalent competition kayaks. The most common
difference is that competition kayaks are always seated and paddled with a double-bladed paddle,
and competition canoes are generally kneeled and paddled with a single-bladed paddle. Exceptions
include Canoe Marathon (in both European and American competitive forms) and sprint (high
kneeling position). The most traditional and early canoes did not have seats, the paddlers merely
knelt on the bottom of the boat. Recreational canoes and kayaks employ seats and whitewater and
surf variants employ the use of foam 'saddles' with thigh straps or increasingly foam 'bulkheads' with
integrated thigh hooks that give greater boat control under extreme conditions.

History
Canoeing began to meet the simple needs of transportation across and along waterways. Canoeing
was the primary mode of long-distance transportation at one time throughout much of North
America, the Amazon Basin, and Polynesia, among other locations. As a method of transportation,
canoes have generally been replaced by motorized boats, airplanes, railroads androads with
increasing industrialisation, although they remain popular as recreational or sporting watercraft.

The origin of canoeing as a recreation and sport is often attributed to Scottish explorer John
MacGregor (1825–1892), who was introduced to canoes and kayaks on a camping trip in Canada
and the US in 1858. On his return to the United Kingdom, he constructed his own canoes and used
them on waterways in various parts of Britain, Europe and the Middle East. He wrote a popular book
about his experiences; "A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe" and founded the Royal Canoe
Clubin 1866. The first canoeing competition, the Paddling Challenge Cup, was held by the club in
1874. In 1924, canoeing associations from Austria, Germany, Denmark and Sweden founded
the Internationalen Representation for Kanusport (IRK), forerunner of the International Canoe
Federation. Canoeing became an Olympic sport in Berlin in 1936.[2]

Sport[edit]
The main form of competitive sport using canoe and kayaks is canoe racing. Other competitive
styles include canoe polo,playboating, extreme racing, and surf skiing.

Plastic molded canoe.

Recreational

Sailing a Canoe on Ruth Lake, California

Other recreational aspects of canoeing are not strictly defined, and distinctions are rather artificial
and growing increasingly blurred as new hybrid canoes, kayaks, and similar craft are developed.
Some of these forms may be nominally organised at national levels, but are largely individual, group,
or club activities. For many groups there is no emphasis on training, the goal is simply to use boats
to have fun on the water.

 Small-craft Sailing – Developed by kayak enthusiasts, small-craft sails enhance the paddling
experience for canoeists too. Small-craft sails such as theWindPaddle either augment the effort
of paddling or effectively eliminate the need for paddling. They are great for touring, and have
established a strong following with recreational canoeists, sea kayakers, expedition paddlers
and adventure racers.
 Whitewater – paddling down whitewater rivers for fun, recreation, or getting away from it all.
Can vary from short local trips on easy grade rivers, to extreme expeditions on raging torrents in
remote locations for many days carrying all equipment. Whitewater Kayaking is probably the
most popular form of canoeing (as the word is used in Europe), with Whitewater Canoeing in
open canoes gaining more and more popularity lately for its bigger challenge and higher
technical skill needed to tackle the same grade of whitewater as compared to paddling it in a
kayak. This development has been marked by several new whitewater open boats hitting the
market during the last three years, more than in the decade before that, especially PE boats fit
for harder "creeking" style paddling.
 Sea kayak – recreational (touring) kayaking on the sea. Includes everything from short day trips
to year-long expeditions, may include paddling on heavy seas, in surf, or in tidal currents, and
usually requires navigational skills.
 Playboating – surfing and performing tricks on one feature on a river.
 Canoe camping, Touring, Tripping, or Cruising – combines canoeing/kayaking with camping.
 Marathon canoeing, for example
 Verlen Kruger – marathon canoeist having paddled nearly 100,000 miles (160,000 km),
including 2 trips over 20,000 miles (32,000 km)In his lifetime. According to the Guinness
Book of World Records he paddled the most miles of anyone in the sport.[3]
 Don Starkell – paddled a distance of 12,181 miles (19,603 km) from Winnipeg to Belém,
Brazil

Other forms

Bird on a Canoe – Sharbot Lake,Ontario, Canada

In some countries, these forms of paddling may come under the national canoeing organisations, but
they are not universally accepted as canoeing, even though they involve propelling a small craft with
a paddle.

 Wave skiing – paddling a small, maneuverable craft (surf ski) a little like a bigger surfboard,
amongst the breaking waves of the sea or ocean, variously sliding down the face of the wave or
performing tricks on the face of a breaking wave. Close affinity to surfing. The paddler sits on top
of the ski and can be strapped in. Competition is based on points for tricks and style.
 Surf ski – paddling a long (about 22'), slim racing craft on the sea. Able to handle going in and
out of breaking waves, but not for maneuvering on breaking waves. The paddler sits in a bucket
style seat and uses a kayak-like paddle. Most common races are long distance in the open
ocean where they can catch swells and get the feeling of skiing the ocean.
 Rafting – one or a group of people paddle a small or large inflatable raft down a wild water river.
Has much in common with White Water Touring.

Use
Wood-and-canvas canoe being lifted over a beaver dam.

Canoes have a reputation for instability, but this is not true if they are handled properly. For example,
the occupants need to keep their center of gravity as low as possible. Canoes can easily navigate
swift-moving water with skilled paddlers, careful scouting of rapids and good communication
between the paddlers. Nearly every kind of whitewater that can be run in an enclosed kayak can -
and has- also be run in an open canoe, with limits in high volume multiday creeking expeditions like
the infamous Grand Canyon of the Stikine, where huge, river-wide holes would swamp an open boat
and make it near impossible to keep your line and very high waterfall descents.

When two people occupy a canoe, they usually paddle on opposite sides, except for steering or
moving the boat other than straight forward or back. For example, the person in the bow
(the bowman) might hold the paddle on the port side, with the left hand on the shaft, usually just
above the height of the gunwales of the canoe with the blade completely submerged and the right
hand at the top end t-grip of the paddle. The left hand acts mostly as a pivotand the right arm
transfers most of the power, that originates in the large muscle groups of the torso.
The sternman would paddle on the starboard side, with the right hand on the shaft and the left hand
on the t-grip. To travel straight ahead, both paddlers use the basic forward stroke, moving the paddle
front to back in a line parallel to the gunwale.

Tandem steering
The paddling action of two paddlers tends to turn the canoe toward the opposite side of which the
stern paddler is paddling on. Thus, some way of compensation for this effect is important to keep
going straight, which can be achieved by steering techniques or by paddling a sit & switch style,
which sees both paddlers switching hands and paddle sides every 6-8 paddle strokes to keep the
boat from veering off to one side. This is also the most efficient way of paddling and commonly
employed in canoe marathon racing. Steering techniques vary widely, the basic question of which
paddler should be responsible for steering is usually answered by a clear and certain: both! But it
depends on the situation and maneuver.

Among experienced (white water) canoeists, stern paddler and bow paddler work together to steer
the canoe. It is virtually impossible to achieve a precise maneuver without both paddlers working
together. It depends on the kind of maneuver which paddler initiates it, and how, and there is a
general rule that states the stern paddler is responsible for setting the primary course of the canoe,
while the bow paddler will steer to help avoid obstacles like rocks that the stern paddler cannot see,
or react to any other short-distance feature. In the case of back ferrying, or back paddling, the roles
sometimes invert, with the bow paddler responsible for holding the angle of the canoe using small
correctional strokes while back paddling with the stern paddler.

Turns can be executed making use of the paddle, the hull shape of the boat (which can be angled
into or out of the turn), a change in trim by weight displacement of the paddler leaning forward or aft,
or a combination of all of the mentioned actions, which is common in most techniques.

Paddle strokes
Main article: Canoe paddle strokes

Paddle strokes are used to propel and steer the canoe, forward, backwards, or laterally. Primary
strokes are the forward, back, J-stroke and C-stroke, the (back or front) sweep, the offside forward
stroke, the pry, the draw, the stationary draw (also known as "Duffek"), the scull, which pulls or
pushes the boat to the side, the boof stroke which lifts the bow of the boat to go over holes and
drops to land the boat flat and many more.

Most paddle strokes can be segmented into an entry phase, planting the paddle in the desired
position to start the stroke, a power phase, which applies power to the paddle and makes use of the
"catch" effect, that enables the paddler to pull the boat towards the paddle that is "set" in position in
the water, and the recovery phase, where the paddle is pulled or sliced out of the water and returned
to the entry phase, or transitioned into a different paddle stroke.

Compound strokes connect multiple different base strokes to one motion, either blending multiple
power phases to achieve a desired effect, like pulling the bow sideways a little before powering its
forward motion, for example the c-stroke.

The paddle blade can be set from the top, tracking a circular path to prevent disturbing the water for
a good catch, sliced in from the side, or even sliced back to the front while staying in the water for
ease of the recovery stroke, as in the offside forward stroke. The recovery can thus happen under
water or above water, either by turning the paddle into the desired direction sideways to reduce drag
and move it towards the position where the next power phase starts, slicing the paddle, or by slicing
it out of the water sideways. An efficient power phase is usually shorter than beginners expect -
stroke mechanics work with the body in a way that only a short way of the paddle, for example
usually not past the knee in the standard forward stroke, makes for an efficient stroke. It is important
that the paddle blade stays perpendicular to the desired direction the boat should travel, so as not to
"shovel up" water or "push down" on the water, which is just a waste of energy.
Setting poles
On swift rivers, as well as shallow lakes, canoeists may use setting poles. It allows the canoe to
move through water too shallow for a paddle to create thrust, or against a current too quick for the
paddlers to make headway. With skillful use ofeddies, a setting pole can propel a canoe even
against moderate (class III) rapids.

Gunwale bobbing
A trick called "gunwale bobbing" or "gunwaling" allows a canoe to be propelled without a paddle. The
canoeist stands on the gunwales, near the bow or the stern, and squats up and down to make the
canoe rock backward and forward. This propulsion method is inefficient and unstable; additionally,
standing on the gunwales can be dangerous. However, this can be turned into a game where two
people stand one on each end, and attempt to cause the other to lose balance and fall into the
water, while remaining standing themselves.

Croquet

Modern croquet equipment

Leon Wyczółkowski, A Game of Croquet (1892-1895), National Museum, Warsaw

Croquet is a sport[1][2] that involves hitting plastic or wooden balls with a mallet through hoops (often
called "wickets" in the United States) embedded in a grass playing court.
History

Paille-maille (pall mall) illustrated in Old English Sports, Pastimes and Customs, published 1891. Original image by
Lauthier 1717

The oldest document to bear the word croquet with a description of the modern game is the set of
rules registered by Isaac Spratt in November 1856 with the Stationers' Company in London. This
record is now in the English Public Records Office. In 1868 the first croquet all-comers' meeting was
held at Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucestershire and in the same year the All England Croquet Club was
formed at Wimbledon, London.

In the book Queen of Games: The History of Croquet,[3] Nicky Smith presents two theories of the
origin of the modern game that took England by storm in the 1860s and then spread overseas.

The first explanation is that the ancestral game was introduced to Britain from France during the
reign of Charles II of England, and was played under the name of paille-maille or pall mall, derived
ultimately from Latin words for "ball and mallet". This was the explanation given in the ninth edition
of Encyclopaedia Britannica, dated 1877. In his 1810 book The Sports and Pastimes of the People
of England, Joseph Strutt describes the way pall mall was played in England in the early 17th
century: "Pale-maille is a game wherein a round box ball is struck with a mallet through a high arch
of iron, which he that can do at the fewest blows, or at the number agreed upon, wins. It is to be
observed, that there are two of these arches, that is one at either end of the alley. The game of mall
was a fashionable amusement in the reign of Charles the Second, and the walk in Saint James's
Park, now called the Mall, received its name from having been appropriated to the purpose of
playing at mall, where Charles himself and his courtiers frequently exercised themselves in the
practice of this pastime."[4][5]
Whilst the name pall mall and various games bearing this name may have been played elsewhere
(France and Italy) the description above suggests that the croquet-like games were certainly popular
in England as early as 1611.[citation needed]Some early sources refer to pall mall being played over a large
distance (as in golf), however an image in Strutt's 1801 book shows a croquet-like ground billiards
game (balls on ground, hoop, bats and peg) being played over a short, garden-sized distance. The
image's caption describes the game as "a curious ancient pastime", confirming that croquet games
were not new in early nineteenth century England.

Early croquet-like game from The Sports and Pastimes of the people of England, first published 1801. Hoop, peg and
two players with balls clearly shown.

In Samuel Johnson's 1755 dictionary, his definition of "pall mall" clearly describes a game with
similarities to modern croquet: "A play in which the ball is struck with a mallet through an iron
ring".[6] However, there is no evidence that pall mall involved the croquet stroke which is the
distinguishing characteristic of the modern game.

The second theory is that the rules of the modern game of croquet arrived fromIreland during the
1850s, perhaps after being brought there from Brittany where a similar game was played on the
beaches. Records show the similar game of "crookey" being played at Castlebellingham in 1834,
which was introduced to Galwayin 1835 and played on the bishop's palace garden, and in the same
year to the genteel Dublin suburb of Kingstown (today Dún Laoghaire) where it was first spelt as
"croquet".[7] There is, however, no pre-1858 Irish document that describes the way game was played,
in particular there is no reference to the distinctive croquet stroke.[8] The noted croquet historian Dr
Prior, in his book of 1872, makes the categoric statement "One thing only is certain: it is from Ireland
that croquet came to England and it was on the lawn of the late Lord Lonsdale that it was first played
in this country." This was about 1851.[9]

A game of Croquet being played atEglinton Castle, North Ayrshire, in the early 1860s
John Jaques apparently claimed in a letter to Arthur Lillie in 1873 that he had himself seen the game
played in Ireland and, "I made the implements and published directions (such as they were) before
Mr Spratt [mentioned above] introduced the subject to me."[citation needed]
Whatever the truth of the
matter, Jaques certainly played an important role in popularising the game, producing editions of the
rules in 1857, 1860, and 1864.

Regardless when and by what route it reached England and the British colonies in its recognizable
form, croquet is, like pall mall, trucco, jeu de mail and kolven, clearly a derivative of ground billiards,
which was popular in Western Europe back to at least the 14th century, with roots in classical
antiquity.[10][11][12]

Croquet became highly popular as a social pastime in England during the 1860s; by 1867, Jaques
had printed 65,000 copies of his Laws and Regulations of the game. It quickly spread to
other Anglophone countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United
States. No doubt one of the attractions was that the game could be played by both sexes; this also
ensured a certain amount of adverse comment.

By the late 1870s, however, croquet had been eclipsed by another fashionable game, tennis, and
many of the newly created croquet clubs, including the All England club at Wimbledon, converted
some or all of their lawns into tennis courts. There was a revival in the 1890s, but from then
onwards, croquet was always a minority sport, with national individual participation amounting to a
few thousand players. The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club still has a croquet lawn, but
has not hosted any significant tournaments. The English headquarters for the game is now
in Cheltenham.

Captain Moreton's Eglinton Castle

The earliest known reference to croquet in Scotland is the booklet The Game of Croquet, its Laws
and Regulations which was published in the mid-1860s for the proprietor of Eglinton Castle, the Earl
of Eglinton. On the page facing the title page is a picture of Eglinton Castle with a game of "croquet"
in full swing.[13]

The croquet lawn existed on the northern terrace, between Eglinton Castle and the Lugton Water.
The 13th Earl developed a variation on croquet named Captain Moreton's Eglinton Castle croquet,
which had small bells on the eight hoops "to ring the changes", two pegs, a double hoop with a bell
and two tunnels for the ball to pass through. In 1865 the 'Rules of the Eglinton Castle and
Cassiobury Croquet' was published by Edmund Routledge. Several incomplete sets of this form of
croquet are known to exist, and one complete set is still used for demonstration games in the West
of Scotland.[13] It is not known why the earl named the game thus.[14]

Competitive variations
There are several variations of croquet currently played, differing in the scoring systems, order of
shots, and layout (particularly in social games where play must be adapted to smaller-than-standard
playing courts). Two forms of the game, association croquet and golf croquet, have rules that are
agreed internationally and are played in many countries around the world. The United States has its
own set of rules for domestic games. More unusual variations of the game include mondo
croquet, extreme croquet, and bicycle croquet (perhaps influenced by polo). Gateball, a sport
originated in Japan under the influence of croquet, is played mainly in East and Southeast
Asia and the Americas, it can also be regarded as a croquet variant.

As well as club-level games, there are regular world championships and international matches
between croquet-playing countries. The sport has particularly strong followings in the UK, US, New
Zealand and Australia; every four years, these countries play the MacRobertson Shield tournament.
Many other countries also play. The current world rankings[15] show England in top place for
association croquet, followed by Australia and New Zealand sharing second place, with the United
States in fourth position; the same four countries appear in the top six of the golf croquet league
table, below Egypt in top position, and with South Africa at number five.

Croquet is popularly believed to be viciously competitive.[16] This may derive from the fact that (unlike
in golf) players will often attempt to move their opponents' balls to unfavourable positions. However,
purely negative play is rarely a winning strategy: successful players (in all versions other than golf
croquet) will use all four balls to set up a break for themselves, rather than simply making the game
as difficult as possible for their opponents. At championship-standard association croquet, players
can often make all 26 points (13 for each ball) in two turns.

Croquet was an event at the 1900 Summer Olympics. Roque, an American variation on croquet, was
an event at the 1904 Summer Olympics.

Variations
Association

Croquet being played at a club in the UK. (Four balls are visible on the lawn, showing that two games are in progress
("double-banking"): red and black belong to one game, green and brown to the other)
Association croquet is the name of an advanced game of croquet, played at international level. It
involves four balls teamed in pairs, with both balls going through every hoop for one pair to win. The
game's distinguishing feature is the "croquet" shot: when certain balls hit other balls, extra shots are
allowed. The six hoops are arranged three at each end of the court, with a centre peg.

In association croquet one side takes the black and blue balls, the other takes red and yellow. At
each turn, players can choose to play with either of their balls for that turn. At the start of a turn, the
player plays a stroke. If the player either hits the ball through the correct hoop ("runs" the hoop), or
hits another ball (a "roquet"), the turn continues. Following a roquet, the player picks up his or her
own ball and puts it down next to the ball that it hit. The next shot is played with the two balls
touching: this is the "croquet stroke" from which the game takes its name.

After the croquet stroke, the player plays a "continuation" stroke, during which the player may again
attempt to make a roquet or run a hoop. Each of the other three balls may be roqueted once in a turn
before a hoop is run, after which they become available to be roqueted again. The winner of the
game is the team who completes the set circuit of six hoops (and then back again the other way),
with both balls, and then strikes the centre peg (making a total of 13 points per ball = 26).

Good players may make "breaks" of several hoops in a single turn. The best players may take a ball
round a full circuit in one turn. "Advanced play" (a variant of association play for expert players) gives
penalties to a player who runs certain hoops in a turn, to allow the opponent a chance of getting
back into the game; feats of skill such as triple peels or better, in which the partner ball (or
occasionally an opponent ball) is caused to run a number of hoops in a turn by the striker's ball help
avoid these penalties.

A handicap system ('bisques') provides less experienced players a chance of winning against more
formidable opponents. Players of all ages and both sexes compete on level terms.

The World Championships are organised by the World Croquet Federation (WCF)[17] and usually take
place every 2 or 3 years. The New Zealand team won the last MacRobertson International Croquet
Shield tournament, which is the major international test tour trophy in association croquet. It is
contested every three to four years between Australia, Great Britain, the United States and New
Zealand. Historically the British have been the dominant force, winning 14 times out of the 20 times
the event has been held. In individual competition, the UK is often divided by subnational country
(England, Scotland and Wales), while Northern Ireland joins with the republic in an All Ireland
association (as it does in other sports). As of 2013, the Association Croquet World Champion is
Robert Fletcher of Australia and the Women's Association Croquet World Champion is Jenny Clarke
of New Zealand.[18]

The world's top 10 association croquet players as of February 2014 are Robert Fletcher
(Australia), Chris Clarke (New Zealand), Reg Bamford (South Africa), Paddy Chapman (New
Zealand), Aaron Westerby (New Zealand), Greg Bryant (New Zealand), Toby Garrison (New
Zealand), Robert Fulford (England), David Maugham (England), and Jamie Burch (England).[19]

Unlike most sports, men and women compete and are ranked together. Three women have won the
British Open Championship: Lily Gower in 1905, Dorothy Steel in 1925, 1933, 1935 and 1936, and
Hope Rotherham in 1960. While male players are in the majority at club level in the UK, the opposite
is the case in Australia and New Zealand.[19]

The governing body in England is The Croquet Association, which has been the driving force of the
development of the game. The rules and tournament regulations are now maintained by the
International Laws Committee, established by the croquet associations of England and Wales (CA),
Australia (ACA), New Zealand (CNZ) and the United States (USCA).

Golf
In golf croquet, a hoop is won by the first ball to go through each hoop. Unlike association croquet,
there are no additional turns for hitting other balls.

Each player takes a stroke in turn, each trying to hit a ball through the same hoop. The sequence of
play is blue, red, black, yellow. Blue and black balls play against red and yellow. When a hoop is
won, the sequence of play continues as before. The winner of the game is the player/team who wins
the most hoops.

Golf croquet is the fastest-growing version of the game,[20] owing largely to its simplicity and
competitiveness. There is an especially large interest with competitive success by players
in Egypt.[21] Golf croquet is easier to learn and play, but requires strategic skills and accurate play. In
comparison with association croquet, play is faster and balls are more likely to be lifted off the
ground.

In April 2013, Reg Bamford of South Africa beat Ahmed Nasr of Egypt in the final of the Golf Croquet
World Championship in Cairo, becoming the first person to simultaneously hold the title in both
association croquet and golf croquet.[22] As of 2011, the Women's Golf Croquet World Champion was
Rachel Rowe (England).[23]

Garden[edit]
Garden croquet is widely played in the UK. The rules are easy to learn and the game can be played
on lawns of almost any size but usually around 32 feet wide (9.8 m) by 40 ft long (12 m). The rules
are similar to those described above for Association Croquet with three major differences:

1. The starting point for all balls is a spot three feet in from the boundary directly in front of
hoop1.
2. If a strikers ball goes off, there is no penalty, it comes back on three feet and the turn
continues.
 3. In a croquet stroke the croqueted ball does not have to move when the strikers ball is struck.

This version of the game is easy for beginners to learn. The main Garden Croquet Club in the UK is
the Bygrave Croquet Club which is a private club with five lawns. Other clubs also use garden
croquet as an introduction to the game, notably the Hampstead Heath Croquet Club and the Watford
Croquet Club.

An American game of croquet at twilight

American six-wicket
The American rules version of croquet, another six-hoop game, is the dominant version of the game
in the United States and is also widely played in Canada. It is governed by theUnited States Croquet
Association. Its genesis is mostly in association croquet, but it differs in a number of important ways
that reflect the home-grown traditions of American "backyard" croquet.

Two of the most notable differences are that the balls are always played in the same sequence
(blue, red, black, yellow) throughout the game, and that a ball's "deadness" on other balls is carried
over from turn to turn until the ball has been "cleared" by scoring its next hoop. Tactics are simplified
on the one hand by the strict sequence of play, and complicated on the other hand by the
continuation of deadness. A further difference is the more restrictive boundary-line rules of American
croquet.[24]

In the American game, roqueting a ball out of bounds or running a hoop out of bounds causes the
turn to end, and balls that go out of bounds are replaced only nine inches (230 mm) from the
boundary rather than a yard (91 cm) as in association croquet.[24] "Attacking" balls on the boundary
line to bring them into play is thus far more challenging.

Nine-wicket
Nine-wicket croquet, sometimes called "backyard croquet", is played mainly in Canada and the
United States, and is the game most recreational players in those countries call simply "croquet".
This version of croquet varies from six-wicket croquet in that there are nine wickets, two stakes, and
players can compete individually with a single ball, or as teams of two or three, with up to six players
competing. The course is arranged in a double-diamond pattern, with one stake at each end of the
course. Players start at one stake, navigate one side of the double diamond, hit the turning stake,
then navigate the opposite side of the double diamond and hit the starting stake to win the game.

Unlike six-wicket croquet, where each time a ball is roqueted a croquet shot must be taken, players
have three options after roqueting another ball. These reflect the more individual aspect of nine-
wicket croquet. The options are:

 Nothing: The player may leave the ball where it came to rest and take two shots.
 Mallet-head Length: Players may place their ball a mallet-head's length or less from the ball he
hit, and take 2 shots.[25]
 Croquet: As in six-wicket croquet, players may place their ball in contact with the ball they hit
and strike their ball in such a way that both balls move. When making this shot, player may
place their ball next to the ball they hit, place their hand or foot on top of their ball, then strike
their own ball such that their opponent's ball moves while their own ball remains in place. A foot
shot is sometimes called a "buggy ride". They may then take their second shot as a
"continuation shot"

Ordinarily, the first person to finish the course wins the game. However, some players prefer to use
an endgame procedure called "poison". In poison, once a player has scored the last hoop but has
not hit the starting stake, their ball becomes "poison", which allows them to eliminate other balls from
the game by roqueting them. If a non-poison ball roquets a poison ball, the standard roqueting
options apply, but if a poison ball travels through a wicket or hits a stake for any reason, it forfeits
and is eliminated from the game. The last person remaining is the winner.[26]

Ricochet[edit]
This version of the game was invented by John Riches of Adelaide, Australia with help from Tom
Armstrong in the 1980s. The game can be played by up to 6 people and is very easy to learn. For
this reason it is often used as a stepping stone to association croquet. Ricochet has similar rules to
association and garden croquet, except that when a ball is roqueted, the striker's ball remains live
and two free shots are earned. This enables strikers to play their ball near to another opponent ball
and ricochet that too thus earning two more free shots. Running a hoop earns one free shot.

Glossary of terms
Backyard croquet being played in rough grass with inexpensive equipment, United States, 2009

 Backward ball: The ball of a side that has scored fewer hoops (compare with 'forward ball').[27]
 Ball-in-hand: A ball that the striker can pick up to change its position, for example:

1. any ball when it leaves the court has to be replaced on the yard-line
2. the striker’s ball after making a roquet must be placed in contact with the roqueted
ball
3. the striker’s ball when the striker is entitled to a lift.[28]

 Ball in play: A ball after it has been played into the game, which is not a ball in hand or
pegged out.[28]
 Baulk: An imaginary line on which a ball is placed for its first shot in the game, or when
taking a lift. The A-baulk coincides with the western half of the yard line along the south
boundary; the B-baulk occupies the eastern half of the north boundary yard line.[28]
 Bisque, half-bisque A bisque is a free turn in a handicap match. A half-bisque is a restricted
handicap turn in which no point may be scored.[28]
 Break down: To end a turn by making a mistake.[27]
 Continuation stroke: Either the bonus stroke played after running a hoop in order or the
second bonus stroke played after making a roquet.[28]
 Croquet stroke: A stroke taken after making a roquet, in which the striker's ball and the
roqueted ball are placed together in contact.[28]
 Double tap: A fault in which the mallet makes more than one audible sound when it strikes
the ball.[28]
 Forward ball: The ball of a side that has scored more hoops (compare with 'backward
ball').[27]
 Hoop: Metal U-shaped gate pushed into ground.[28] (Also called a wicket in the US).[citation needed]
 Leave: The position of the balls after a successful break, in which the striker is able to leave
the balls placed so as to make life as difficult as possible for the opponent.[27]
 Lift: A turn in which the player is entitled to remove the ball from its current position and play
instead from either baulk line. A lift is permitted when a ball has been placed by the
 opponent in a position where it is wired from all other balls, and also in advanced play when
the opponent has completed a break that includes hoops 1-back or 4-back.[28]
 Object ball: A ball which is going to be rushed.
 Peg out: To cause a rover ball to strike the peg and conclude its active involvement in the
game.[28]
 Peel: To send a ball other than the striker's ball through its target hoop.[28]
 Pioneer: A ball placed in a strategic position near the striker's next-but-one or next-but-two
hoop, to assist in running that hoop later in the break.
 Primary colours or first colours: The main croquet ball colours used which are blue, red,
black and yellow (in order of play). Blue and black, and red and yellow, are played by the
same player or pair.[28]
 Push: A fault when the mallet pushes the striker's ball, rather than making a clean strike.[28]
 Roquet: (Second syllable rhymes with "play".) When the striker’s ball hits a ball that he is
entitled to then take a croquet shot with. At the start of a turn, the striker is entitled to roquet
all the other three balls once. Once the striker's ball goes through its target hoop, it is again
entitled to roquet the other balls once.[28]
 Rover ball: A ball that has run all 12 hoops and can be pegged out.[28]
 Rover hoop: The last hoop, indicated by a red top bar. The first hoop has a blue top.[28]
 Run a hoop: To send the striker’s ball through a hoop. If the hoop is the hoop in order for the
striker’s ball, the striker earns a bonus stroke.[28]
 Rush: A roquet when the roqueted ball is sent to a specific position on the court, such as the
next hoop for the striker’s ball or close to a ball that the striker wishes to roquet next.[27]
 Scatter shot: A continuation stroke used to hit a ball which may not be roqueted in order to
send it to a less dangerous position.[27]
 Secondary colours or second colours; also known as alternate colours:[28] The colours of
the balls used in the second game played on the same court in double-banking: green, pink,
brown and white (in order of play). Green and brown versus pink and white, are played by
the same player or pair.[28]
 Sextuple peel (SXP): To peel the partner ball through its last six hoops in the course of a
single turn. Very few players have achieved this feat, but it is being seen increasingly at
championship level.[27]
 Tice: A ball sent to a location that will entice an opponent to shoot at it but miss.[27]
 Triple peel (TP): To send a ball other than the striker’s ball through its last three hoops, and
then peg it out. See alsoTriple Peel, A variant is the Triple Peel on Opponent (TPO), where
the peelee is the opponent's ball rather than the partner ball. The significance of this
manoevre is that in advanced play, making a break that includes the tenth hoop (called 4-
back) is penalized by granting the opponent a lift (entitling him to take the next shot from
 either baulk line). Therefore many breaks stop voluntarily with three hoops and the peg still
to run.[27]
 Wired: When a hoop or the peg impedes the path of a striker's ball, or the swing of the
mallet. A player will often endeavour to finish a turn with the opponent's balls wired from
each other.[27]
 Yard line: An imaginary line one yard from the boundary. Balls that go off the boundary are
generally replaced on the yard line (but if this happens on a croquet stroke, the turn ends).[28]

In art and literature

The Croquet Game, Édouard Manet, 1873

Louise Abbéma, A Game of Croquet(Trouville, 1872), private collection

The way croquet is depicted in paintings and books says much about popular perceptions of the
game, though little about the reality of modern play.

 In 1868 a song titled Croquet (essentially anonymous: by M.B.C.S and W.O.F.) was included
in a popular song book by W. O. Perkins, The Golden Robin (Pub.Oliver Ditson & Company,
New York). ("Upon the smoothly shaven lawn, Beneath the skies of May, Oh, boys and girls,
this merry morn, Come out and play Croquet ..."); there are four full verses.
 Winslow Homer, Édouard Manet, Louise Abbéma and Pierre Bonnard all have paintings
titled The Croquet Game.
 Norman Rockwell often depicted the game, including in his painting Croquet.
 A favorite subject of Edward Gorey, a croquet reference often appeared in the first illustration
of his books. The Epiplectic Bicycle opens with two illustrations of the main characters
playing with croquet mallets.
 H. G. Wells wrote The Croquet Player, which uses croquet as a metaphor for the way in
which people confront the very problem of their own existence.
 Lewis Carroll featured a nonsense version of the game in the popular children's novel Alice's
Adventures in Wonderland: a hedgehog was used as the ball, a flamingo the mallet, and
playing cards as the hoops.
 In the Thursday Next series of novels, notably Something Rotten, Jasper Ffordedepicts
an alternative world in which croquet is a brutal mass spectator sport.
 In the 1988 film Heathers, Winona Ryder and her friends, the Heathers, are depicted as
playing croquet, though at the beginning, the Heathers are playing croquet to hit someone
on the head.

In politics
On 25 May 2006, the then British Deputy Prime Minister, John Prescott, was photographed
by The Mail on Sunday playing croquet at his official residence, Dorneywood.[29] Following shortly
after a sex scandal[30] that had forced Prescott to resign his ministerial responsibilities while
retaining his salary and privileges,[31] the incident was portrayed as evidence that Prescott had
little real responsibility for running the country during the absence of the Prime Minister. Shortly
afterwards, Prescott announced that he would no longer make use of the Dorneywood
residence.

It was also reported that the incident led to a 300% increase in sales of croquet equipment
at Asda,[32] while the TV channelFive announced that they would be running a series featuring
croquet matches played at country houses pitting "rich" against "poor" players.[33]

Clubs
About 200 croquet clubs across the United States are members of the United States Croquet
Association.[34] USCA-affiliated clubs in major US cities include the New York, Chicago, Beverly
Hills, Denver, Phoenix, San Francisco, Oakland, Houston, Boston, Detroit, Kansas City,
Louisville, Seattle, and Portland Croquet Clubs.

Many colleges have croquet clubs as well, such as The University of Virginia, The University of
Chicago, Pennsylvania State University,[35] Bates College, SUNY New Paltz, and Harvard
University. Notably, St. John's College and the US Naval Academy engage in a yearly match
in Annapolis, Maryland. Both schools also compete at the collegiate level and the rivalry
continues to be an Annapolis tradition, attracting thousands of spectators each April.
 In England and Wales there are around 170 clubs affiliated with the Croquet Association.[36] The
larger clubs include Bowdon, Cheltenham, Edgbaston, Guildford and Godalming, Nailsea,
Nottingham, Roehampton, Sidmouth, and Woking. In Wimbledon at the All England Lawn
Tennis and Croquet Club is where the famous lawn tennis tournament takes place. At the other
end of the scale and also affiliated to the Croquet Association is Bygrave Croquet Club which
specialises in playing and promoting Garden Croquet. There are also clubs in many Universities
and Colleges, with an annual Varsity match being played between Oxford and
Cambridge.[37] With over 1800 participants, the 2011 Oxford University "Cuppers" (inter-college)
tournament claimed to be not only the largest croquet tournament ever, but the largest sporting
event in the University.[38]

In Scotland is situated the Edinburgh Croquet Club.[

Cycling

Tro-Bro Léon racing, 2009.

Mountain biking.
Police cyclists in London

Village cycling in Sri Lanka

Cycling, also called bicycling or biking, is the use of bicycles for transport,recreation, or
for sport.[1] Persons engaged in cycling are referred to as "cyclists",[2]"bikers",[3] or less commonly, as
"bicyclists".[4] Apart from two-wheeled bicycles, "cycling" also includes the riding
of unicycles, tricycles, quadracycles, and similarhuman-powered vehicles (HPVs).
Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century and now number about one billion worldwide.[5] They
are the principal means of transportation in many parts of the world.
Cycling is widely regarded as a very effective and efficient mode of transportation[6]optimal for short
to moderate distances. Bicycles provide numerous benefits by comparison with motor vehicles,
including the sustained physical exercise necessarily involved in cycling, that cycling involves a
reduced consumption of fossil fuels, less air or noise pollution, much reduced traffic congestion,
easier parking, greater maneuverability, and access to both roads and paths. The advantages also
include reduced financial cost to the user as well as to society at large (negligible damage to roads,
less road area required).[7] By fitting bicycle racks on the front of busses, transit agencies can
significantly increase the areas they can serve.[8]
Among the disadvantages of cycling are the inherent instability of the bicycle, the immensely
reduced protection in crashes (especially in collisions with motor vehicles),[9] longer travel time
(except in densely populated areas), vulnerability to weather conditions, difficulty in transporting
passengers, competition (and interference) with socially beneficial forms of mass public transit,[citation
needed]
and the particular levels of skill and fitness required by cycling.

Equipment[edit]
Main article: Bicycle
In many countries, the most commonly used vehicle for road transport is a utility bicycle. These have
frames with relaxed geometry, protecting the rider from shocks of the road and easing steering at
low speeds. Utility bicycles tend to be equipped with accessories such as mudguards, panier racks
and lights which extends their usefulness on a daily basis. As the bicycle is so effective as a means
of transportation various companies have developed methods of carrying anything from the weekly
shop to children on bicycles. Certain countries around the world rely heavily on bicycles and their
culture has developed around the bicycle as a primary form of transport. In Europe Belgium and
the Netherlands are two of the biggest advocates and users of bicycles as a method of day to day
transportation.[citation needed]

Road bikes tend to have a more upright shape and a shorter wheelbase, which make the bike more
mobile but harder to ride slowly. The design, coupled with low or dropped handlebars, requires the
rider to bend forward more, utilizing stronger muscles (particularly the gluteus maximus) and
reducing air resistance at high speed.

The price of a new bicycle can range from US$50 to more than US$20,000 (the highest priced bike
in the world is the custom Madone by Damien Hirst, sold at $500,000 USD[10]),[11] depending on
quality, type and weight (the most exotic road bicycles can weigh as little as 3.2 kg (7 lb)[12]).
However, UCI regulations stipulates a legal race bike cannot weigh less than 6.8 kg (14.99 lbs).
Being measured for a bike and taking it for a test ride are recommended before buying.

The drivetrain components of the bike should also be considered. A middle grade dérailleur is
sufficient for a beginner, although many utility bikes come equipped with hub gears. If the rider plans
a significant amount of hillclimbing, a triple-crank(three chainrings) front gear system may be
preferred. Otherwise, the relatively lighter and less expensive two chainrings may be better. Much
simpler fixed wheel bikes are also available.

Many road bikes along with mountain bikes include clipless pedals to which special shoes attach, via
a cleat, permitting the rider to pull on the pedals as well as push. Other possible accessories for the
bicycle include front and rear lights, bells or horns, child carrying seats, cycling computers with GPS,
locks, bar tape, fenders (mud-guards), baggage racks, baggage carriers and pannier bags, water
bottles and bottle cages.

For basic maintenance and repairs, cyclists can choose to carry a pump (or a CO2 cartridge), a
puncture repair kit, a spare inner tube, and tire levers. Cycling can be more efficient and comfortable
with special shoes, gloves, and shorts. In wet weather, riding can be more tolerable with waterproof
clothes, such as cape, jacket, trousers (pants) and overshoes.

Items legally required in some jurisdictions, or voluntarily adopted for safety reasons, include bicycle
helmets, generator or battery operated lights, reflectors, and audible signalling devices such as a
bell or horn. Extras include studded tires and abicycle computer.

Bikes can also be heavily customized, with different seat designs and handle bars, for example.
Skills[edit]
Many schools and police departments hold bicycle rodeos, which instruct children in bicycle handling
skills and introduce them to the rules of the road as they apply to cyclists. Education for adult cyclists
is available from organizations such as theLeague of American Bicyclists.

Beyond simply riding, another skill is riding efficiently and safely in traffic. One popular approach to
riding in motor vehicletraffic is vehicular cycling, occupying road space as car does. Alternately, in
countries such as the Netherlands, where cycling is popular, cyclists are sometimes segregated into
bike lanes at the side of, or separate from, main highways and roads. Many primary schools
participate in the national road test in which children individually complete a circuit on roads near the
school while being observed by testers.

Infrastructure[edit]
See also: Cycling infrastructure

A parking lot for bicycles in Niigata, Niigata, Japan.

Bicycle stands outside the Centre for Mathematical Sciences at theUniversity of Cambridge. Many students at the
university opt to travel by bicycle.

Cyclists, pedestrians and motorists make different demands on road design which may lead to
conflicts. Some jurisdictions give priority to motorized traffic, for example setting up one-way street
systems, free-right turns, high capacity roundabouts, andslip roads. Others may apply traffic
restraint measures to limit the impact of motorized transport. In the former cases, cycling has tended
to decline while in the latter it has tended to be maintained. Occasionally, extreme measures against
cycling may occur. In Shanghai, where bicycles were once the dominant mode of transport, bicycle
travel on a few city roads was banned temporarily in December 2003.

In areas in which cycling is popular and encouraged, cycle-parking facilities usingbicycle stands,
lockable mini-garages, and patrolled cycle parks are used in order to reduce theft. Local
governments promote cycling by permitting bicycles to be carried on public transport or by providing
external attachment devices on public transport vehicles. Conversely, an absence of secure cycle-
parking is a recurring complaint by cyclists from cities with low modal share of cycling.

Extensive bicycle path systems may be found in some cities. Such dedicated paths often have to be
shared with in-line skaters, scooters, skateboarders, and pedestrians. Segregating bicycle and
automobile traffic in cities has met with mixed success, both in terms of safety and bicycle
promotion. At some point the two streams of traffic inevitably intersect, often in a haphazard and
congested fashion. Studies have demonstrated that, due to the high incidence of accidents at these
sites, some such segregated schemes can actually increase the number of car-bike collisions.[13]

Bicycles are considered a sustainable mode of transport, especially suited for urban use and
relatively shorter distances when used for transport (compared to recreation). Case studies and
good practices (from European cities and some worldwide examples) that promote and stimulate this
kind of functional cycling in cities can be found at Eltis, Europe's portal for local transport.

A number of European countries, including Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the
Netherlands and Sweden, apply astrict liability towards cyclists, protecting them.[14] For example in
the Netherlands, the law assumes the stronger participant (e.g. a car driver) is liable in the case of
an accident with a weaker participant (e.g. a cyclist) unless it can be proved that the cyclist's
behavior could not have been expected.

Furthermore, in the Netherlands, drivers know to expect a high volume of cyclist traffic and bicycle
paths are widespread and (in the cities) closed to scooters. Due to these issues the number of car-
bike collisions with serious consequences is not alarmingly high in the Netherlands.[15][16]

A number of cities, including Paris, London and Barcelona, now have successful bike hire schemes
designed to help people cycle in the city. Typically these feature utilitarian city bikes which lock into
docking stations, released on payment for set time periods. In London this can cost as little as 12
Pence per day, with all journeys less than 30 minutes then free.[17]

Types[edit]
Utility[edit]

A bicycle loaded with tender coconuts for sale. Karnataka, India.

Main article: Utility cycling

Utility cycling refers both to cycling as a mode of daily commuting transport as well as the use of a
bicycle in a commercial activity, mainly to transport goods, mostly accomplished in an urban
environment.

The postal services of many countries have long relied on bicycles. The BritishRoyal Mail first
started using bicycles in 1880; now bicycle delivery fleets include 37,000 in the UK, 25,700 in
Germany, 10,500 in Hungary and 7000 in Sweden. In Australia, Australia Post has also reintroduced
bicycle postal deliveries on some routes due to an inability to recruit sufficient licensed riders willing
to use their uncomfortable motorbikes. The London Ambulance Service has recently introduced
bicycling paramedics, who can often get to the scene of an incident in Central London more quickly
than a motorized ambulance.

Late in the 20th century, urban police bicycles became more common, as the mobility of car-borne
officers was increasingly limited by traffic congestion and pedestrianisation.

Bicycles enjoy substantial use as general delivery vehicles in many countries. In the UK and North
America, as their first jobs, generations of teenagers have worked at delivering newspapers by
bicycle. London has many delivery companies that use bicycles with trailers. Most cities in the West,
and many outside it, support a sizeable and visible industry of cycle couriers who deliver documents
and small packages. In India, many of Mumbai's Dabbawalas use bicycles to deliver home cooked
lunches to the city’s workers. In Bogotá, Colombia the city’s largest bakery recently replaced most of
its delivery trucks with bicycles. Even the car industry uses bicycles. At the huge Mercedes-
Benz factory in Sindelfingen, Germany workers use bicycles, color-coded by department, to move
around the factory.
Recreational

In the Netherlands, bicycles are freely available for use in the Hoge Veluwe National Park.

Tour de Fat group ride in Portland, Oregon

Bicycles are used for recreation at all ages. Bicycle touring, also known as cyclotourism, involves
touring and exploration or sightseeing by bicycle for leisure. Abrevet or randonnée is an organized
long-distance ride.

One popular Dutch pleasure is the enjoyment of relaxed cycling in the countryside of the
Netherlands. The land is very flat and full of public bicycle trails where cyclists are not bothered by
cars and other traffic, which makes it ideal for cycling recreation. Many Dutch people subscribe
every year to an event calledfietsvierdaagse — four days of organised cycling through the local
environment.Paris–Brest–Paris (PBP), which began in 1891, is the oldest bicycling event still run on
a regular basis on the open road, covers over 1,200 km (746 mi) and imposes a 90-hour time limit.
Similar if smaller institutions exist in many countries.

Organized rides[edit]

Many cycling clubs hold organized rides in which bicyclists of all levels participate. The typical
organized ride starts with a large group of riders, called the mass, bunch or even peloton. This will
thin out over the course of the ride. Many riders choose to ride together in groups of the same skill
level to take advantage of drafting.

Most organized rides, for example cyclosportives (or gran fondos), Challenge Ridesor reliability
trials, and hill climbs include registration requirements and will provide information either through the
mail or online concerning start times and other requirements. Rides usually consist of several
different routes, sorted by mileage, and with a certain number of rest stops that usually include
refreshments, first aid and maintenance tools. Routes can vary by as much as 100 miles (160 km).

Mountain

Mountain biking began in the 1970s, originally as a downhill sport, practised on customized cruiser
bicycles around Mount Tamalpais.[18] Most mountain biking takes place on dirt roads, trails and in
purpose-built parks. Downhill mountain biking has just evolved in the recent years and is performed
at places such as Whistler Mountain Bike Park. Slopestyle, a form of downhill, is when riders do
tricks such as tailwhips, 360s, backflips and frontflips.

Racing

Bicycle racing in 1909.

A peloton of professional bicycle racers on the Golden Gate Bridge

Main article: Bicycle racing

Shortly after the introduction of bicycles, competitions developed independently in many parts of the
world. Early races involving boneshaker style bicycles were predictably fraught with injuries. Large
races became popular during the 1890s "Golden Age of Cycling", with events across Europe, and in
the U.S. and Japan as well. At one point, almost every major city in the US had a velodrome or two
for track racing events, however since the middle of the 20th century cycling has become a minority
sport in the US whilst in Continental Europe it continues to be a major sport, particularly in the United
Kingdom, France, Belgium, Italy and Spain. The most famous of all bicycle races is the Tour de
France. This began in 1903, and continues to capture the attention of the sporting world.

In 1899, Charles Minthorn Murphy became the first man to ride his bicycle a mile in under a minute
(hence his nickname, Mile-a-Minute Murphy), which he did by drafting a locomotive at New
York's Long Island.

As the bicycle evolved its various forms, different racing formats developed. Road races may involve
both team and individual competition, and are contested in various ways. They range from the one-
day road race, criterium, and time trial to multi-stage events like the Tour de France and its sister
events which make up cycling's Grand Tours. Recumbent bicycles were banned from bike races in
1934 after Marcel Berthet set a new hour record in his Velodyne streamliner (49.992 km on
November 18, 1933). Track bicycles are used for track cycling in Velodromes, while cyclo-
cross races are held on outdoor terrain, including pavement, grass, and mud. Cyclocross races
feature man-made features such as small barriers which riders either bunny hop over or dismount
and walk over. Time trial races, another form of road racing require a rider to ride against the clock.
Time trials can be performed as a team or as a single rider. Bikes are changed for time trial races,
using aero bars. In the past decade, mountain bike racing has also reached international popularity
and is even an Olympic sport.

Professional racing organizations place limitations on the bicycles that can be used in the races that
they sanction. For example, the Union Cycliste Internationale, the governing body of international
cycle sport (which sanctions races such as the Tour de France), decided in the late 1990s to create
additional rules which prohibit racing bicycles weighing less than 6.8 kilograms (14.96 pounds). The
UCI rules also effectively ban some bicycle frame innovations (such as the recumbent bicycle) by
requiring a double triangle structure.[19]

War
The bicycle is not suited for combat, but it has been used as a method of reconnaissance as well as
transporting soldiers and supplies to combat zones. In this it has taken over many of the functions
of horses in warfare. In the Second Boer War, both sides used bicycles for scouting. In World War I,
France, Germany, Australia and New Zealand used bicycles to move troops. In its 1937 invasion of
China, Japan employed some 50,000 bicycle troops, and similar forces were instrumental in Japan's
march or "roll" through Malaysia in World War II. Germany used bicycles again in World War II, while
the British employed airborne "Cycle-commandos" with folding bikes.

In the Vietnam War, communist forces used bicycles extensively as cargo carriers along the Ho Chi
Minh Trail.

The last country known to maintain a regiment of bicycle troops was Switzerland, who disbanded
their final unit in 2003.
Activism[
Two broad and correlated themes run in bicycle activism: one is about advocating the bicycle as an
alternative mode of transport, and the other is about the creation of conditions to permit and/or
encourage bicycle use, both for utility and recreational cycling.[20] Although the first, which
emphasizes the potential for energy and resource conservation and health benefits gained from
cycling versus automobile use, is relatively undisputed, the second is the subject of much debate.

San Francisco Critical Mass, April 29, 2005.

It is generally agreed that improved local and inter-city rail services and other methods of mass
transportation (including greater provision for cycle carriage on such services) create conditions to
encourage bicycle use. However, there are different opinions on the role of the use of segregated
cycle facilities and other items of the cycling infrastructure in building bicycle-friendly cities and
roads.

Some bicycle activists (including some traffic management advisers) seek the construction of
segregated cycle facilities for journeys of all lengths. Other activists, especially those from the more
established tradition, view the safety, practicality, and intent of many segregated cycle facilities with
suspicion. They favor a more holistic approach based on the 4 'E's; education (of everyone
involved), encouragement (to apply the education), enforcement (to protect the rights of others),
and engineering(to facilitate travel while respecting every person's equal right to do so). In some
cases this opposition has a more ideological basis: some members of the Vehicular Cycling
movement oppose segregated public facilities, such as on-street bike lanes, on principle. Some
groups offer training courses to help cyclists integrate themselves with other traffic.

Critical Mass is an event typically held on the last Friday of every month in cities around the world
where bicyclists take to the streets en masse. While the ride was originally founded with the idea of
drawing attention to how unfriendly the city was to bicyclists, the leaderless structure of Critical Mass
makes it impossible to assign it any one specific goal. In fact, the purpose of Critical Mass is not
formalized beyond the direct action of meeting at a set location and time and traveling as a group
through city streets.
There is a long-running cycle helmet debate among activists. The most heated controversy
surrounds the topic ofcompulsory helmet use.

Associations

Headquarters of the International Cycling Union in Switzerland

Cyclists form associations, both for specific interests (trails development, road maintenance, bike
maintenance, urban design, racing clubs, touring clubs, etc.) and for more global goals (energy
conservation, pollution reduction, promotion of fitness). Some bicycle clubs and national
associations became prominent advocates for improvements to roads and highways. In the United
States, the League of American Wheelmen lobbied for the improvement of roads in the last part of
the 19th century, founding and leading the national Good Roads Movement. Their model for political
organization, as well as the paved roads for which they argued, facilitated the growth of the
automobile.

As a sport, cycling is governed internationally by the Union Cycliste Internationale in

Switzerland, USA Cycling (merged with the United States Cycling Federation in 1995) in the United
States, (for upright bicycles) and by the International Human Powered Vehicle Association (for other
HPVs, or human-powered vehicles). Cycling for transport and touring is promoted on a European
level by the European Cyclists' Federation, with associated members from Great Britain, Japan and
elsewhere. Regular conferences on cycling as transport are held under the auspices of Velo City;
global conferences are coordinated by Velo Mondial.[21]

Health effects
The health effects of bicycling are a trade-off between the benefits of exercise versus the risks due
to pollution, crashes, or injuries.

The health benefits of cycling outweigh the risks, when cycling is compared to a sedentary lifestyle.
A Dutch study found that cycling can extend lifespans by up to 14 months, but the risks equated to a
reduced lifespan of 40 days or less.[22] Cycling in the Netherlands is much safer than in other parts of
the world. Overall, benefits of cycling or walking have been shown to exceed risks by ratios of 9:1 to
96:1 when compared with no exercise at all.[23] These studies to not compare cycling with other forms
of cardiovascular conditioning that do not come with cycling's inherent risks.[citation needed]

Exercise

Heavily equipped London cyclist: specialist cycle clothing, pollution mask, dark glasses and helmet.

The physical exercise gained from cycling is generally linked with increased health and well-being.
According to the World Health Organization, physical inactivity is second only to tobacco smoking as
a health risk in developed countries,[24] and this is associated with many tens of billions of dollars of
healthcare costs.[25] The WHO's report[24] suggests that increasing physical activity is a public health
'best buy', and that cycling is a 'highly suitable activity' for this purpose. The charity Sustransreports
that investment in cycling provision can give a 20:1 return from health and other benefits.[26] It has
been estimated that, on average, approximately 20 life-years are gained from the health benefits of
road bicycling for every life-year lost through injury.[27]

Bicycles are often used by people seeking to improve their fitness and cardiovascular health. In this
regard, cycling is especially helpful for those witharthritis of the lower limbs who are unable to pursue
sports that cause impact to the knees and other joints. Since cycling can be used for the practical
purpose of transportation, there can be less need for self-discipline to exercise.

Cycling while seated is a relatively non-weight bearing exercise that, like swimming, does little to
promote bone density.[28]Cycling up and out of the saddle, on the other hand, does a better job by
transferring more of the rider's body weight to the legs. However, excessive cycling while standing
can cause knee damage[29][not in citation given]
It used to be thought that cycling while standing was less
energy efficient, but recent research has proven this not to be true. Other than air resistance, there is
no wasted energy from cycling while standing, if it is done correctly.[30]

Cycling on a stationary cycle is frequently advocated as a suitable exercise for rehabilitation,

particularly for lower limb injury, owing to the low impact which it has on the joints. In particular,
cycling is commonly used within knee rehabilitation programs.[31]

As a response to the increased global sedentarity and consequent overweight and obesity, one
response that has been adopted by many organizations concerned with health and environment is
the promotion of Active travel, which seeks to promote walking and cycling as safe and attractive
alternatives to motorized transport. Given that many journeys are for relatively short distances, there
is considerable scope to replace car use with walking or cycling, though in many settings this may
require some infrastructure modification, particularly to attract the less experienced and confident.

Bicycle safety
Further information: Bicycle safety

Virgin Mary venerated as the holy protector of bicyclists on the roads of the mountainous Basque Country

Cycling suffers from a perception that it is unsafe.[32] In the UK, fatality rates per mile or kilometre
are slightly less than those for walking.[33] In the US, bicycling fatality rates are less than 2/3 of those
walking the same distance.[34][35] However, in the UK for example the fatality and serious injury
rates per hour of travel are just overdouble for cycling than those for walking.[33] Thus if a person is,
for example, about to undertake a ten kilometre journey to a given destination it may on average be
safer to undertake this journey by bicycle than on foot. However, if a person is intending, for
example, to undertake an hour's exercise it is likely to be considerablymore dangerous to take that
exercise by cycling rather than by walking.

(It should be noted that calculated fatality rates based on distance for bicycling (as well as for
walking) can have an exceptionally large margin of error, since there are generally no annual
registrations or odometers required for bicycles, and this means the distance traveled must be
estimated).

Despite the risk factors associated with bicycling, cyclists have a lower overall mortality rate when
compared to other groups. A Danish study in 2000 found that even after adjustment for other risk
factors, including leisure time physical activity, those who did not cycle to work experienced a 39%
higher mortality rate than those who did.[36]

Injuries (to cyclists, from cycling) can be divided into two types:

 Physical trauma (extrinsic)

 Overuse (intrinsic).
Physical trauma
Acute physical trauma includes injuries to the head and extremities resulting from falls and collisions.
Most cycle deaths result from a collision with a car or heavy goods vehicle, both motorist and cyclist
having been found responsible for collisions[37][38][39] However, around a fifth of non-fatal injuries to
cyclists do not involve any other person or vehicle.[citation needed]

Since a large percentage of the collisions between motor and pedal vehicles occur at night,[citation
needed]
bicycle lighting is recommended for safety when bicycling at night.

Bicyclist pedals uphill at the Taroko Gorge in Taiwan

Overuse injuries[edit]

Of a study of 518 cyclists, a large majority reported at least one overuse injury, with over one third
requiring medical treatment. The most common injury sites were the neck (48.8%) and the knees
(41.7%), as well as the groin/buttocks (36.1%), hands (31.1%), and back (30.3%). Women were
more likely to suffer from neck and shoulder pain than men.[40]

Many cyclists suffer from overuse injuries to the knees, affecting cyclists at all levels. These are
caused by many factors:[41]

 Incorrect bicycle fit or adjustment, particularly the saddle.

 Incorrect adjustment of clipless pedals.
 Too many hills, or too many miles, too early in the training season.
 Poor training preparation for long touring rides.
 Selecting too high a gear. A lower gear for uphill climb protects the knees, even though muscles
may be well able to handle a higher gear.

Excessive saddle height can cause posterior knee pain, while setting the saddle too low can cause
pain in the anterior of the knee. An incorrectly fitted saddle may eventually lead to muscle
imbalance. A 25 to 35 degree knee angle is recommended to avoid an overuse injury.[42]

Overuse injuries, including chronic nerve damage at weight bearing locations, can occur as a result
of repeatedly riding a bicycle for extended periods of time. Damage to the ulnar nerve in the
palm, carpal tunnel in the wrist, the genitourinary tract[43] or bicycle seat neuropathy[44] may result
from overuse. Recumbent bicycles are designed on different ergonomicprinciples and eliminate
pressure from the saddle and handlebars, due to the relaxed riding position.

Note that overuse is a relative term, and capacity varies greatly between individuals. Someone
starting out in cycling must be careful to increase length and frequency of cycling sessions slowly,
starting for example at an hour or two per day, or a hundred miles or kilometers per week. Bilateral
muscular pain is a normal by-product of the training process, whereas unilateral pain may reveal
"exercise-induced arterial endofibrosis".[45] Joint pain and numbness are also early signs of overuse
injury.

Cycling has been linked to sexual impotence due to pressure on the perineum from the seat, but
fitting a proper sized seat prevents this effect.[46][47][48][49] In extreme cases, Pudendal Nerve
Entrapment can be a source of intractable perineal pain.[50] Some cyclists with induced pudendal
nerve pressure neuropathy gained relief from improvements in saddle position and riding
techniques.[51]

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has investigated the potential
health effects of prolonged bicycling in police bicycle patrol units, including the possibility that some
bicycle saddles exert excessive pressure on the urogenital area of cyclists, restricting blood flow to
the genitals.[52] Their study found that using bicycle seats without protruding noses reduced pressure
on the groin by at least 65% and significantly reduced the number of cases of urogenital paresthesia.
A follow-up found that 90% of bicycle officers who tried the no-nose seat were using it six months
later. NIOSH recommends that riders use a no-nose bicycle seat for workplace bicycling.[49][53]

A Spanish study of top triathletes found those who cover more than 186 miles (300 km) a week on
their bikes have less than 4% normal looking sperm, where normal adult males would be expected
to have from 15% to 20%.[46][54]

Despite rumors to the contrary, there is no scientific evidence linking cycling with testicular cancer.[55]

Exposure to air pollution

One concern often expressed (both by non-cyclists and some cyclists) is the thought that riding in
traffic exposes the cyclist to higher levels of air pollution, especially if he or she travels on or along
busy roads. Some authors have claimed this to be untrue, showing that the pollutant and irritant
count within cars is consistently higher,[56] (presumably because of limited circulation of air within the
car and due to the air intake being directly in the stream of other traffic). Other authors have found
small or inconsistent differences in concentrations but claim that exposure of cyclists is higher due to
increased minute ventilation[57] and is associated with minor biological changes.[58] The significance of
the associated health effect, if any, is unclear but probably much smaller than the health impacts
associated with accidents and the health benefits derived from additional physical activity.
Darts

Darts is a form of throwing game in which small missiles are thrown at a circular target (dartboard)
fixed to a wall.[2] Though various boards and rules have been used in the past, the term "darts"
usually now refers to a standardised game involving a specific board design and set of rules. As well
as being a professional competitive sport, darts is a traditional pub game, commonly played in
the United Kingdom, across the Commonwealth, the Netherlands, Belgium, Republic of Ireland,
the Scandinavian countries, the United States, and elsewhere.

Equipment
Dartboard

Darts were historically used in warfare in ancient history; skirmishers used darts of varying sizes,
similar to miniature javelins. It was the practice of this skill that developed into a game of skill. Before
the First World War, pubs in the United Kingdom had dartboards made from solid blocks of wood,
usually elm.[citation needed]They had to be soaked overnight to heal the holes made by the darts, and it
was a messy business for the publican, although darts was a popular game. This changed when a
company called Nodor, whose primary business was makingmodelling clay (which has no odour,
hence the name Nodor), started producing clay dartboards in 1923. The clay dartboards never
caught on, and Nodor switched to making the traditional elm dartboards that were popular at the
time.[3] Their model of dartboard was not a great success until someone came up with the idea of
using the century plant to make a dartboard. Small bundles of sisal fibres of the same length were
bundled together. The bundles were then compressed into a disk and bound with a metal ring. It was
an instant success, as the darts did little or no damage to the board—they just parted the fibres
when they entered the board; this type of board was more durable and required little maintenance.[3]

Quality dartboards are made of sisal fibres; less expensive boards are sometimes made of cork or
coiled paper. However, several types of sisal fibre are used in dartboards today, originating from
East Africa, Brazil, or China. Despite widespread belief that some dartboards are constructed using
pig bristles, camel hair, or horse hair, there is no evidence that boards have ever been produced
commercially from these materials.

A regulation board is 17 3⁄4 inches (451 mm)[4] in diameter and is divided into 20 radial sections. Each
section is separated with metal wire or a thin band of sheet metal. The best dartboards have the
thinnest wire, so that the darts have less chance of hitting a wire and bouncing out. The numbers
indicating the various scoring sections of the board are also normally made of wire, especially on
tournament-quality boards. The wire ring on which the numbers are welded can be turned to
facilitate even wear of the board. Boards of lesser quality often have the numbers printed directly on
the board.

Recently, some companies have produced electronic dartboards. These dartboards have electronic
scoring computers that are preprogrammed with a wide variety of game types. The board is made of
plastic facings with small holes. The holes slant out, allowing the plastic-tipped darts to stick inside.
When a dart strikes the board, the section makes contact with a metal plate, telling the computer
where the player has thrown.

History

The dartboard may have its origins in the cross-section of a tree. An old name for a dartboard is
"butt"; the word comes from the French word but, meaning "target".[5] In particular, the Yorkshire and
Manchester Log End boards differ from the standard board in that they have no treble, only double
and bullseye, the Manchester board being of a smaller diameter, with a playing area of only 25 cm
across with double and bull areas measuring just 4mm. The London Fives board is another variation.
This has only 12 equal segments numbered 20, 5, 15, 10, 20, 5, 15, 10, 20, 5, 15, 10 with the
doubles and triples being a quarter of an inch wide.

There is a speculation that the game originated among soldiers throwing short arrows at the bottom
of the cask or at the bottom of trunks of trees. As the wood dried, cracks would develop, creating
"sections". Soon, regional standards emerged and many woodworkers supplemented bar tabs by
fabricating dart boards for the local pubs.

The standard numbering plan with a 20 on top was created in 1896 byLancashire carpenter Brian
Gamlin.[6] However, a great many other configurations have been used throughout the years and in
different geographical locations. Gamlin's layout was devised to penalise inaccuracy. Although this
applies to most of the board, the left-hand side (near the 14 section) is preferred by beginners, for its
concentration of larger numbers. Mathematically, removing the rotational symmetry by placing the
"20" at the top, there are 19!, or 121,645,100,408,832,000 possible dartboards. Many different
layouts would penalise a player more than the current setup; however, the current setup actually
does the job rather efficiently. There have been several mathematical papers published that consider
the "optimal" dartboard.[7]
Dartboard Illumination
Illumination should be arranged to brightly illuminate the dartboard and minimize shadows of thrown
darts.

The main supply for the illumination should be protected against accidental piercing, or placed away
from the board.

Darts
Initially the missiles were simply cut down arrows or crossbow bolts.[8] The first purpose made darts
were manufactured in one piece from wood; wrapped with a strip of lead for weight and fitted with
flights made from split turkey feathers. These darts were mainly imported from France and became
known as French darts.[9] Metal barrels were patented in 1906 but wood continued to be used into
the 1950s.[8][10] The first metal barrels were made from brass which was relatively cheap and easy to
work.[9] The wooden shafts, which were now threaded to fit the tapped barrel, were either fletched as
before or designed to take a paper flight. This type of dart continued to be used into the
1970s.[9] When the advantages of using plastic were realised, the shaft and flight became separate
entities, although one piece moulded plastic shaft and flights were also available.[11]

Modern darts have four parts: The points, the barrels, the shafts and the fletching[12] The steel points
come in 2 common lengths, 32mm and 41mm and are sometimes knurled or coated to improve grip.
Others are designed to retract slightly on impact to lessen the chance of bouncing out.[13]

The barrels come in a variety of weights and are usually constructed from brass, silver-nickel, or
a tungsten alloy.[14] Brass is cheap but light and therefore brass barrels tend to be very bulky.
Tungsten on the other hand, is twice as dense as brass thus a barrel of an equivalent weight could
be thirty percent smaller in diameter.[15] Tungsten is very brittle however and so an alloy of between
80 and 95 per cent tungsten is used. The remainder is usually nickel, iron, or copper.[15] Silver-nickel
darts offer a compromise between density and cost.

Barrels come in 3 basic shapes: Cylindrical, torpedo, or ton.[16] Cylindrical barrels are the same
diameter along their entire length and so tend to be long and thin. Their slenderness makes them
better for grouping but because they are long, the centre of gravity is further back. Ton shaped
barrels are thin at either end but bulge in the middle. This makes them fatter than a cylindrical barrel
of equivalent weight but the centre of gravity is further forward and so theoretically easier to throw.
Torpedo shaped barrels are widest at the point end and taper towards the rear. This keeps the
weight as far forward as possible but like the ton, gives it a larger diameter than the cylinder.

The shafts are manufactured in various lengths and some are designed to be cut to length. Shafts
are generally made from plastics, nylon polymers, or metals such as aluminium and titanium; and
can be rigid or flexible.[17] Longer shafts provide greater stability and allow a reduction in flight size
which in turn can lead to closer grouping; but they also shift the weight towards the rear causing the
dart to tilt backwards during flight,requiring a harder,faster throw. A longer shaft will however make
the dart less responsive and increase the chance of "wobbling".

The primary purpose of the flight is to produce drag and thus prevent the rear of the dart overtaking
the point.[12] It also has an effect on stability by reducing wobble. Modern flights are generally made
from plastic, nylon, or foil and are available in a range of shapes and sizes. The three most common
shapes in order of size are the standard, the kite, and the smaller pear shape. The less surface area,
the less stability but larger flights hamper close grouping. Some manufactures have sought to solve
this by making a flight long and thin but this in turn creates other problems such as changing the
dart's centre of gravity. Generally speaking a heavier dart will require a larger flight.[12]

The choice of barrel, shaft, and flight will depend a great deal on the individual player’s throwing
style. For competitive purposes a dart cannot weigh more than 50g including the shaft and flight and
cannot exceed a total length of 300mm.[8]

Playing Dimensions

The WDF uses the following standards for play:

Height - The dart board is hung so that the center of the bulls eye is 5ft 8in (1.73 m) from the floor.
This is considered eye-level for a six foot man.

Distance - The oche should be 7ft 9¼in (2.37 m) from the face of the board. Note that this is the
face of the board, and should not include the distance to the wall (if the board protrudes from the
wall)

Scoring
The standard dartboard is divided into 20 numbered sections, scoring from 1 to 20 points, by wires
running from the small central circle to the outer circular wire. Circular wires within the outer wire
subdivide each section into single, double and triple areas. The dartboard featured on the "Indoor
League" television show of the 1970s did not feature a triple section, and according to host Fred
Trueman during the first episode, this is the traditional Yorkshire board.

Various games can be played (and still are played informally) using the standard dartboard.
However, in the official game, any dart landing inside the outer wire scores as follows:

 Hitting one of the large portions of each of the numbered sections, traditionally alternately
coloured black and white, scores the points value of that section.
 Hitting the thin inner portions of these sections, roughly halfway between the outer wire and the
central circle coloured red or green, scores triple the points value of that section.
 Hitting the thin outer portions of these sections, again coloured red or green, scores double the
points value of that section. The double-20 is often referred to as double-top, reflecting the 20's
position on the dartboard.
 The central circle is divided into a green outer ring worth 25 points (known as "outer", "outer
bull", or "iris") and a red or black inner circle (usually known as "bull", "inner bull" or "double
bull"), worth 50 points. The term "bullseye" can mean either the whole central part of the board
or just the inner red/black section. The term "bull's ring" usually means just the green outer ring.
The inner bull counts as a double when doubling in or out.
 Hitting outside the outer wire scores nothing.
 Any dart that does not remain in the board until it is collected by the player (for example, a dart
that hits a wire and bounces out of the board or drops out with the impact of a later throw) also
scores nothing; exception should be noted if play is on any electronic board: darts falling out are
counted.
 A dart only scores if its point is embedded in or is touching the playing surface. A dart that hits
the board side on or at an angle but does not fall off because it is held in place by two other
darts, for example, will score either equal to where its point touches or not at all.

The highest score possible with three darts is 180, commonly known as a "ton 80" (100 points is
called a ton), obtained when all three darts land in the triple 20. In the televised game,
the referee frequently announces a score of 180 in exuberant style. A "quad" ring appeared briefly
between the triple ring and the bull in the 1990s, leading to a potential 240maximum (three quad-
20s), a 210 maximum checkout (Q20-Q20-Bull) and seven dart finishes from a 501 start (five quad-
20s, triple-17, bullseye), but was swiftly dropped from professional tournament play.[18]

Skill level and aiming

Path of the optimal location to throw a dart where σ = 0 is a perfect player and σ = 100 is a player who throws
randomly.
Assuming standard scoring, the optimal area to aim for on the dart board in order to maximize the
player's score varies significantly based on the players skill. The skilled player should aim for the
centre of the T20 and as the player's skill reduces their aim moves slightly up and to the left of the
T20. At σ = 16.4 the best place to aim jumps to the T19. As the player's skill decreases further, the
best place to aim curls into the centre of the board, stopping a bit lower than and to the left of the
bullseye at σ = 100.[19]

Games
There are many games that can be played on a dartboard, but darts generally refers to a game
whereby the player throws three darts per visit to the board with the goal of reducing a fixed score,
commonly 501 or 301, to zero ("checking out"), with the final dart landing in either the bullseye or a
double segment. A game of darts is generally contested between two players, who take turns. Each
turn consists of throwing three darts. When two teams play, the starting score is sometimes
increased to '701' or even '1001'; the rules remain the same.

A throw that reduces a player's score below zero, to exactly one, or to zero but not ending with a
double is known as "going bust", with the player's score being reset to the value prior to starting the
turn, and the remainder of the turn being forfeited. A darts match is played over a fixed number of
games, known as legs. A match may be divided into sets, with each set being contested as over a
fixed number of legs.

Although playing straight down from 501 is standard in darts, sometimes a double must be hit to
begin scoring, known as "doubling in", with all darts thrown before hitting a double not being
counted. The PDC's World Grand Prix uses this format.

The minimum number of thrown darts required to complete a leg of 501 is nine. The most
common nine dart finish consists of two 180 maximums followed by a 141 checkout (T20-T19-D12),
but there are many other possible ways of achieving the feat. Three 167s (T20-T19-Bull) is
considered a pure or perfect nine dart finish by some players.

Other games and variants

There are a number of regional variations on the standard rules and scoring systems. "Round the
Clock" is a variation that involves hitting the numbers in sequence, known as "around the world" in
New Zealand.[20] "Jumpers" is a somewhat swifter and more exciting variation of Round the Clock
believed to have originated amongst the British ex-pat community in Asia.[21]

Around the world

"Around the world" is a game whereby each player must hit consecutive numbers on the board in
order to proceed to the next round. In a one on one battle the winner is the person to reach the last
number or bullseye. In a team competition the winner is the first team to reach the last number or
bullseye after the round is complete or each member of each team has thrown that specific round.

American darts
Main article: American Darts

American Darts is a regional USA variant of the game (most U.S. dart players play the traditional
games described above). This style of dart board is most often found in eastern Pennsylvania, New
Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and parts of New York state.

Archery darts

This is played in exactly the same way as a regular game of darts, but using recurve or compound
bows to shoot full lengtharrows from a distance to hit a 60 cm or 90 cm paper target face that looks
like a dartboard. These are commercially produced, but usually only in black & white.

Audio darts

A variant of traditional darts played using a blindfold. Often played by people with visual disabilities
and their friends. Typically a talking electronic dartboard is used to speak the numbers hit, keep
score and announce who is throwing next.

Cricket

Cricket (also called Killer in some countries) is a widely-played darts game involving a race to
capture numbers between 20 and 15 plus the bullseye by hitting the mark three times. Once
"opened" in this manner, each additional hit scores points until the opponent "closes" that number
with three hits of their own.

If a player hits for example: Double 20, Then two marks are taken from that number, Or if a "Triple"
is hit then this "opens" and "closes" that number in one dart.

If all numbers have been closed and the player is on bull, then generally if the player hits "bull" then
this will "open" and "close" with one dart. equally the player can hit the "25" mark three times.

Dartball

Dartball is a darts game based on the sport of baseball. It is played on a diamond shaped board and
has similar scoring to baseball.

Dart Golf

Dart golf is a darts game based on the sport of golf and is regulated by the World Dolf Federation
(WDFF).[22] It is played on both special golf dartboards and traditional dartboards. Scoring is similar to
golf.
Fives

An 'East-End' or 'Fives' dartboard

This is a regional variant still played in some parts of the East End of London. The board has fewer,
larger segments, all numbered either 5, 10, 15 or 20. Players play down from 505 rather than 501,
and stand the farthest (9 ft or 2.7 m) away from the board of any mainstream variation.[23]

Halve it
Main article: Halve it

Halve it is a darts game popular in the United Kingdom and parts of North Americawhere
competitors try to hit previously agreed targets on a standard dart board.[24]Failure to do so within a
single throw (3 darts) results in the player losing half their accumulated score. Any number of players
can take part and the game can vary in length depending on the number of targets selected.[25] The
game can be tailored to the skill level of the players by selecting easy or difficult targets.

Killer

"Killer" is a 'knock-out' game for two or more players (at its best at 4-6 players). Initially each player
throws a dart at the board with their non-dominant hand to obtain their 'number'. No two players can
have the same number. Once everyone has a number, each player takes it in turn to get their
number five times with their three darts (doubles count twice, and triples three times). Once a person
has reached 5, they become a 'killer'. This means they can aim for other peoples numbers, taking a
point off for each time they hit (doubles x2, triples x3). If a person gets to zero they are out. A killer
can aim for anyone's numbers, even another killer's. You cannot get more than 5 points. The winner
is 'the last man standing'.[26]

Lawn Darts

Lawn darts (also called Jarts or yard darts) is a lawn game based on darts. The game play and
objective are similar to bothhorseshoes and darts. The darts are similar to the
ancient Roman plumbata.
Shanghai

Shanghai is a darts game of accuracy.[27] Hitting doubles and triples is paramount to victory. This
game is played with at least two players. The standard version is played in 7 rounds.[27] In round one
players throw their darts aiming for the 1 section, round 2, the 2 section and so on until round 7.
Standard scoring is used, and doubles and triples are counted. Only hits on the wedge for that round
are counted. The winner is the person who has the most points at the end of seven rounds (1-7); or
you can score a Shanghai and win instantly. To score a Shanghai you have to hit a triple, a double
and single (in any order) of the number that is in play.[27]

Shanghai can also be played for 20 rounds to use all numbers. A Fairer Start for Shanghai: To
prevent players from becoming too practised at shooting for the 1, the number sequence can begin
at the number of the dart that lost the throw for the bullseye to determine the starting thrower. For
example; Thrower A shoots for the bullseye and hits the 17. Thrower B shoots for the bullseye and
hits it. Thrower B then begins the game, starting on the number 17, then 18, 19, 20, 1, 2, 3, etc.
through 16 (if no player hits Shanghai).

Ranger

Played as normal Dart, except the throw distance is 4 meters and using the Bullseye 1 to 10 points
system. Most Dartboards have a bullseye on the other side with circular fields of 1 to 9, and bullseye
is 10.

Darts organizations
Amateur League Organizations
The American Darts Organization promulgates rules and standards for amateur league darts and
sanctions tournaments in the United States. The American Darts Organization began operation
January 1, 1976 with 30 charter member clubs and a membership of 7,500 players. Today, the ADO
has a membership that averages 250 clubs on a yearly basis representing roughly 50,000
members.[28]

Professional organizations
Of the two professional organisations, the British Darts Organisation (BDO), founded 1973, is the
older. Its tournaments are often shown on the BBC in the UK and on SBS6 in the Netherlands. The
BDO is a member of the World Darts Federation(WDF) (founded 1976), along with organizations in
some 60 other countries worldwide. The BDO originally organised a number of the more prestigious
British tournaments with a few notable exceptions such as the News of the World Championship and
the national events run under the auspices of the National Darts Association of Great Britain.
However, many sponsors were lost and British TV coverage became much reduced by the early
nineties.
In 1992 a breakaway organisation was formed, initially known as the World Darts Council (WDC) but
shortly after known as the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC). The PDC tournaments have a
considerable following, although the PDC World Championship attracts lower TV viewing figures
than that of the BDO due to the BDO World Championship being free to view on the BBC.

The PDC tournaments often have higher prize money and feature the leading player in the history of
the game, 16-time World Champion Phil Taylor. The highly successful BDO player Raymond van
Barneveld switched to the PDC and won the PDC World Championship at his first attempt in 2007.

Professional play
The BDO and PDC both organise a World Professional Championship. They are held annually over
the Christmas/New Year period, with the PDC championship finishing slightly earlier than the BDO
tournament. The BDO World Championship has been running since 1978; the PDC World
Championship started in 1994.

Both organisations hold other professional tournaments. The BDO organise the World Masters and
many Open tournaments. They also organise county darts for their 66 county members in the UK
including individual and team events.

The PDC's major tournaments are the World Championship, Premier League, UK Open, World
Matchplay, World Grand Prixand the Grand Slam of Darts. All of these are broadcast live on Sky
Sports television in the UK. They also hold PDC Pro Tour events and smaller category events
around the UK.

Two Dutch independently organised major tournaments, the International Darts League and
the World Darts Trophyintroduced a mix of BDO and PDC players in 2006 and 2007. Both
organisations allocated rankings to the tournaments, but these two events are now discontinued.

The WDF World Cup for national teams and a singles tournament has been played biennially since
1977. The WDF also organise the Europe Cup.The PDC has their own world cup competition,
the PDC World Cup of Darts.

Diving

Diving is the sport of jumping or falling into water from a platform orspringboard, sometimes while
performing acrobatics. Diving is an internationally recognized sport that is part of the Olympic
Games. In addition, unstructured and non-competitive diving is a recreational pastime.
Diving is one of the most popular Olympic sports with spectators. Competitors possess many of the
same characteristics as gymnasts and dancers, including strength, flexibility, kinaesthetic judgment
and air awareness. Some professional divers were originally gymnasts or dancers as both the sports
have similar characteristics to diving

History
Plunging

Plunging, the first competitive diving sport.

Although diving has been a popular pastime across the world since ancient times, the first modern

diving competitions were held in England in the 1880s. The exact origins of the sport are unclear,

though it likely derives from the act of diving at the start of swimming races.[1][2]The 1904

book Swimming by Ralph Thomas notes English reports of plunging records dating back to at least

1865.[3] The 1877 edition to British Rural Sports by John Henry Walsh makes note of a "Mr. Young"

plunging 56 feet in 1870, and also states that 25 years prior, a swimmer named Drake could cover

53 feet.[4]

The English Amateur Swimming Association (at the time called the Swimming Association of Great

Britain) first started a "plunging championship" in 1883.[5][6] The Plunging Championship was

discontinued in 1937.
Fancy diving[edit]

Diving into a body of water had also been a method used by gymnasts

in Germany and Sweden since the early 19th century. The soft landing allowed for more elaborate

gymnastic feats in midair as the jump could be made at a greater distance. This tradition evolved

into 'fancy diving', while diving as a preliminary to swimming became known as 'Plain diving'.
In England, the practice of high diving – diving from a great height – gained popularity; the first diving

stages were erected at the Highgate Ponds at a height of 15 feet in 1893 and the first world

championship event, the National Graceful Diving Competition, was held there by the Royal Life

Saving Society in 1895. The event consisted of standing and running dives from either 15 or 30 feet.

It was at this event that the Swedish tradition of fancy diving was introduced to the sport by the

athletes Otto Hagborg and C F Mauritzi. They demonstrated their acrobatic techniques from the 10m

diving board at Highgate Pond and stimulated the establishment of the Amateur Diving

Association in 1901, the first organization devoted to diving in the world (later amalgamated with the

Amateur Swimming Association). Fancy diving was formally introduced into the championship in

1903.[7][8]
Olympic era

Swedish high diver Arvid Spangbergat the 1908 Olympic Games from the fourth Olympiad.

Plain diving was first introduced into the Olympics at the 1904 event. The 1908 Olympics in

London added 'fancy diving' and introduced elastic boards rather than fixed platforms. Women were

first allowed to participate in the diving events for the1912 Olympics in Stockholm.[7]

In the 1928 Olympics, 'plain' and 'fancy' diving was amalgamated into one event – 'Highboard

Diving'. The diving event was first held indoors in the Empire Pool for the1934 British Empire

Games and 1948 Summer Olympics in London.

Competitive diving[edit]
Most diving competitions consist of three disciplines: 1 m and 3 m springboards, and the platform.

Competitive athletes are divided by gender, and often by age group. In platform events, competitors

are allowed to perform their dives on either the five, seven and a half (generally just called seven) or

ten meter towers. In major diving meets, including the Olympic Games and the World

Championships, platform diving is from the 10 meter height.

A man dives into the Great South Bay of Long Island.

Divers have to perform a set number of dives according to established requirements, including

somersaults and twists. Divers are judged on whether and how well they completed all aspects of

the dive, the conformance of their body to the requirements of the dive, and the amount of splash

created by their entry to the water. A possible score out of ten is broken down into three points for

the takeoff, three for the flight, and three for the entry, with one more available to give the judges

flexibility.

The raw score is multiplied by a difficulty factor, derived from the number and combination of

movements attempted. The diver with the highest total score after a sequence of dives is declared

the winner.
Synchronized diving[edit]

Synchronized diving was adopted as an Olympic sport in 2000. Two divers form a team and perform

dives simultaneously. The dives are identical. It used to be possible to dive opposites, also known as

a pinwheel, but this is no longer part of competitive synchronized diving. For example, one diver

would perform a forward dive and the other an inward dive in the same position, or one would do a
reverse and the other a back movement. In these events, the diving would be judged both on the

quality of execution and the synchronicity – in timing of take-off and entry, height and forward travel.
Scoring the dive[edit]

There are rules governing the scoring of a dive. Usually a score considers three elements of the

dive: the approach, the flight, and the entry. The primary factors affecting the scoring are:

 if a hand-stand is required, the length of time and quality of the hold

 the height of the diver at the apex of the dive, with extra height resulting in a higher score

 the distance of the diver from the diving apparatus throughout the dive (a diver must not be

dangerously close, should not be too far away, but should ideally be within 2 feet (0.61 m) of the

platform)

 the properly defined body position of the diver according to the dive being performed, including

pointed toes and feet touching at all times

 the proper amounts of rotation and revolution upon completion of the dive and entry into the

water

 angle of entry – a diver should enter the water straight, without any angle. Many judges award

divers for the amount of splash created by the diver on entry, with less splash resulting in a

higher score.

To reduce the subjectivity of scoring in major meets, panels of five or seven judges are assembled. If

five judges then the highest and lowest scores are discarded and the middle three are summed and

multiplied by the degree of difficulty (DD),[9]which is determined from a combination of the moves

undertaken, in which position and from what height. In major international events, there are seven

judges in which case the highest and lowest scores are again discarded and the middle five are

summed, then ratioed by 3⁄5, and multiplied by the DD, so as to provide consistent comparison with

5-judge events. Accordingly, it is extremely difficult for one judge to manipulate scores.
This seven-judge procedure has been modified as of the 2012 London Olympics: rather than

eliminating one high and one low award and then reducing the total by 3⁄5 as in previous international

events, the two highest awards and the two lowest are disregarded, leaving three to be summed and

multiplied by the difficulty rating.

There is a general misconception about scoring and judging. In serious meets, the absolute score is

somewhat meaningless. It is the relative score, not the absolute score that wins meets. Accordingly,

good judging implies consistent scoring across the dives. Specifically, if a judge consistently gives

low scores for all divers, or consistently gives high scores for the same divers, the judging will yield

fair relative results and will cause divers to place in the correct order. However, absolute scores

have significance to the individual divers. Besides the obvious instances of setting records, absolute

scores are also used for rankings and qualifications for higher level meets.

In synchronised diving events, there is a panel of seven, nine, or eleven judges; two or three to mark

the execution of one diver, two or three to mark the execution of the other, and the remaining three

or five to judge the synchronisation. The execution judges are positioned two on each side of the

pool, and they score the diver which is nearer to them. The 2012 London Olympics saw the first use

of eleven judges.

The score is computed similarly to the scores from other diving events, but has been modified

starting with the 2012 London Olympics for the use of the larger judging panels. Each group of

judges will have the highest and lowest scores dropped, leaving the middle score for each diver's

execution and the three middle scores for synchronization. The total is then weighted by 3⁄5 and

multiplied by the DD. The result is that the emphasis is on the synchronization of the divers.

The synchronisation scores are based on:

 time of take-off

 height attained
 synchronisation of rotations and twists

 time of entry to the water

 forward travel from the board

The judges may also disqualify the diver for certain violations during the dive, including:

 receiving a score of 0 on all dives performed in the event

 improper equipment usage (e.g., female divers not using hair ties)
Competitive strategy[edit]

1984 and 1988 Olympic gold medal diver Greg Louganis

To win dive meets, divers create a dive list in advance of the meet. To win the meet the diver must

accumulate more points than other divers. Often, simple dives with low DDs will look good to

spectators but will not win meets. The competitive diver will attempt the highest DD dives possible

with which they can achieve consistent, high scores. If divers are scoring 8 or 9 on most dives, it

may be a sign of their extreme skill, or it may be a sign that their dive list is not competitive, and they

may lose the meet to a diver with higher DDs and lower scores.

In competition, divers must submit their lists beforehand, and once past a deadline (usually when the

event is announced or shortly before it begins) they cannot change their dives. If they fail to perform

the dive announced, even if they physically cannot execute the dive announced or if they perform a
more difficult dive, they will receive a score of zero. Under exceptional circumstances, a redive may

be granted, but these are exceedingly rare (usually for very young divers just learning how to

compete, or if some event outside the diver's control has caused them to be unable to perform).

In the Olympics or other highly competitive meets, many divers will have nearly the same list of dives

as their competitors. The importance for divers competing at this level is not so much the DD, but

how they arrange their list. Once the more difficult rounds of dives begin it is important to lead off

with a confident dive to build momentum. They also tend to put a very confident dive in front of a

very difficult dive to ensure that they will have a good mentality for the difficult dive. Most divers have

pre-dive and post-dive rituals that help them either maintain or regain focus. Coaches also play a

role in this aspect of the sport. Many divers rely on their coaches to help keep their composure

during the meet. In a large meet coaches are rarely allowed on the deck to talk to their athlete so it is

common to see coaches using hand gestures to communicate.

There are some American meets which will allow changes of the position of the dive even after the

dive has been announced immediately before execution, but these are an exception to the rules

generally observed internationally.

Generally, NCAA rules allow for dives to be changed while the diver is on the board, but the diver

must request the change directly after the dive is announced. This applies especially in cases where

the wrong dive is announced. If the diver pauses during his or her hurdle to ask for a change of dive,

it will be declared a balk and the change of dive will not be permitted.

Under FINA law, no dive may be changed after the deadline for the dive-sheet to be submitted

(generally a period ranging from one hour to 24 hours, depending on the rulings made by the event

organiser).

It is the diver's responsibility to ensure that the dive-sheet is filled in correctly, and also to correct the

referee or announcer before the dive if they describe it incorrectly. If a dive is performed which is as

submitted but not as (incorrectly) announced, it is declared failed and scores zero according to a
strict reading of the FINA law. But in practice, a re-dive would usually be granted in these

circumstances.

Governance[edit]

The global governing body of diving is FINA, which also governs swimming, synchronized

swimming, water polo and open water swimming. Almost invariably, at national level, diving shares a

governing body with the other aquatic sports.

This is frequently a source of political friction as the committees are naturally dominated by

swimming officials who do not necessarily share or understand the concerns of the diving

community. Divers often feel, for example, that they do not get adequate support over issues like the

provision of facilities. Other areas of concern are the selection of personnel for the specialised Diving

committees and for coaching and officiating at events, and the team selection for international

competitions.

There are sometimes attempts to separate the governing body as a means to resolve these

frustrations, but they are rarely successful. For example, in the UK the Great Britain Diving

Federation was formed in 1992 with the intention of taking over the governance of Diving from the

ASA (Amateur Swimming Association). Although it initially received widespread support from the

diving community, the FINA requirement that international competitors had to be registered with their

National Governing Body was a major factor in the abandonment of this ambition a few years later.

Since FINA refused to rescind recognition of the ASA as the British governing body for all aquatic

sports including diving, this meant that the elite divers had to belong to ASA-affiliated clubs to be

eligible for selection to international competition.

In the United States scholastic diving is almost always part of the school's swim team. Diving is a

separate sport in Olympic and Club Diving. The NCAA will separate diving from swimming in special

diving competitions after the swim season is completed.

Safety[edit]
A sign prohibiting diving at a beach in Kirkland, Washington

Despite the apparent risk, the statistical incidence of injury in supervised training and competition is

extremely low.[10]

The majority of accidents that are classified as 'diving-related' are incidents caused by individuals

jumping from structures such as bridges or piers into water of inadequate depth. Many accidents

also occur when divers do not account for rocks and logs in the water. Because of this many

beaches and pools prohibit diving in shallow waters or when a lifeguard is not on duty.

After an incident in Washington state in 1993, most US and other pool builders are reluctant to equip

a residential swimming pool with a diving springboard so home diving pools are much less common

these days. In the incident, 14-year-old Shawn Meneely made a "suicide dive" (his hands at his

sides – so his head hit the bottom first) in a private swimming pool and became a tetraplegic. The

lawyers for the family, Jan Eric Peterson and Fred Zeder, successfully sued the diving board

manufacturer, the pool builder, and the National Spa and Pool Institute over the inappropriate depth

of the pool.[11][12] The NSPI had specified a minimum depth of 7 ft 6 in (2.29 m) which proved to be

insufficient in the above case. The pool into which Meneely dived was not constructed to the

published standards. The standards had changed after the diving board was installed on the non-

compliant pool by the homeowner. But the courts held that the pool "was close enough" to the

standards to hold NSPI liable. The multi-million dollar lawsuit was eventually resolved in 2001 for

US$6.6 million ($8 million after interest was added) in favor of the plaintiff.[13] The NSPI was held to
be liable, and was financially strained by the case. It filed twice for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection

and was successfully reorganized into a new swimming pool industry association.[11]

In competitive diving, FINA takes regulatory steps to ensure that athletes are protected from the

inherent dangers of the sport. For example, they impose restrictions according to age on the heights

of platforms which divers may compete on.

 Group D (11 & under): 5 m

 Group C (12/13 year): 5 m & 7.5 m

 Group B (14/15 year): 5 m, 7.5 m & 10 m

 Group A (16/18 year): 5 m, 7.5 m & 10 m

Group D divers have only recently been allowed to compete on the tower. In the past, the age group

could compete only springboard, to discourage children from taking on the greater risks of tower

diving. Group D tower was introduced to counteract the phenomenon of coaches pushing young

divers to compete in higher age categories, thus putting them at even greater risk.

However, some divers may safely dive in higher age categories to dive on higher platforms. Usually

this occurs when advanced Group C divers wish to compete on the 10 m.

Points on pool depths in connection with safety:

 most competition pools are 5m deep for 10 m platform and 4m deep for 5m platform or 3m

springboard. These are currently the FINA recommended minimum depths. Some are deeper,

e.g. 6m for the diving pit at Sheffield, England.

 diving from 10 m and maintaining a downward streamlined position results in gliding to a stop at

about 4.5 – 5m.

 high standard competition divers rarely go more than about 2.5m below the surface, as they roll

in the direction of the dive's rotation. This is a technique to produce a clean entry.
 attempting to scoop the trajectory underwater against the rotation is extremely inadvisable as it

can cause serious back injuries.

 hitting the water flat from 10 m brings the diver to rest in about 1 ft. The extreme deceleration

causes severe bruising both internal and external, strains to connective tissue securing the

organs and possible minor hemorrhage to lungs and other tissue. This is very painful and

distressing, but not life-threatening.

Dive groups[edit]

A male diver performs a reverse in the tuck position from a 3 meter springboard

There are six "groups" into which dives are classified: Forward, Back, Inward, Reverse,

Twist, and Armstand. The latter applies only to Platform competitions, whereas the other five apply

to both Springboard and Platform.

 in the Forward Group (Group 1), the diver takes off facing forward and rotates forward

 in the Back Group (2), the diver takes off with their back to the water and rotates backward

 in the Reverse Group (3), the diver takes off facing forward and rotates backward

 in the Inward Group (4), the diver takes off with their back to the water and rotates forward

 any dive incorporating an axial twisting movement is in the Twist group (5).

 any dive commencing from a handstand is in the Armstand group (6). (Only on platform)
Dive positions[edit]

During the flight of the dive, one of four positions is assumed:

 straight – with no bend at the knees or hips (the hardest of the four)

 pike – with knees straight but a tight bend at the hips (the median in difficulty of the four.) The

open pike is a variant where the arms are reached to the side, and the legs are brought straight

out with a bend in the hips.

 tuck – body folded up in a tight ball, hands holding the shins and toes pointed (the easiest of the

four.)

 free – indicates a twisting dive, and a combination of other positions. In the transition between

two positions the diver may for example bend their legs or curve at the waist, and points will not

be deducted for doing so.

These positions are referred to by the letters A, B, C and D respectively.

Additionally, some dives can be started in a flying position. The body is kept straight with the arms

extended to the side, and the regular dive position is assumed at about half the dive.

Difficulty is rated according to the Degree of Difficulty of the dives. Some divers may find pike easier

in a flip than tuck, and most find straight the easiest in a front/back dive, although it is still rated the

most difficult because of the risk of overrotation.

Dive numbers[edit]

In competition, the dives are referred to by a schematic system of three- or four-digit numbers. The

letter to indicate the position is appended to the end of the number.

The first digit of the number indicates the dive group as defined above.

For groups 1 to 4, the number consists of three digits and a letter of the alphabet. The third digit

represents the number of half-somersaults. The second digit is either 0 or 1, with 0 representing a

normal somersault, and 1 signifying a "flying" variation of the basic movement (i.e. the first half

somersault is performed in the straight position, and then the pike or tuck shape is assumed). No

flying dive has been competed at a high level competition for many years.
For example:

 101A – forward Dive Straight

 203C – back one-and-a-half somersaults, tuck

 305C – reverse two-and-a-half somersaults, tuck

 113B – flying forward one-and-a-half somersaults, pike

For Group 5, the dive number has 4 digits. The first digit indicates that it is a twisting dive. The

second digit indicates the group (1–4) of the underlying movement; the third digit indicates the

number of half-somersaults, and the fourth indicates the number of half-twists.

For example:

 5211A – back dive, half twist, straight position.

 5337D – reverse one and a half somersaults with three and a half twists, in the Free position.

For Group 6 – Armstand – the dive number has either three or four digits: Three digits for dives

without twist and four for dives with twists.

In non-twisting armstand dives, the second digit indicates the direction of rotation (0 = no rotation, 1

= forward, 2 = backward, 3 = reverse, 4 = inward) and the third digit indicates the number of half-

somersaults. Inward-rotating armstand dives have never been performed, and are generally

regarded as physically impossible.

For example:

 600A – armstand dive straight

 612B – armstand forward somersault pike

 624C – armstand back double somersault tuck

For twisting Armstand dives, the dive number again has 4 digits, but rather than beginning with the

number 5, the number 6 remains as the first digit, indicating that the "twister" will be performed from
an Armstand. The second digit indicates the direction of rotation – as above, the third is the number

of half-somersaults, and the fourth is the number of half-twists:

e.g. 6243D – armstand back double-somersault with one and a half twists in the free position

All of these dives come with DD (degree of difficulty) this is an indication of how difficult/complex a

dive is. The score that the dive receives is multiplied by the DD (also known as tariff) to give the dive

a final score. Before a diver competes they must decide on a "list" this is a number of optional dives

and compulsory dives. The optionals come with a DD limit. this means that a diver must select X

number of dives and the combined DD limit must be no more than the limit set by the

competition/organisation etc.

Until the mid-1990s the tariff was decided by the FINA diving committee, and divers could only select

from the range of dives in the published tariff table. Since then, the tariff is calculated by a formula

based on various factors such as the number of twist and somersaults, the height, the group etc.,

and divers are free to submit new combinations. This change was implemented because new dives

were being invented too frequently for an annual meeting to accommodate the progress of the sport.

Mechanics of diving[edit]

Tomb of the Diver, Paestum, Italy, a Greek fresco dated 470 BC

At the moment of take-off, two critical aspects of the dive are determined, and cannot subsequently

be altered during the execution. One is the trajectory of the dive, and the other is the magnitude of

the angular momentum.

The speed of rotation – and therefore the total amount of rotation – may be varied from moment to

moment by changing the shape of the body, in accordance with the law of conservation of angular

momentum.

The center of mass of the diver follows a parabolic path in free-fall under the influence of gravity

(ignoring the effects of air resistance, which are negligible at the speeds involved).[14]
Trajectory[edit]

Since the parabola is symmetrical, the travel away from the board as the diver passes it is twice the

amount of the forward travel at the peak of the flight. Excessive forward distance to the entry point is

penalized when scoring a dive, but obviously an adequate clearance from the diving board is

essential on safety grounds.

The greatest possible height that can be achieved is desirable for several reasons:

 the height attained is itself one of the factors that the judges will reward.

 a greater height gives a longer flight time and therefore more time to execute maneuvers.

 for any given clearance when passing the board, the forward travel distance to the entry point

will be less for a higher trajectory.

Control of rotation[edit]

The magnitude of angular momentum remains constant throughout the dive, but since
angular momentum = rotational velocity × moment of inertia,

and the moment of inertia is larger when the body has an increased radius, the speed of rotation

may be increased by moving the body into a compact shape, and reduced by opening out into a

straight position.

Since the tucked shape is the most compact, it gives the most control over rotational speed, and

dives in this position are easier to perform. Dives in the straight position are hardest, since there

is almost no scope for altering the speed, so the angular momentum must be created at take-off
with a very high degree of accuracy. (A small amount of control is available by moving the

position of the arms and by a slight hollowing of the back).

The opening of the body for the entry does not stop the rotation, but merely slows it down. The

vertical entry achieved by expert divers is largely an illusion created by starting the entry slightly

short of vertical, so that the legs are vertical as they disappear beneath the surface. A small

amount of additional tuning is available by 'entry save' techniques, whereby underwater

movements of the upper body and arms against the viscosity of the water affect the position of

the legs.[15]
Twisting[edit]

A twisting dive performed from a 10 meter platform.

Dives with multiple twists and somersaults are some of the most spectacular movements, as

well as the most challenging to perform.

The rules state that twisting 'must not be generated manifestly on take-off'. Consequently, divers

must use some of the somersaulting angular momentum to generate twisting movements. The

physics of twisting can be explained by looking at the components of the angular

momentum vector.
As the diver leaves the board, the total angular momentum vector is horizontal, pointing directly

to the left for a forward dive for example. For twisting rotation to exist, it is necessary to tilt the

body sideways after takeoff, so that there is now a small component of this horizontal angular

momentum vector along the body's long axis. The tilt can be seen in the photo.

The tilting is done by the arms, which are outstretched to the sides just before the twist. When

one arm is moved up and the other is moved down (like turning a big steering wheel), the body

reacts by tilting to the side, which then begins the twisting rotation. At the completion of the

required number of twist rotations, the arm motion is reversed (the steering wheel is turned

back), which removes the body's tilt and stops the twisting rotation.

An alternative explanation is that the moving arms have precession torque on them which set

the body into twisting rotation. Moving the arms back produces opposite torque which stops the

twisting rotation.
Entry[edit]

The rules state that the body should be vertical, or nearly so, for entry. Strictly speaking, it is

physically impossible to achieve a literally vertical position throughout the entry as there will

inevitably still be some rotational momentum while the body is entering the water. Divers

therefore attempt to create the illusion of being vertical, especially when performing rapidly

rotating multiple somersault movements. One technique is to allow the upper body to enter

slightly short of vertical so that the continuing rotation leaves the final impression of the legs

entering vertically. Another is to use "entry save" movements of scooping the upper body

underwater in the direction of rotation so as to counteract the rotation of the legs.

The arms must be beside the body for feet-first dives, which are typically competed only on the

1m springboard and only at fairly low levels of competition, and extended forwards in line for

"head-first" dives, which are much more common competitively. It used to be common for the

hands to be interlocked with the fingers extended towards the water, but a different technique
has become favoured during the last few decades. Now the usual practice is for one hand to

grasp the other with palms down to strike the water with a flat surface. This creates a vacuum

between the hands, arms and head which, with a vertical entry, will pull down and under any

splash until deep enough to have minimal effect on the surface of the water (the so-called "rip

entry").

Once a diver is completely under the water they may choose to roll or scoop in the same

direction their dive was rotating to pull their legs into a more vertical position.

The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the

English-speaking world and do not represent a worldwide

view of the subject.Please improve this article and discuss the

issue on the talk page. (November 2010)

By country[edit]
United States[edit]

Summer diving[edit]

In the United States, summer diving is usually limited to one meter diving at community or

country club pools. Some pools organize to form intra-pool competitions. These competitions are

usually designed to accommodate all school-age children. One of the largest and oldest summer

leagues in the United States is found in the Northern Virginia area where teams from 47 pools

compete against each other every summer. NVSL-Dive annually holds the Wally Martin 3-Meter

Championship and concludes the season with its Individual All Stars Championship. In addition,

NVSL-Dive annually hosts the largest one-day dive meet in the world, with over 350

developmental divers in NVSL's "Cracker Jack" Invitational! Champions from each of these

events have gone on to compete at the collegiate and Olympic levels.

High school diving[edit]

In the United States scholastic diving at the high school level is usually limited to one meter

diving (but some schools use three meter springboards.). Scores from those one meter dives

contribute to the swim team's overall score. High school diving and swimming concludes their

season with a state competition. Depending on the state and the number of athletes competing

in the state, certain qualifications must be achieved to compete in the state's championship

meet. There are often regional championships and district championships which are necessary

to compete in before reaching the state meet to narrow the field to only the most competitive

athletes. Most state championship meets consist of eleven dives. The eleven dives are usually

split up between two categories: five required (voluntary) dives and six optional dives.

Club diving[edit]

In the United States, pre-college divers interested in three meter or tower diving should consider

a club sanctioned by USA Diving or AAU Diving. There is a group called Future Championship.

Top club divers are usually called "junior Olympic", or JO divers. JO divers compete for spots on

national teams. Divers over the age of 19 years of age cannot compete in these events as a JO

diver.

USA Diving sanctions one East-West one and three meter event in the winter time with an

Eastern champion and Western champion determined. In the summer USA Diving sanctions a

national event with tower competitions offered. USA Diving is sanctioned by the United States

Olympic Committee for selecting team representatives for international diving competitions

including the Olympic Games.

AAU Diving sanctions one national event per year in the summer. AAU competes on the one,

three, and tower to determine the All-American team.

College diving[edit]
The University of Houston's CRWC Natatorium is home to the United States' largest collegiate
swimming pool

In the United States scholastic diving at the college level requires one and three meter diving.

Scores from the one and three meter competition contribute to the swim team's overall meet

score. College divers interested in tower diving may compete in the NCAA separate from swim

team events. NCAA Divisions II and III do not usually compete platform; if a diver wishes to

compete platform in college, he or she must attend a Division I school.

Each division also has rules on the number of dives in each competition. Division II schools

compete with 10 dives in competition whereas Division III schools compete with 11. Division I

schools only compete with 6 dives in competition. These 6 dives consist of either 5 optionals and

1 voluntary, or 6 optionals. If the meet is a 5 optional meet, then the divers will perform 1

optional from each category (Front, Back, Inward, Reverse, and Twister) and then 1 voluntary

from the category of their choice. The voluntary in this type of meet is always worth a DD

(Degree of Difficulty) of 2.0 even if the real DD is worth more or less on a DD sheet. In a 6

optional meet, the divers will yet again perform one dive from each category, but this time they

will perform a 6th optional from the category of their choosing, which is worth its actual DD from

the DD sheet.

The highest level of collegiate competition is the NCAA Division 1 Swimming and Diving

Championship. Events at the championship include 1 meter springboard, 3 meter springboard,

and platform, as well as various swimming individual and relay events. The points scored by
swimmers and divers are combined to determine a team swimming & diving champion. To

qualify for a diving event at the NCAA championships, a competitor must first finish in the top

three at one of five zone championships, which are held after the various conference

championship meets. A diver who scores at least 310 points on the 3 meter springboard and

300 points on the 1 meter springboard in a 6 optional meet can participate in the particular zone

championship corresponding to the geographic region in which his or her school lies.

A number of colleges and universities offer scholarships to men and women who have

competitive diving skills. These scholarships are usually offered to divers with age-group or club

diving experience.

The NCAA limits the number of years a college student can represent any school in

competitions. The limit is four years, but could be less under certain circumstances.

Masters' Diving[edit]

Divers who continue diving past their college years can compete in Masters' Diving programs.

Masters' diving programs are frequently offered by college or club programs.

Masters' Diving events are normally conducted in age-groups of 5 or 10 years, and attract

competitors of a wide range of ages and experience (many, indeed, are newcomers to the

sport); the oldest competitor in a Masters' Diving Championship was Viola Krahn, who at the age

of 101 was the first person in any sport, male or female, anywhere in the world, to compete in an

age-group of 100+ years in a nationally organized competition.

Britain[edit]

In Britain, diving competitions on all boards run throughout the year. National Masters'

Championships are held two or three times per year.

Republic of Ireland[edit]

In the Republic of Ireland facilities are limited to one pool at the National Aquatic Centre in

Dublin. Dublin Diving Club runs out of this facility.

National Championships[edit]

National Championships take place late in the year, usually during November. The competition

is held at the National Aquatic Centre in Dublin and consists of four events:

 Irish Open Age Group Championships

 Irish Open Senior Diving Championships

 Novice Competition (8–16 yrs)

 Novice Masters Competition (>25 yrs)

Canada[edit]

The DPC logo

In Canada, elite competitive diving is regulated by DPC (Diving Plongeon Canada), although the

individual provinces also have organizational bodies. The main competitive season runs from

February to July, although some competitions may be held in January or December, and many

divers (particularly international level athletes) will train and compete year round.

Most provincial level competitions consist of events for 6 age groups (Groups A, B, C, D, E, and

Open) for both genders on each of the three board levels. These age groups roughly correspond

to those standardized by FINA, with the addition of a youngest age group for divers 9 and

younger, Group E, which does not compete nationally and does not have a tower event

(although divers of this age may choose to compete in Group D). The age group Open is so

called because divers of any age, including those over 18, may compete in these events, so

long as their dives meet a minimum standard of difficulty.

Although Canada is internationally a fairly strong country in diving, the vast majority of Canadian

high schools and universities do not have diving teams, and many Canadian divers accept

athletic scholarships from American colleges.

Adult divers who are not competitive at an elite level may compete in masters diving. Typically,

masters are either adults who never practiced the sport as children or teenagers, or former elite

athletes who have retired but still seek a way to be involved in the sport. Many diving clubs have

masters teams in addition to their primary competitive ones, and while some masters dive only

for fun and fitness, there are also masters competitions, which range from the local to world

championship level.

National Championships[edit]

Divers can qualify to compete at the age group national championships, or junior national

championships, in their age groups as assigned by FINA up to the age of 18. This competition is

held annually in July. Qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions

in the season, although athletes who place very highly at a national championship will be

automatically qualified to compete at the next. Divers must qualify at two different competitions,

at least one of which must be a level 1 competition, i.e. a competition with fairly strict judging

patterns. Such competitions include the Polar Bear Invitational in Winnipeg, the Sting in Victoria,

and the Alberta Provincial Championships in Edmonton or Calgary. The qualifying scores are

determined by DPC according to the results of the preceding year's national competition, and

typically do not have much variation from year to year.

Divers older than 18, or advanced divers of younger ages, can qualify for the senior national

championships, which are held twice each year, once roughly in March and once in June or July.

Once again, qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions (in this

case, within the 12 months preceding the national championships, and in an Open age group

event), or high placements in previous national championships or international competitions. It is

no longer the case that divers may use results from age group events to qualify for senior

nationals, or results from Open events to qualify for age group nationals.

Famous divers[edit]

 Australia: Matthew Mitcham, Mathew Helm, Chantelle Newbery, Robert Newbery, Dean

Pullar, Melissa Wu, Rebecca Gilmore, Loudy Tourky, Brittany Broben and Jenny Donnet

 Canada: Myriam Boileau, Alexandre Despatie, Arturo Miranda, Blythe Hartley, Émilie

Heymans, Anne Montminy, Beverly Boys, and Irene MacDonald

 China: Qiu Bo, Fu Mingxia, Gao Min, Guo Jingjing, Hu Jia, Lao Lishi, Li Na, Li Ting, Wu

Minxia, Peng Bo, Sang Xue, Tian Liang, Xiao Hailiang, Xiong Ni, He Chong, Chen

Ruolin, Huo Liang, Wang Xin, Yang Jinghui, and Liang Boxi

 Germany: Jan Hempel, Patrick Hausding, Sascha Klein

 Italy: Klaus Dibiasi, Giorgio Cagnotto, Tania Cagnotto

 Malaysia: Pandelela Rinong

 Mexico: Joaquín Capilla, Carlos Girón, Rommel Pacheco, Fernando Platas, Paola

Espinosa, Yahel Castillo, Iván García,Germán Sánchez, Alejandra Orozco, Jonathan

Paredes, Laura Sánchez and Jahir Ocampo

 The Netherlands: Edwin Jongejans

 Russia: Alexander Dobroskok, Gleb Galperin, Vera Ilina, Igor Lukashin, Ioulia

Pakhalina, Dmitri Sautin and Ilya Zakharov

 Sweden: Anna Lindberg, Ulrika Knape

 Ukraine: Illya Kvasha, Oleksiy Pryhorov

 United Kingdom: Chris Snode, Leon Taylor, Peter Waterfield, Jason Statham, Tom

Daley, Brian Phelps, Tonia Couch,Sarah Barrow, Jack Laugher, Alicia Blagg, Hannah

Starling, Monique Gladding, Rebecca Gallantree

 United States: Hobie Billingsley, Phil Boggs, David Boudia, Lesley Bush, Jennifer

Chandler, Mary Ellen Clark, Scott Donie, Troy Dumais, Michael Galitzen, Barbara

Gilders, Fletcher Gilders, Bruce Kimball, Micki King, Dana Kunze,Beatrice Kyle, Sammy

Lee, Mark Lenzi, Greg Louganis, Pat McCormick, Cynthia Potter, Aileen Riggin, Jeanne

Stunyo,Laura Wilkinson, Wendy Wyland

Non-competitive diving[edit]

Man and woman jumping off a cliff at Colliding Rivers, Glide, Oregon.

Diving is also popular as a non-competitive activity. Such diving usually emphasizes the airborne

experience, and the height of the dive, but does not emphasize what goes on once the diver

enters the water. The ability to dive underwater can be a useful emergency skill, and is an

important part of watersport and navy safety training. Entering water from a height is an

enjoyable leisure activity, as is underwater swimming.

 A man diving into Lake Michigan.

Such non-competitive diving can occur indoors and outdoors. Outdoor diving typically takes

place from cliffs or other rock formations either into fresh or salt water. However, man-made

diving platforms are sometimes constructed in popular swimming destinations. Outdoor diving

requires knowledge of the water depth and currents as conditions can be dangerous.

Dance
Dance is a type of art that generally involves movement of the body, oftenrhythmic and to music. It is
performed in many cultures as a form of emotional expression, social interaction, or exercise, in
a spiritual or performance setting, and is sometimes used to express ideas or tell a story. Dance may
also be regarded as a form of nonverbal communication between humans or otheranimals, as in bee
dances and behaviour patterns such as a mating dances.
Definitions of what constitutes dance can depend on social and cultural norms
and aesthetic, artistic and moral sensibilities. Definitions may range from functional movement (such
as folk dance) to virtuoso techniques such asballet. Martial arts kata are often compared to dances,
and sports such asgymnastics, figure skating and synchronized swimming are generally thought to
incorporate dance.
There are many styles and genres of dance. African dance is interpretative.
Ballet, ballroom and tango are classical dance styles. Square dance andelectric slide are forms
of step dance, and breakdancing is a type of street dance. Dance can be participatory, social,
or performed for an audience. It can also be ceremonial, competitive or erotic. Dance movements
may be without significance in themselves, as in ballet or European folk dance, or have
a gestural vocabulary or symbolic meaning as in some Asian dances.
Choreography is the art of creating dances. The person who creates (i.e., choreographs) a dance is
known as the choreographer.

Origins and history

Dance does not leave behind clearly identifiable physical artifacts such as stone tools, hunting

implements or cave paintings. It is not possible to say when dance became part of human culture,

but archeological evidence indicates dance has been an important part

of ceremony, rituals, celebrations and entertainment since the earliest human civilizations. Examples

of such evidence include 9,000 year old paintings in India at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka,

and Egyptian tomb paintings depicting dancing figures, dated c. 3300 BC.

One of the earliest structured uses of dances may have been the telling of myths. Before the

invention of written languages, dance was one of the methods of passing stories down from

generation to generation.[1] Dance was also used to show feelings for one of the opposite
needed]
gender.[citation Another early use of dance may have been as a precursor to ecstatictrance

states in healing rituals; dance is still used for this purpose by many cultures from the

Brazilian rainforest to theKalahari Desert.[2]

Many contemporary dance forms can be traced back to historical, traditional, ceremonial,

and ethnic dance. For example, some Sri Lankan dances are related to aboriginal, mythical devils

known as "yakkas", and according to local legend,Kandyan dance began as a ritual that broke the

magic spell on a bewitched king.



Ancient Greek bronze statuette of a dancer, 3rd - 2nd century BC, found in Alexandria, Egypt.

Dancing maenad on a Paestan red-figure skyphos, ca. 330-320 BC.

Classification

Main articles: List of basic dance topics and List of dances

Dance can be categorized in various ways, such as by the number of interacting dancers, as in solo

dance, partner danceand group dance, or by purpose, as in ceremonial dance, erotic

dance, performance dance, and social dance.



Solo dance - Russian ballerina Marina Semjonova.

Partner dance -Dance at Bougival byPierre-Auguste Renoir (1882–83).

Group dance - Morris dancing in the grounds of Wells Cathedral, Wells, England
 By ethnicity or region

Main article: List of ethnic, regional, and folk dances sorted by origin

Dance genres are often categorized by ethnicity or geographic region.

Saman dance from Gayo people of Sumatra,Indonesia

Poi Kal Kudirai, a South Indian folk dance



Harlequin and Columbinafrom the mime theater inCopenhagen, Denmark

Asia

India

Main article: Dance in India

During the first millennium BCE in India, many texts were composed which attempted to codify

aspects of daily life. In the matter of dance, Bharata Muni's Natyashastra (literally "the text of

dramaturgy") is one of the earlier texts. Though the main theme of Natyashastra deals with drama,

dance is also widely featured, and indeed the two concepts have ever since been linked in Indian

culture. The text elaborates various hand-gestures or mudras and classifies movements of the

various limbs of the body, gait, and so on. The Natyashastra categorised dance into four groups and

into four regional varieties, naming the groups: secular, ritual, abstract, and, interpretive. However,

concepts of regional geography has altered and so have regional varieties of Indian dances. Dances

like "Odra Magadhi", which after decades long debate, has been traced to present day

Mithila, Odisha region's dance form of Odissi (Orissi), indicate influence of dances in cultural

interactions between different regions.[3]

From these beginnings rose the various classical styles which are recognised today. Therefore,

all Indian classical dancesare to varying degrees rooted in the Natyashastra and therefore share

common features: for example, the mudras, some body positions, and the inclusion of dramatic or

expressive acting or abhinaya. The Indian classical music tradition provides the accompaniment for
the dance, and as percussion is such an integral part of the tradition, the dancers of nearly all the

styles wear bells around their ankles to counterpoint and complement the percussion.

Bhangra in the Punjab

Main article: Bhangra (dance)

The Punjab area overlapping India and Pakistan is the place of origin of Bhangra. It is widely known

both as a style of music and a dance. It is mostly related to ancient harvest celebrations, love,

patriotism or social issues. Its music is coordinated by a musical instrument called the 'Dhol'.

Bhangra is not just music but a dance, a celebration of the harvest where people beat the dhol

(drum), sing Boliyaan (lyrics) and dance.It developed further with the Vaisakhi festival of the Sikhs.

Sri Lanka

Main article: Dances of Sri Lanka

The devil dances of Sri Lanka or "yakun natima" are a carefully crafted ritual with a history reaching

far back into Sri Lanka's pre-Buddhist past. It combines ancient "Ayurvedic" concepts of disease

causation with psychological manipulation. The dance combines many aspects including Sinhalese

cosmology, the dances also has an impact on the classical dances of Sri Lanka.[4]

Europe and North America

Concert (or performance) dance

Main article: Concert dance

Ballet

Ballet developed first in Italy and then in France from lavish court spectacles that combined music,

drama, poetry, song, costumes and dance. Members of the court nobility took part as performers.

During the reign of Louis XIV, himself a dancer, dance became more codified. Professional dancers

began to take the place of court amateurs, and ballet masters were licensed by the French

government. The first ballet dance academy was the Académie Royale de Danse (Royal Dance
Academy), opened in Paris in 1661. Shortly thereafter, the first institutionalized ballet troupe,

associated with the Academy, was formed; this troupe began as an all-male ensemble but by 1681

opened to include women as well.[1]

20th-century concert dance

Main article: 20th century concert dance

At the beginning of the 20th century, there was an explosion of innovation in dance style

characterized by an exploration of freer technique. Early pioneers of what became known as modern

dance include Loie Fuller, Isadora Duncan, Mary Wigmanand Ruth St. Denis. The relationship of

music to dance serves as the basis for Eurhythmics, devised by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, which was

influential to the development of Modern dance and modern ballet through artists such as Marie

Rambert. Eurythmy, developed by Rudolf Steiner and Marie Steiner-von Sivers, combines formal

elements reminiscent of traditional dance with the new freer style, and introduced a complex new

vocabulary to dance. In the 1920s, important founders of the new style such as Martha

Graham and Doris Humphrey began their work. Since this time, a wide variety of dance styles have

been developed; see Modern dance.

African American dance

Main article: African American dance

African American dances are those dances which have developed within African American

communities in everyday spaces, rather than in dance studios, schools or companies and its

derivatives, tap dance, disco, jazz dance, swing dance, hip hop dance and breakdance. Other

dances, such as the lindy hop with its relationship to rock and roll music and rock and roll

dance have also had a global influence.

Dancing and music

Many early forms of music and dance were created for each other and performed together. This

paired development has continued over time, producing paired dance/music forms such as

the jig, waltz, tango, disco, and salsa. Some musical genres have a parallel dance form such

as baroque music and baroque dance; others, such as classical music and classical ballet,

developed separately.

Although dance is often accompanied by music, it can also be performed without music, or it may

provide its own audible accompaniment as in tap dance. When performed with music, dance may or

may not be performed in time to the music (synchronous to the music's time signature).

Dance education

Dance education emerged as an academic discipline in the early 1920s[citation needed], and by the late

20th century, recognition of the academic value of practical knowledge led to the acceptance
needed]
of practice research in academic dance education programs.[citation Today dance studies are

offered through the arts and humanities programs of many higher education institutions, leading

to Bachelor of Arts and higher academic degrees. A dance study curriculum may encompass a

diverse range of courses and topics, including dance practice and performance,

choreography,ethnochoreology, dance notation, and dance therapy.

Occupations
A professional dancer at the Bolshoi Theatre.

Main article: List of dance occupations

Dancer

Professional dancers are usually employed on contract or for particular performances or

productions. The professional life of a dancer is generally one of constantly changing work

situations, strong competitive pressure and low pay. Consequently, professional dancers often must

supplement their incomes to achieve financial stability. In the U.S. many professional dancers

belong to unions (such as the American Guild of Musical Artists, Screen Actors Guild and Actors'

Equity Association) that establish working conditions and minimum salaries for their members.
Dance teacher

Dance teachers typically focus on teaching dance performance, or coaching competitive dancers, or

both. They typically have performance experience in the types of dance they teach or coach. For

example, dancesport teachers and coaches are often tournament dancers or former dancesport

performers.
Dance teachers may be self-employed, or employed by dance schools or general education

institutions with dance programs. Some work for university programs or other schools that are

associated with professional classical dance (e.g., ballet) or modern dance companies. Others are

employed by smaller, privately owned dance schools that offer dance training and performance

coaching for various types of dance.

Choreographer

Choreographers are often university trained and are typically employed for particular projects or,

more rarely may work on contract as the resident choreographer for a specific dance company.

Competitions

An amateur dancesport competition at MIT

A dance competition is an organized event in which contestants perform dances before a judge or

judges for awards, and in some cases, monetary prizes. There are several major types of dance

competitions, distinguished primarily by the style or styles of dances performed. Major types of

dance competitions include:

 Competitive dance, in which a variety of theater dance styles, such asacro, ballet, jazz, hip-

hop, lyrical, and tap, are permitted.

 Open competitions, that permit a wide variety of dance styles. An example of this is the TV

program So You Think You Can Dance.

 Dancesport, which is focused exclusively on ballroom and latin dance. Examples of this are TV

programs Dancing with the Stars and Strictly Come Dancing.

 Single-style competitions, such as; highland dance, dance team, and Irish dance, that only

permit a single dance style.

Today, there are various dances and dance show competitions on television and the Internet.

Dance to raise awareness

As with other forms of entertainment, dance is sometimes performed to raise awareness of social

issues. For example, dance performances have been used to raise awareness of

diabetes,[5][6] violence against women,[7][8] protecting water resources,[9] Alzheimers,[10] and breast

cancer.[11]

Equestrianism
"Horseback" redirects here. For the back of a horse, see Back (horse).

A young rider at a horse show in Australia

Central Park - New York in May, 1940

Equestrianism (from Latin equester, equestr-, horseman, horse)[1] more often known
[2]
as riding, horseback riding (American English) or horse riding (British English) referring to the
skill of riding, driving, steeplechasing or vaulting withhorses. This broad description includes the use
of horses for practical workingpurposes, transportation, recreational activities, artistic or cultural
exercises, andcompetitive sport.

Overview of equestrian activities

A young Tibetan rider. Horse riding is an essential means of transportation in parts of the world
where the landscape does not permit other means

Horses are trained and ridden for practical working purposes such as in police workor for controlling

herd animals on a ranch. They are also used in competitive sportsincluding, but not limited

to, dressage, endurance riding, eventing, reining, show jumping, tent pegging, vaulting, polo, horse

racing, driving, and rodeo. (See additional equestrian sports listed later in this article for more

examples.) Some popular forms of competition are grouped together at horse shows, where horses

perform in a wide variety of disciplines. Horses (and other equids such as mules anddonkeys) are

used for non-competitive recreational riding such as fox hunting, trail riding or hacking. There is

public access to horse trails in almost every part of the world; many parks, ranches, and

public stables offer both guided and independent riding. Horses are also used

for therapeutic purposes, both in specialized paraequestrian competition as well as non-competitive

riding to improve human health and emotional development.

Horses are also driven in harness racing, at horse shows and in other types of exhibition, historical

reenactment or ceremony, often pulling carriages. In some parts of the world, they are still used for

practical purposes such as farming.

Horses continue to be used in public service: in traditional ceremonies (parades,

funerals), police and volunteer mounted patrols, and for mounted search and rescue.

Riding halls enable the training of horse and rider in all weathers as well as indoor competition

riding.

History of horse use[edit]

Prehistoric cave painting, depicting a horse and rider

Main articles: Domestication of the horse and Horses in warfare

Though there is controversy over the exact date horses were domesticated and when they were first

ridden, the best estimate is that horses first were ridden approximately 4500 BC. Indirect evidence

suggests that horses were ridden long before they were driven. There is some evidence that about

6,000 years ago, near the Dnieper River and the Don River, people were using bits on horses, as a

stallion that was buried there shows teeth wear consistent with using a bit.[3] However, the most

unequivocal early archaeological evidence of equines put to working use was of horses being

driven. Chariot burials about 2500 BC present the most direct hard evidence of horses used

as working animals. In ancient times chariot warfare was followed by the use of war horses as light

and heavy cavalry. The horse played an important role throughout human history all over the world,

both in warfare and in peaceful pursuits such as transportation, trade and agriculture. Horses lived in

North America, but died out at the end of the Ice Age. Horses were brought back to North America

by European explorers, beginning with the second voyage of Columbus in 1493.[4]

An equestrian Mughal nobleman on horseback.

Horse racing[edit]

Main articles: Horse racing, Harness racing and Parimutuel gambling

Humans appear to have long expressed a desire to know which horse (or horses) were the fastest,

and horse racing has ancient roots. Gambling on horse races appears to go hand-in hand with

racing and has a long history as well.Thoroughbreds have the pre-eminent reputation as a racing

breed, but other breeds also race.

Types of horse racing[edit]

Under saddle:

 Thoroughbred horse racing is the most popular form worldwide. In the UK, it is known as flat

racing and is governed by the Jockey Club in the United Kingdom. In the USA, horse racing is

governed by The Jockey Club.

 Steeplechasing involves racing on a track where the horses also jump over obstacles. It is most

common in the UK, where it is also called National Hunt racing.

 American Quarter Horse racing—races over distances of approximately a quarter-mile. Seen

mostly in the United States, sanctioned by the American Quarter Horse Association.
 Arabian horses, Akhal-Teke, Appaloosas, American Paint Horses and other light breeds are also

raced worldwide.

 Endurance riding, a sport in which the Arabian horse dominates at the top levels, has become

very popular in the United States and in Europe. The Federation Equestre International (FEI)

governs international races, and the American Endurance Ride Conference (AERC) organizes

the sport in North America. Endurance races take place over a given, measured distance and

the horses have an even start. Races begin at 20 miles (32 km) and peak at 100 miles (160 km).

especially the Tevis Cup.

 Ride and Tie (in North America, organized by Ride and Tie Association). Ride and Tie involves

three equal partners: two humans and one horse. The humans alternately run and ride.

In harness:

 Both light and heavy breeds as well as ponies are raced in harness with a sulky or racing bike.

The Standardbreddominates the sport in both trotting and pacing varieties.

 The United States Trotting Association organizes harness racing in the United States.

 Harness racing is also found throughout Europe, New Zealand and Australia.

International and Olympic disciplines[edit]

Main articles: Equestrian at the Olympics and International Federation for Equestrian Sports

Equestrian events were first included in the modern Olympic Games in 1900. By 1912, all three

Olympic disciplines still seen today were part of the games. The following forms of competition are

recognized worldwide and are a part of the equestrian events at the Olympics. They are governed by

the rules of the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI).

 Dressage ("training" in French) involves the progressive training of the horse to a high level

of impulsion, collection, and obedience. Competitive dressage has the goal of showing the horse
 carrying out, on request, the natural movements that it performs without thinking while running

loose.

 Show jumping comprises a timed event judged on the ability of the horse and rider to jump over

a series of obstacles, in a given order and with the fewest refusals or knockdowns of portions of

the obstacles.

 Eventing, also called combined training, horse trials, the three-day event, the Military, or the

complete test, puts together the obedience of dressage with the athletic ability of show jumping,

the fitness demands the cross-country jumpingphase. In the last-named, the horses jump over

fixed obstacles, such as logs, stone walls, banks, ditches, and water, trying to finish the course

under the "optimum time." There was also the 'Steeple Chase' Phase, which is now excluded

from most major competitions to bring them in line with the Olympic standard.

The additional internationally sanctioned but non-Olympic disciplines governed by

the FEI are: combined driving;endurance; reining; and vaulting. These disciplines are part of the FEI

World Equestrian Games every four years, and may hold their own individual World Championships

in other years. The FEI also recognizes horseball and tent pegging as its two regional disciplines.
Para-equestrian disciplines[edit]

Para-equestrian competition at the international level, including the Paralympics, are also governed

by the FEI and offer the following competition events:

 Para-Equestrian Dressage is conducted under the same rules as conventional Dressage, but

with riders divided into different competition grades based on their functional abilities.[5]

 Para-Equestrian Driving places competitors in various grades based on their skill.[6]

Haute École[edit]

Main article: Classical information

The haute école (F. "high school"), an advanced component of Classical dressage, is a highly

refined set of skills seldom used in competition but often seen in demonstration performances.

Leading haute ecole demonstration teams include:

 The Cadre Noir in Saumur, France.

 The Spanish Riding School in Vienna, Austria.

 The Escola Portuguesa de Arte Equestre in Queluz, Portugal.

 Royal Andalusian School of Equestrian Art in Jerez de la Frontera, Spain.

 South African Lipizzaners of Midrand in South Africa.

Horse shows[edit]

Main article: Horse show

Horse shows are held throughout the world with a tremendous variety of possible events, equipment,

attire and judging standards used. However, most forms of horse show competition can be broken

into the following broad categories:

 Equitation, sometimes called seat and hands or horsemanship, refers to events where the rider

is judged on form, style and ability.

 Pleasure, flat, or under saddle classes feature horses who are ridden on the flat (not jumped)

and judged on manners, performance, movement, style and quality.

 Halter, in-hand breeding, or conformation classes, where the horse is led by a handler on the

ground and judged on conformation and suitability as a breeding animal.

 Harness classes, where the horse is driven rather than ridden, but still judged on manners,

performance and quality.

 Jumping or Over Fences refers broadly to both show jumping and show hunter, where horses

and riders must jump obstacles.

"English" riding[edit]
Main article: English riding

See also: Hunt seat, Show hack, Show hunter, Show jumping, Dressage, Riding Horse and Saddle

seat

In addition to the classical Olympic events, the following forms of competition are seen. In North

America they are referred to as "English riding" in contrast with western-style riding; elsewhere in the

world, if a distinction is necessary, they are usually described as "classic riding":

 Hunt seat or Hunter classes judge the movement and the form of horses suitable for work over

fences. A typical show hunter division would include classes over fences as well as "Hunter

under Saddle" or "flat" classes (sometimes called "hack" classes), in which the horse is judged

on its performance, manners and movement without having to jump. Hunters have a long, flat-

kneed trot, sometimes called "daisy cutter" movement, a phrase suggesting a good hunter could

slice daisies in a field when it reaches its stride out. The over fences classes in show

hunter competition are judged on the form of the horse, its manners and the smoothness of the

course. A horse with good jumping form snaps its knees up and jumps with a good bascule. It

should also be able to canter or gallop with control while having a stride long enough to make a

proper number of strides over a given distance between fences.

 Eventing, show jumping, and dressage, described under "Olympic disciplines," above are all

"English" riding disciplines that in North America sometimes are loosely classified within the

"hunt seat" category.

 Saddle seat, is a primarily American discipline, though has recently become somewhat popular

in South Africa, was created to show to best advantage the animated movement of high-

stepping and gaited breeds such as the American Saddlebred and the Tennessee Walker.

Some Arabians and Morgans are also shown saddle seat in the United States. There are usually

three basic divisions. Park divisions are for the horses with the highest action. Pleasure divisions

still emphasis animated action, but to a lesser degree, with manners ranking over
 animation. Plantation or Country divisions have the least amount of animation (in some breeds,

the horses are flat-shod) and the greatest emphasis on manners.

 Show hack is a competition seen primarily in the United Kingdom, Australia, and other nations

influenced by British traditions, featuring horses of elegant appearance, with excellent way of

going and self-carriage. A related event isRiding Horse.

"Western" riding[edit]

Main article: Western riding

See also: Reining, Western pleasure, Rodeo and Cutting (sport)

Western riding evolved from the cattle-working and warfare traditions brought to the Americas by

the SpanishConquistadors, and both equipment and riding style evolved to meet the working needs

of the cowboy on ranches in theAmerican West.

Though the differences between English and Western riding appear dramatic, there are more

similarities than most people think. Both styles require riders to have a solid seat, with the hips and

shoulders balanced over the feet, with hands independent of the seat so as to avoid disturbing the

balance of the horse and interfering with its performance.

The most noticeable feature of western style riding is in the saddle, which has a substantial tree that

provides greater support to horse and rider when working long hours in the saddle. The western

saddle features a prominent pommel topped by a horn (a knob used for dallying a lariat after roping

an animal), a deep seat and a high cantle. The stirrups are wider and the saddle has rings and ties

that allow objects to be attached to the saddle.

Western horses are asked to perform with a loose rein, controlled by one hand. The standard

western bridle lacks anoseband and usually consists of a single set of reins attached to a curb

bit that has somewhat longer and looser shanksthan the curb of an English Weymouth bridle or

a pelham bit. Two styles of Western reins developed: The long split reins of the Texas tradition,
which are completely separated, or the closed-end "Romal" reins of the California tradition, which

have a long single attachment on the ends that can be used as a quirt. Modern rodeo competitors in

timed events sometimes use a closed rein without a romal.

Western riders wear a long-sleeved shirt, denim jeans, boots, and a wide-brimmed cowboy

hat. Cowboy boots, which have pointed toes and higher heels than a traditional riding boot, are

designed to prevent the rider's foot from slipping through the stirrup during a fall, preventing the rider

from being dragged—most western saddles have no safety bars for the leathers or automatic stirrup

release mechanism. A rider may wear protective leather leggings called chaps. Clean, well-fitting

work clothing is the usual outfit seen in rodeo, cutting and reining competitions, especially for men,

though sometimes both men and women wear brighter colors or finer fabrics for competition than for

work.

Show events such as Western pleasure use much flashier equipment, unlike the English traditions

where clothing and tack is quiet and unobtrusive. Saddles, bits and bridles are ornamented with

substantial amounts of silver. The rider may add a jacket or vest, and women's clothing in particular

features vivid colors and even, depending on current fads, rhinestones or sequins.[7]

Western horses are asked to have a brisk, ground-covering walk, but a slow, relaxed jog trot that

allows the rider to sit the saddle and not post. The Western version of the canter is called a lope and

while collected and balanced, is expected to be slow and relaxed. Working western horses seldom

use a sustained hand gallop, but must be able to accelerate quickly to high speed when chasing

cattle or competing in rodeo speed events, must be able to stop quickly from a dead run and "turn on

a dime."

Rodeo[edit]

Main article: Rodeo

Rodeo events include the following forms of competition:

Timed events[edit]

 Barrel racing and pole bending – the timed speed and agility events seen in rodeo as well

as gymkhana or O-Mok-Seecompetition. Both men and women compete in speed events at

gymkhanas or O-Mok-Sees; however, at most professional, sanctioned rodeos, barrel racing is

an exclusively women's sport. In a barrel race, horse and rider gallop around a cloverleaf pattern

of barrels, making agile turns without knocking the barrels over. In pole bending, horse and rider

run the length of a line of six upright poles, turn sharply and weave through the poles, turn again

and weave back, then return to the start.

 Steer wrestling – Also known as "Bulldogging," this is a rodeo event where the rider jumps off his

horse onto a steer and 'wrestles' it to the ground by grabbing it by the horns. This is probably the

single most physically dangerous event in rodeo for the cowboy, who runs a high risk of jumping

off a running horse head first and missing the steer, or of having the thrown steer land on top of

him, sometimes horns first.

 Goat tying – usually an event for women or pre-teen girls and boys, a goat is staked out while a

mounted rider runs to the goat, dismounts, grabs the goat, throws it to the ground and ties it in

the same manner as a calf. This event was designed to teach smaller or younger riders the

basics of calf roping without the more complex need to also lasso the animal.
Roping[edit]

Roping includes a number of timed events that are based on the real-life tasks of a working cowboy,

who often had to capture calves and adult cattle for branding, medical treatment and other purposes.

A lasso or lariat is thrown over the head of a calf or the horns of adult cattle, and the animal is

secured in a fashion dictated by its size and age.

 Calf roping, also called "tie-down roping," is an event where a calf is roped around the neck by

a lariat, the horse stops and sets back on the rope while the cowboy dismounts, runs to the calf,

throws it to the ground and ties three feet together. (If the horse throws the calf, the cowboy
 must lose time waiting for the calf to get back to its feet so that the cowboy can do the work. The

job of the horse is to hold the calf steady on the rope) This activity is still practiced on modern

working ranches for branding, medical treatment, and so on.

 Team roping, also called "heading and heeling," is the only rodeo event where men and women

riders may compete together. Two people capture and restrain a full-grown steer. One horse

and rider, the "header," lassos a running steer's horns, while the other horse and rider, the

"heeler," lassos the steer's two hind legs. Once the animal is captured, the riders face each

other and lightly pull the steer between them, so that it loses its balance, thus in the real world

allowing restraint for treatment.

 Breakaway roping – an easier form of calf roping where a very short lariat is used, tied lightly to

the saddle horn with string and a flag. When the calf is roped, the horse stops, allowing the calf

to run on, flagging the end of time when the string and flag breaks from the saddle. In the United

States, this event is primarily for women of all ages and boys under 12, while in some nations

where traditional calf roping is frowned upon, riders of both genders compete.
"Rough Stock" competition[edit]

In spite of popular myth, most modern "broncs" are not in fact wild horses, but are more commonly

spoiled riding horses or horses bred specifically as bucking stock.

 Bronc riding – there are two divisions in rodeo, bareback bronc riding, where the rider rides a

bucking horse holding onto a leather surcingle or rigging with only one hand, and saddle

bronc riding, where the rider rides a modified western saddle without a horn (for safety) while

holding onto a braided lead rope attached to the horse's halter.

 Bull Riding – though technically not an equestrian event, as the cowboys ride full-grown bulls

instead of horses, skills similar to bareback bronc riding are required.

Harness[edit]
A Welsh pony in fine harness competition

Main article: Driving (horse)

Horses, mules and donkeys are driven in harness in many different ways. For working purposes,

they can pull a plow or other farm equipment designed to be pulled by animals. In many parts of the

world they still pull wagons for basic hauling and transportation. They may draw carriages at

ceremonies, in parades or for tourist rides.

As noted in "horse racing" above, horses can race in harness, pulling a very lightweight cart known

as a sulky. At the other end of the spectrum, some draft horses compete in horse

pulling competitions, where single or teams of horses and their drivers vie to determine who can pull

the most weight for a short distance.

In horse show competition, the following general categories of competition are seen:

 Combined driving, an internationally recognized competition where horses perform an arena-

based "dressage" class where precision and control are emphasized, a cross-country

"marathon" section that emphasizes fitness and endurance, and a "stadium" or "cones" obstacle

course.

 Draft horse showing: Most draft horse performance competition is done in harness.

 Pleasure driving: Horses and ponies are usually hitched to a light cart shown at a walk and two

speeds of trot, with an emphasis on manners.

 Fine harness: Also called "Formal driving," Horses are hitched to a light four-wheeled cart and

shown in a manner that emphasizes flashy action and dramatic performance.

 Roadster: A horse show competition where exhibitors wear racing silks and ride in a sulky in a

style akin to harness racing, only without actually racing, but rather focusing on manners and

performance.

 Carriage driving, using somewhat larger two or four wheeled carriages, often restored antiques,

judged on the turnout/neatness or suitability of horse and carriage.

Other equestrian activities[edit]

Girls and their horses preparing for a polo game

There are many other forms of equestrian activity and sports seen worldwide. There are both

competitive events and pleasure riding disciplines available.

Arena sports[edit]

 Arena polo and Cowboy polo

 Pato (Argentina's national sport)

 Charreada, the highest form of Mexican horsemanship based on a mixture of Spanish and

Native traditions.

 Equestrian vaulting: In vaulting, a surcingle with two hoops at the top is attached around a

horse's barrel. The horse also wears a bridle with side reins. The vaulter is longed on the horse,

and performs gymnastic movements while the horse walks, trots, and canters.
 Gymkhana, also known as O-Mok-See in the western United States.

 Reining
Horse sports that use cattle[edit]

 Australian rodeo

 Bullfighting (rejoneo)

 Campdrafting, a type of cattle-working competition popular in Australia

 Chilean rodeo

 Cutting

 Team penning
Defined area sports[edit]

 Buzkashi, a sport originating on the steppes of central Asia, now the national sport

of Afghanistan and Kyrgyzstan.

 Horseball

 Jousting and Skill at Arms, events involving use of lances, swords and completion of obstacles.

There are stand-alone competitions and also are often seen at historical

reenactments, Renaissance Fairs and Society for Creative Anachronism events.

 Mounted Games, a sport where games are played in a relay-style with two to five members per

team at very high speed

 Polo, a team game played on horses, involves riders using a long-handled mallet to drive a ball

on the ground into the opposing team's goal while the opposing team defends their goal

 Polocrosse

 Tent pegging

 Mounted archery
Cross-country sports[edit]

 Competitive Mounted Orienteering, a form of orienteering on horses (but unrelated

to orienteering) – consists of three stages: following a precise route marked on a map,

negotiation of obstacles, and control of paces.

 Le Trec, which comprises three phases – trail riding, with jumping and correct basic flatwork. Le

Trec, which is very popular in Europe, tests the partnership's ability to cope with an all-day ride

across varied terrain, route finding, negotiating natural obstacles and hazards, while considering

the welfare of the horse, respecting the countryside and enjoying all it has to offer.

 Competitive trail riding, a pace race held across terrain similar to endurance riding, but shorter in

length (25 – 35 miles (56 km), depending on class). Being a form of pace race, the objective is

not to finish in the least time. Instead, as in other forms of judged trail riding, each competitor is

graded on everything including physical condition, campsite, and horse management.

Horsemanship also is considered, including how the rider handles the trail and how horse is

handled and presented to the judge and vet throughout the ride. The horse is graded on

performance, manners, etc. "Pulse and respiration" stops check the horse's recovery ability. The

judges also set up obstacles along the trail and the horse and rider are graded on how well they

perform as a team. The whole point is the partnership between the horse and rider.

 Cross Country Jumping, a jumping course that contains logs, and natural obstacles mostly. The

common clothes worn are usually brighter colors and less conservative.

 Endurance riding, a competition usually of 50 to 100 miles (160 km) or more, over mountainous

or other natural terrain, with scheduled stops to take the horses' vital signs, check soundness,

and verify that the horse is fit to continue. The first horse to finish and be confirmed by the

veterinarian as fit to continue is the winner. Additional awards are usually given to the best-

conditioned horses who finish in the top 10.

 Fox hunting

 Hacking, or pleasure riding.

 Hunter Pacing is a sport where a horse and rider team travel a trail at speeds based the ideal

conditions for the horse, with competitors seeking to ride closest to that perfect time. Hunter

paces are usually held in a series. Hunter paces are usually a few miles long and covered

mostly at a canter or gallop. The horsemanship and management skills of the rider are also

considered in the scoring, and periodic stops are required for veterinarians to check the vital

signs and overall soundness of the horses.

 Ride and Tie is a form of endurance riding in which teams of 3 (two humans and one horse)

alternate running and riding.

 Steeplechase, a distance horse race with diverse fence and ditch obstacles.

 Trail Riding, pleasure riding any breed horse, any style across the land.

Health issues

Handling, riding, and driving horses has a number of health risks.

Riding has some inherent risks, as when mounted, the rider's head may be up to 4 m (13 ft) from the

ground, and the horse may travel at a speed of up to 65 km/h (40 mph).[8] The injuries observed

range from very minor injuries to fatalities.

A recent study in Germany reported that the relative risk of injury from riding a horse, compared to

riding a bicycle, was 9 times higher for adolescents and 5.6 times higher for younger children, but

that riding a horse was less risky than riding amoped.[9] In Victoria, Australia, a search of state

records found that equestrian sports had the third highest incidence of serious injury, after motor

sports and power boating.[10] In Greece, an analysis of a national registry estimated the incidence of

equestrian injury to be 21 per 100,000 person-years for farming and equestrian sports combined,

and 160 times higher for horse racing personnel. Other findings were that use of spurs may

contribute to ankle fractures and dislocations, and helmets likely prevent traumatic brain injuries.[11]

In the United States each year an estimated 30 million people ride horses, resulting in 50,000

emergency room visits (1 visit per 600 riders per year).[12] A survey of 679 equestrians in Oregon,
Washington, and Idaho estimated that at some time in their equestrian career one in five will be

seriously injured, resulting in hospitalization, surgery, or long-term disability.[13]Among survey

respondents, novice equestrians had an incidence of any injury that was threefold over

intermediates, fivefold over advanced equestrians, and nearly eightfold over professionals.

Approximately 100 hours of experience are required to achieve a substantial decline in the risk of

injury. The survey authors conclude that efforts to prevent equestrian injury should focus on novice

equestrians.
Mechanisms of injury

The most common injury is falling from the horse, followed by being kicked, trampled, and bitten.

About 3 out of 4 injuries are due to falling, broadly defined. A broad definition of falling often includes

being crushed and being thrown from the horse, but when reported separately each of these

mechanisms may be more common than being kicked.[14][15]

Types and severity of injury

In Canada, a 10-year study of trauma center patients injured while riding reported that although 48%

had suffered head injuries, only 9% of these riders had been wearing helmets at the time of their

accident. Other injuries involved the chest (54%), abdomen (22%), and extremities (17%).[16] A

German study reported that injuries in horse riding are rare compared to other sports, but when they

occur they are severe. Specifically, they found that 40% of horse riding injuries were fractures, and

only 15% were sprains. Furthermore the study noted that in Germany, one quarter of all sport related

fatalities are caused by horse riding.[17] Most horse related injuries are a result of falling from a

horse, which is the cause of 60–80% of all such reported injuries.[18][19] Another common cause of

injury is being kicked by a horse, which may cause skull fractures or severe trauma to the internal

organs. Some possible injuries resulting from horse riding, with the percent indicating the amounts in

relation to all injuries as reported by a New Zealand study,[20] include:

 Arm fracture or dislocation (31%)

 Head injury (21%)

 Leg fracture or dislocation (15%)

 Chest injury (33%)

Among 36 members and employees of the Hong Kong Jockey Club who were seen in a trauma

center during a period of 5 years, 24 fell from horses and 11 were kicked by the horse. Injuries

comprised: 18 torso; 11 head, face, or neck; and 11 limb.[21] The authors of this study recommend

that helmets, face shields, and body protectors be worn when riding or handling horses.

In New South Wales, Australia, a study of equestrians seen at one hospital over a 6-year period

found that 81% were wearing a helmet at the time of injury, and that helmet use both increased over

time and was correlated with a lower rate of admission.[22] In the second half of the study period, of

the equestrians seen, only 14% were admitted. In contrast, a study of child equestrians seen at a

hospital emergency room in Adelaide, South Australia reported that 60% were admitted.[23]

In the United States, an analysis of National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) data

performed by the Equestrian Medical Safety Association studied 78,279 horse-related injuries in

2007: "The most common injuries included fractures (28.5%); contusions/abrasions (28.3%);

strain/sprain (14.5%); internal injury (8.1%); lacerations (5.7%); concussions (4.6%); dislocations

(1.9%); and hematomas (1.2%). Most frequent injury sites are the lower trunk (19.6%); head

(15.0%); upper trunk (13.4%); shoulder (8.2%); and wrist (6.8%). Within this study patients were

treated and released (86.2%), were hospitalized (8.7%), were transferred (3.6%), left without being

treated (0.8%), remained for observation (0.6%), and arrived at the hospital deceased (0.1%)."[24]
Head injuries

Horseback riding is one of the most dangerous sports, especially in relation to head injury. Statistics

from the United States, for example, indicate that about 30 million people ride horses annually.[25] On

average, about 67,000 people are admitted to the hospital each year from injuries sustained while

working with horses.[26] 15,000 of those admittances are from traumatic brain injuries. Of those,
about 60 die each year from their brain injuries.[27] Studies have found horseback riding to be more

dangerous than several sports, including skiing, auto racing, and football.[28] Horseback riding has a

higher hospital admittance rate per hours of riding than motorcycle racing, at 0.49 per thousand

hours of riding and 0.14 accidents per thousand hours, respectively.[29]

Head injuries are especially traumatic in horseback riding. About two-thirds of all riders requiring

hospitalization after a fall have sustained a traumatic brain injury.[30] Falling from a horse without

wearing a helmet is comparable to being struck by a car.[31] Most falling deaths are caused by head

injury.[31]

The use of riding helmets substantially decreases the likelihood and severity of head injuries. When

a rider falls with a helmet, he or she is five times less likely to experience a traumatic brain injury

than a rider who falls without a helmet.[32]Helmets work by crushing on impact and extending the

length of time it takes the head to stop moving.[33] Despite this, helmet usage rates in North America

are estimated to be between eight and twenty percent.[34]

Once a helmet has sustained an impact from falling, that part of the helmet is structurally weakened,

even if no visible damage is present.[35] Helmet manufacturers recommend that a helmet that has

undergone impact from a fall be replaced immediately. In addition, helmets should be replaced every

three to five years; specific recommendations vary by manufacturer.[36]

Rules on helmet use in competition

Many organizations mandate helmet use in competition or on show grounds, and rules have

continually moved in the direction of requiring helmet use. In 2011, the United States Equestrian

Federation passed a rule making helmet use mandatory while mounted on competition grounds at

U.S. nationally rated eventing competitions.[37] Also in 2011, the United States Dressage Federation

made helmet use in competition mandatory for all riders under 18 and all riders who are riding any

test at Fourth Level and below.[38] If a rider competing at Prix St. Georges and above is also riding a

test at Fourth Level or below, he or she must also wear a helmet at all times while mounted.
Riding astride

The idea that riding a horse astride could injure a woman's sex organs is a historic but at times

popular misunderstanding or misconception, particularly that riding astride can damage

the hymen.[39] Evidence of injury to any female sex organs is scant. In female high-level athletes,

trauma to the perineum is rare and is associated with certain sports (see Pelvic floor#Clinical

significance). The type of trauma associated with equestrian sports has been termed "horse riders'

perineum".[40] A case series of 4 female mountain bike riders and 2 female horse riders found both

patient-reported perineal pain and evidence of sub-clinical changes in the clitoris;[41] the relevance of

these findings to horse riding is unknown.

In men, sports-related injuries are among the major causes of testicular trauma. In a

small controlled but unblinded study of 52 men, varicocele was significantly more common in

equestrians than in non-equestrians.[42] The difference between these two groups was small,

however, compared to differences reported between extreme mountain bike riders and non-

riders,[43]and also between mountain bike riders and on-road bicycle riders.[44] Horse-riding injuries to

the scrotum (contusions) andtestes (blunt trauma) were well known to surgeons in the 19th century

and early 20th century.[45] Injuries from collision with the pommel of a saddle are mentioned

specifically.[45]

Criticism of horses in sport

Organized welfare groups, such as the Humane Society of the United States, and animal

rights groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, have been known to criticise

some horse sports with claims of animal cruelty.

Horse racing is a popular equestrian sport which is practiced in many nations around the world. It is

inextricably associated with gambling, where in certain events, stakes can become very high.

Despite its illegality in most competitions, these conditions of extreme competitiveness can lead to

the use of performing-enhancing drugs and extreme training techniques, which can result in negative
side effects for the horses' well-being. The races themselves have also proved dangerous to the

horses – especially steeplechasing, which requires the horse to jump hurdles whilst galloping at full

speed. This can result in injury or death to the horse, as well as the jockey.[46] A study by animal

welfare group Animal Aid revealed that approximately 375 racehorses die yearly, with 30% of these

either during or as a result of injuries from a race.[47] The report also highlighted the increasing

frequency of race-related illnesses, including bleeding lungs (exercise-induced pulmonary

haemorrhage) and gastric ulcers.[47]

Animal rights groups are also primarily concerned that certain sports or training exercises may cause

unnecessary pain or injuries to horse athletes. Some specific training or showing practices are so

widely condemned that they have been made illegal at the national level and violations can incur

criminal penalties. The most well-known is soring, a practice of applying a caustic ointment just

above the hooves of a Tennessee Walking Horse to make it pick up its feet higher. However, in spite

of a federal law in the United States prohibiting this practice and routine inspections of horse shows

by inspectors from theUnited States Department of Agriculture, soring is still widespread and difficult

to eliminate.[48] Some events themselves are also considered so abusive that they are banned in

many countries. Among these are horse-tripping, a sport where riders chase and rope a loose-

running horse by its front legs, throwing it to the ground.[49]

Secondary effects of racing have also recently been uncovered. A 2006 investigation by The

Observer in the UK found that each year 6,000–10,000 horses are slaughtered for consumption

abroad, a significant proportion of which are horses bred for racing.[50] A boom in the number of foals

bred has meant that there is not adequate resources to care for unwanted horses. Demand has

increased for this massive breeding programme to be scaled back.[50] Despite over 1000 foals being

produced annually by the industry, 66% of those bred for such a purpose were never entered into a

race, and despite a life expectancy of 30 years, many are killed before their fifth birthday.[50]

Horse riding on coinage

Horse riding events have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins. One of the

recent samples is the €10 Greek Horse Riding commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to

commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. On the composition of the obverse of this coin, the

modern horseman is pictured as he jumps over an obstacle, while in the background the ancient

horseman is inspired by a representation on a black-figure vase of the 5th century BC.

For the 2012 Olympics, the Royal Mint has produced a 50p coin showing a horse jumping a fence.[51]

Fencing

Fencing is the martial art of fighting with blades. The most common version of fencing today, also
called olympic fencing or competitive fencing, is divided into three weapon categories: foil, sabre
(spelled saber in the United States) and épée. Classical fencing uses the same three weapons, but
approaches fencing as a martial art.
Competitive fencing is one of five activities which has been featured at every one of the
modern Olympic Games, the other four being Athletics, Cycling,Swimming, and Gymnastics.

Figure skating

Figure skating is a sport and activity in which individuals, duos, or groups perform on figure
skates on ice. It was the first winter sport included in the Olympics, in 1908.[1] The
four Olympic disciplines are men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating, and ice dancing. Non-
Olympic disciplines includesynchronized skating and four skating. In senior-level competition,
skaters generally perform two programs (short and long) which, depending on the discipline, may
include spins, jumps, moves in the field, lifts, throw jumps, death spirals, and other elements or
moves.
The blade has a groove on the bottom creating two distinct edges — inside and outside. In figure
skating, the skater should glide on one edge of the blade and not on both at the same time, which is
referred to as a flat edge. Skates used in single and pair skating have a set of large, jagged teeth
called toe picks on the front of the blade. Ice dancing blades are an inch shorter in the rear and have
smaller toe picks.
Figure skaters compete at various levels from beginner up to the Olympic level (senior) at local,
national, and international competitions. The International Skating Union (ISU) regulates
international figure skating judging and competitions. These include the Winter Olympics, the World
Championships, the World Junior Championships, the European Championships, the Four
Continents Championships, and the Grand Prix series (senior and junior).
The sport is also associated with show business. Major competitions generally conclude with
exhibition galas, in which the top skaters from each discipline perform non-competitive programs.
Many skaters, both during and after their competitive careers, also skate in ice shows which run
during the competitive season and the off-season.

Terminology
The term "professional" in skating refers not to skill level but competitive status. Figure skaters

competing at the highest levels of international competition are not "professional" skaters. They are

sometimes referred to as amateurs,[2] though some earn money. Professional skaters include those

who have lost their ISU eligibility and those who perform only in shows. They may include former

Olympic and World champions who have ended their competitive career as well as skaters with little

or no international competitive experience.

In languages other than English, Japanese, Korean, Chinese, Italian, Polish and Russian, figure

skating is usually referred to by a name that translates as "artistic skating."

Figure skates
Close-up of a figure skating blade, showing the toe picks, the hollow (groove) on the bottom surface
of the blade, and screw attachment to the boot.

The most visible difference in relation to hockey skates is that figure skates have a set of large,

jagged teeth called toe picks (also called "toe rakes") on the front of the blade. The toe picks are

used primarily in jumping and should not be used for stroking or spins. If used during a spin, the tow

pick will cause the skater to lose momentum, or move away from the center of his/her spin. Blades

are mounted to the sole and heel of the boot with screws. Typically, high-level figure skaters are

professionally fitted for their boots and blades at a reputable skate shop in their area. Professionals

are also employed to sharpen blades to individual requirements.[3]

Sharpening of blades

Blades are about 3/16 inch (4.7 mm) thick. When viewed from the side, the blade of a figure skate is

not flat, but curved slightly, forming an arc of a circle with a radius of180-220 cm. This curvature is

referred to as the rocker of the blade. The sweet spot of the blade is below the ball of the foot.[4]This

spot is usually located near the stanchion of the blade, and is the part of the blade where all spins

are spun on. The blade is also hollow ground; a groove on the bottom of the blade creates two
distinct edges, inside and outside. The inside edge of the blade is on the side closest to the skater;

the outside edge of the blade is on the side farthest from the skater. In figure skating, it is always

desirable to skate on only one edge of the blade. Skating on both at the same time (which is referred

to as a flat) may result in lower skating skills scores. The apparently effortless power and glide

across the ice exhibited by elite figure skaters fundamentally derives from efficient use of the edges

to generate speed.

Ice dancers' blades are about an inch shorter in the rear than those used by skaters in other

disciplines, to accommodate the intricate footwork and close partnering in dance. Dancers' blades

also do not have the large toe pick used for jumping. Hard plastic skate guards are used when the

skater must walk in his or her skates when not on the ice. The guard protects the blade from dirt or

material on the ground that may dull the blade. Soft blade covers called soakers are used to absorb

condensation and protect the blades from rust when the skates are not being worn. In competition,

skaters may have three minutes to make repairs to their skates.

Ice rinks and rink equipment

There is significant variation in the dimensions of ice rinks. Olympic-sized rinks have dimensions of

30 m × 60 m (98.4 ft × 197 ft), NHL-sized rinks are 26 m × 61 m (85 ft × 200 ft), while European rinks

are sometimes 30 m × 64 m (98 ft × 210 ft).[5] The International Skating Union prefers Olympic-sized

rinks for figure skating competitions, particularly for major events. According to ISU rule 342, a figure

skating rink for an ISU event "if possible, shall measure sixty (60) meters in one direction and thirty

(30) meters in the other, but not larger, and not less than fifty-six (56) meters in one direction and

twenty-six (26) meters in the other."[6] The scoring system rewards skaters who have good ice

coverage, i.e. who efficiently cover the entire ice surface during their programs. Olympic-sized rinks

make the differences in skill between skaters more apparent but they are not available for all events.

If a rink has different dimensions, a skater's jump setup and speed may be hindered as he or she

adjusts.[7][8]
Ice quality is judged by smoothness, friction, hardness, and brittleness.[9] Factors affecting ice quality

include temperature, water quality, and usage, with toe picks causing more deterioration. For figure

skating, an ice temperature of 24 °F (-4 °C) is generally preferred.[9] Typically after every two warm-

up groups, an ice resurfacer cleans and smooths the surface of the ice sheet. Inadequate ice quality

may affect skaters' performances.[10]

Some rinks use harness systems to help skaters learn jumps in a controlled manner. The ice

rink installs a heavy-duty cable that is securely attached to two walls of the rink. A set of pulleys ride

on the cable. The skater wears a vest or belt that has a cable or rope attached to it. That cable/rope

is threaded through the movable pulley on the cable above. The coach holds the other end of the

cable and lifts the skater by pulling the cable/rope. The skater can then practice the jump, with the

coach assisting with the completion.

Disciplines
Olympic disciplines

Olympic sports in figure skating comprise the following disciplines:[11]

 Singles competition for men and women (who are referred to as "ladies" in ISU rulebooks),

wherein individual skaters perform jumps, spins, step sequences, spirals, and other elements in

their programs.

 Pair skating teams consist of a woman and a man. Pairs perform elements specific to the

discipline such as throw jumps, in which the man 'throws' the woman into a jump; lifts, in which

the woman is held above the man's head in one of various grips and positions; pair spins, in

which both skaters spin together about a common axis; death spirals; and other elements such

as side-by-side jumps and spins in unison.

 Ice dancing is again for couples consisting of a woman and a man skating together. Ice dance

differs from pairs in focusing on intricate footwork performed in close dance holds, in time with

the music. Ice dance lifts must not go above the shoulder.

The four disciplines of men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating and ice dancing also appeared as

part of a team event for the first time at the 2014 Winter Olympics.[12]
Other disciplines

Synchronized skating

Lifts performed by the Haydenettes, 21-time U.S. national champions

 Synchronized skating (formerly known as precision skating) is for mixed-gender groups of 12

to 20 skaters. This discipline resembles a group form of ice dance with additional emphasis on

precise formations of the group as a whole and complex transitions between formations. The

basic formations include wheels, blocks, lines, circles, and intersections. The close formations

and need for the team to stay in unison add to the difficulty of the footwork performed by the

skaters in these elements. A formal proposal for inclusion in the Olympics was submitted by the

International Skating Union to the International Olympic Committee in September 2014.[13]

 Fours, a discipline in which a team of four skaters, consisting of two men and two women,

perform singles and pairs elements in unison, as well as unique elements that involve all four

skaters.

 Special figures is the tracing of elaborate original designs on the ice. It was a common

discipline in the early days of skating and appeared once at the Olympics, in 1908.

 Theatre on ice, also known as "ballet on ice" in Europe. This is a form of group skating that is

less structured than synchronized skating and allows the use of props and theatrical costuming.

 Adagio skating, a form of pair skating most commonly seen in ice shows, where the skaters

perform many acrobatic lifts but few or none of the other elements which competitive pairs must

perform.

 Acrobatic skating, also known as "Acrobatics on ice" or "Extreme Skating", is a combination of

circus arts, technical artistic gymnastics skills, and figure skating.

Elements and moves

Main article: Glossary of figure skating terms

Each element receives a score according to its base value and grade of execution (GOE), resulting

in a combined technical elements score (TES). At competitions, a technical specialist identifies each

element. Elements may be assigned a level of difficulty, ranging from B (Basic) to Level 4 (most

difficult).[14] A panel of judges determines GOE, ranging from +3 to -3, based on how well the skaters

execute the elements. The GOE is weighted according to the element's base value.[14]

The ISU defines a fall as a loss of control with the result that the majority of the skater's body weight

is not on the blade but supported by hands, knees, or buttocks.[15]

Jumps
Jumps involve the skater leaping into the air and rotating rapidly to land after completing one or

more rotations. There are many types of jumps, identified by the way the skater takes off and lands,

as well as by the number of rotations that are completed.

Each jump receives a score according to its base value and GOE.[14] Quality of execution, technique,

height, speed, flow and ice coverage are considered by the judges. An under-rotated jump (indicated

by < ) is "missing rotation of more than ¼, but less than ½ revolution" and receives 70% of the base

value. A downgraded jump (indicated by <<) is "missing rotation of ½ revolution or more". A triple

which is downgraded is treated as a double, while a downgraded double is treated as a single jump.

An edge violation occurs when a skater executes a jump on the incorrect edge. The hollow is a

groove on the bottom of the blade which creates two distinct edges, inside and outside. The inside

edge of the blade is on the side closest to the skater, the outside edge is on the side farthest from

the skater, and a flat refers to skating on both edges at the same time, which is discouraged. An

unclear edge or edge violation is indicated with an 'e' and reflected in the GOE according to the

severity of the problem. Flutz and lip are the colloquial terms for a Lutz and flip jump with an edge

violation.

In 1982, the International Skating Union enacted a rule stating that a skater may perform each type

of triple only once, or twice if one of them is incorporated into a combination or sequence. For a set

of jumps to be considered a combination, each jump must take off from the landing edge of the

previous jump, with no steps, turns, or change of edge in between jumps. Toe loops and loops are

commonly performed as the second or third jump in a combination because they take off from the

right back outside edge. To perform a salchow or flip on the back end of a combination, a half loop

(which is actually a full rotation, but lands on a left back inside edge) may be used as a connecting

jump. In contrast, jump sequences are sets of jumps which may be linked by non-listed jumps or

hops.[16] Sequences are worth 80% of what the same jumps executed in combination would be

worth.
Jumps may be rotated in clockwise or counter-clockwise direction. Most skaters are counter-

clockwise jumpers. For clarity, all jumps will be described for a skater jumping counter-clockwise.

There are six jumps in figure skating that count as jump elements. All six are landed on one foot on

the right back outside edge (with counterclockwise rotation, for single and multi-revolution jumps),

but have different takeoffs, by which they may be distinguished. The two categories of jumps are toe

jumps and edge jumps.

The number of rotations performed in the air determines whether the jump is a single, double, triple,

or quadruple (known commonly as a "quad"). Senior-level male single skaters perform mostly triple

and quadruple jumps in competition. Triple jumps other than the Axel are commonly performed by

female single skaters. Only one female skater, Miki Ando, has been credited with a quadruple jump

in international competition.

Some elite skaters can complete a jump in about one second, with 26 inches of height and 10 feet in

distance. The takeoff speed of a jump can reach up to 15 mph.

Toe jumps

Toe jumps are launched by tapping the toe pick of one skate into the ice, and include (in order of

difficulty from easiest to hardest

1. Toe loops take off from the back outside edge of the left or right foot and are launched by the

opposite toe pick (toe walleys are similar, but take off from the back inside edge of the right

foot);

2. Flips, which take off from the back inside edge of the right or left foot and are launched by

the opposite toe pick;

3. Lutzes, which take off from the back outside edge of the right or left foot and are launched by

the opposite toe pick.

Edge jumps
 An axel jump

Edge jumps use no toe assist, and include:

1. Sal chows, which take off from either the left or right back inside edge. Allowing the edge to

come round, the opposite leg helps launch the jump into the air and land on one foot;

2. Loops (also known as Rittberger jumps) take off from either the left or right back outside

edge and land on the same edge;

3. Axels, which are the only rotating jump to take off from a forward edge. Because they take

off from a forward edge, they include one-half extra rotations and are very much

considered[by whom?] the hardest jump of the six.

Other jumps[edit]

There are also a number of other jumps that are usually performed only as single jumps and in elite

skating are used as transitional movements or highlights in step sequences. These include the half

toe loop (ballet jump), half loop, half flip,walley jump, split jump (there are two kinds of split jump,

Russian split, performed in a position that is similar to that of a straddle split and ladies split

performed in the position of the more traditional split, facing the direction of the front leg), waltz

jump, inside Axel, and one-foot Axel.

Ross Miner sets up for a jump.



Denis Ten sets up for a jump.

Kevin van der Perrenrotates in the air.

Jamal Othman lands on the right back outside edge.


 Pairs skaters Marissa Castelli and Simon Shnapir set up for a throw jump

A pair team after the woman has been thrown: Jessica Miller rotates in the air.

Anabelle Langlois lands after performing a throw jump with Cody Hay.
Spins[edit]

Main article: Figure skating spins

Spins are a required element in all four Olympic disciplines. There are three basic positions — sit,

camel, and upright — and numerous variations.

 Camel spin variations include catch-foot, layover, and doughnut.

 Sit spin variations include pancake, broken leg, tuck behind, canon ball, and clam.

 Upright spin variations include layback, Biellmann, haircutter, layover layback, and pearl.

During a spin, the skater rotates on the round part of the blade, called the front rocker, just behind

the toe pick (the ball of the foot). Spins may be performed individually or in a sequence combining

different types of spins. A spin may be executed on the back rocker of the blade during a change of

edge spin. For example, a back scratch spin will flip edges to a forward inside edge. This feature of a

spin will change the level of a spin. Spins may be performed on either foot. Like jumping, skaters
 mostly rotate in the counterclockwise direction, but there are some skaters who rotate in the

clockwise direction. Some skaters are able to rotate in both directions. For skaters who rotate in a

counterclockwise direction, a spin on the left foot is called a forward spin, while a spin on the right

foot is called a back spin.

When performing some types of spins, an elite skater can complete on overage 6 rotations per

second, and about 70 rotations in a single spin.[citation needed]

Spins can be entered on the ice or through a jump or sequence of jumps known as star jumps. Spins

that are entered through a jump are calling flying spins. Flying spins include the flying camel, flying

sit spin, death drop, and butterfly spin. Flying spins may go from a forward spin to a back spin. A

flying spin can also be performed as part of a spin sequence.

In pair skating, spins may be performed side-by-side with both partners doing the same spin or

combination spin at the same time. Additionally, in pairs and in ice dancing, there are pair and dance

spins, during which both skaters rotate around the same axis while holding onto each other.

Camel spin

Sit spin


Upright spin

Pair camel spin

Pair spin with lady in layback and man in sit spin

Layback spin with catch-foot



Biellmann spin

Death drop
Lifts[edit]

Main article: Figure skating lifts

A one arm overhead lift in pair skating

Lifts are a required element in pair skating and ice dancing.

Pair lifts[edit]

Pair lifts are generally overhead. According to the current ISU rules for senior-level competition, the

man must rotate more than once, but fewer than three-and-a-half times. In competitive pair skating,

lifts must travel across the ice to be included in the technical elements score (TES); stationary lifts

are included in choreography. Pair lifts are grouped by the holds involved.

Legal holds:

 Armpit holds are not generally used in elite senior competition.

 Waist holds

 Hand-to-hip holds

 Hand-to-hand lifts are divided into two types:

 Press lifts
 Lasso lifts, in order of increasing difficulty:[14]
 Toe or step in lasso
 Axel or backward lasso
 Reverse lasso

The judges look at speed, ice coverage, the quality of the lady's position, position changes, and the

man's stability and cleanness of turns throughout. Skaters may also raise their score by having a

difficult entry such as in spiral or spread eagle position, a difficult exit, or other features such as

stopping the rotation, turning a carry lift into rotational one, or reversing rotation (i.e. both clockwise

and counter-clockwise directions).

Twist lifts are a form of pair lifts, where the lifted partner is thrown into the air, twists, and is caught

by the lifted partner. The lady is caught by her waist in the air and lands on the backward outside

edge. Some pairs include a split before rotating. This is credited as a difficult feature if each leg is

separated by at least a 45° angle from the body axis and the legs are straight or almost straight.
Scores are also affected by the height of the twist, turns, steps or other moves before the element,

the lady holding her arms over her head, delayed rotation, etc.

Dance lifts[edit]

Ice dancers are not allowed to lift their partners above their shoulders. Dance lifts are separated

into short lifts and long lifts. There are many positions each partner can take to raise the difficulty of

a lift. Each position must be held for at least three seconds to count and is permitted only once in a

program.

Short lifts may last up to six seconds in competition on the senior level.

 Stationary lift - A lift performed "on the spot". The lifting partner does not move across the ice,

but is allowed to rotate.

 Straight line lift - The lifting partner moves in a straight line across the ice. This lift may be

performed on one foot or two.

 Curve lift - The lifting partner moves along a curve across the ice. This lift may be performed on

one foot or two.

 Rotational lift - The lifting partner rotates in one direction while traveling across the ice.

Long lifts may last up to ten seconds in competition on the senior level.

 Reverse rotational lift - The lifting partner rotates in one direction, then switches and rotates in

the other direction, while traveling across the ice.

 Serpentine lift - The lifting partner moves in a serpentine pattern across the ice.

 Combination lift - A lift combining two of the four short lifts. Each part of the lift must be fully

established.

In both pairs and dance, lifts that go on longer than allowed receive deductions.
 Turns, steps, moves in the field, and other moves[edit]

Step sequences are a required element in all four Olympic disciplines. The pattern can be straight

line, circular, or serpentine. The step sequence consists of a combination of turns, steps, hops and

edge changes. Additionally, steps and turns can be used as transitions between elements. The

various turns, which skaters can incorporate into step sequences, include:

Three turns, so called because the blade turns into the curve of the edge or lobe to leave a tracing

resembling the numeral "3".

Bracket turns, in which the blade is turned counter to the curve of the lobe, making a tracing

resembling a bracket ("}").

Mohawks, the two-foot equivalents of three turns and brackets.



Rockers, one-foot turns that involve a change of lobe as well as of direction.

Counters, one-foot turns that involve a change of lobe as well as of direction.

Twizzles, traveling multi-rotation turns on one foot

Choctaws are the two-foot equivalents of rockers and counters. Other movements that may be

incorporated into step sequences or used as connecting elements include lunges and spread

eagles. An Ina Bauer is similar to a spread eagle performed with one knee bent and typically an

arched back. Hydroblading refers to a deep edge performed with the body as low as possible to the

ice in a near-horizontal position.

Moves in the field emphasize basic skating skill and edge control. In the context of a competitive

program, they includespirals, spread eagles, Ina Bauers, hydroblading, and similar extended edge

moves.

A spiral is an element in which the skater moves across the ice on a specific edge with the free leg

held at hip level or above. Spirals are distinguished by the edge of the blade used (inside or outside),
 the direction of motion (forward or backward), and the skater's position. A spiral sequence is one or

more spiral positions and edges done in sequence. Judges look at the depth, stability, and control of

the skating edge, speed and ice coverage, extension, and other factors. Some skaters are able to

change edges during a spiral, i.e. from inside to outside edge. Spirals performed on a "flat" are

generally not considered as true spirals. Spiral sequences are required in ladies' and pair skating.

A death spiral is a required element of pair skating. There are four varieties distinguished by the

lady's edge and direction of motion. The man performs a pivot, one toe anchored in the ice, while

holding the hand of his partner, who circles him on a deep edge with her body almost parallel to the

ice. As of 2011, the woman's head must at some time reach her skating knee. The man must also be

in a full pivot position and the death spiral must be held for a minimum amount of rotation, depending

on the level.

A basic outside edge spiral position with the free leg held unsupported behind the body.

A pair outside edge spiral in a catch-foot position.



Back inside death spiral.

Parallel mirror spread eagles with the male on an inside edge and the female on an outside edge.

Ina Bauer

Ice dancers in lunge position



Hydroblading

Male ice dancer in Besti squat while lifting partner

Compulsory figures[edit]

Compulsory figures involves using blades to draw circles, figure 8s, and similar shapes in ice.

Skaters are judged on the accuracy and clarity of the figures and the cleanness and exact placement

of the various turns on the circles. Figures were formerly included as a component of singles

competitions but were eliminated from international events in 1990.[17] TheUnited States was the last

country to retain a separate test and competitive structure for compulsory figures, but the last

national-level figures championship was held in 1999. Moves in the field (known in the United

Kingdom as field moves) replaced compulsory figures as a discipline to teach the same turns and

edge skills.

Competition format and scoring[edit]

Pair performing crossovers

Takahiko Kozuka and coach Nobuo Sato wait for Kozuka's marks in theKiss and cry, the area beside
the rink at competitions where skaters wait to receive their scores.

Main article: Figure skating competition

The International Skating Union (ISU) is the governing body for international competitions in figure

skating, including the World Championships and the figure skating events at the Winter Olympic

Games. Medals are awarded for overall results. The standard medal colors are gold for first place,

silver for second, and bronze for third place. U.S. Figure Skating also awards pewter medals for

fourth-place finishers in national events. At the World, European, Four Continents, and World Junior

Championships, the ISU also awards small medals for segment results (short and free program).
In singles and pairs figure skating competition, competitors must perform two programs, the short

program, in which the skater must complete a list of required elements consisting of jumps, spins

and steps; and the free skate, also known as thelong program, in which the skaters have slightly

more choice of elements. Under both the 6.0 system and the ISU Judging System, the judges

consider the "complete package" when evaluating performances, i.e. The best jumper is not always

placed first if the judges consider another skater's speed, spins, presentation, etc., to outweigh the

difference in jumping execution.[18][19]

Ice dancing competitions formerly consisted of three phases: one or morecompulsory dances;

an original dance to a ballroom rhythm that is designated annually; and a free dance to music of the

skaters' own choice. Beginning in the2010–11 season, the compulsory and original dances were

merged into the short dance.

6.0 System[edit]

Main article: 6.0 system

Skating was formerly judged for "technical merit" (in the free skate), "required elements" (in the short

program), and "presentation" (in both programs).[19] The marks for each program ran from 0.0 to 6.0,

the latter being the highest. These marks were used to determine a preference ranking, or "ordinal",

separately for each judge; the judges' preferences were then combined to determine placements for

each skater in each program. The placements for the two programs were then combined, with the

free skate placement weighted more heavily than the short program. The highest placing individual

(based on the sum of the weighted placements) was declared the winner.[20]
ISU Judging System[edit]

Main article: ISU Judging System

In 2004, in response to the judging controversy during the 2002 Winter Olympics, the ISU adopted

the International Judging System (IJS), which became mandatory at all international competitions in

2006, including the 2006 Winter Olympics. The new system is often informally referred to as
the Code of Points, however, the ISU has never used the term to describe their system in any of

their official communications.

Under the system, points are awarded individually for each skating element, and the sum of these

points is the total element score (TES). Competitive programs are constrained to have a set number

of elements. Each element is judged first by a technical specialist who identifies the specific element

and determines its base value. The technical specialist uses instant replay video to verify things that

distinguish different elements; e.g., the exact foot position at take-off and landing of a jump. The

decision of the technical specialist determines the base value of the element. A panel of twelve

judges then each award a mark for the quality and execution of the element. This mark is called

the grade of execution (GOE) that is an integer from −3 to +3. The GOE mark is then translated into

another value by using the table of values in ISU rule 322. The GOE value from the twelve judges is

then processed with a computerized random selection of nine judges, then discarding the high and

low value, and finally averaging the remaining seven. This average value is then added to (or

subtracted from) the base value to get the total value for the element.[21]

The program components score (PCS) awards points to holistic aspects of a program or other

nuances that are not rewarded in the total element score. The components are:[22]

1. Skating skills (SS) reward use of edges and turns, flow over the ice surface, speed and

acceleration, ice coverage, clean and controlled curves, multi-directional skating, and

mastery of one-foot skating (no overuse of skating on two feet).

2. Transitions (TR)

3. Performance/Execution (PE)

4. Choreography (CH)

5. Interpretation (IN)
The only exception is the compulsory dance, which has no choreography or transition marks

because the steps are preset. A detailed description of each component is given in ISU rule 322.2.

Judges award each component a raw mark from 0 to 10 in increments of 0.25, with a mark of 5

being defined as "average". For each separate component, the raw marks are then selected,

trimmed, and averaged in a manner akin to determining a grade of execution. The trimmed mean

scores are then translated into a factored mark by multiplying by a factor that depends on the

discipline, competition segment, and level. Then the five (or four) factored marks are added to give

the final PCS score.

The total element score and the program components score are added to give the total score for a

competition segment (TSS). A skater's final placement is determined by the total of their scores in all

segments of a competition. No ordinal rankings are used to determine the final results.
Other judging and competition[edit]

There are also skating competitions organized for professional skaters by independent promoters.

These competitions use judging rules set by whoever organizes the competition. There is no

"professional league". Well-known professional competitions in the past have included the World

Professional Championships (held in Landover, Maryland), the Challenge Of Champions, the

Canadian Professional Championships and the World Professional Championships (held in Jaca,

Spain).

The Ice Skating Institute (ISI), an international ice rink trade organization, runs its own competitive

and test program aimed at recreational skaters. Originally headquartered in Minnesota, the

organization now operates out of Dallas, Texas. ISI competitions are open to any member that have

registered their tests. There are very few "qualifying" competitions, although some districts hold Gold

Competitions for that season's first-place winners. ISI competitions are especially popular in Asian

countries that do not have established ISU member federations. The Gay Games have also included
skating competitions for same-gender pairs and dance couples under ISI sponsorship. Other figure

skating competitions for adults also attract participants from diverse cultures and sexual orientations.

World standings and season's bests[edit]

World standings[edit]

A skater/couple's world standing (WS) is calculated based on results over the current and

preceding two seasons. Competitors receive points based on their final placement at an event and

the event's weight. The following events receive points:[23]

 ISU Championships (World, European, Four Continents, and World Junior Championships) and

Olympic Winter Games: The best result by points per season, the best two results by points over

the three seasons.

 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating and Final (senior and junior): The two best results by points

per season, the best four results by points over the three seasons.

 International senior calendar competitions: The two best results by points per season, the best

four results by points over the three seasons.

Following the current season's World Championships, the results from the earliest season are

deleted. A new partnership starts with zero points — there is no transfer of WS points if a pair or ice

dancing couple split up and form a new partnership.

These standings do not necessarily reflect a skater/couple's capabilities. Due to limits on entries to

events (no more than three from each country), and varying numbers of high-level skaters in each

country, skaters from some countries may find it more difficult to qualify to compete at major events.

Thus, a skater with a lower SB but from a country with few high-level skaters may qualify to a major

event while a skater with a much higher SB but from a country with more than three high-level

skaters may not be sent. As a result, it is possible for a skater who regularly scores higher to end up

with a much lower world standing.

A skater/couple's season's world ranking is calculated similarly to overall world standing but is based

on the results on the results of the ongoing season only.[23]

Season's bests[edit]

A skater/couple's season's best (SB) is the highest score they have achieved within a particular

season. There may be SB for combined total and segment scores (short program/dance, free

skating/free dance). Each skater or couple's best combined total appears on a list of season's

bests.[24] The list may be used to help determine assignments to the following season's Grand Prix

series. Only scores achieved at select international competitions are considered. Scores from

national competitions and certain international events are excluded.

There are also personal best (PB) scores, i.e. the highest scores a skater or couple has achieved

over their entire career, in terms of combined total and segment scores. However, PB scores are not

completely comparable if achieved in different seasons because the ISU modifies requirements and

rules between seasons. In different seasons, there may be different requirements to achieve a

certain level or different elements may be required. New elements may become allowed (for

example, two quads in the short program were permitted starting in the 2010–11 season). There

may be a change in point values. For example, the values of quads were increased after the 2010

Olympics and a second step sequence in men is no longer assigned a level. As a result, the ISU

now places more weight on SB.

Music and clothing[edit]

An example of ice dancing costumes

Music[edit]

For competitive programs, figure skaters were once restricted to instrumental music, including vocal

music if it contained no lyrics or words. Beginning in the 1997–98 season, the International Skating

Union decided to allow lyrics or words in ice dancing. Although the rules were not relaxed for singles

and pairs, judges did not always penalize violations. At the 2011 World Championships, Florent

Amodio's long program music included words but an insufficient number of judges voted for a

deduction.[25] In June 2012, the International Skating Union voted to allow skaters from all disciplines

to choose music with words in their competitive programs beginning in the 2014–15 season.[26][27]

Skaters may use professional music editors so that their music meets requirements.[28] Ice dancers

are required to skate to music that has a definite beat or rhythm. Singles and pair skaters more often

skate to the melody and phrasing of their music. For long programs, figure skaters generally search

for music with different moods and tempos.[29] Music selections for exhibitions are less constrained

than for competitive programs.

Clothing[edit]

Skaters are generally free to select their own attire, with a few restrictions. In competition, females

may wear a dress, typically with matching attached briefs, and since 2004, they may also choose

trousers.[30] They may wear opaque flesh-colored leggings or tights

under dresses and skirts, which may extend to cover their skates. Men must wear trousers – they

are not allowed to wear tights, although, officials do not always impose a deduction for

violations.[31] Matching costumes are not required in pair skating and ice dancing.[32]

Competition costumes vary widely, from simple designs to heavily beaded or trimmed costumes.

Skaters risk a deduction if a piece of their costume falls onto the ice surface. An official may stop a

program if he or she deems there to be a hazard. Skaters and family members may design their own

costumes, sometimes with assistance from their coach or choreographer, or turn to professional

designers.[32][33][34][35] Costumes may cost thousands of dollars if designed by a top-level

costumemaker.

According to current ISU regulations, costumes in competition "must be modest, dignified and

appropriate for athletic competition – not garish or theatrical in design. Clothing may, however,

reflect the character of the music chosen."[6]Although the use of flesh-colored fabric means the

costumes are often less revealing than they may appear, there have been repeated attempts to ban

clothing that gives the impression of "excessive nudity" or that is otherwise inappropriate for athletic

competition.[36] In general, accessories or props are not permitted in competition.[6] The ISU allowed

an exception for the original dance in the 2007–2008 season but never since.

Eligibility[edit]
Age eligibility[edit]

To compete internationally on the senior level, skaters must be at least 15 before July 1 of the

preceding year. To be eligible for junior-level events, a skater must be at least 13 but under 19

before that date (or 21 for male pair skaters and ice dancers).[37][38] A skater must meet the age
requirement before it becomes July 1 in their place of birth. For example,Adelina Sotnikova was born

a few hours into July 1, 1996 in Moscow and consequently, was not eligible to compete at Junior

Worlds until 2011 and senior Worlds until 2013.[39] The ISU's rules apply to international events.

Many countries have no age requirements for domestic non-ISU competitions, thus, some skaters

compete at the senior level nationally while not eligible for international competition.

The International Skating Union has modified its age rules several times. Prior to the 1990s, 12 was

the minimum age for senior international competitions.[40] New rules were introduced in 1996,

requiring skaters to be at least 15 before July 1 of the preceding year in order to compete at the

Olympics, Worlds, Europeans, or Four Continents.[37] The minimum age for all other senior

internationals was 14 until July 2014, when it was raised to 15.

During the 2005–06 season, Mao Asada of Japan was age-eligible to compete at the Grand Prix

Final, where she claimed the title, but she was not permitted to compete at the Olympics. For

the 2008 World Championships, the United States was obliged to send skaters who had placed 5th

and 7th at nationals because higher-placed skaters were too young, including a skater who missed

the cutoff by 20 days.[37][41] The ISU has strictly enforced the rules in recent years.[37] However,

American pair skater Natasha Kuchiki was allowed to compete at the 1990 World

Championships when she was two years too young and American single skater Tara Lipinski, who

was 13 at the time the 1996 rules were introduced, was grandfathered into remaining eligible for

future events, along with other skaters who had already competed at the World Championships. A

loophole also existed for a few years for underage skaters who had medaled at Junior Worlds.[42]

As in gymnastics, skating has experienced controversy surrounding possible age falsification. On

February 14, 2011, questions emerged surrounding nine Chinese skaters. The Associated

Press found that birthdates listed on the Chinese skating association's website suggested five

female skaters, Sui Wenjing, Zhang Dan, Yu Xiaoyu, Geng Bingwa, and Xu Binshu, were younger

than their ISU ages, and four male skaters, Han Cong, Zhang Hao, Jin Yang, and Gao Yu, were
older.[37] The dates disappeared from the website by February 15.[43] On February 17, the ISU said

there were no discrepancies for Zhang Dan, Zhang Hao, and Xu Binshu between the birthdates

listed on their passports, ISU registration forms and the Chinese Olympic Committee's

website.[43] Athletes in China sometimes face pressure to falsify their age.[44]

Other eligibility rules[edit]

Skaters may represent a country of which they are not yet a citizen in most competitions, except the

Olympics which require citizenship.

At most international events, each country may send one to a maximum of three entries per

discipline. Consequently, even if a skater has a high season's best, he or she may not be sent to

major events if their country has many good skaters in their discipline. Some skaters have tried to

circumvent this by switching to another country. In response, the ISU introduced rules barring

skaters from international events for a certain period of time. In the 2010 regulations, it was 24

months or more from the date of the last ISU Championship.[45] In the 2012 regulations, the minimum

was 18 months for singles and 12 months for pairs/ice dancers from the date of their last ISU

Championships (Worlds, Europeans, Four Continents, Junior Worlds) and 12 months if they

competed in some other international competition.[46] Competitors may sit out for much longer

because they also have to obtain a release from their previous federation. The ISU has set no limit

to how long a country may hold skaters.[46]

Skaters may lose their ISU eligibility if they perform in an unsanctioned show or competition.

Beginning in the 2010–11 season, minimum scores were introduced for the World, European, or

Four Continents Championships. In the 2011–12 season, different minimum scores were introduced

for the Grand Prix series.

Competitors' expenses, income, and funding[edit]

Figure skating is an expensive sport.[47][48][49][50] This is particularly due to the costs of ice time and

coaching.[51] In October 2004, a U.S. Figure Skating article estimated the annual expense at $9,000-
$10,000 for pre-juvenile, $18,000 for juvenile, $35,000-$40,000 for novice, and said junior and senior

levels were somewhat more expensive.[47] In the 2010s, American senior national medalists had

expenses in the mid-five-figure range.[48][52] Swiss skater Stéphane Lambiel said his costs were

around 100,000 Swiss francs per season.[53] World champion Patrick Chan's expenses were

$150,000 (Canadian dollars).[54]

Prize money is relatively low compared to other sports.[55] A men's or ladies' singles skater who won

the 2011 World Championships earned $45,000 (USD),[56] about 1.8% to 2.5% of the $1,800,000-

$2,400,000 USD for winners of the tennisUS Open and Australian Open.[57][58] A couple who won the

pairs or ice dancing title split $67,500.[56] A winner of the seniorGrand Prix Final in December 2011

earned $25,000 USD.[59] Some national associations provide funding to some skaters.[60] Many

skaters take part-time jobs.[61] In Germany, many elite skaters choose to join the army to fund their

skating.[62] In Italy, some skaters join sports group of police agencies, such as the Polizia

Penitenziaria's Fiamme Azzurre(Carolina Kostner, Anna Cappellini, Luca Lanotte)[63][64] or Polizia di

Stato's Fiamme Oro (Federica Faiella, Paolo Bacchini).[65] Some competitive skaters depend on

income from shows.[66][67] Certain shows are unsanctioned, i.e. skaters may lose their competitive

eligibility if they take part. In some cases, skaters may feel pressure to compete through injury in

order to be allowed to perform in a show.[66]

Injuries and health issues[edit]

Competitive skaters generally do not wear helmets or other protective gear. There is a risk of head

injuries, particularly inpair skating as a result of falls from lifts.[68][69] Although pair skaters are most

susceptible, serious head injuries can occur in all disciplines, including ice dancing.[70][71] Partners

have accidentally slashed each other with their skate blades.[72][73] This may occur when partners

drift too close during side-by-side camel spins. Several female pair skaters have suffered head/face

injuries during this element, including Elena Berezhnaya,[74] Jessica Dubé,[75] Mandy

Wötzel,[76] Galina Maniachenko (Efremenko),[77] and Elena Riabchuk.[78] Shin splints,[79] knee
injuries, and back problems are not uncommon.[3][80][81] Hip damage may occur as a result of

practicing jumps and throws.[3][82] In rare cases, intensive training of spins may result in subtle

concussions (Lucinda Ruh).[83][84]

Injuries have also been sustained by skaters from different teams when there are many skaters

practicing on the ice.[85]Midori Ito collided with Laetitia Hubert at the 1991 World Championships,

while Oksana Baiul and Tanja Szewczenko collided at the 1994 Olympics, but all went on to

compete. On practice sessions with multiple skaters on the ice, the skater whose music is playing

conventionally has right of way. In addition, pairs and ice dancers skating as a unit have right of way

over those skating separately as changing course is more difficult for a couple.

In some countries, medical personnel may be slow to respond to accidents. At the 2000 World

Championships in Nice, France, a pair skater who had been injured in a lift accident lay on the ice

for several minutes and had to get up and leave the ice on his own before being offered medical

attention.[86]

Eating disorders are reportedly common in figure skating.[87][88][89]

History[edit]

Main article: History of figure skating

Jackson Haines, considered to be the father of modern figure skating.

While people have been ice skating for centuries, figure skating in its current form originated in the

mid-19th century. A Treatise on Skating (1772) by Englishman Robert Jones, is the first known

account of figure skating. Competitions were then held in the "English style" of skating, which was

stiff and formal and bears little resemblance to modern figure skating. American skater Jackson

Haines, considered the "father of modern figure skating", introduced a new style of skating in the

mid-1860s. This style, which incorporated free and expressive techniques, became known as the

"international style." Although popular in Europe, Haines' style of skating was not widely adopted in

the United States until long after his death.[90]

Early 1900s[edit]
Special figures by Nikolai Panin at the 1908 Olympics

The International Skating Union was founded in 1892. The first European Championshipswere held

in 1891, and the first World Championships were held in 1896 and won by Gilbert Fuchs. Only men

competed in these events. In 1902, a woman, Madge Syers, entered the World competition for the

first time, finishing second. The ISU quickly banned women from competing against men, but

established a separate competition for "ladies" in 1906. Pair skating was introduced at the 1908

World Championships, where the title was won by Anna Hübler / Heinrich Burger. Figure skating's

Olympic debut came at the 1908 Summer Olympics—it was the first winter sport introduced to the

Olympics.[1][91]

On March 20, 1914 an international figure skating championship was held in New Haven,

Connecticut. This was the ancestor of both the United States and Canadian National

Championships. However, international competitions in figure skating were interrupted by World War

I.

In the 1920s and 1930s, figure skating was dominated by Sonja Henie, who turned competitive

success into a lucrative professional career as a movie star and touring skater. Henie also set the

fashion for female skaters to wear short skirts and white boots.[92] The top male skaters of this period

included Gillis Grafström and Karl Schäfer.

After World War II[edit]

Skating competitions were again interrupted for several years by World War II. After the war, with

many European rinks in ruins, skaters from the United States and Canada began to dominate

international competitions and to introduce technical innovations to the sport. Dick Button, 1948 and

1952 Olympic Champion, was the first skater to perform the double axel and triple loop jumps, as

well as the flying camel spin.

The first World Championships in ice dancing were not held until 1952.[91] In its first years, ice dance

was dominated by British skaters. Beginning with Jean Westwood / Lawrence Demmy, British

couples won the world title every year through 1960.[93]

Rise of the Soviet Union[edit]

Ludmila Belousova andOleg Protopopov in 1968

On February 15, 1961, the entire U.S. figure skating team and their coaches were killed in the crash

of Sabena Flight 548 in Brussels, Belgium en route to the World Championships in Prague. This

tragedy sent the U.S. skating program into a period of rebuilding.

At the same time, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant power in the sport, especially in the

disciplines of pair skating and ice dancing. At every Winter Olympics from 1964 until 2006, a Soviet

or Russian pair won gold in pair skating, often considered one of the longest winning streaks in

modern sports history.[94][95][96] The 1967 World Championships was the last event held in an outdoor

rink.[97]
Effect of television and the present day[edit]

Compulsory figures formerly accounted for up to 60% of the score in singles figure skating,[17] which

meant that skaters who could build up a big lead in figures could win competitions even if they were

mediocre free skaters. As television coverage of skating events became more important, so did free

skating. Beginning in 1968, the ISU began to progressively reduce the weight of figures and
introduced the short program in 1973.[17] With these changes, the emphasis in competitive figure

skating shifted to increasing athleticism. By the 1980s, some skaters began practicing quadruple

jumps.Jozef Sabovcik of Czechoslovakia landed a quad toe loop at the 1986 European

Championships which was recognized at the event but then ruled invalid three weeks later due to a

touchdown with his free foot.[98] At the 1988 World Championships, Kurt Browning of Canada landed

the first quad toe loop which has remained ratified.[99] Although it was expected that quads would

soon become an important part of men's skating, it was a number of years before this

happened.[98] Japan's Midori Ito landed the first triple axel by a woman. Worth only 20% by 1989,

figures were eliminated entirely from international competition in 1990.[17]

Television showing skaters in the kiss and cry area after competing contributed to the sport's

popularity.[100] Television also played a role in removing the restrictive amateur status rules that once

governed the sport. In May 1990, the International Skating Union voted to allow skaters who were

intending to skate professionally to return to ISU competition if they obtained their national

association's permission.[101] To retain skaters who might otherwise have given up their eligibility to

participate in lucrative professional events, in 1995 the ISU introduced prize money at its major

competitions, funded by revenues from selling the TV rights to those events.

In 1984, more than 24 million people in Great Britain watched ice dancing pair Jayne

Torvill and Christopher Dean earn unanimous 6.0s for presentation, the only perfect score in

Olympic skating history, which was ranked the 8th greatest sporting moment in a UK poll.[102][103] In

the 1993 National Sports Study II, considered by the Associated Press as the largest study of

spectator sport popularity in America, ladies' figure skating was the second most popular spectator

sport in America, just behind NFL football out of over 100 sports surveyed.[104] The 1993 study found

that three figure skaters —Dorothy Hamill, Peggy Fleming, and Scott Hamilton[105] — were among

the eight most popular athletes in the United States, out of over 800 athletes surveyed.[106] Dorothy

Hamill was statistically tied with Mary Lou Retton as the most popular athlete in America. The Tonya

Harding scandal in 1994 increased interest in figure skating.[107] The first night of the ladies' figure
skating competition in the 1994 Winter Olympics achieved higher TV Nielsen ratings than that year's

Super Bowl and was the most watched sports television program of all-time, to that date.[108]

Spectators sometimes throw a variety of items, most commonly stuffed toys and flowers, onto the ice

in support of their favorite skaters but officials discourage flowers which are not fully wrapped due to

the possibility of debris disrupting or endangering the following skaters.[109][110]

Countries who have produced many successful skaters in recent decades include Russia and the

former Soviet Union, the United States, Canada, Japan, China, France, Germany, and Italy. While

the sport has grown in East Asia, training opportunities in South Asia are limited due to a scarcity of

ice rinks. India had only four major indoor ice rinks as of 2011, but there were plans for ten more to

be built, mostly in malls, over the following five years.[111]

Four skating has mostly disappeared while synchronized skating and solo ice dancing have grown.

On April 6, 2011, theInternational Olympic Committee officially confirmed the approval of a team

event, to be introduced at the 2014 Winter Olympics.[12] The elimination of the compulsory

dance provided space for the team event.[112] Each team will be composed of a men's and ladies

single skater, a pair, and an ice dancing team. Ten teams may compete, with five eliminated after

the short program.[113] In December 2011, the International Skating Union released details of the

qualifying system and the competition.

Gymnastics is a complex competition involving the performance of exercises requiring physical

strength, flexibility, power, agility, coordination, grace, balance and control. Internationally, all of the

competitive gymnastic events are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG).

Each country has its own national governing body (BIW) affiliated to FIG. Competitive artistic

gymnastics is the best known of the gymnastic events. It typically involves the women's events

of uneven bars, balance beam, floor exercise, andvault. Men's events are floor exercise, pommel
horse, still rings, vault,parallel bars, and the high bar. Gymnastics evolved from exercises used by

the ancient Greeks that included skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and from circus

performance skills.

Other gymnastic disciplines include: rhythmic gymnastics, trampolining, Team

Gym, tumbling, aerobic gymnastics and acrobatic gymnastics. Participants can include
children as young as 20 months o History[edit]

In 1569, Girolamo Mercuriale from Forlì (Italy) wrote Le Arte Gymnastica, which brought together his

study of the attitudes of the ancients toward diet, exercise and hygiene, and the use of natural

methods for the cure of disease. Girolamo was an Italian philogist and physician, who received his

doctorate in 1555. He was later asked to occupy the Chair of Medicine in 1569. De Arte

Gymnastica also explained the principles of physical therapy and is considered the first book

on sports medicine.

In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century Germany, three pioneer physical educators –

Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1759–1839) and Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778–1852) – created

exercises for boys and young men on apparatus they had designed that ultimately led to what is

considered modern gymnastics. Don Francisco Amorós y Ondeano, marquis de Sotelo, was born on

February 19, 1770 in Valence and died on August 8, 1848 in Paris. He was a Spanish colonel, and

the first person to introduce educative gymnastic in France. Jahn promoted the use of parallel bars,

rings and high bar in international competition.[3]

The Federation of International Gymnastics (FIG) was founded in Liege in 1881.[4] By the end of the

nineteenth century, men's gymnastics competition was popular enough to be included in the first

"modern" Olympic Games in 1896. From then on until the early 1950s, both national and

international competitions involved a changing variety of exercises gathered under the

rubric, gymnastics, that would seem strange to today's audiences and that included for example,
synchronized team floor calisthenics, rope climbing, high jumping, running, and horizontal ladder.

During the 1920s, women organized and participated in gymnastics events. The first women's

Olympic competition was primitive, only involving synchronized calisthenics and track and field.

These games were held in 1928, in Amsterdam.

By 1954, Olympic Games apparatus and events for both men and women had been standardized in

modern format, and uniform grading structures (including a point system from 1 to 15) had been

agreed upon. At this time, Soviet gymnasts astounded the world with highly disciplined and difficult

performances, setting a precedent that continues. The new medium of television has helped

publicize and initiate a modern age of gymnastics. Both men's and women's gymnastics now attract

considerable international interest, and excellent gymnasts can be found on every continent. Nadia

Comăneci received the first perfect score, at the 1976 Summer Olympics held in Montreal, Canada.

She was coached in Romania by coach, (Hungarian ethnicity), Béla Károlyi. Comaneci scored four

of her perfect tens on the uneven bars, two on the balance beam and one in the floor

exercise.[5] Even with Nadia's perfect scores, the Romanians lost the gold medal to the Soviet Union.

Nevertheless, Comaneci became an Olympic icon.

In 2006, a new points system for Artistic gymnastics was put into play. With an A Score (or D score)

being the difficulty score, which as of 2009 is based on the top 8 high scoring elements in a routine

(excluding Vault). The B Score (or E Score), is the score for execution, and is given for how well the

skills are performed.[6]

ld doing kindergym and children's gymnastics, recreational gymnasts of ages 5 and up, competitive

gymnasts at varying levels of skill, and world class athletes.

A gymnast's score comes from deductions taken from their start value. The start value of a routine is

calculated based on the difficulty of the elements the gymnast attempts and whether or not the
gymnast meets composition requirements. The composition requirements are different for each

apparatus. This score is called the D score.[12] Deductions in execution and artistry are taken from

10.0. This score is called the E score.[13] The final score is calculated by taking deductions from the

E score, and adding the result to the D score.[14] Since 2007, the scoring system has changed by

adding bonus plus the execution and then adding those two together to get the final score.

History
Okinawa

Karate began as a common fighting system known as te (Okinawan: ti) among the Pechin class of

the Ryukyuans. After trade relationships were established with the Ming dynasty of China by

King Satto of Chūzan in 1372, some forms ofChinese martial arts were introduced to the Ryukyu

Islands by the visitors from China, particularly Fujian Province. A large group of Chinese families

moved to Okinawa around 1392 for the purpose of cultural exchange, where they established the

community of Kumemura and shared their knowledge of a wide variety of Chinese arts and

sciences, including the Chinese martial arts. The political centralization of Okinawa by King Shō

Hashi in 1429 and the policy of banning weapons by KingShō Shin in 1477, later enforced in

Okinawa after the invasion by the Shimazu clan in 1609, are also factors that furthered the

development of unarmed combat techniques in Okinawa.[2]

There were few formal styles of te, but rather many practitioners with their own methods. One

surviving example is theMotobu-ryū school passed down from the Motobu family by Seikichi

Uehara.[18] Early styles of karate are often generalized as Shuri-te, Naha-te, and Tomari-te, named

after the three cities from which they emerged.[19] Each area and its teachers had particular kata,

techniques, and principles that distinguished their local version of te from the others.

Members of the Okinawan upper classes were sent to China regularly to study various political and

practical disciplines. The incorporation of empty-handed Chinese Kung Fu into Okinawan martial
arts occurred partly because of these exchanges and partly because of growing legal restrictions on

the use of weaponry. Traditional karate kata bear a strong resemblance to the forms found in Fujian

martial arts such as Fujian White Crane, Five Ancestors, and Gangrou-quan (Hard Soft Fist;

pronounced "Gōjūken" in Japanese).[20] Many Okinawan weapons such as the sai, tonfa,

and nunchaku may have originated in and around Southeast Asia.

Sakukawa Kanga (1782–1838) had studied pugilism and staff (bo) fighting in China (according to

one legend, under the guidance of Kosokun, originator of kusanku kata). In 1806 he started teaching

a fighting art in the city of Shuri that he called "Tudi Sakukawa," which meant "Sakukawa of China

Hand." This was the first known recorded reference to the art of "Tudi," written as 唐手. Around the

1820s Sakukawa's most significant student Matsumura Sōkon (1809–1899) taught a synthesis

of te (Shuri-te and Tomari-te) and Shaolin (Chinese 少林) styles.[citation needed] Matsumura's style would

later become the Shōrin-ryū style.

Ankō Itosu, Grandfather of Modern Karate

Matsumura taught his art to Itosu Ankō (1831–1915) among others. Itosu adapted two forms he had

needed]
learned from Matsumara. These are kusanku and chiang nan.[citation He created

the ping'an forms ("heian" or "pinan" in Japanese) which are simplified kata for beginning students.

In 1901 Itosu helped to get karate introduced into Okinawa's public schools. These forms were
taught to children at the elementary school level. Itosu's influence in karate is broad. The forms he

created are common across nearly all styles of karate. His students became some of the most well-

known karate masters, including Gichin Funakoshi, Kenwa Mabuni, and Motobu Chōki. Itosu is

sometimes referred to as "the Grandfather of Modern Karate."[21]

In 1881 Higaonna Kanryō returned from China after years of instruction with Ryu Ryu Koand

founded what would become Naha-te. One of his students was the founder of Gojū-ryū,Chōjun

Miyagi. Chōjun Miyagi taught such well-known karateka as Seko Higa (who also trained with

Higaonna), Meitoku Yagi, Miyazato Ei'ichi, and Seikichi Toguchi, and for a very brief time near the

end of his life, An'ichi Miyagi (a teacher claimed by Morio Higaonna).

In addition to the three early te styles of karate a fourth Okinawan influence is that of Kanbun

Uechi (1877–1948). At the age of 20 he went to Fuzhou in Fujian Province, China, to escape

Japanese military conscription. While there he studied under Shushiwa. He was a leading figure of

Chinese Nanpa Shorin-ken style at that time.[22] He later developed his own style ofUechi-ryū karate

based on the Sanchin, Seisan, and Sanseiryu kata that he had studied in China.[23]

Judo

Judo (柔道 jūdō?, meaning "gentle way") is a modern martial art, combat andOlympic sport created
in Japan in 1882 by Jigoro Kano (嘉納治五郎). Its most prominent feature is its competitive element,
where the objective is to eitherthrow or takedown an opponent to the ground, immobilize or
otherwise subdue an opponent with a pin, or force an opponent to submit with a joint lock or
achoke. Strikes and thrusts by hands and feet as well as weapons defenses are a part of judo, but
only in pre-arranged forms (kata, 形) and are not allowed in judo competition or free practice
(randori, 乱取り). A judo practitioner is called a judoka.
The philosophy and subsequent pedagogy developed for judo became the model for other modern
Japanese martial arts that developed from koryū (古流?, traditional schools). The worldwide spread
of judo has led to the development of a number of offshoots such as Sambo and Brazilian jiu-jitsu
History and philosophy[edit]
Early life of the founder[edit]

Jigoro Kano

The early history of judo is inseparable from its founder, Japanese polymath and educator Jigoro
Kano (嘉納 治五郎 Kanō Jigorō?, 1860–1938), born Shinnosuke Kano (嘉納 新之助 Kanō

Shinnosuke?). Kano was born into a relatively affluent family. His father, Jirosaku, was the second

son of the head priest of the ShintoHiyoshi shrine in Shiga Prefecture. He married Sadako Kano,

daughter of the owner of Kiku-Masamune sake brewing company and was adopted by the family,

changing his name to Kano, and ultimately became an official in the Bakufu government.[3]

Jigoro Kano had an academic upbringing and, from the age of seven, he studied English, Japanese
calligraphy (書道 shodō?) and the Four Confucian Texts (四書Shisho?) under a number of

tutors.[4] When he was fourteen, Kano began boarding at an English-medium school, Ikuei-Gijuku

in Shiba, Tokyo. The culture of bullying endemic at this school was the catalyst that caused Kano to
seek out a Jujutsu (柔術Jūjutsu?) dojo (道場 dōjō?, training place) at which to train.[4]

Early attempts to find a jujutsu teacher who was willing to take him on met with little success. With

the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in the Meiji Restoration of 1868, jujutsu had become

unfashionable in an increasingly westernised Japan. Many of those who had once taught the art had

been forced out of teaching or become so disillusioned with it that they had simply given up. Nakai

Umenari, an acquaintance of Kanō's father and a former soldier, agreed to show him kata, but not to
teach him. The caretaker of his father's second house, Katagiri Ryuji, also knew jujutsu, but would

not teach it as he believed it was no longer of practical use. Another frequent visitor to Kanō's
father's house, Imai Genshiro of Kyūshin-ryū (扱心流?) school of jujutsu, also refused.[5] Several

years passed before he finally found a willing teacher.[5]

In 1877, as a student at the Tokyo-Kaisei school (soon to become part of the newly founded Tokyo

Imperial University), Kano learned that many jujutsu teachers had been forced to pursue alternative
careers, frequently opening Seikotsu-in (整骨院?, traditional osteopathy practices).[6] After inquiring

at a number of these, Kano was referred to Fukuda Hachinosuke (c.1828–1880),[7] a teacher of

the Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū (天神真楊流?) of jujutsu, who had a small nine mat dojo where he taught five

students.[8] Fukuda is said to have emphasized technique over formal exercise, sowing the seeds of
Kano's emphasis on randori (乱取り randori?, free practice) in judo.

On Fukuda's death in 1880, Kano, who had become his keenest and most able student in
both randori and kata (形 kata?, pre-arranged forms), was given the densho (伝書?, scrolls) of the

Fukuda dojo.[9] Kano chose to continue his studies at another Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū school, that of Iso

Masatomo (c.1820–1881). Iso placed more emphasis on the practice of kata, and

entrusted randori instruction to assistants, increasingly to Kano.[10] Iso died in June 1881 and Kano
went on to study at the dojo of Iikubo Tsunetoshi (1835–1889) of Kitō-ryū (起倒流?).[11] Like Fukuda,

Iikubo placed much emphasis on randori, with Kitō-ryū having a greater focus on nage-
waza (投げ技?, throwing techniques)

udo waza (techniques)[edit]

See also: Judo techniques and List of Kodokan judo techniques

There are three basic categories of waza (技?, techniques) in judo: nage-waza (投げ技?, throwing

techniques), katame-waza (固技?, grappling techniques) and atemi-waza (当て身技?, striking

techniques).[20] Judo is most known for nage-wazaand katame-waza.[21]

Judo practitioners typically devote a portion of each practice session to ukemi (受け身?, break-falls),

in order that nage-waza can be practiced without significant risk of injury. Several distinct types
of ukemi exist, including ushiro ukemi (後ろ受身?, rear breakfalls); yoko ukemi (横受け身?, side
breakfalls); mae ukemi (前受け身?, front breakfalls); and zenpo kaiten ukemi (前方回転受身?, rolling

breakfalls)[22]

The person who performs a Waza is known as tori (取り?, literally "taker") and the person to whom it

is performed is known as uke (受け?, literally "receiver").[23]

Nage waza (throwing techniques)[edit]

Nage waza include all techniques in which tori attempts to throw or trip uke, usually with the aim of

placing uke on his back. Each technique has three distinct stages:

 Kuzushi (崩し?), the initial balance break;[24]

 Tsukuri (作り?), the act of turning in and fitting into the throw;[25]

 Kake (掛け?), the execution and completion of the throw.[25]

Nage waza are typically drilled by the use of uchi komi (内込?), repeated turning-in, taking the throw

up to the point ofkake.[26]

Traditionally, nage waza are further categorised into tachi-waza (立ち技?, standing techniques),

throws that are performed with tori maintaining an upright position, and sutemi-waza (捨身技?,

sacrifice techniques), throws in which tori sacrifices his upright position in order to throw uke.[27]

Tachi-waza are further subdivided into te-waza (手技?, hand techniques), in which tori predominantly

uses his arms to throwuke; koshi-waza (腰技?, hip techniques) throws that predominantly use a

lifting motion from the hips; and ashi-waza (足技?, foot and leg techniques), throws in

which tori predominantly utilises his legs

History of competitive judo[edit]

Yoshihiko Yoshimatsu attempting to throw Toshiro Daigo with an uchi matain the final of the
1951 All-Japan Judo Championships

Contest (試合 shiai or jiai with rendaku?) is a vitally important aspect of judo. Early examples include

the Kodokan Monthly Tournament (月次試合 Tsukinami jiai?) and the biannual Red and White

Tournament (紅白試合 Kohaku jiai?), both of which started in 1884 and continue to the present

day.[citation needed]

In 1899, Kano was asked to chair a committee of the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai to draw up the first

formal set of contest rules for jujutsu. These rules were intended to cover contests between different

various traditional schools of jujutsu as well as practitioners of Kodokan judo. Contests were 15

minutes long and were judged on the basis of nage waza and katame waza, excluding atemi waza.

Wins were by two ippons, awarded in every four-main different path of winning alternatives, by

"Throwing", where the opponent's back strikes flat onto the mat with sufficient force, by "Pinning"

them on their back for a "sufficient" amount of time, or by Submission, which could be achieved via

"Shime-waza" or "Kansetsu-waza", in which the opponent was forced to give himself or herself up or

summon a referee's or corner-judge's stoppage. Finger, toe and ankle locks were prohibited.[51] In

1900, these rules were adopted by the Kodokan with amendments made to prohibit all joint locks for

kyu grades and added wrist locks to the prohibited kansetsu-waza for dan grades. It was also stated

that the ratio of tachi-waza to ne-waza should be between 70% to 80% for kyu grades and 60% to

70% for dan grades.[51]

In 1916, additional rulings were brought in to further limit kansetsu waza with the prohibition of ashi

garami and neck locks, as well as do jime.[52] These were further added to in 1925, in response
to Kosen judo (高專柔道 Kōsen jūdō?), which concentrated on ne waza at the expense of tachi waza.

The new rules banned all remaining joint locks except those applied to the elbow and prohibited the

dragging down of an opponent to enter ne waza.[citation needed]

The All-Japan Judo Championships (全日本柔道選手権大会 Zennihon jūdō senshuken taikai?) were

first held in 1930 and have been held every year, with the exception of the wartime period between

1941 and 1948, and continue to be the highest profile tournament in Japan.[citation needed]

Judo's international profile was boosted by the introduction of the World Judo Championships in

1956. The championships were initially a fairly small affair, with 31 athletes attending from 21

countries in the first year. Competitors were exclusively male until the introduction of the Women's

Championships in 1980, which took place on alternate years to the Men's Championships. The

championships were combined in 1987 to create an event that takes place annually, except for the

years in which Olympic games are held. Participation has steadily increased such that, in the most

recent championships in 2011, 871 competitors from 132 countries took part.[citation needed]

The first time judo was seen in the Olympic Games was in an informal demonstration hosted by

Kano at the 1932 Games.[53]However, Kano was ambivalent about judo's potential inclusion as an

Olympic sport:

Powerlifting
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Power Lifting)

Powerlifting is a strength sport that consists of three attempts at maximal weight on three
lifts: squat, bench press, and deadlift. As in the sport ofOlympic weightlifting, it involves lifting
weights in three attempts. Powerlifting evolved from a sport known as "odd lifts", which followed the
same three-attempt format but used a wider variety of events, akin to strongman competition.
Eventually odd lifts became standardized to the current three.
In competition, lifts may be performed equipped or un-equipped (typically referred to as 'raw' lifting or
'classic' in the IPF specifically). Equipment in this context refers to a supportive bench shirt or
squat/deadlift suit or briefs. In some federations, knee wraps are permitted in the equipped but not
un-equipped division; in others, they may be used in both equipped and un-equipped lifting. Weight
belts, knee sleeves, wrist wraps and special footwear may also be used, but are not considered
when distinguishing equipped from un-equipped lifting.[1]
Competitions take place across the world but mostly in the United States, Canada, United
Kingdom, Iceland, Egypt, Sweden,Finland, Russia and Ukraine. Powerlifting has been
a Paralympic sport (bench press only) since 1984 and, under the IPF, is also a World Games sport.
Local, national and international competitions have also been sanctioned by other federations
operating independently of the IPF.

History[edit]

The roots of powerlifting are in traditions of strength training stretching back as far as Greek and

Roman times. The modern sport originated in the USA and the Uk in the 1950s. Previously, the

weightlifting governing bodies in both countries had recognized various ‘odd lifts’ for competition and

record purposes. During the 1950s, Olympic weightlifting declined in the United States, while

strength sports gained many new followers. In 1958, the AAU's National Weightlifting Committee

decided to begin recognizing records for ‘odd lifts’. A national championship was tentatively

scheduled for 1959, but it never happened. The first genuine national ‘meet’ was held in September

1964 under the auspices of the York Barbell Company. Ironically, Bob Hoffman, the owner of York

Barbell, had been a long-time adversary of the sport. But his company was now making powerlifting

equipment to make up for the sales it had lost on Olympic-style equipment.

During the late 1950s, Hoffman’s York Barbell Company, his influence in Olympic lifting and his

predominately Olympic-lifting based magazine Strength and Health were beginning to come under

ever-increasing pressure from Joe Weider’s organization. As America’s (and Bob Hoffman influence

in the world of weightlifting was declining and in order to combat the growing influence of Weider,

Hoffman started another magazine [Muscular Development which would be focused more on

bodybuilding and the fast-growing interest in ‘odd-lift’ competitions. The magazine’s first Editor was

the world-renowned John Grimek.

During the late 1950s and early 1960s various ‘odd lift’ events gradually developed into the specific

lifts – the bench press, the squat, and the deadlift and lifted in that order. Bob Hoffman became more

and more influential in the development of this new lifting sport and organized ‘The Weightlifting

Tournament of America’ in 1964 - effectively the first US National championships. In 1965 the first

named USA National Championships were held. During the same period, lifting in Britain also had
factions. In the late 1950s, and because the ruling body (BAWLA) were only interested in the

development of Olympic lifting, a breakaway organization called the Society of Amateur Weightlifters

had been formed to cater for the interests of lifters who were not particularly interested in doing

Olympic lifting.

Although at that time there were 42 recognized lifts, the “Strength Set” (Biceps Curl, Bench Press,

and Squat) soon became the standard competition lifts, and both organizations held Championships

on these lifts (as well as on the Olympic lifts) until 1965. In 1966, the Society of Amateur

Weightlifters re-joined BAWLA and, in order to fall into line with the American lifts, the Curl was

dropped and replaced with the Deadlift. The first British Championship was held in 1966. During the

late 60’s and at the beginning of the 70’s, various friendly international contests were held. At the

same time, in early November of each year and to commemorate Bob Hoffman’s birthday, a prestige

lifting contest was always held as part of “Bob Hoffman’s Birthday Party.” In 1971, it was decided to

make this event the “World Weightlifting Championships.” There was no such thing as ‘teams’ and

thus was predominantly a whole bunch of American lifters, plus four from Great Britain and one from

theWest Indies. All the Referees were American. This event got off the mark in York, Pennsylvania,

at 10.05 am on Saturday November 6, 1971.

Weights were in pounds. Lifting order was ‘rising bar’ this was long before the Rounds system . The

first lift was the Bench Press. There was no such thing as bench shirts or squat suits, and various

interpretations were held regarding the use of and length of knee wraps and weightlifting belts. The

IPF rules system did not exist yet, nor had world records been established.

Because of the lack of formalized rules some disputes occurred. For example Great Britain’s 67½lg

lifter, Mike Shaw, purportedly wore knee wraps which were eighteen feet long, and were objected to

by American lifters whose rules allowed for 6 feet. There was no 52 kg class, no 100 kg class, and

no 125 kg class. At the ‘first’ World Championships, one of the American Super heavyweights, Jim

Williams (nicknamed ‘Chimes’) benched 660 lbs on a second attempt (no shirt), and almost locked-

out 680 lbs on a third. Some other notable lifts – Larry Pacifico benched the equivalent of 233.6 kg

(515 lbs) in the 90 kg class; John Kuc deadlifted 371.9 kg (820 lbs); and Vince Anello attempted

362½ kg (800 lbs) at 90.[2] Hugh Cassidy and Williams both totaled 2,160 lbs, but Cassidy got the

win because of a lower bodyweight in the Super heavyweight division.

In 1972 the ‘second’ AAU World Championships were held, this time over two days – 10 and 11

November. This time there were 8 lifters from Great Britain (two of whom, Ron Collins and John

Pegler, did stints as Referees), six Canadians, two Puerto Ricans, three Zambians, and one from the

West Indies. With 67 lifters in all, the other 47 were Americans. Lifts were still measured in pounds,

the bench press was the first lift, and there were still no suits, power belts, or fancy wraps.

Britain’sPrecious McKenzie won his ‘second’ world title with 550 kg at 56. Mike Shaw ‘lost’ his world

title, won the previous year, to American Jack Keammerer. Ron Collins made up for his ’bomb’ on

the bench in ’71 and stormed to the 75 kg title. Pacifico just won against another American, Mel

Hennessey, at 110 kg, both with enormous benches of 260 kg and 255 kg. At Super (over 110 kg)

John Kuc beat Jim Williams with an incredible 2,350 lbs total (raw). Kuc squatting 905 lbs for a

record squat and attempting a 397½ (875 lbs) deadlift again, and Williams benching a massive

307½ (675 lbs) - the greatest bench press ever at the time, before just missing with 317½

(700 lbs).[3] Jon Cole, the Super heavyweight winner of the US Senior Championships 1972 and

holder of the greatest total at that time with 1,075 kg (2,370 lbs), didn’t show up to take on Kuc.
IPF and after[edit]

The International Powerlifting Federation was formed immediately after the contest, and so none of

the lifts could be yet registered as official world records. The 1973 Worlds was also held in York,

Pennsylvania. This time there were only 47 entrants; 1 from Sweden, 1 from Puerto Rico Peter Fiore

– still lifting for Zambia, 2 Canadians, 1 West Indian, 8 from Great Britain, and the rest Americans.

The officiating became a bit more ‘international’; Tony Fitton and Terry Jordan from Britain, a

Canadian, and a Zambian, assisting with the Refereeing duties. American Bob Crist was the IPF

President, and another American, Clarence Johnson, was Vice-President. 1973 was the first time

that the lifts were done in the order we now recognize – Squat, Bench Press, Deadlift (although still

lifting in pounds). Precious Mackenzie won his ‘third’ World title, easily beating the American

teenager, Lamar Gant.

1974 was the first time that teams had to be selected in advance. With 74 entrants this was the

largest Worlds so far. The 52 kg class was introduced – and there were 9 lifters entered. In 1975 the

World Championships was held outside America for the first time, in Birmingham, England at the

Town Hall, hosted by the legendary Vic Mercer. 82 lifters this time. Unusually for a competition the
Supers lifted first. This was because the Television company filming the event were only interested

in filming the 'big guys'. Bob Hoffman sent over tons of equipment for this contest too – and didn’t

take it back, legend says it’s all still being used in the West Midlands.

The establishment of the IPF in 1973 spurred the establishment of the EPF (European Powerlifting

Federation) in 1974. Since it was closely associated with bodybuilding and women had been

competing as bodybuilders for years, the new sport was opened to them very quickly. The first U. S.

national championships for women were held in 1978 and the IPF added women's competition in

1979. In the USA, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 required that each Olympic or potential Olympic

sport must have its own national governing body by November 1980. As a result, the AAU lost

control of virtually every amateur sport. The U.S.P.F. was founded in 1980 as the new national

governing body for American powerlifting.

Soon, controversy over drug testing would cause powerlifting to splinter into multiple federations. In

1981, the American Drug Free Powerlifting Association (ADFPA), led by Brother Bennett, became

the first federation to break away from the USPF, citing the need to implement effective drug testing

in the sport.[4] Meanwhile, the IPF was moving towards adopting drug testing at international meets,

and requiring member nations to implement drug testing at national meets as well. In 1982, drug

testing was introduced to the IPF men's international championship, although the USPF

championships that year did not have drug testing.[5] The IPF's push for drug testing was resisted by

some American lifters, and in 1982 Larry Pacifico and Ernie Frantz founded the American

Powerlifting Federation (APF), which advertised its categorical opposition to all drug

testing.[4] Ultimately, the USPF failed to conform to IPF demands, and was expelled from the

international body in 1997, with the ADFPA, now named USA Powerlifting (USAPL), taking its

place.[6]

Despite the trend towards more and more federations, each with their own rules and standards of

performance, some powerlifters have attempted to bring greater unity to the sport. For example,

100% RAW that promoted unequipped competition merged with another federation, Anti-Drug

Athletes United (ADAU) in 2013.[7] The Revolution Powerlifting Syndicate (RPS), founded by Gene

Rychlak in 2011, might also be considered a move towards greater unity, as the RPS breaks the

tradition of charging lifters membership fees to a specific federation in addition to entry fees for each
competition.[8] Also, some meet promoters have sought to bring together top lifters from different

federations, outside existing federations' hierarchy of local, regional, national and international

meets; a prominent example of this is the Raw Unity Meet (RUM), held annually since 2007.[9]
Developments in equipment and rules[edit]

As new equipment was developed, it, too, came to distinguish powerlifting federations from one

another. Weight belts and knee wraps (originally simple Ace bandages) predated powerlifting, but in

1983 John Inzer invented the first piece of equipment distinct to powerlifters—the bench

shirt.[10] Bench shirts and squat/deadlift suits (operating on the same principle) became ubiquitous in

powerlifting, but only some federations adopted the latest and most supportive canvas, denim, and

multiply polyester designs, while others (e.g., IPF) maintained more restrictive rules on which

supportive equipment could be used.[11] The Monolift, a rack in which the bar catches swing out,

eliminating the walkout portion of the squat, was invented by Ray Madden and first used in

competition in 1992.[12] This innovation, too, was adopted by some federations and forbidden in

others. Other inventions included specialized squat bars and deadlift bars, moving away from the

IPF standard of using the same bar for all three lifts.

The rules of powerlifting have also evolved and differentiated. For example, in ADFPA/USAPL

competition, the "press" command on the bench press was used, not used,[13] and then used again,

following a 2006 IPF motion to reinstate this rule.[14] IPF rules also mandate a "start" command at the

beginning of the bench press. Many other federations, for example the Natural Athlete Strength

Association (NASA), have never used the "start" command.[15] As a further example of diversifying

rules of performance, in 2011 the Southern Powerlifting Federation (SPF) eliminated the "squat"

command at the beginning of the squat.[16]

Supportive equipment[edit]

In powerlifting, supportive equipment refers to supportive shirts, briefs, suits, and sometimes knee

wraps made of materials that store elastic potential energy and thereby assist the three lifts

contested in the sport: squat, bench press anddeadlift.[17] The use of supportive equipment

distinguishes 'equipped' and 'un-equipped' or 'raw' divisions in the sport, and 'equipped' and

'unequipped' records in the competition lifts. The wide differences between equipped and

unequipped records in the squat and bench suggest that supportive equipment confers a substantial
advantage to lifters in these disciplines.[18] This is less evident in the case of the deadlift, where the

lack of an eccentric component to the lift minimizes how much elastic energy can be stored in a

supportive suit. Supportive equipment should not be confused with the equipment on which the lifts

are performed, such as a bench press bench or the barbell and discs; nor with personal accessories

such as a weightlifting belt that may allow greater weight to be lifted, but by mechanisms other than

storingelastic energy.
Principles of operation[edit]

Supportive equipment is used to increase the weight lifted in powerlifting exercises.[18][19][20] A snug

garment is worn over a joint or joints (such as the shoulders or hips). This garment deforms during

the downward portion of a bench press or squat, or the descent to the bar in the deadlift,

storing elastic potential energy.[21] On the upward portion of each lift, the elastic potential energy is

transferred to the barbell as kinetic energy, aiding in the completion of the lift.[17][22] Some claim that

supportive equipment prevents injuries by compressing and stabilizing the joints over which it

worn.[22] For example, the bench shirt is claimed to support and protect the shoulders.[18] Critics point

out that the greater weights used with supportive equipment and the equipment's tendency to

change the pattern of the movement may compromise safety, as in the case of the bar moving

towards the head during the upward portion of the shirted bench press.[23]
Material and construction[edit]

Different materials are used in the construction of supportive equipment. Squat suits may be made

of varying types ofpolyester, or of canvas. The latter fabric is less elastic, and therefore considered

to provide greater 'stopping power' at the bottom of the movement but less assistance with the

ascent.[20] Bench shirts may be made of polyester or denim,[19] where the denim again provides a

less-elastic alternative to the polyester. Knee wraps are made of varying combinations of cotton

and elastic.[24] Supportive equipment can be constructed in different ways to suit lifters' preferences.

A squat or deadlift suit may be constructed for a wide or a narrow stance; and a bench shirt may be

constructed with 'straight' sleeves (perpendicular to the trunk of the lifter) or sleeves that are angled

towards the abdomen. The back of the bench shirt may be closed or open, and the back panel may

or may not be of the same material as the front of the shirt. Similarly, 'hybrid' squat suits can include

panels made from canvas and polyester, in an effort to combine the strengths of each material.
When two or more panels overlay one another in a piece of supportive equipment, that equipment is

described as 'multi-ply', in contrast to 'single-ply' equipment made of one layer of material

throughout.[20]
Raw powerlifting[edit]

Unequipped or "raw" (often styled as RAW) powerlifting has been codified in response to the

proliferation and advancement of bench shirts and squat/deadlift suits. The 100% RAW federation

was founded in 1999;[25] within a decade, many established federations came to recognize "raw"

divisions in addition to their traditional (open) divisions permitting single-ply or multi-ply equipment.

The United Powerlifting Association (UPA) established a standard for raw powerlifting in 2008[26] and

USAPL held the first Raw Nationals in the same year.[27] Eventually, IPF recognized raw lifting with

the sanction of a "Classic 'Unequipped' World Cup" in 2012, and published its own set of standards

for raw lifting.[28] By this time, the popularity of raw lifting has surged to the point where raw lifters

came to predominate over equipped lifters in local meets.[29][30] Note that the IPF's use of the word

'classic' to describe raw powerlifting is differentiated from most other powerlifting federations' use of

the word to differentiate between 'classic raw' and 'modern raw': classic raw is still unequipped but

allows the use of knee wraps while modern raw allows knee sleeves at most. The IPF does not allow

knee wraps in its unequipped competitions and would thus be considered 'modern raw' but the IPF

does not recognize the word 'raw.'

Classes and categories[edit]

Weight Classes:

Most powerlifting federations use the following weight classes:[31][32][33]

Men: 52 kg, 56 kg, 60 kg, 67.5 kg, 75 kg, 82.5 kg, 90 kg, 100 kg, 110 kg, 125 kg, 125 kg +

Women: 44 kg, 48 kg, 52 kg, 56 kg, 60 kg, 67.5 kg, 75 kg, 82.5 kg, 90 kg, 90 kg +

However, in 2011, the IPF introduced the following new weight classes:

IPF Weight Classes:

Men: up to 53 kg (Sub-Junior/Junior), 59 kg, 66 kg, 74 kg, 83 kg, 93 kg, 105 kg, 120 kg, 120 kg+

Women: up to 43 kg (Sub-Junior/Junior), 47 kg, 52 kg, 57 kg, 63 kg, 72 kg, 84 kg, 84 kg +

Age categories

This depends on the federation generally but averages are as follows:

15-18 (Sub-Jr), 19-23 (Jr), open (any age), masters (40+)

The IPF uses the following age categories: sub-junior (18 and under), junior (19-23), open (24-39),

masters 1 (40-49), master 2 (50-59), masters 3 (60-69), and masters 4 (70+). Age category is

dependent on the year of the participant's birth. For example, if the participant turns 18 years old in

January, he or she is still considered a sub-junior until the end of that calendar year. Other

federations typically break the masters categories down to 5-year increments, for example, 40-44,

45-49, 50-54, etc. Some federations also include a sub-master class from 35-39.

Competition[edit]

A competition takes place as follows:

Each competitor is allowed three to four attempts on each lift depending on their standing and the

organization they are lifting in (usually smallest w-class to heaviest). The lifter’s best valid attempt on

each lift counts toward his competition total. If two or more lifters achieve the same total, the lighter

lifter ranks above the heavier lifter.[34]Problem

Competitors are judged against other lifters of the same gender, weight class, and age. This helps to

ensure that the accomplishments of lifters like Lamar Gant, who has deadlifted 5 times his

bodyweight, are recognized alongside those ofBenedikt Magnusson, the current All-time deadlift

world record holder.

Comparisons of lifters and scores across different weight classes can also be made

using handicapping systems such as the Wilks formula.[35]

Events[edit]
The deadlift being performed by 2009 IPF World Champion Dean Bowring

In a Competition, there are three events: bench press, squat, anddeadlift. Some variations of this are

found at some meets such "push-pull only" meets where lifters only compete in the bench press and

deadlift, with the bench press coming first and the deadlift after. Single lift meets are often held,

sometimes alongside a normal 3-lift event. This is most common in the bench press.

At a meet the events will follow in order: squat, then bench press, and the deadlift will be the final lift

of the meet. If the federation also has an event for strict curls this will normally occur before the

squat event.

Rules of each event[edit]

Bench press[edit]

With her or his back resting on the bench, the lifter takes the loaded bar at arm's length. The lifter

lowers the bar to the chest. When the bar becomes motionless on the chest, the referee gives a

press command. Then the referee will call 'Rack' and the lift is completed as the weight is returned to

the rack.

 The front of the bench must be placed on the platform facing the head referee.
 The lifter must lie backward with shoulders and buttocks in contact with the flat bench surface.

The lifter’s shoes or toes must be in solid contact with the platform or surface. The position of the

head is optional.

 To achieve firm footing, a lifter of any height may use discs or blocks to build up the surface of

the platform. Whichever method is chosen, the shoes must be in a solid contact with the surface.

If blocks are used, they shall not exceed 45 cm x 45 cm.

 Not more than five and not less than two loaders/spotters shall be in attendance. The lifter may

enlist the help of one or more of the designated spotters or enlist a personal spotter in removing

the bar from the racks. Only designated spotters may remain on the platform during the lift. The

lift off must be to arms length and not down to the chest. A designated spotter, having provided

a centre lift off, must immediately clear the area in front of the head referee and move to either

side of the bar. If the personal spotter does not immediately leave the platform area and/or in

any way distracts or impedes the head referees’ responsibilities, the referees may determine

that the lift is unacceptable, and be declared “no lift” by the referees and given three red lights.

 The spacing of the hands shall not exceed 81 cm, measured between the forefingers. The bar

shall have circumferential machine markings or tape indicating this maximum grip allowance. If

the lifter should use an offset or unequal grip on the bar, whereby one hand is placed outside the

marking or tape, it is the lifters responsibility to explain this to the head referee, and allow

inspection of the intended grip prior to making an attempt. If this is not done until the lifter is on

the platform for an official attempt, any necessary explanation and/or measurements will be

done on the lifter’s time for that attempt. The reverse or underhand grip is forbidden, as is a

thumbless grip.

 After receiving the bar at arms length, the lifter shall lower the bar to the chest and await the

head referees’ signal.

 The signal shall be an audible command “Press” and given as soon as the bar is motionless on

the chest. As long as the bar is not so low that it touches the lifter’s belt, it is acceptable.

 The lifter will be allowed only one commencement signal per attempt.

 After the signal to commence the lift has been given, the bar is pressed upward. The bar shall

not be allowed to sink into the chest or move downwards prior to the lifter’s attempt to press
 upward. The lifter will press the bar to straight arm’s length and hold motionless until the audible

command “Rack” is given. Bar may move horizontally and may stop during the ascent, but may

not move downward towards the chest.

Causes for disqualification of a bench press[edit]

 Failure to observe the referee’s signals at the commencement or completion of the lift.

 Any change in the elected position that results in the buttocks breaking contact with the bench or

lateral movement of the hands (between the referee’s signals). Any excessive movement or

change of contact of the feet during the lift proper.

 Bouncing the bar off the chest.

 Allowing the bar to sink into the chest after receiving the referee’s signal.

 Pronounced uneven extension of the arms during or at the completion of the lift.

 Any downward motion of the bar during the course of being pressed out.

 Contact with the bar by the spotters between the referee’s signals.

 Any contact of the lifter’s shoes with the bench or its supports.

 Deliberate contact between the bar and the bar rest uprights during the lift to assist the

completion of the press.

 It is the responsibility of the lifter to inform any personally enlisted spotters to leave the platform

as soon as the bar is secured at arms length. Such spotters shall not return to the platform upon

completion or failure of the attempt. It is especially important for a spotter providing a centre lift

off to leave the platform quickly so as not to impair the head referee’s view. Failure of any

personal spotters to leave the platform may cause disqualification of the lift.
Squat[edit]

The lift starts with the lifter standing erect and the bar loaded with weights resting on the lifter's

shoulders. At the referee's command the lift begins. The lifter creates a break in the hips, bends his

knees and drops into a squatting position with the hip crease (the top surface of the leg at the hip

crease) below the top of the knee. The lifter then returns to an erect position. At the referee's

command the bar is returned to the rack and the lift is completed.
 After removing the bar from the racks while facing the front of the platform, the lifter may move

forward or backward to establish the lifting position. The top of the bar not more than 3 cm below

the top of the anterior deltoids. The bar shall be held horizontally across the shoulders with the

hands and/or fingers gripping the bar, and the feet flat upon the platform with the knees locked.

 The lifter shall wait in this position for the head referee’s signal. The signal will be given as soon

as the lifter is set and demonstrates control with the bar properly positioned. The head referee’s

signal shall consist of a downward movement of the arm and audible command “Squat”.

 Upon receiving the head referee’s signal, the lifter must bend the knees and lower the body until

the top surface of the legs at the hip joint is lower than the top of knees.

 The lifter must recover at will, without double bouncing, to an upright position with the knees

locked. The bar may stop, but there must be no downward motion during recovery. As soon as

the lifter demonstrates a controlled final position, the head referee will give the signal indicating

completion of the lift and to replace the bar.

 The signal to replace the bar will consist of a backward motion of the arm and the audible

command "Rack”. The lifter must then make a reasonable attempt to return the bar to the racks.

 The lifter shall face the front of the platform, towards the head referee.

 The lifter shall not hold the collars or discs at any time during the performance of the lift.

However, the edge of the hands gripping the bar may be in contact with the inner surface of the

collar.

 Not more than five and not less than two loaders/spotters shall be on the platform at any time.

 The lifter may enlist the help of spotters in removing the bar from the racks; however, once the

bar has cleared the racks, the spotters shall not physically assist the lifter with regards to

actually getting into the proper set position. The spotters may assist the lifter to maintain control

should the lifter stumble or demonstrate any evident instability.

 The lifter will be allowed only one commencement signal per attempt.

 The lifter may be given an additional attempt at the same weight at the head referee’s discretion

if failure in an attempt was due to any error by one or more of the spotters.

Causes for disqualification of a squat[edit]

 Failure to observe the head referee’s signals at the commencement or completion of a lift.

 Double bouncing or more than one recovery attempt at the bottom of the lift.

 Failure to assume an upright position with knees locked at the commencement and completion

of the lift.

 Movement of the feet laterally, backward or forward that would constitute a step or stumble.

 Failure to bend the knees and lower the body until the surface of the legs at the hip joint is lower

than the tops of the knees.

 Any resetting of the feet after the squat signal.

 Contact with the bar by the spotters between the referee’s signals.

 Contact of elbows or upper arms with the legs.

 Failure to make a reasonable attempt to return the bar to the racks.

 Any intentional dropping or dumping of the bar.

Deadlift[edit]

In the deadlift the athlete grasps the loaded bar which is resting on the platform floor. The lifter pulls

the weights off the floor and assumes an erect position. The knees must be locked and the

shoulders back, with the weight held in the lifter's grip. At the referee's command the bar will be

returned to the floor under the control of the lifter.

 The bar must be laid horizontally in front of the lifter’s feet, gripped with an optional grip in both

hands, and lifted until the lifter is standing erect. The bar may stop but there must be no

downward motion of the bar.

 The lifter shall face the front of the platform.

 On completion of the lift, the knees shall be locked in a straight position and the lifter shall be

standing erect.

 The head referee’s signal shall consist of a downward movement of the arm and the audible

command “Down”. The signal will not be given until the bar is held motionless and the lifter is in

an apparent finished position.

 Any raising of the bar or any deliberate attempt to do so will count as an attempt.

Causes for disqualification of a dead lift

 Any downward motion of the bar before it reaches the final position.

 Failure to stand erect.

 Failure to lock the knees straight at the completion of the lift.

 Supporting the bar on the thighs during the performance of the lift. 'Supporting’ is defined as a

body position adopted by the lifter that could not be maintained without the counterbalance of

the weight being lifted.

 Movement of the feet laterally, backward or forward that would constitute a step or stumble.

 Lowering the bar before receiving the head referee’s signal.

 Allowing the bar to return to the platform without maintaining control with both hands.

Running

Eadweard Muybridge photo sequence

Video of human running action

Running is a means of terrestrial locomotion allowing humans and other animals to move rapidly on
foot. It is simply defined in athletics terms as a gait in which at regular points during the running cycle
both feet are off the ground. This is in contrast to walking, where one foot is always in contact with
the ground, the legs are kept mostly straight and the center of gravity vaults over the stance leg or
legs in an inverted pendulum fashion.[1] A characteristic feature of a running body from the viewpoint
of spring-mass mechanics is that changes in kinetic and potential energy within a stride occur
simultaneously, with energy storage accomplished by springy tendons and passive muscle
elasticity.[2] The term running can refer to any of a variety of speeds ranging
from jogging to sprinting.
It is assumed that the ancestors of mankind developed the ability to run for long distances about 2.6
million years ago, probably in order to hunt animals.[3]Competitive running grew out of religious
festivals in various areas. Records of competitive racing date back to the Tailteann Games in Ireland
in 1829 BCE,[4] while the first recorded Olympic Games took place in 776 BCE. Running has been
described as the world's most accessible sport.[5]

History

It is thought that human running evolved at least four and a half million years ago out of the ability of

the ape-likeAustralopithecus, an early ancestor of humans, to walk upright on two legs.[6]

The theory proposed considered to be the most likely evolution of running is of early humans'

developing as endurance runners from the practice of persistence hunting of animals, the activity of

following and chasing until a prey is too exhausted to flee, succumbing to "chase myopathy" (Sears

2001), and that human features such as the nuchal ligament, abundantsweat glands, the Achilles

tendons, big knee joints and muscular glutei maximi, were changes caused by this type of activity

(Bramble & Lieberman 2004, et al.).[7][8][9] The theory as first proposed used comparitative

physiological evidence and the natural habits of animals when running, indicating the likelihood of

this activity as a successful hunting method. Further evidence from observation of modern day

hunting practice also indicated this likelihood (Carrier et al. 1984). [9][10] According to Sears (p. 12)

scientific investigation (Walker & Leakey 1993) of the Nariokotome Skeleton provided further

evidence for the Carrier theory.[11]

Competitive running grew out of religious festivals in various areas such as Greece, Egypt, Asia, and

the East African Rift in Africa. The Tailteann Games, an Irish sporting festival in honour of the

goddess Tailtiu, dates back to 1829 BCE, and is one of the earliest records of competitive

running.[12] The origins of the Olympics and Marathon running are shrouded by myth and legend,

though the first recorded game took place in 776 BCE.[13]

Running kinematic description

Running gait can be divided into two phases in regard to the lower extremity: stance and

swing.[14][15][16][17] These can be further divided into absorption, propulsion, initial swing and terminal

swing. Due to the continuous nature of running gait, no certain point is assumed to be the beginning.

However, for simplicity it will be assumed that absorption and footstrike mark the beginning of the

running cycle in a body already in motion.

Footstrike

Footstrike occurs when a plantar portion of the foot makes initial contact with the ground. Common

footstrike types include forefoot, midfoot and heel strike types.[18][19][20] These are characterized by

initial contact of the ball of the foot, ball and heel of the foot simultaneously and heel of the foot

respectively. During this time the hip joint is undergoing extension from being in maximal flexion from

the previous swing phase. For proper force absorption, the knee joint should be flexed upon

footstrike and the ankle should be slightly in front of the body.[21] Footstrike begins the absorption

phase as forces from initial contact are attenuated throughout the lower extremity. Absorption of

forces continues as the body moves from footstrike to midstance due to vertical propulsion from the

toe-off during a previous gait cycle.

Midstance

Midstance is defined as the time at which the lower extremity limb of focus is in knee flexion directly

underneath the trunk, pelvis and hips. It is at this point that propulsion begins to occur as the hips

undergo hip extension, the knee joint undergoes extension and the ankle undergoes plantar flexion.

Propulsion continues until the leg is extended behind the body and toe off occurs. This involves

maximal hip extension, knee extension and plantar flexion for the subject, resulting in the body being

pushed forward from this motion and the ankle/foot leaves the ground as initial swing begins.
Propulsion phase

Most recent research, particularly regarding the footstrike debate, has focused solely on the

absorption phases for injury identification and prevention purposes. The propulsion phase of running

involves the movement beginning at midstance until toe off.[15][16][22] From a full stride length model

however, components of the terminal swing and footstrike can aid in propulsion.[17][23] Set up for

propulsion begins at the end of terminal swing as the hip joint flexes, creating the maximal range of

motion for the hip extensors to accelerate through and produce force. As the hip extensors change
from reciporatory inhibitors to primary muscle movers, the lower extremity is brought back toward the

ground, although aided greatly by thestretch reflex and gravity.[17] Footstrike and absorption phases

occur next with two types of outcomes. This phase can be only a continuation of momentum from

the stretch reflex reaction to hip flexion, gravity and light hip extension with a heel strike, which does

little to provide force absorption through the ankle joint.[22][24][25] With a mid/forefoot strike, loading of

the gastro-soleus complex from shock absorption will serve to aid in plantar flexion from midstance

to toe-off.[25][26] As the lower extremity enters midstance, true propulsion begins.[22] The hip extensors

continue contracting along with help from the acceleration of gravity and the stretch reflex left over

from maximal hip flexion during the terminal swing phase. Hip extension pulls the ground underneath

the body, thereby pulling the runner forward. During midstance, the knee should be in some degree

of knee flexion due to elastic loading from the absorption and footstrike phases to preserve forward

momentum.[27][28][29] The ankle joint is in dorsiflexion at this point underneath the body, either

elastically loaded from a mid/forefoot strike or preparing for stand-alone concentric plantar flexion.

All three joints perform the final propulsive movements during toe-off.[22][24][25][26] The plantar flexors

plantar flex, pushing off from the ground and returning from dorsiflexion in midstance. This can either

occur by releasing the elastic load from an earlier mid/forefoot strike or concentrically contracting

from a heel strike. With a forefoot strike, both the ankle and knee joints will release their stored

elastic energy from the footstrike/absorption phase.[27][28][29] The quadriceps group/knee extensors go

into full knee extension, pushing the body off of the ground. At the same time, the knee flexors and

stretch reflex pull the knee back into flexion, adding to a pulling motion on the ground and beginning

the initial swing phase. The hip extensors extend to maximum, adding the forces pulling and pushing

off of the ground. The movement and momentum generated by the hip extensors also contributes to

knee flexion and the beginning of the initial swing phase.

Swing phase

Initial swing is the response of both stretch reflexes and concentric movements to the propulsion

movements of the body. Hip flexion and knee flexion occur beginning the return of the limb to the

starting position and setting up for another footstrike. Initial swing ends at midswing, when the limb is

again directly underneath the trunk, pelvis and hip with the knee joint flexed and hip flexion

continuing. Terminal swing then begins as hip flexion continues to the point of activation of the
stretch reflex of the hip extensors. The knee begins to extend slightly as it swings to the anterior

portion of the body. The foot then makes contact with the ground with footstrike, completing the

running cycle of one side of the lower extremity. Each limb of the lower extremity works opposite to

the other. When one side is in toe-off/propulsion, the other side is in the swing/recovery phase

preparing for footstrike.[14][15][16][17] Following toe-off and the beginning of the initial swing of one side,

there is a flight phase where neither extremity is in contact with the ground due to the opposite side

finishing terminal swing. As the footstrike of one side occurs, initial swing continues. The opposing

limbs meet with one in midstance and midswing, beginning the propulsion and terminal swing

phases.
Upper extremity function

Upper extremity function serves mainly in providing balance in conjunction with the opposing side of

the lower extremity.[15]The movement of each leg is paired with the opposite arm which serves to

counterbalance the body, particularly during the stance phase.[22] The arms move most effectively

(as seen in elite athletes) with the elbow joint at an approximately 90 degrees or less, the hands

swinging from the hips up to mid chest level with the opposite leg, the Humerus moving from being

parallel with the trunk to approximately 45 degrees shoulder extension (never passing the trunk in

flexion) and with as little movement in the transverse plane as possible.[30] The trunk also rotates in

conjunction with arm swing. It mainly serves as a balance point from which the limbs are anchored.

Thus trunk motion should remain mostly stable with little motion except for slight rotation as

excessive movement would contribute to transverse motion and wasted energy. Mechanics of

Propulsion
Footstrike debate

Recent research into running form has focused on the differences in the potential injury risks and

shock absorption capabilities between heel and mid/forefoot footstrikes. It has been shown that heel

striking is generally associated with higher rates of injury and impact due to inefficient shock

absorption and inefficient biomechanical compensations for these forces.[18] This is due to forces

from a heel strike traveling through bones for shock absorption rather than being absorbed by

muscles. Since bones cannot disperse forces easily, the forces transmitted to other parts of the

body, including ligaments, joints and bones in the rest of the lower extremity all the way up to the
lower back.[31] This causes the body to use abnormal compensatory motions in an attempt to avoid

serious bone injuries.[32] These compensations include internal rotation of the tibia, knee and hip

joints. Excessive amounts of compensation over time have been linked to higher risk of injuries in

those joints as well as the muscles involved in those motions.[24] Conversely, a mid/forefoot strike

has been associated with greater efficiency and lower injury risk due to the triceps surae being used

as a lever system to absorb forces with the muscles eccentrically rather than through the

bone.[18] Landing with a mid/forefoot strike has also been shown to not only properly attenuate shock

but allows the triceps surae to aid in propulsion via reflexive plantarflexion after stretching to absorb

ground contact forces.[23][33] Thus a mid/forefoot strike may aid in propulsion. However, even among

elite athletes there are variations in self selected footstrike types.[34] This is especially true in longer

distance events, where there is a prevalence of heel strikers.[35] There does tend however to be a

greater percentage of mid/forefoot striking runners in the elite fields, particularly in the faster racers

and the winning individuals or groups.[30] While one could attribute the faster speeds of elite runners

compared to recreational runners with similar footstrikes to physiological differences, the hip and

joints have been left out of the equation for proper propulsion. This brings up the question as to how

heel striking elite distance runners are able to keep up such high paces with a supposedly inefficient

and injurious footstrike technique.

Stride length, hip and knee function

Biomechanical factors associated with elite runners include increased hip function, use and stride

length over recreational runners.[30][36] An increase in running speeds causes increased ground

reaction forces and elite distance runners must compensate for this to maintain their pace over long

distances.[37] These forces are attenuated through increased stride length via increased hip flexion

and extension through decreased ground contact time and more force being used in

propulsion.[37][38][39] With increased propulsion in the horizontal plane, less impact occurs from

decreased force in the vertical plane.[40] Increased hip flexion allows for increased use of the hip

extensors through midstance and toe-off, allowing for more force production.[22] The difference even

between world class and national level distance runners has been associated with more efficient hip

joint function.[41] The increase in velocity likely comes from the increased range of motion in hip

flexion and extension, allowing for greater acceleration and velocity. The hip extensors and hip
extension have been linked to more powerful knee extension during toe-off, which contributes to

propulsion.[30] Stride length must be properly increased with some degree of knee flexion maintained

through the terminal swing phases, as excessive knee extension during this phase along with

footstrike has been associated with higher impact forces due to braking and an increased

prevalence of heel striking.[42] Elite runners tend to exhibit some degree of knee flexion at footstrike

and midstance, which first serves to eccentrically absorb impact forces in the quadriceps muscle

group.[41][43][44] Secondly it allows for the knee joint to concentrically contract and provides major aid

in propulsion during toe-off as the quadriceps group is capable of produce large amounts of

force.[22] Recreational runners have been shown to increase stride length through increased knee

extension rather than increased hip flexion as exhibited by elite runners, which serves instead to

provide an intense breaking motion with each step and decrease the rate and efficiency of knee

extension during toe-off, slowing down speed.[45] Knee extension however contributes to additional

stride length and propulsion during toe-off and is seen more frequently in elite runners as well.[30]

Elements of good running technique

Upright posture and a slight forward lean

Leaning forward places a runner's center of mass on the front part of the foot, which avoids landing

on the heel and facilitates the use of the spring mechanism of the foot. It also makes it easier for the

runner to avoid landing the foot in front of the center of mass and the resultant braking effect. While

upright posture is essential, a runner should maintain a relaxed frame and use his/her core to keep

posture upright and stable. This helps prevent injury as long as the body is neither rigid nor tense.

The most common running mistakes are tilting the chin up and scrunching shoulders.[46]
Stride rate and types

Exercise physiologists have found that the stride rates are extremely consistent across professional

runners, between 185 and 200 steps per minute. The main difference between long- and short-

distance runners is the length of stride rather than the rate of stride.[47][48]

During running, the speed at which the runner moves may be calculated by multiplying

the cadence (steps per second) by the stride length. Running is often measured in terms of

pace[49] in minutes per mile or kilometer. Fast stride rates coincide with the rate one pumps one's

arms. The faster one's arms move up and down, parallel with the body, the faster the rate of stride.
Different types of stride are necessary for different types of running. When sprinting, runners stay on

their toes bringing their legs up, using shorter and faster strides. Long distance runners tend to have

more relaxed strides that vary.

Running injuries

Many injuries are associated with running because of its high-impact nature. Change in running

volume may lead to development of patellofemoral pain syndrome, iliotibial band syndrome, patellar

tendinopathy, plica syndrome, and medial tibial stress syndrome. While change in running pace may

cause Achilles Tendinitis, gastrocnemius injuries, and plantar fasciitis.[50] Repetitive stress on the

same tissues without enough time for recovery or running with improper form can lead to many of

the above. Runners generally attempt to minimize these injuries by warming up before

exercise,[21] focusing on proper running form, performing strength training exercises, eating a well

balanced diet, allowing time for recovery, and "icing" (applying ice to sore muscles or taking an ice

bath).[51]

Another common, running-related injury is chafing, caused by repetitive rubbing of one piece of skin

against another, or against an article of clothing. One common location for chafe to occur is the

runner's upper thighs. The skin feels coarse and develops a rash-like look. A variety of deodorants

and special anti-chafing creams are available to treat such problems. Chafe is also likely to occur on

the nipple.

Some runners may experience injuries when running on concrete surfaces. The problem with

running on concrete is that the body adjusts to this flat surface running and some of the muscles will

become weaker, along with the added impact of running on a harder surface. Therefore it is advised

to change terrain occasionally – such as trail, beach, or grass running. This is more unstable ground

and allows the legs to strengthen different muscles. Runners should be wary of twisting their ankles

on such terrain. Running downhill also increases knee stress and should therefore be avoided.

Reducing the frequency and duration can also prevent injury.

Barefoot running has been promoted as a means of reducing running related injuries[52] though this

position on barefoot running remains controversial and a majority of professionals advocate the
wearing of appropriate shoes as the best method for avoiding injury.[53] However, a study in 2013

concluded that wearing neutral shoes is not associated with increased injuries.[54]

Benefits of running

Further information: Neurobiological effects of physical exercise

While there is the potential for injury in running (just as there is in any sport), there are many

benefits. Some of these benefits include potential weight loss, improved cardiovascular and

respiratory health (reducing the risk of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases), improved

cardiovascular fitness, reduced total blood cholesterol, strengthening of bones (and potentially

increased bone density), possible strengthening of the immune system and an improved self-esteem

and emotional state.[55] Running, like all forms of regular exercise, can effectively slow[56] or

reverse[57] the effects of aging.

Running can assist people in losing weight, staying in shape and improving body composition.

Running increases your metabolism. Different speeds and distances are appropriate for different

individual health and fitness levels. For new runners, it takes time to get into shape. The key is

consistency and a slow increase in speed and distance. While running, it is best to pay attention to

how one's body feels. If a runner is gasping for breath or feels exhausted while running, it may be

beneficial to slow down or try a shorter distance for a few weeks. If a runner feels that the pace or

distance is no longer challenging, then the runner may want to speed up or run farther.[citation needed]

Running can also have psychological benefits, as many participants in the sport report feeling an

elated, euphoric state, often referred to as a "runner's high".[58] Running is frequently recommended

as therapy for people with clinical depression and people coping with addiction. [59] A possible benefit

may be the enjoyment of nature and scenery, which also improves psychological well-

being[60] (see Ecopsychology#Practical benefits).

In animal models, running has been shown to increase the number of newly born neurons within the

brain.[61] This finding could have significant implications in aging as well as learning and memory.

Running events

Running is both a competition and a type of training for sports that have running

or endurance components. As a sport, it is split into events divided by distance and sometimes
includes permutations such as the obstacles in steeplechase andhurdles. Running races are

contests to determine which of the competitors is able to run a certain distance in the shortest time.

Today, competitive running events make up the core of the sport of athletics. Events are usually

grouped into several classes, each requiring substantially different athletic strengths and involving

different tactics, training methods, and types of competitors.

Running competitions have probably existed for most of humanity's history and were a key part of

the ancient Olympic Games as well as the modern Olympics. The activity of running went through a

period of widespread popularity in the United States during the running boom of the 1970s. Over the

next two decades, as many as 25 million Americans were doing some form of running or jogging –

accounting for roughly one tenth of the population.[62] Today, road racing is a popular sport among

non-professional athletes, who included over 7.7 million people in America alone in 2002.[63]
Limits of speed

Footspeed, or sprint speed, is the maximum speed at which a human can run. It is affected by

many factors, varies greatly throughout the population, and is important in athletics and many sports.

The fastest human footspeed on record is 44.72 km/h (12.42 m/s, 27.79 mph), seen during a 100-

meter sprint (average speed between the 60th and the 80th meter) by Usain Bolt.[64]
Running speed over increasing distance based on world record times

(see Category:Athletics (track and field) record progressions)

Maximum human speed [km/h] and pace [min/km] per distance (portrait orientation)

Events by type

Track running

Main article: Track running

Track running events are individual or relay events with athletes racing over specified distances on

an oval running track. The events are categorised as sprints, middle and long-distance, and hurdling.

Road running

Main article: Road running

Road running takes place on a measured course over an established road (as opposed

to track and cross country running). These events normally range from distances of 5 kilometers to

longer distances such as half marathons and marathons, and they may involve large numbers of

runners or wheelchair entrants.

Cross country running

Main articles: Cross country running, Fell running and Trail running
Cross country running takes place over open or rough terrain. The courses used at these events

may include grass, mud, woodlands, hills, flat ground and water. It is a popular participatory sport,

and is one of the events which, along with track and field, road running, and racewalking, makes up

the umbrella sport of athletics.

Events by distance

Sprints

Main article: Sprint (running)

Sprints are short running events in athletics and track and field. Races over short distances are

among the oldest running competitions. The first 13 editions of the Ancient Olympic Games featured

only one event – the stadion race, which was a race from one end of the stadium to the

other.[65] There are three sprinting events which are currently held at the Olympics and outdoor

World Championships: the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres. These events have their roots

in races ofimperial measurements which were later altered to metric: the 100 m evolved from

the 100 yard dash,[66] the 200 m distances came from the furlong (or 1/8 of a mile),[67] and the 400 m

was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter-mile race.[68]

At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting

blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses

and momentum is gained.[69] Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all

sprinting events,[68] with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely

focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed.[69] All sprints beyond this distance

increasingly incorporate an element of endurance.[70] Human physiology dictates that a runner's

near-top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so as lactic acid builds up and

leg muscles begin to be deprived of oxygen.[68]

The 60 metres is a common indoor event and it an indoor world championship event. Other less-

common events include the50 metres, 55 metres, 300 metres and 500 metres which are used in

some high and collegiate competitions in the United States. The 150 metres, though rarely

competed, has a star-studded history: Pietro Mennea set a world best in 1983,[71]Olympic

champions Michael Johnson and Donovan Bailey went head-to-head over the distance in

1997,[72] and Usain Boltimproved Mennea's record in 2009.[71]

Middle distance

Main article: Middle-distance running

Middle distance running events are track races longer than sprints up to 3000 metres. The standard

middle distances are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also

be classified as a middle distance event.[73]The 880 yard run, or half mile, was the forebear to the

800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the United Kingdom in the 1830s. [74] The

1500 m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track, which was commonplace in

continental Europe in the 1900s.[75]

Long distance

Main article: Long-distance running

Examples of longer-distance running events are long distance track

races, marathons, ultramarathons, and multiday races.

Swimming
Swimming is a water based sport governed by the Fédération Internationale de Natatio

re an important competition is called tapering. A final stage is often referred to as "shave and taper":

the swimmer shaves off all exposed hair for the sake of reducing drag and having a sleeker and

more hydrodynamic feel in the water. [5]

World record holder and Olympic gold medalist Michael Phelps in the 400 IM.
Swimming is an event at the Summer Olympic Games, where male and female athletes compete in

16 of the recognized events each. Olympic events are held in a 50-meter pool, called a long course

pool.

There are forty officially recognized individual swimming events in the pool; however

the International Olympic Committee only recognizes 32 of them. The international governing body

for competitive swimming is the Fédération Internationale de Natation ("International Swimming

Federation"), better known as FINA.

Open water[edit]

In open water swimming, where the events are swum in a body of open water (lake or sea), there

are also 5 km, 10 km and 25 km events for men and women. However, only the 10 km event is

included in the Olympic schedule, again for both men and women. Open-water competitions are

typically separate to other swimming competitions with the exception of the World Championships

and the Olympics.

Swim styles[edit]

In competitive swimming, four major styles have been established. These have been relatively stable

over the last 30–40 years with minor improvements. The four main strokes in swimming are:

 Butterfly (fly)

 Backstroke (back)

 Breaststroke (breast)

 Freestyle (free)

Events in competition may have only one of these styles except in the case of the individual medley,

which contains all four. In this latter event, swimmers swim equal distances of butterfly, then

backstroke, breaststroke, and finally, freestyle.[6] In Olympic competition, this event (called the "IM")

is swam in these distances - 200 or 400 meters or yards. Some competition also swims the 100 yard

or meter IM - particularly, for younger swimmers (typically under 14 years) involved in club

swimming, or masters swimming (over 18).

Dolphin kick[edit]

In the past two decades, the most drastic change in swimming has been the addition of the

underwater dolphin kick. This is used to maximize the speed at the start and after the turns in all

styles other than Breaststroke (where an underwater 'pull-out' is allowed). The first successful use of

it was by David Berkoff. At the 1988 Olympics, he swam most of the 100 m backstroke race

underwater and broke the world record on the distance during the preliminaries. Another swimmer to

use the technique was Denis Pankratov at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, where he completed almost

half of the 100 m butterfly underwater to win the gold medal. In the past decade, American

competitive swimmers have shown the most use of the underwater dolphin kick to gain advantage,

most notably Olympic and World medal winners Michael Phelps and Ryan Lochte; however these

swimmers are not able to go any further than fifteen metres underwater due to rule changes

by FINA.

While the dolphin kick is mostly seen in middle-distance freestyle events and in all distances of

backstroke and butterfly, it is not usually used to the same effect in freestyle sprinting. That changed

with the addition of the so-called "technical" suits around the European Short Course

Championships in Rijeka, Croatia in December 2008. There, Amaury Leveaux set new world records

of 44.94 seconds in the 100 m freestyle, 20.48 seconds in the 50 m freestyle and 22.18 in the 50 m

butterfly. Unlike the rest of the competitors in these events, he spent at least half of each race

submerged using the dolphin kick.[7]

Competition pools[edit]
A simplified diagram of the FINA long course swimming pool standard, used at the World
Championships and Summer Olympics

World Championship pools must be fifty metres (long course) long and twenty-five metres wide, with

ten lanes labelled zero to nine (zero and nine are usually left empty), the lanes must be at least 2.5

metres wide. They will be equipped with starting blocks at both ends of the pool and most will have

Automatic Officiating Equipment, including touch pads to record times and sensors to ensure the

legality of relay take overs. The pool must have a minimum depth of two metres.[8]

Other pools which host events under FINA regulations are required to meet some but not all of these

requirements. Many of these pools have eight instead of ten lanes and some will be twenty-five

metres long, making them Short course. World records that are set in short course pools are kept

separate from those set in long course pools because it may be an advantage or disadvantage to

swimmers to have more or less turns in a race.

Seasons[edit]

Club swimming in the US has two major seasons. During the short-course season, swimmers swim

in 25-yard pools. This season lasts from late-September to the end of March. The long-course

season takes place in 50-meter pools and lasts from April to the end of August.

The longer freestyle events vary in lengths in each season. In the short course season, the 500 yard,

1000 yard, and 1650-yard freestyle events are swum, while during the long course season the 400
meter, 800 meter, and 1500-meter freestyle events are swum instead. However, this difference in

distance holds true for all meter pools, i.e. short course meter pools also swim the 400 meter, 800

meter, and 1500 meter freestyle events instead of their yard counterparts.

Training in both short course and long course has become more of an American Standard.

Internationally, long course meters is the standard, as seen in the Olympics. This standard of two

separate seasons in America may be because it is so much easier for new swimmers to learn to

compete in a smaller pool during the short course season. Smaller pools allow for shorter distance

races, so for example in short course season if a younger swimmer wanted to compete in a stroke

they had just learned, a 25 yard 8 years old and under race is available to them, opposed to the long

course season when they would need to be able to swim at least 50 meters of that new stroke in

order to compete. Many swimmers in high school, on club teams, and on YMCA teams also use

short course swimming pools during their meets.

The seasons in Australia are much the same, although the short course season is, again, made for

younger swimmers, and so no short course national events occur. During the short course season,

swimmers swim in a 25-meter pool, whilst in the long course season, swimmers swim in a 50-meter

pool. All longer freestyle events (including the 400m, 800m and 1500m) can be swum in either

season for both males and females, although some restrictions occur due to time restraints and

gender physiology at national events. The 1500m event is permitted for males only, and males

between the ages of 12 and 13, along with all females are the only swimmers eligible to swim in the

800m freestyle event[9]

Officials[edit]

There are several types of officials,[10] which are needed to manage the competition.[11]

Referee: The referee has full control and authority over all officials. The referee will enforce all rules

and decisions of FINA and shall decide all questions relating to the actual conduct of the meet, and

event or the competition, the final settlement of which is not otherwise covered by the rules. The

referee takes overall responsibility for running the race and makes the final decisions as to who wins

the competition. Referees call swimmers to the blocks with short blasts of his or her whistle. This is

the signal for the swimmers to stand next to their blocks. Starters call missing swimmers if
necessary. Then the referee will blow a long whistle that will tell the swimmers to step on the block.

For backstroke otherwise known as backcrawl events, the long whistle is the signal for the swimmers

to step in the water. The referee will then blow another long whistle, signaling the swimmers to grab

the gutter or the provided block handle (for backstoke/backcrawl events only). The referee will then

hand over control to the starter.

Starter: The starter has full control of the swimmers from the time the referee turns the swimmers

over to him/her until the race commences. A starter sends the swimmers off the blocks and may call

a false start if a swimmer leaves the block before the starter sends them.

Clerk of course: The clerk of course (also called the "bullpen") assembles swimmers prior to each

event, and is responsible for organizing ("seeding") swimmers into heats based on their times. Heats

are generally seeded from slowest to fastest, where swimmers with no previous time for an event

are assumed to be the slowest.

Timekeepers: There are usually two timekeepers for each lane. Each timekeeper takes the time of

the swimmers in the lane assigned to him/her. Unless a video backup system is used, it may be

necessary to use the full complement of timekeepers even when automatic officiating equipment is

used. A chief timekeeper assigns the seating positions for all timekeepers and the lanes for which

they are responsible. The chief timekeeper collects from the timekeepers in each lane a card

showing the times recorded and, if necessary, inspect their watches. One timer will be timing with a

stopwatch, another recording it down, also with a stopwatch, and one making sure everything is

valid. The third timer to validate is optional in most meets.

Inspectors of turns: One inspector of turns is assigned to each lane at each end of the pool. Each

inspector of turns ensures that swimmers comply with the relevant rules for turning as well as the

relevant rules for start and finish of the race. Inspectors of turns shall report any violation on

disqualification reports detailing the event, lane number, and the infringement delivered to the chief

inspector of turns who will immediately convey the report to the referee.

Judges of Stroke: Judges of stroke are located on each side of the pool. They ensure that the rules

related to the style of swimming designated for the event are being observed, and observe the turns

and the finishes to assist the inspectors of turns.

Finish judges Finish judges determine the order of finish and make sure the swimmers finish in

accordance with the rules (two hands simultaneously for breaststroke and butterfly, on the back for

backstroke, etc.)

If an official catches a swimmer breaking a rule concerning the stroke he or she is swimming, that

swimmer is said to be disqualified (commonly referred to as a "DQ") and the swim is not considered

valid. The referee can disqualify any swimmer for any violation of the rules that he/she personally

observes. The referee may also disqualify any swimmer for any violation reported to them by other

authorised officials. All disqualifications are subject to the decision of the referee.

Swimwear[edit]

Cap and goggles clearly shown

Main articles: Competitive swimwear and Swimsuit

Swimsuit
The suit covers the skin for modesty. Competitive swimwear seeks to improve upon bare
human skin for a speed advantage. In 2009, FINA rules and regulations were altered and
suits made with polyurethane were banned because they made athletes more buoyant.
These rules also banned suits which go above the navel or below the knee for men and suits
which extend past the shoulders or cover the neck for women [12]

Swim cap
A swim cap (a.k.a. cap) keeps the swimmer's hair out of the way to reduce drag. Caps may
be made of latex, silicone, spandex or lycra.

Goggles
Goggles keep water and chlorine out of swimmers' eyes. Goggles may be tinted to
counteract glare at outdoor pools. Prescription goggles may be used by swimmers who wear
corrective lenses.

Swim Fins
 Rubber fins are used to help kick faster, but are illegal in a race. They also improve
technique by keeping the feet in the proper position while kicking.

Drag suit
Swimmers use drag suits to increase resistance.

Hand paddles
Swimmers use these plastic devices to build arm and shoulder strength and refine pulling
technique. Hand paddlesattach to the hand with rubber tubing or elastic material. They come
in many different shapes and sizes, depending on swimmer preference or if a team has
begun to taper.

Kickboard
A kickboard is a foam board that swimmers use to support the weight of the upper body
while they focus on kicking; helps build leg muscles.

Pull buoy
Often used at the same time as hand paddles, pull buoys support swimmers' legs (and
prevents them from kicking) while they focus on pulling. Pull buoys are made of foam so they
float in the water. Swimmers hold them in between the thighs.

Ankle bands
Improving balance will minimize the need for this kick to provide an upward, instead of a
forward vector, and in some cases completely corrects the kick. Using an ankle band will
have the immediate effect of turning off your kick, which then forces you to make efforts to
correct your balance. If you are successful in discovering these, then the ankle band has
done part of its job.[13]

Snorkel
A snorkel is a plastic device that helps swimmers breathe while swimming. This piece of
equipment helps the swimmer practice keeping his or her head in one position.

Tempo trainer
a beeping clock attached to a swimmers cap or goggles helps them maintain a certain arm
tempo or speed. As each beep is heard, their next stroke should be taken.

Zoomers
a type of rubber swimming fins, zoomers are cut off fins with the holes in the bottom. They
help make the swimmer kick faster, but at the cost of working harder.

Regular practice and competition swimwear

Men

Men's most used practice swimwear include briefs and jammers. Males generally swim barechested.

There has been much controversy after the Beijing Olympic Games in 2008, when many Olympic

swimmers broke records an unprecedented number of times using revolutionary swimsuits. To

highlight the issue, note that it is rare to break world records, but in 2008, 70 world records were

broken in one year, and 66 Olympic records were broken in one Olympic Games (there were races
in Beijing where the first five finishers were swimming faster than the old world record). Despite

many of his records having been won in these suits, Michael Phelps stated that he might boycott the

competition after his record was beaten by another swimmer with a more advanced suit.

As of New Year's Day 2010, men are only allowed to wear suits from the waist to above the

knees.[14] They are also only permitted to wear one piece of swimwear; they cannot wear speedos

underneath jammers. This rule was enacted after the controversy in the Beijing Olympics and Rome

World Championships.Women

Swimming at the 2008 Summer Paralympics.

Women wear one-piece suits withdifferent backs for competition, though there are two-piece suits

that can be worn to compete as well. Backs vary mainly in strap thickness and geometric design.

Most common styles include: racerback, axel back, corset, diamondback, and butterfly-back/Fly-

Back. There are also different style lengths: three-quarter length (reaches the knees), regular length

(shoulders to hips), and bikini style (two-piece). Also as of New Year's 2010, in competition, women

are only allowed to wear suits that do not go past the knees or shoulders.

Use of drag wear[edit]

Drag suits are used to increase water resistance against the swimmer to help them train for

competitions. Other forms of drag wear include nylons, old suits, and T-shirts: articles that increase

friction in the water to build strength during training, and thus increase speed once drag items are

removed for competition.

Some swimmers also shave areas of exposed skin before end-of-season competitions to reduce

friction in the water. The practice gained popularity after the 1956 Olympics, when Murray Rose and

Jon Henricks came shaved and won gold medals for Australia.[15] Freshly shaven skin feels much
smoother and less resistant in comparison when in the water. In addition, a 1989 study

demonstrated that shaving improves a swimmer’s overall performance by reducing drag.[16]

Wearing drag suits during training also improves mental performance during competitions [citation
needed]
. Drag makes a swimmer feel slower and more resistant during training with the added friction.

Then on the day of the competition, a shaven swimmer wearing only a fast competition suit will feel a

drastic and noticeable improvement in how fast and smooth they feel in the water. As in every other

sport, mental training is just as important as physical training.

Collegiate Swimming

Young swimmers compete on club teams and may wish to continue their careers through college.

Recruiting for collegiate swimming often starts on July 1 following the athlete's junior year of high

school. That date marks the day that college coaches can contact athletes via phone to discuss

possibly swimming for their team.

College swimmers compete starting in the fall until their conference meet in the early spring. From

there, the swimmers with the fastest times in each event will be invited to compete in the NCAA

championships after the regular season is over. All college meets are competed in short course

pools.

Open-water swimming

Open water swimming is swimming outside of a regular pool, usually in a lake, or sometimes ocean.

Popularity of the sport has grown in recent years, particularly since the 10 km open water event was

added as an Olympic event in 2005, contested for the first time in the 2008 Olympic Games in

Beijing.

New recent technology has developed much faster swimsuits. Full body suits have been banned, but

swimmers at the very top levels still wear suits that have been lasered together because stitching

creates drag. The downfall of these suits: they are sometimes uncomfortable and tight.

The largest Ocean Swim's in terms of numbers of participants are in Australia, with the Pier to Pub,

Cole Classic and Melbourne Swim Classic all with roughly 5000 swimming participants.

Changes to the sport

Swimming times have dropped over the years due to better training techniques and to new

developments.

The first four Olympics were not held in pools, but in open water (1896 – The Mediterranean, 1900 –

The Seine River, 1904 – an artificial lake, 1906 – The Mediterranean). The 1904 Olympics' freestyle

race was the only one ever measured at 100 yards, instead of the usual 100 meters. A 100-meter

pool was built for the 1908 Olympics and sat in the center of the main stadium's track and field oval.

The 1912 Olympics, held in the Stockholm harbor, marked the beginning of electronic timing.

Male swimmers wore full-body suits until the 1940s, which caused more drag in the water than their

modern swimwear counterparts did. Competition suits now include engineered fabric and designs to

reduce swimmers' drag in the water and prevent athlete fatigue. In addition, over the years, pool

designs have lessened the drag. Some design considerations allow for the reduction of

swimming resistance, making the pool faster. Namely, proper pool depth, elimination of currents,

increased lane width, energy absorbing racing lane lines and gutters, and the use of other innovative

hydraulic, acoustic, and illumination designs. There have been major changes in starting blocks over

the past years. Starting blocks used to be small, narrow and straight [17] but throughout time they

have become bigger and wider and nowadays the surface of the block is angled towards the

swimming pool.[18] In addition, starting blocks now have a “lip” which is a raised, slanting platform

situated at the rear of the main block. This enables the swimmer to adopt a crouched position at a

90 degrees angle and push off with the rear leg to increase their launch power.[19]

The 1924 Summer Olympics were the first to use the standard 50-meter pool with marked lanes. In

the freestyle, swimmers originally dove from the pool walls, but diving blocks were incorporated at

the 1936 Summer Olympics. The tumble turn was developed by the 1950sand goggles were first

used in the 1976 Olympics.There were also changes in the late 20th century in terms of technique.

Breaststrokers are now allowed to dip their heads completely under water, which allows for a longer

stroke and faster time. However, the breaststrokers must bring their heads up at the completion of

each cycle. In addition, a key hole pull in the breaststroke start and turns has been added to help

speed up the stroke. There have been some other changes added recently[when?] as well. Now off the

start and turns, breaststrokers are allowed one butterfly kick to help increase their speed.

Backstrokers are now allowed to turn on their stomachs before the wall in order to perform a "flip-
turn". Previously, they had to reach and flip backwards and a variation of it, known as a "bucket turn"

or a "suicide turn", is sometimes used in individual medley events to transition from backstroke to

breaststroke.

Records

The foundation of FINA in 1908 signalled the commencement of recording the first official world

records in swimming.[20] At that time records could be established in any swimming pool of length not

less than 25 yards, and records were also accepted for intermediate distance split times from longer

distance events. Today World Records will only be accepted when times are reported by Automatic

Officiating Equipment, or Semi-Automatic Officiating Equipment in the case of Automatic Officiating

Equipment system malfunction.[21]

Records in events such as 300 yd, 300 m, 1000 yd, and 1000 m freestyle, 400 m backstroke, and

400 m and 500 m breaststroke were no longer ratified from 1948. A further removal of the 500 yd

and 500 m freestyle, 150 m backstroke, and 3×100 m medley relay from the record listings occurred

in 1952.

In 1952, the national federations of the United States and Japan proposed at the FINA Congress the

separation of records achieved in long-course and short-course pools, however it was four more

years before action to came into effect with Congress deciding to retain only records held in 50 m

pools as the official world record listings.

By 1969 there were thirty-one events in which FINA recognised official world records – 16 for men,

15 for women – closely resembling the event schedule that was in use at the Olympic Games.

The increase in accuracy and reliability of electronic timing equipment led to the introduction of

hundredths of a second to the time records from 21 August 1972.

Records in short course (25 m) pools began to be officially approved as "short course world records"

from 3 March 1991. Prior to this date, times in short course (25 m) pools were not officially

recognised, but were regarded a "world best time" (WBT). From 31 October 1994 times in 50 m

backstroke, breaststroke, and butterfly were added to the official record listings. FINA currently

recognizes world records in the following events for both men and women.
Freestyle: 50 m, 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, 800 m, 1500 m

Backstroke: 50 m, 100 m, 200 m

Breaststroke: 50 m, 100 m, 200 m

Butterfly: 50 m, 100 m, 200 m

Individual medley: 100 m (short course only), 200 m, 400 m

Relays: 4×100 m freestyle, 4×200 m freestyle, 4×100 m medley

Health and skin care[edit]

It is recommended that swimmers wear waterproof sunscreen to meets and daytime swim practices

that are outside to prevent sunburns. It is also recommended that swimmers dry off well between

events at meets and change into dry clothes as soon as possible after swimming to prevent rashes

and skin infections.

It also is important for pool water to be properly maintained to avoid rashes and skin infections.[23]

Swimmers should shower with mild soap after swimming to remove pool chemicals such as chlorine

and salt.Swimmers should use goggles to protect their eyes from pool water and improve

underwater vision.[24][25]

Health benefits

Swimming is a healthy working out that can be done for a lifetime. It is a low-impact activity that has

several mental and bodily health benefits. That is a recreational motion for every one. Swimming

could provide you with a low-impact workout and it’s also a better method to calm down and sense

good. Swimming builds endurance, muscle strength and cardiovascular fitness.[26]

Table tennis

Table tennis (also called ping pong) is a sport in which two or four players hit a lightweight ball
back and forth using a table tennis racket. The game takes place on a hard table divided by a net.
Except for the initial serve, players must allow a ball played toward them only one bounce on their
side of the table and must return it so that it bounces on the opposite side. Points are scored when a
player fails to return the ball within the rules. Play is fast and demands quick reactions. Spinning the
ball alters its trajectory and limits an opponent's options, giving the hitter a great advantage. When
doing so the hitter has a good chance of scoring if the spin is successful.
Table tennis is governed by the worldwide organization International Table Tennis Federation,
founded in 1926. ITTF currently includes 220 member associations.[1] The table tennis official rules
are specified in the ITTF handbook.[2] Table tennis has been an Olympic sport since1988,[3] with
several event categories. In particular, from 1988 until 2004, these were: men's singles, women's
singles, men's doubles and women's doubles. Since 2008, a team event has been played instead of

History[edit]
Parker Brothers Ping-Pong game

The game originated in England during the 1880s, where it was played among the upper-class as an
after-dinner parlour game.[4][5] It has been suggested that the game was first developed by British
military officers in India or South Africa who brought it back with them.[6] A row of books was stood
up along the center of the table as a net, two more books served as rackets and were used to
continuously hit a golf-ball from one end of the table to the other. Alternatively table tennis was
played with paddles made of cigar box lids and balls made of champagne corks. The popularity of
the game led game manufacturers to sell equipment commercially. Early rackets were often pieces
of parchment stretched upon a frame, and the sound generated in play gave the game its first
nicknames of "wiff-waff" and "ping-pong". A number of sources indicate that the game was first
brought to the attention of Hamley's of Regent Street under the name "Gossima".[7][8] The name
"ping-pong" was in wide use before British manufacturer J. Jaques & Son Ltd trademarked it in 1901.
The name "ping-pong" then came to be used for the game played by the rather expensive Jaques's
equipment, with other manufacturers calling it table tennis. A similar situation arose in the United
States, where Jaques sold the rights to the "ping-pong" name to Parker Brothers. Parker Brothers
then enforced their trademark for the term in the 1920s making the various associations change their
names to "table tennis" instead of the more common, but trademarked, term.[9]

The next major innovation was by James W. Gibb, a British enthusiast of table tennis, who
discovered novelty celluloid balls on a trip to the US in 1901 and found them to be ideal for the
game. This was followed by E.C. Goode who, in 1901, invented the modern version of the racket by
fixing a sheet of pimpled, or stippled, rubber to the wooden blade. Table tennis was growing in
popularity by 1901 to the extent that tournaments were being organized, books being written on the
subject,[7] and an unofficial world championship was held in 1902. During the early 1900s, the game
was banned in Russia because the rulers at the time believed that playing the game had an adverse
effect on players' eyesight.[10]

In 1921, the Table Tennis Association was founded in Britain, and the International Table Tennis
Federation (ITTF) followed in 1926.[4][11] London hosted the first official World Championships in
1926. In 1933, the United States Table Tennis Association, now called USA Table Tennis, was
formed.[4][12]
In the 1930s, Edgar Snow commented in Red Star Over China that the Communist forces in
the Chinese Civil War had a "passion for the English game of table tennis" which he found
"bizarre".[13]

In the 1950s, rackets that used a rubber sheet combined with an underlying sponge layer changed
the game dramatically,[4]introducing greater spin and speed.[14] These were introduced to Britain by
sports goods manufacturer S.W. Hancock Ltd. The use of speed glue increased the spin and speed
even further, resulting in changes to the equipment to "slow the game down". Table tennis was
introduced as an Olympic sport at the Olympics in 1988.[15]
Rule changes[edit]

After the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the ITTF instituted several rule changes that were
aimed at making table tennis more viable as a televised spectator sport.[16][17] First, the older 38 mm
(1.50 in) balls were officially replaced by 40 mm (1.57 in) balls in October 2000.[7][18] This increased
the ball's air resistance and effectively slowed down the game. By that time, players had begun
increasing the thickness of the fast sponge layer on their paddles, which made the game excessively
fast and difficult to watch on television. A few months later, the ITTF changed from a 21-point to an
11-point scoring system (and the serve rotation was reduced from five points to two), effective in
September 2001.[7] This was intended to make games more fast-paced and exciting. The ITTF also
changed the rules on service to prevent a player from hiding the ball during service, in order to
increase the average length of rallies and to reduce the server's advantage, effective in 2002.[19] In
order for the opponent to have time in order to realise a serve is taking place, the ball must be
tossed a minimum of 16cm in the air. There is a move towards reviving the table tennis game that
existed prior to the introduction of sponge rubber. "Hardbat" table tennis players reject the speed and
spin of reversed sponge rubber, preferring the 1940–60s play style with no sponge and short-
pimpled rubber. This makes defense less difficult by decreasing the speed and eliminating any
meaningful magnus effect of spin. Because hardbat killer shots are almost impossible to hit against a
skilled player, hardbat matches focus on the strategic side of table tennis, requiring skillful
maneuvering of the opponent before an attack can become successful. [20]

Equipment[edit]
Ball[edit]

Assortment of 40 mm table tennis balls

The international rules specify that the game is played with a sphere having a mass of 2.7 grams
(0.095 oz) and a diameter of 40 millimetres (1.57 in).[21] The rules say that the ball shall bounce up
24–26 cm (9.4–10.2 in) when dropped from a height of 30.5 cm (12.0 in) onto a standard steel block
thereby having a coefficient of restitution of 0.89 to 0.92. The 40 mm ball was introduced after
the 2000 Summer Olympics.[18] However, this created some controversy as the Chinese National
Team argued that this was merely to give non-Chinese players a better chance of winning since the
new type of ball has a slower speed, while at that time most Chinese players were playing with fast
attack and smashes. (China won all four Olympic gold medals and three silvers in 2000, and have
continued to dominate.) A 40 mm table tennis ball is slower and spins less than the original 38 mm
one. The ball is made of a high-bouncing air-filled celluloid or similar plastics material, coloured white
or orange, with a matte finish. The choice of ball colour is made according to the table colour and its
surroundings. For example, a white ball is easier to see on a green or blue table than it is on a grey
table. Manufacturers often indicate the quality of the ball with a star rating system, usually from one
to three, three being the highest grade. As this system is not standard across manufacturers, the
only way a ball may be used in official competition is upon ITTF approval.[21] The ITTF approval can
be seen printed on the ball.
Table[edit]

Diagram of a table tennis table showing the official dimensions

The table is 2.74 m (9.0 ft) long, 1.525 m (5.0 ft) wide, and 76 cm (2.5 ft) high with any continuous
material so long as the table yields a uniform bounce of about 23 cm (9.1 in) when a standard ball is
dropped onto it from a height of 30 cm (11.8 in), or about 77%.[22][23] The table or playing surface is
uniformly dark coloured and matte, divided into two halves by a net at 15.25 cm (6.0 in) in height.
The ITTFapproves only wooden tables or their derivates. Concrete tables with a steel net or a solid
concrete partition are sometimes available in outside public spaces, such as parks.[24]
Paddle/racket/bat[edit]

Main article: Table tennis racket

Players are equipped with a laminated wooden racket covered with rubber on one or two sides
depending on the grip of the player. The ITTF uses the term "racket",[25] though "bat" is common in
Britain, and "paddle" in the U.S.

The wooden portion of the racket, often referred to as the "blade", commonly features anywhere
between one and seven plies of wood, though cork, glass fiber, carbon fiber, aluminum fiber, and
Kevlar are sometimes used. According to the ITTF regulations, at least 85% of the blade by
thickness shall be of natural wood.[26] Common wood types include balsa, limba, and cypress or
"hinoki," which is popular in Japan. The average size of the blade is about 6.5 inches (17 cm) long
and 6 inches (15 cm) wide. Although the official restrictions only focus on the flatness and rigidness
of the blade itself, these dimensions are optimal for most play styles.
Table tennis regulations allow different surfaces on each side of the racket.[27] Various types of
surfaces provide various levels of spin or speed, and in some cases they nullify spin. For example, a
player may have a rubber that provides much spin on one side of his racket, and one that provides
no spin on the other. By flipping the racket in play, different types of returns are possible. To help a
player distinguish between the rubber used by his opposing player, international rules specify that
one side must be red while the other side must be black.[26] The player has the right to inspect his
opponent's racket before a match to see the type of rubber used and what colour it is. Despite high
speed play and rapid exchanges, a player can see clearly what side of the racket was used to hit the
ball. Current rules state that, unless damaged in play, the racket cannot be exchanged for another
racket at any time during a match.[28]

Gameplay[edit]
Starting a game[edit]

According to ITTF rule 2.13.1, the first service is decided by lot,[29] normally a coin toss.[30] It is also
common for one player (or the umpire/scorer) to hide the ball in one or the other hand (usually
hidden under the table), allowing the other player to guess which hand the ball is in. The correct or
incorrect guess gives the "winner" the option to choose to serve, receive, or to choose which side of
the table to use. (A common but non-sanctioned method is for the players to play the ball back and
forth three times and then play out the point. This is commonly referred to as "serve to play", "rally to
serve", "play for serve", or "volley for serve")
Service and return[edit]

In game play, the player serving the ball commences a play.[31] The server first stands with the ball
held on the open palm of the hand not carrying the paddle, called the freehand, and tosses the ball
directly upward without spin, at least 16 cm (6.3 in) high.[32] The server strikes the ball with the racket
on the ball's descent so that it touches first his court and then touches directly the receiver's court
without touching the net assembly. In casual games, many players do not toss the ball upward;
however, this is technically illegal and can give the serving player an unfair advantage.

The ball must remain behind the endline and above the upper surface of the table, known as the
playing surface, at all times during the service. The server cannot use his body or clothing to
obstruct sight of the ball; the opponent and the umpire must have a clear view of the ball at all times.
If the umpire is doubtful of the legality of a service they may first interrupt play and give a warning to
the server. If the serve is a clear failure or is doubted again by the umpire after the warning, the
receiver scores a point.

If the service is "good", then the receiver must make a "good" return by hitting the ball back before it
bounces a second time on receiver's side of the table so that the ball passes the net and touches the
opponent's court, either directly or after touching the net assembly.[33] Thereafter, the server and
receiver must alternately make a return until the rally is over. Returning the serve is one of the most
difficult parts of the game, as the server's first move is often the least predictable and thus most
advantageous shot due to the numerous spin and speed choices at his or her disposal.
Let[edit]

A Let is a rally of which the result is not scored, and is called in the following circumstances:[34]

 The ball touches the net in service (service), provided the service is otherwise correct or the ball
is obstructed by the player on the receiving side. Obstruction means a player touches the ball
when it is above or traveling towards the playing surface, not having touched the player's court
since last being struck by the player.

 When the player on the receiving side is not ready and the service is delivered.

 Player's failure to make a service or a return or to comply with the Laws is due to a disturbance
outside the control of the player.
 Play is interrupted by the umpire or assistant umpire.

A let is also called if the ball hits the servers side of the table if the ball does not pass further than the
edge. If the ball hits the table edge and hits the net, it is called a foul serve.
Scoring[edit]

A point is scored by the player for any of several results of the rally:[35]

 The opponent fails to make a correct service or return.

 After making a service or a return, the ball touches anything other than the net assembly before
being struck by the opponent.

 The ball passes over the player's court or beyond his end line without touching his court, after
being struck by the opponent.

 The opponent obstructs the ball.

 The opponent strikes the ball twice successively. Note that the hand that is holding the racket
counts as part of the racket and that making a good return off one's hand or fingers is allowed. It
is not a fault if the ball accidentally hits one's hand or fingers and then subsequently hits the
racket.

 The opponent strikes the ball with a side of the racket blade whose surface is not covered with
rubber.
 The opponent moves the playing surface or touches the net assembly.

 The opponent's free hand touches the playing surface.

 As a receiver under the expedite system, completing 13 returns in a rally.[36]

 The opponent that has been warned by the umpire commits a second offense in the same
individual match or team match. If the third offence happens, 2 points will be given to the
player.[37] If the individual match or the team match has not ended, any unused penalty points
can be transferred to the next game of that match.[30]

A game shall be won by the player first scoring 11 points unless both players score 10 points, when
the game shall be won by the first player subsequently gaining a lead of 2 points. A match shall
consist of the best of any odd number of games.[38]In competition play, matches are typically best of
five or seven games.
Alternation of services and ends[edit]

Service alternates between opponents every two points (regardless of winner of the rally) until the
end of the game, unless both players score ten points or the expedite system is operated, when the
sequences of serving and receiving stay the same but each player serves for only one point in
turn.[39] The player serving first in a game receives first in the next game of the match.

After each game, players switch sides of the table. In the last possible game of a match, for example
the seventh game in a best of seven matches, players change ends when the first player scores five
points, regardless of whose turn it is to serve. If the sequence of serving and receiving is out of turn
or the ends is not changed, points scored in the wrong situation are still calculated and the game
shall be resumed with the order at the score that has been reached.
Double game[edit]

Service zone in doubles game

In addition to games between individual players, pairs may also play table tennis. Singles and
doubles are both played in international competition, including the Olympic Games since 1988 and
the Commonwealth Games since 2002.[40] In 2005, the ITTF announced that doubles table tennis
only was featured as a part of team events in the 2008 Olympics.

In doubles, all the rules of single play are applied except for the following.

Service
A line painted along the long axis of the table to create doubles courts bisects the table. This
line's only purpose is to facilitate the doubles service rule, which is that service, must
originate from the right hand "box" in such a way that the first bounce of the serve bounces
once in said right hand box and then must bounce at least once in the opponent side's right
hand box (far left box for server), or the receiving pair score a point.[32]

Order of play, serving and receiving

1. Players must hit the ball. For example, if A is paired with B, X is paired with Y, A is the
server and X or Y is the receiver. The order of play shall be A→X or Y & B→X or Y &
vice versa. The rally proceeds this way until one side fails to make a legal return and the
other side scores.[41]

2. At each change of service, the previous receiver shall become the server and the
partner of the previous server shall become the receiver. For example, if the previous
order of play is A→X or Y & B→X or Y, the order becomes X→B or A & Y→B or A or
X→B or A & Y→A or B after the change of service.[39]
3. In the second or the latter games of a match, the game begins in reverse order of play.
For example, if the order of play is A→X or Y & B→Y or X at beginning of the first game,
the order begins with X→A or B & Y→A & B in the second game depending on either X
 or Y being chosen as the first server of the game. That means the first receiver of the
game is the player who served to the first server of the game in the preceding game. In
each game of a doubles match, the pair having the right to serve first shall choose which
of them will do so. The receiving pair, however, can only choose in the first game of the
match.

4. When a pair reaches 5 points in the final game, the pairs must switch ends of the table
and change the receiver to reverse the order of play. For example, when the last order
of play before a pair score 5 points in the final game is A→X→B→Y, the order after
change shall be A→Y→B→X if A still has the second serve. Otherwise, X is the next
server and the order becomes X→A→Y→B.
Expedite system[edit]

If a game is unfinished after 10 minutes' play and fewer than 18 points have been scored, the
expedite system is initiated.[36]The umpire interrupts the game, and the game resumes with
players serving for one point in turn. If the expedite system is introduced while the ball is not in
play, the previous receiver shall serve first. Under the expedite system, the server must win the
point before the opponent makes 13 consecutive returns or the point goes to the opponent. The
system can also be initiated at any time at the request of both players or pairs. Once introduced,
the expedite system remains in force until the end of the match. A rule to shorten the time of a
match, it is mainly seen in defensive players' games.

Grips[edit]

Though table tennis players grip their rackets in various ways, their grips can be classified into
two major families of styles,penhold and shakehand.[42] The rules of table tennis do not prescribe
the manner in which one must grip the racket, and numerous grips are employed.
Penhold[edit]

The penhold grip is so-named because one grips the racket similarly to the way one holds
a writing instrument.[43] The style of play among penhold players can vary greatly from player to
player. The most popular style, usually referred to as the Chinese penhold style, involves curling
the middle, ring, and fourth finger on the back of the blade with the three fingers always touching
one another.[43] Chinese penholders favour a round racket head, for a more over-the-table style
of play. In contrast, another style, sometimes referred to as the Japanese/Korean penhold grip,
involves splaying those three fingers out across the back of the racket, usually with all three
fingers touching the back of the racket, rather than stacked upon one another.[43] Sometimes a
combination of the two styles occurs, wherein the middle, ring and fourth fingers are straight, but
still stacked, or where all fingers may be touching the back of the racket, but are also in contact
with one another. Japanese/Korean penholders will often use a square-headed racket for an
away-from-the-table style of play. Traditionally these square-headed rackets feature a block of
cork on top of the handle, as well as a thin layer of cork on the back of the racket, for increased
grip and comfort. Penhold styles are popular among players originating from East Asian regions
such as China, Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea.

Traditionally, penhold players use only one side of the racket to hit the ball during normal play,
and the side which is in contact with the last three fingers is generally not used. This
configuration is sometimes referred to as "traditional penhold" and is more commonly found in
square-headed racket styles. However, the Chinese developed a technique in the 1990s in
which a penholder uses both sides of the racket to hit the ball, where the player produces a
backhand stroke (most often topspin) by turning the traditional side of the racket to face one's
self, and striking the ball with the opposite side of the racket. This stroke has greatly improved
and strengthened the penhold style both physically and psychologically, as it eliminates the
strategic weakness of the traditional penhold backhand.

Shakehand grip

Forehand

Backhand
Shakehand

The shakehand (or shakehands) grip is so-named because the racket is grasped as if one is
performing a handshake.[44] Though it is sometimes referred to as the "tennis" or "Western" grip,
it bears no relation to the Western tennis grip, which was popularized on the West Coast of the
United States in which the racket is rotated 90°, and played with the wrist turned so that on
impact the knuckles face the target. In table tennis, “Western” refers to Western nations, for this
is the grip that players native to Europe and the Americas have almost exclusively employed.

The shakehand grip’s simplicity and versatility, coupled with the acceptance among top-level
Chinese trainers that the European style of play should be emulated and trained against, has
established it as a common grip even in China.[45] Many world-class Asian players currently use
the shakehand grip, and it is generally accepted that shakehands is easier to learn than
penholder, allowing a broader range of playing styles both offensive and defensive.[46]

Types of strokes

Table tennis strokes generally break down into offensive and defensive categories.
Offensive strokes

Hit

A direct hit on the ball propelling it forward back to the opponent. This stroke differs from speed
drives in other racket sports like tennis because the racket is primarily perpendicular to the
direction of the stroke and most of the energy applied to the ball results in speed rather
than spin, creating a shot that does not arc much, but is fast enough that it can be difficult to
return. A speed drive is used mostly for keeping the ball in play, applying pressure on the
opponent, and potentially opening up an opportunity for a more powerful attack.

Loop[

Perfected during the 1960s,[4] the loop is essentially the reverse of the speed drive. The racket is
much more parallel to the direction of the stroke ("closed") and the racket thus grazes the ball,
resulting in a large amount of topspin. A good loop drive will arc quite a bit, and once striking the
opponent's side of the table will jump forward, much like a kick serve in tennis.

Counter-hit[

The counter-hit is usually a counterattack against drives, normally high loop drives. The racket is
held closed and near to the ball, which is hit with a short movement "off the bounce"
(immediately after hitting the table) so that the ball travels faster to the other side. A well-timed,
accurate counter-drive can be as effective as a smash.

Flick[

When a player tries to attack a ball that has not bounced beyond the edge of the table, the
player does not have the room to wind up in a backswing. The ball may still be attacked,
however, and the resulting shot is called a flick because the backswing is compressed into a
quick wrist action. A flick is not a single stroke and can resemble either a drive or a loop in its
characteristics. What identifies the stroke is the backswing is compressed into a short wrist flick.

Smash

The offensive trump card is the smash. A player will typically execute a smash when his or her
opponent has returned a ball that bounces too high or too close to the net. Smashing is
essentially self-explanatory—large backswing and rapid acceleration imparting as much speed
on the ball as possible. The goal of a smash is to get the ball to move so quickly that the
opponent simply cannot return it. Because the ball speed is the main aim of this shot, often the
spin on the ball is something other than topspin. Sidespin can be used effectively with a smash
to alter the ball's trajectory significantly, although most intermediate players will smash the ball
with little or no spin. An offensive table tennis player will think of a rally as a build-up to a winning
smash;
Defensive strokes

Push

The push (or "slice" in Asia) is usually used for keeping the point alive and creating offensive
opportunities. A push resembles a tennis slice: the racket cuts underneath the ball, imparting
backspin and causing the ball to float slowly to the other side of the table. While not obvious, a
push can be difficult to attack because the backspin on the ball causes it to drop toward the
table upon striking the opponent's racket. In order to attack a push, a player must usually loop
the ball back over the net. Often, the best option for beginners is to simply push the ball back
again, resulting in pushing rallies. Against good players, it may be the worst option because the
opponent will counter with a loop, putting the first player in a defensive position. Another
response to pushing is flipping the ball when it is close to the net. Pushing can have advantages
in some circumstances, such as when the opponent makes easy mistakes.
Chop

A chop is the defensive, backspin counterpart to the offensive loop drive.[47] A chop is essentially
a bigger, heavier push, taken well back from the table. The racket face points primarily
horizontally, perhaps a little bit upward, and the direction of the stroke is straight down. The
object of a defensive chop is to match the topspin of the opponent's shot with backspin. A good
chop will float nearly horizontally back to the table, in some cases having so much backspin that
the ball actually rises. Such a chop can be extremely difficult to return due to its enormous
amount of backspin. Some defensive players can also impart no-spin or sidespin variations of
the chop.

Block[edit]

The block is a simple shot, but nonetheless can be devastating against an attacking opponent. A
block is executed by simply placing the racket in front of the ball right after the ball bounces;
thus, the ball rebounds back toward the opponent with nearly as much energy as it came in with.
This is not as easy as it sounds, because the ball's spin, speed, and location all influence the
correct angle of a block. It is very possible for an opponent to execute a perfect loop, drive, or
smash, only to have the blocked shot come back at him just as fast. Due to the power involved
in offensive strokes, often an opponent simply cannot recover quickly enough, and will be unable
to return the blocked shot. Blocks almost always produce the same spin as was received, many
times topspin. Depending on the spin of the ball, the block may be returned to an unexpected
side of the table. This may come to your advantage, as the opponent may not expect this.

Lob[edit]

The defensive lob is possibly the most impressive shot, since it propels the ball about five
metres in height, only to land on the opponent's side of the table with great amounts of
spin.[48] To execute, a defensive player first backs-off the table 4–6 meters; then, the stroke itself
consists of lifting the ball to an enormous height before it falls back to the opponent's side of the
table. A lob is inherently a creative shot, and can have nearly any kind of spin. Top-quality
players use this to their advantage in order to control the spin of the ball. For instance, though
the opponent may smash the ball hard and fast, a good defensive lob could be more difficult to
return due to the unpredictability and heavy amounts of the spin on the ball.[48]Thus, though
backed off the table by tens of feet and running to reach the ball, a good defensive player can
still win the point using good lobs. However, at the professional level, lobbers will lose the point
most of the time, so the lob is not used unless it is really necessary.[48]

Effects of spin

Adding spin onto the ball causes major changes in table tennis gameplay. Although nearly every
stroke or serve creates some kind of spin, understanding the individual types of spin allows
players to defend against and use different spins effectively.[49]

4 phases in a backspin curve

Backspin[edit]

Backspin is where the bottom half of the ball is rotating away from the player, and is imparted by
striking the base of the ball with a downward movement.[49] At the professional level, backspin is
usually used defensively in order to keep the ball low.[50] Backspin is commonly employed in
service because it is harder to produce an offensive return, especially on a short serve. Due to
the initial lift of the ball, there is a limit on how much speed with which one can hit the ball
without missing the opponent's side of the table. However, backspin also makes it harder for the
opponent to return the ball with great speed because of the required angular precision of the
return. Alterations are frequently made to regulations regarding equipment in an effort to
needed]
maintain a balance between defensive and offensive spin choices.[citation It is actually
possible to smash with backspin offensively, but only on high balls that are close to the net.
4 phases in a topspin curve

Topspin

The topspin stroke has a smaller influence on the first part of the ball-curve. Like the backspin
stroke, however, the axis of spin remains roughly perpendicular to the trajectory of the ball thus
allowing for the Magnus effect to dictate the subsequent curvature. After the apex of the curve,
the ball dips downwards as it approaches the opposing side, before bouncing. On the bounce,
the topspin will accelerate the ball, much in the same way that a wheel which is already spinning
would accelerate upon making contact with the ground. Again, the most significant change
appears when the opponent attempts to return the ball (with a smooth, pimples inwards rubber).
Due to the topspin, the ball jumps upwards and the opponent is forced to compensate for the
topspin by adjusting the angle of his or her racket. This is commonly known as "closing the
racket". The speed limitation of the topspin stroke is minor compared to the backspin stroke.
This stroke is the predominant technique used in professional competition because it gives the
opponent less time to respond. In table tennis topspin is regarded as an offensive technique due
to increased ball speed, lower bio-mechanical efficiency and the pressure that it puts on the
opponent by reducing reaction time. (It is possible to play defensive topspin-lobs from far behind
the table, but only highly skilled players use this stroke with any tactical efficiency.) Topspin is
the least common type of spin to be found in service at the professional level, simply because it
is much easier to attack a top-spin ball that is not moving at high speed.
Sidespin

This type of spin is predominantly employed during service, wherein the contact angle of the
racket can be more easily varied. Unlike the two aforementioned techniques, sidespin causes
the ball to spin on an axis which is vertical, rather than horizontal. The axis of rotation is still
roughly perpendicular to the trajectory of the ball. In this circumstance, the Magnus effect will still
dictate the curvature of the ball to some degree. Another difference is that unlike backspin and
topspin, sidespin will have relatively very little effect on the bounce of the ball, much in the same
way that a spinning top would not travel left or right if its axis of rotation were exactly vertical.
This makes sidespin a useful weapon in service, because it is less easily recognized when
bouncing, and the ball "loses" less spin on the bounce. Sidespin can also be employed in
offensive rally strokes, often from a greater distance, as an adjunct to topspin or backspin. This
stroke is sometimes referred to as a "hook". The hook can even be used in some extreme cases
to circumvent the net when away from the table.
Cork spin

This type of spin is almost exclusively employed in service, but it is also used from time to time
in the lob at the professional level. Unlike any of the aforementioned techniques, corkspin
(sometimes referred to as "drill-spin") features a unique situation in which the axis of spin is
more or less parallel to the trajectory of the ball. This means that the Magnus effect will have
little to no effect on the trajectory of a cork-spun ball. Upon bouncing, the ball will dart right or
left, depending on the direction of the spin, making it very difficult to return. Although in theory
this type of spin produces the most obnoxious effects, it is not as strategically practical as
sidespin or backspin in terms of the limitations that it imposes upon the opponent during their
return. Aside from the initial direction change when bouncing, provided that it does not exceed
the reach of the opponent, a cork-spun ball is easily countered with topspin or backspin. Similar
to a backspin stroke, the corkspin stroke has a lower maximum velocity, simply due to the
contact angle of the racket when producing the stroke. To impart a spin on the ball which is
parallel to its trajectory, the racket must be swung more or less perpendicular to the trajectory of
the ball. This greatly limits the amount of forward momentum that can be transferred to the ball
by the racket. Corkspin is almost always mixed with another variety of spin, as it is less effective
and harder to produce on its own.

Competition

Competitive table tennis is popular in Asia and Europe and has been gaining attention in
the United States.[51] The most important international competitions are the World Table Tennis
Championships, the Table Tennis World Cup, the Olympicsand the ITTF Pro Tour. Continental
competitions include the European Championships, Europe Top-12, the Asian
Championships and the Asian Games. Chinese players have won the men's World
 Championships 60% of the time since 1959;[52] in the women's competition, Chinese players
have won all but three of the World Championships since 1971.[53]Other strong teams come
from East Asia and European countries, including Austria, Belarus, Germany, Hong
Kong, Japan,South Korea, Singapore, Sweden, and Taiwan.[54]

There are also professional competitions at the clubs level. The national league of countries
like China (the China Table Tennis Super League), Germany, France, Belgium and Austria are
some highest level examples. There are also some important international club teams
competitions such as the European Champions League and its former competition, theEuropean
Club Cup, where the top club teams from European countries compete.
Javelin

A depiction of a javelin thrower on an ancient Greek vase, ca. 450 BC. Attributed to the painter
of the Brussels Oinochoes.
 Javelin thrower. Bronze, Laconian style, third quarter of the 6th century BC

A javelin is a light spear designed primarily to be thrown, historically as a ranged weapon, but
today predominantly for sport. The javelin is almost always thrown by hand, unlike the bow and
arrow and slingshot, which shoot projectiles from a mechanism. However, hurling devices do
exist to assist the javelin thrower in achieving greater distance.
The word javeline comes from Middle English and it derives from Old French javelin, a
diminutive of javelot which meant spear. The word javelot probably originated from one of
the Celtic languages.

Prehistory[edit]

There is archaeological evidence that javelins and throwing sticks were already in use during the last
phase of the lower Paleolithic. Seven spear-like objects were found in a coal mine in the city
of Schöningen, Germany. Stratigraphic dating indicates that the weapons are about 400,000 years
old.[1] The excavated items were made of spruce (Picea) trunk and were between 1.83 and 2.25
metres long. They were manufactured with the maximum thickness and weight situated at the front
end of the wooden shaft. The frontal centre of gravity suggests that these pole weapons were used
as javelins. A fossilized horse shoulder blade with a projectile wound, dated to 500,000 years
ago,was revealed in a gravel quarry in the village of Boxgrove, England. Studies suggested that the
wound was probably caused by a javelin.[2][3][4]

Classical age[edit]
Agrianian Peltast. This Peltast holds three javelins, one in his throwing hand and two in
his Pelte hand as additional ammunition

This section
requires expansion.(March 2009)

Ancient Greece[edit]

The Peltasts, usually serving as skirmishers, were armed with several javelins, often with throwing
straps to increase standoff power. The Peltasts hurled their javelins at the enemy's heavier troops,
the Hoplite phalanx, in order to break their lines so that their own army's hoplites could destroy the
weakened enemy formation. In the battle of Lechaeum the Athenian general Iphicrates took
advantage of the fact that aSpartan hoplite phalanx operating near Corinth was moving in the open
field without the protection of any missile-throwing troops. He decided to ambush it with his force of
peltasts. By launching repeated hit-and-run attacks against the Spartan formation, Iphicrates and his
men were able to wear the Spartans down, eventually routing them and killing just under half. This
marked the first recorded occasion in ancient Greek military history on which a force entirely made
up of peltasts had defeated a force of hoplites.

The Thureophoroi and Thorakitai who gradually replaced the Peltasts carried javelins in addition to a
long thrusting spear and a short sword.
The Greeks did not only use javelins on the field of war. The spear-like missiles were often used as
an effective hunting weapon, the strap adding enough power to take down large game. Javelins
were also used in the Ancient Olympics and otherPanhellenic games. They were hurled in a certain
direction and whoever hurled it the farthest, as long as it hit tip-first, won that game.
Rome[edit]

Main article: Pilum

Republic and early empire[edit]

Reconstruction of a post-Marianpilum

In 387 BC, the Gauls invaded Italy, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Roman Republican army, and
sacked Rome. After this defeat the Romans undertook a comprehensive reform of their army and
changed the basic tactical formation from the Greek-style phalanx armed with the hasta spear and
the clipeus round shield to a more flexible three-line formation. The Hastati stood in the first line,
the Principesin the second line and the Triarii at the third line. While the Triarii were still armed with
the hasta, the Hastati and the Principes were rearmed with short swords and heavy javelins. Each
soldier from the Hastati and Principes lines carried two javelins. This heavy javelin, known as
a Pilum (plural "pila"), was about two metres long overall, consisting of an iron shank, about 7 mm in
diameter and 60 cm long, with pyramidal head, secured to a wooden shaft. The iron shank was
either socketed or, more usually, widened to a flat tang . A pilum usually weighed between two and
four kilograms, with the versions produced during the Empire being somewhat lighter. Pictorial
evidence suggests that some versions of the weapon were weighted with a lead ball at the base of
the shank in order to increase penetrative power, but no archaeological specimens have been
found.[5] Recent experiments have shown pila to have a range of about 30 metres, although the
effective range is only about 15 to 20 metres. Pila were sometimes referred to as javelins, but the
archaic term for the javelin was verutum.
From the third century BC, the Roman legion added a skirmisher type of soldier to its tactical
formation. The Velites were light infantry armed with a short sword (the gladius or pugio), a small
round shield and several small javelins. These javelins were called veruta (singular "verutum") . The
Velites typically drew near the enemy, hurled javelins against its formation and then retreated behind
the legion's heavier infantry. The Velites were considered highly effective in turning back war
elephants, on account of discharging a hail of javelins at some range and not presenting a "block"
which could be trampled on or otherwise smashed - unlike the close-order infantry behind them. At
the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, the javelin-throwing Velites proved their worth and were no doubt
critical in helping to herd Hannibal's war elephants through the formation to be slaughtered. The
Velites would slowly have been either disbanded or re-equipped as more-heavily armed legionaries
from the time when Gaius Marius and other Roman generals reorganised the army in the late
second and early first centuries BC. Their role would most likely have been taken by irregular
auxiliary troops as the Republic expanded overseas. The verutumwas a cheaper missile weapon
than the pilum. The verutum was a short-range weapon, with a simply made head of soft iron.

Legionaries of the Late Republic and Early Empire often carried two pila, with one sometimes being
lighter than the other. Standard tactics called for a Roman soldier to throw his pilum (both if there
was time) at the enemy just before charging to engage with his gladius. Some pila had small hand-
guards, to protect the wielder if he intended to use it as a melee weapon, but it does not appear that
this was common.

Late Empire[edit]

In the late Roman Empire, the Roman infantry came to use a differently-shaped javelin from the
earlier pilum. This javelin was lighter and had a greater range. Called a plumbata, it resembled a
thick stocky arrow, fletched with leather vanes to provide stability and rotation in flight (which
increased accuracy). To overcome its comparatively small mass, the plumbata was fitted with an
oval-shaped lead weight socketed around the shaft just forward of the center of balance, giving the
weapon its name. Even so, plumbatae were much lighter than pila, and would not have had the
armour penetration or shield transfixing capabilities of their earlier counterparts.

Two or three plumbatae were typically clipped to a small wooden bracket on the inside of the large
oval or round shields used at the time. Massed troops would unclip and hurl plumbatae as the
enemy neared, hopefully stalling their movement and morale by making them clump together and
huddle under their shields. With the enemy deprived of rapid movement and their visibility impaired
by their own raised shields, the Roman troops were then better placed to exploit the tactical
situation. It is unlikely plumbatae were viewed by the Romans as the killing blow, but more as a
means of stalling the enemy at ranges greater than previously provided by the heavier and shorter
ranged pilum.
Gaul[edit]

The Gallic cavalry used to hurl several javelin volleys to soften the enemy before a frontal attack.
The Gallic cavalry used their javelins in a tactic similar to that of horse archers' Parthian shot. The
Gauls knew how to turn on horseback to throw javelins backwards while appearing to retreat.
Iberia[edit]

The Hispanic cavalry was a light cavalry armed with a Falcata and several light javelins.
The Cantabri tribes invented a military tactic to maximize the advantages of the combination
between horse and javelin. In this tactic the horsemen rode around in circles, toward and away from
the enemy, continually hurling javelins. The tactic was usually employed against heavy infantry. The
constant movement of the horsemen gave them an advantage against slow infantry and made them
hard to target. The maneuver was designed to harass and taunt the enemy forces, disrupting close
formations. This was commonly used against enemy infantry, especially the heavily armed and slow
moving legions of the Romans. This tactic came to be known as the Cantabrian circle. In the late
Republic various auxiliary cavalry completely replaced the Italian cavalry contingents and the
Hispanic auxiliary cavalry was considered the best.
Carthage[edit]

The Numidians were indigenous tribes of northwest Africa. The Numidian cavalry was a light cavalry
usually operating as skirmishers. The Numidian horseman was armed with a small shield and
several javelins. The Numidians had a reputation as swift horsemen, cunning soldiers and excellent
javelin throwers. It is said that Jugurtha, the Numidian king "...took part in the national pursuits of
riding, javelin throwing and competed with other young men in running." [Sallust The Jugurthine War:
6]. The Numidian Cavalry served as mercenaries in the Carthaginian Army and played a key role in
assisting Hannibal during the Second Punic War.

Middle ages[edit]
Norman cavalry armed with lances attacks the Anglo-Saxon shield wall. Notice the dominance of the
spearmen in the front line of the formation. In the back of the formation there is one warrior armed
with a battle-axe, one archer and one javelinman. There are javelins in mid-flight and slain soldiers
pierced with javelins on the ground

Norse

There is some literary and archeological evidence that the Norse were familiar with and used the
javelin for hunting and warfare, but they commonly used a spear designed for both throwing and
thrusting. The Old Norse word for javelin was frakka.[6]
Anglo-Saxons

The Anglo-Saxon term for javelin wasfrance.[7] In Anglo-Saxon warfare soldiers usually formed
a shield wall and used heavy weapons like Danish axes, swords and spears. Javelins, including
barbed angons, were used as an offensive weapon from behind the shield wall or by warriors who
left the protective formation and attacked the enemy as skirmishers.[8] Designed to be difficult to
remove from either flesh or wood, the Angon javelin used by Anglo-Saxon warriors was an effective
means of disabling opponents or their principle tool of defence; the shield, thus having the potential
to disrupt opponent shield-walls [9]
Spain

The Almogavars were a class of Aragonese infantrymen armed with a short sword, a shield and two
heavy javelins, known as azcona.[10] The equipment resembled that of a Roman legionary and the
use of the heavy javelins was much the same.

The Jinetes were Arabic light horsemen armed with a javelin, sword and a shield, they were
proficient at skirmishing and rapid maneuver, and played an important role in Arabic mounted
warfare throughout the Reconquista until the sixteenth century.
Wales

The Welsh (particularly the North Welsh) used the javelin as one of their main weapons. During the
Norman and later English invasions, the primary Welsh tactic was to rain javelins on the tired,
hungry and heavily armoured English troops and then retreat into the mountains or woods before the
English troops could pursue and attack them. This tactic was very successful since it demoralized
and damaged the English armies while the Welsh ranks were barely damaged at all.

Taekwondo

Taekwondo /ˌtaɪˌkwɒnˈdoʊ/ or /ˌteɪˌkwɒnˈdoʊ/ (Korean 태권도 (hangul) / 跆拳道

(hanja), [tʰɛk͈wʌndo]), also known as Taekwon-Do and Tae Kwon Do, is aKorean martial art. It
combines combat and self-defense techniques
with sportand exercise. Gyeorugi (pronounced [kjʌɾuɡi]), a type of sparring, has been anOlympic
event since 2000. Taekwondo was developed by a variety of Korean masters during the 1940s as
combination of Okinawan karate, Chinese martial arts, and the ancient Korean
traditions taekkyeon and gwonbeop.
Modern History[edit]

During the Japanese occupation of Korea the practice of traditional Korean martial arts was
prohibited. Beginning in 1946, shortly after the conclusion of the occupation, new martial arts
schools called kwans were opened in Seoul. These schools were established by Korean martial
artists who had studied primarily in Okinawa and China during the Japanese occupation.
Accordingly, the martial arts practiced in the kwans was heavily influenced by shotokan karate and
Chinese martial arts, though elements of taekkyeon and gwonbeopwere also incorporated. The
umbrella term traditional taekwondo typically refers to the martial arts practiced by the kwans during
the 1940s and 1950s, though in reality the term "taekwondo" had not yet been coined at that time,
and indeed each kwan was practicing its own unique style of martial art. During this timeframe
taekwondo was also adopted for use by the South Korean military, which only served to increase its
popularity among civilian martial arts schools. [1] [2]

After witnessing a martial arts demonstration by the military in 1952, South

Korea President Syngman Rhee urged that the martial arts styles of the kwans be merged.
Beginning in 1955 the leaders of the kwans began discussing in earnest the possibility of creating a
unified style of Korean martial art. The name Tae Soo Do was used to describe this notional unified
style. In 1957,Choi Hong Hi advocated the use of the name Tae Kwon Do, though that name was
slow to catch on among the leaders of the kwans. In 1959 the Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA)
was established to facilitate the unification of Korean martial arts. Establishment of a unified style
required several years of negotiation. Seven years later, in 1966, under the sponsorship of the KTA,
the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF) was established as the governing body for the first
unified style of taekwondo. [1][2]

Cold War politics of the 1960s and 1970s complicated the adoption of ITF-style taekwondo as a
unified style,however. The South Korean government wished to avoid North Korean influence on the
martial art. Conversely, ITF president Choi Hong Hi sought support for the martial art from all
quarters, including North Korea. In response, in 1973 the KTA withdrew its support for the ITF. The
ITF continued to function as independent federation, then headquartered in Toronto, Canada, and
Choi continued to develop the ITF-style, notably with the 1987 publication of his Encyclopedia of
Taekwondo. After Choi's retirement the ITF split in 2001 and then again in 2002 to create three
separate federations each of which continues to operate today under the same name. [1][2]
In 1973, after the withdrawal of KTA support of the ITF, the South Korean government's Ministry of
Culture, Sports and Tourism established the Kukkiwon as the new national academy for taekwondo.
Kukkiwon now served the function previously served by the ITF, in terms of defining a government-
sponsored unified style of taekwondo. Kukkiwon-style taekwondo represents the second unified style
of taekwondo. Kukkiwon-style taekwondo is less combat-oriented and more sport-oriented than
either traditional taekwondo or ITF-style taekwondo. Indeed, in 1973 the KTA established the World
Taekwondo Federation (WTF) to promote taekwondo specifically as a sport. WTF competitions
employ Kukkiwon-style taekwondo. [1] [3] For this reason, Kukkiwon-style taekwondo is often referred
to as WTF-style taekwondo, though in reality the style is defined by the Kukkiwon, not the WTF.

Since 2000, taekwondo has been one of only two Asian martial arts (the other being judo) that are
included in the Olympic Games. It became a demonstration event at the 1988 games in Seoul, and
became an official medal event at the 2000 games in Sydney. In 2010, taekwondo was accepted as
a Commonwealth Games sport. [4]

Etymology[edit]

The name taekwondo is generally credited to Choi Hong Hi. The World Taekwondo
Federation claims that taekwondo development was a collaborative effort by a council consisting of
members from the nine original kwans, while theInternational Taekwon-Do Federation credits Choi
Hong Hi solely. [5]

In Korean, tae (태, 跆) means "to stomp" or "to strike or break with the foot"; kwon (권, 拳) means "to
strike or break with the fist"; and do (도, 道) means "way of life". Thus, taekwondo may be loosely

translated as "the way of the foot and the hand."[6] The name taekwondo is also written as taekwon-
do, tae kwon-do, or tae kwon do by various organizations.

Features[edit]
Flying double side kick

A jumping reverse hook kick

See also: List of Taekwondo techniques

Taekwondo is characterized by its emphasis on head-height kicks, jumping and spinning kicks, and
fast kicking techniques. In fact, World Taekwondo Federation sparring competitions award additional
points for strikes that incorporate jumping and spinning kicks.[7] To facilitate fast, turning kicks,
taekwondo generally adopts stances that are narrower and hence less-stable that the broader, wide
stances used by martial arts such as karate. The tradeoff of decreased stability is believed to be
worth the commensurate increase in agility.
Theory of Power[edit]

This emphasis on speed and agility is a defining characteristic of taekwondo and has its origins in
analyses undertaken by Choi Hong Hi. The results of that analysis are known by ITF practitioners as
Choi's Theory of Power. Choi's Theory of Power is based on biomechanics and Newtonian physics.
For example, Choi observed that the power of a strike increases quadratically with the speed of the
strike, but increases only linearly with the mass of the striking object. In other words, speed is more
important than size in terms of generating power. This principle was incorporated into the early
design of taekwondo and is still used. [2] [8]

Choi also advocated a relax / strike principle for taekwondo; in other words, between blocks, kicks,
and strikes the practitioner should relax the body, then tense the muscles only while performing the
technique. It is believed that this too increases the power of the technique, by conserving the body's
energy. He expanded on this principle with his advocacy of the sine wave technique. This involves
raising one's center of gravity between techniques, then lowering it as the technique is performed,
producing the up-and-down movement from which the term "sine wave" is derived. [8] The sine
wave is generally practiced, however, only in some schools that follow ITF-style taekwondo.
Kukkiwon-style taekwondo, for example, does not employ the sine wave and instead advocates a
more uniform height during movements.

The components of the Theory of Power include:[9]

 Reaction Force - the principle that as the striking limb is brought forward, other parts of the body
should be brought backward in order to provide more power to the striking limb. As an example,
if the right leg is brought forward in aroundhouse kick, the right arm is brought backward to
provide the reaction force.

 Concentration - the principle of bringing as many muscles as possible to bear on a strike,

concentrating the area of impact into as small an area as possible
 Equilibrium - as previously mentioned, the relatively narrow stances of taekwondo require
increased emphasis on maintaining a correct center-of-balance throughout a technique

 Breath Control - the idea that during a strike one should exhale, with the exhalation concluding
at the moment of impact

 Mass - the principle of bringing as much of the body to bear on a strike as possible; again using
the roundhouse kick as an example, the idea would be to rotate the hip as well as the leg during
the kick in order to take advantage of the hip's additional mass in terms of providing power to the
kick

 Speed - as previously mentioned however, speed is considered the most important component
of developing power in taekwondo
Typical Curriculum[edit]

While organizations such as ITF or Kukkiwon define the general style of taekwondo, individual clubs
and schools tend to the tailor their taekwondo practices. Although each taekwondo club or school is
different, a student typically takes part in most or all of the following: [10]

 Patterns (also called forms, poomsae 품새/品勢 poom'-sy, teul 틀toul, or hyeong 형/型 he-yung) -

these serve the same function as kata in the study of karate, and indeed many of the early,
traditional taekwondo forms are derived fromShotokan kata.
 Sparring (called gyeorugi 겨루기gyee-oh-roo'-gee, or matseogi 맞서기mat-see-oh'-gee in the ITF)

- sparring includes variations such as free-style sparring (in which competitors spar without
interruption for several minutes); 7-, 3-, 2-, and 1-step sparring (in which students practiced pre-
arranged sparring combinations); and point sparring (in which sparring is interrupted and then
resumed after each point is scored)
 Breaking (gyeokpa 격파gyee-ohk'-pah or weerok) - the breaking of boards is used for testing,

training, and martial arts demonstrations. Demonstrations often also incorporate bricks, tiles, and
blocks of ice or other materials. These technique can be separated into three types:
 Power breaking – using straightforward techniques to break as many boards as possible
 Speed breaking – boards are held loosely by one edge, putting special focus on the speed
required to perform the break
 Special techniques – breaking fewer boards but using jumping or flying techniques to attain
greater height, distance, or to clear obstacles
 Self-defense techniques (hosinsool 호신술, hoh'-sin-sool)

 Learning the fundamental techniques taekwondo; these generally include kicks, blocks,
punches, and strikes, with somewhat less emphasis on grappling and holds
 Throwing and/or falling techniques (deonjigi 던지기dee-on-jee'-gee and ddeoreojigi 떨어지기dee-

oh-ree-oh-jee'-gee)
 Both anaerobic and aerobic workout, including stretching

 Relaxation and meditation exercises, as well as breathing control

 A focus on mental and ethical discipline, etiquette, justice, respect, and self-confidence
 Examinations to progress to the next rank

 Development of personal success and leadership skills

Though weapons training is not a formal part of most taekwondo federation curriculums, individual
schools will often incorporate additional training with staffs, knifes, sticks, etc.
Main Techniques[edit]
Foot Techniques[edit]

Name Type Of Movement Striking Surface

Ap chagi (앞차기) Direct (Front) Foot bowl

Yeop chagi (옆차기) Lateral Heel

Dolryeo chagi (돌려차기) Circular (Front) Foot bowl

Bandal chagi (반달차기) Semi-circular (Front) Foot bowl

Dui chagi (뒤차기) Direct (Back) Heel

Naeryeo chagi (내려차기) Hammer Movement Heel

Equipment and Facilities[edit]

A WTF-style dobok
An example of a dojang

A taekwondo student typically wears a uniform (dobok 도복/道服, doh'-bok), often white but
sometimes black (or other colors), with a belt (ddi 띠, dee) tied around the waist. White uniforms are

considered the traditional color and are encouraged for use at formal ceremonies such as belt tests
and promotions. Colored uniforms are often reserved for special teams (such as demonstration
teams or leadership teams) or higher-level instructors. There are at least three major styles
of dobok, with the most obvious differences being in the style of jacket: (1) the cross-over front
jacket, (2) the V-neck jacket (no cross-over) typically worn by Kukkiwon/WTF practitioners, and (3)
the vertical-closing front jacket (no cross-over) typically worn by ITF practitioners. White uniforms in
the Kukkiwon/WTF tradition will typically be white throughout the jacket, while ITF-style uniforms are
trimmed with a black border along the bottom of the jacket.

The belt color and any insignia thereon indicate the student's rank. Different clubs and schools use
different color schemes for belts. In general, the darker the color, the higher the rank. Taekwondo is
traditionally performed in bare feet, although martial arts training shoes may sometimes be worn.

When sparring, padded equipment is worn. In the ITF tradition, typically only the hands and feet are
padded. For this reason, ITF sparring often employes only light-contact sparring. In the
Kukkiwon/WTF tradition, full-contact sparring is facilitated by the employment of more extensive
equipment: padded helmets called homyun are always worn, as are padded torso protectors
called hogu; feet, shins, groins, hands, and forearms protectors are also worn.

The school or place where instruction is given is called the dojang (도장, doh'-jang). Specifically, the

term dojang refers to the area within the school in which martial arts instruction takes place; the
word dojang is sometimes translated asgymnasium. In common usage the term dojang is often used
to refer to the school as a whole. Modern dojangs often incorporate padded flooring, often
incorporating red-and-blue patterns in the flooring to reflect the colors of the taegeuksymbol. Some
dojangs have wooden flooring instead. The dojang is usually decorated with items such as flags,
banners, belts, instructional materials, and traditional Korean calligraphy.

The grandmaster of the dojang is called a gwanjangnim (관장님, gwon'-jong-nim); the master (senior
instructor or head ofdojang) is called sabeomnim (사범님, sah'-bum-nim); the instructor is
called gyosannim (교사님, gyoh'-sah-nim); and the assistant instructor is
called jogyonim (조교님, joh'-gyoh-nim).

Styles and Organizations[edit]

There are a number of major taekwondo styles as well as a few niche styles. Most styles are
associated with a governing body or federation that defines the style. The major technical
differences among taekwondo styles and organizations generally revolve around:

 the patterns practiced by each style (called hyeong 형, poomsae 품새, or teul 틀, depending on the

style); these are sets of prescribed formal sequences of movements that demonstrate mastery of
posture, positioning, and technique
 differences in the sparring rules for competition; specifically, WTF-style competition (the style
used in the Olympics) is generally more sport oriented and less combat-oriented than other
styles
 martial arts philosophy.
1946: Traditional Taekwondo[edit]

The term traditional taekwondo typically refers to martial arts practiced in Korea during the 1940s
and 1950s by the nine original kwans after the conclusion of the Japanese occupation of Korea at
the end of World War II. The term taekwondohad not yet been coined. In reality, each of the nine
kwans practiced its own style of martial arts, so the term traditional taekwondo serves as an
umbrella term for these various styles. Many of the founders of the nine kwans had studiedShotokan
karate, so traditional taekwondo shares many of the same techniques, forms (hyeong), and names
as Shotokan. Traditional taekwondo is still studied today in martial arts styles such as Tang Soo
Do, Soo Bahk Do, and Moo Duk Kwan Taekwondo. [1][2]

The original schools (kwans) that formed the organization that would eventually
become Kukkiwon continue to exist as independent fraternal membership organizations that support
the World Taekwondo Federation and Kukkiwon. The official curriculum of the kwans is that of
Kukkiwon. The kwans also function as a channel for the issuing of Kukkiwon dan and poom
certification (black belt ranks) for their members.
1966: ITF-style Taekwondo[edit]

International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF)-style taekwondo is defined by Choi Hong

Hi's Encyclopedia of Taekwon-dopublished in 1987. [8] This is the first unified style of taekwondo,
developed by incorporating martial arts elements from the original kwans under the sponsorship of
the Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA) in 1966.

In 1990, the Global Taekwondo Federation (GTF) split from the ITF due to the political controversies
surrounding the ITF; the GTF continues to practice ITF-style taekwondo, however, with additional
elements incorporated into the style. Likewise, the ITF itself split in 2001 and again in 2002 into three
separate federations, headquartered in Austria, the United Kingdom, and Spain respectively.[11][12][13]

The GTF and all three ITFs practice Choi's ITF-style taekwondo. In ITF-style taekwondo, the word
used for "forms" is teul; the specific set of teul used by the ITF is called Chang Hon. Choi defined
24 Chang Hon teul. The names and symbolism of the Chang Hon teul refer to elements of Korean
history, culture and religious philosophy. The GTF-variant of ITF practices an additional six teul.

Within the ITF taekwondo tradition there are two sub-styles:

 The style of taekwondo practiced by the ITF before its 1973 split with the KTA is sometimes
called by ITF practitioners "traditional taekwondo", though a more accurate term would
be traditional ITF taekwondo.
 After the 1973 split, Choi Hong Hi continued to develop and refine the style, ultimately publishing
his work in his 1987Encyclopedia of Taekwondo. Among the refinements incorporated into this
new sub-style is the "sine wave"; one of Choi Hong Hi's later principles of taekwondo is that the
body's center of gravity should be raised-and-lowered throughout a movement.

Some ITF schools adopt the sine wave style, while others do not. Essentially all ITF schools do,
however, use the patterns (teul) defined in the Encyclopedia, with some exceptions related to the
forms Juche and Ko-Dang.
1969: ATA/Songahm-style Taekwondo[edit]

In 1969, Haeng Ung Lee, a former taekwondo instructor in the South Korean military, relocated to
Omaha, Nebraska and established a chain of martial arts schools in the United States under the
banner of the American Taekwondo Association(ATA). Like Jhoon Rhee taekwondo, ATA
taekwondo has its roots in traditional taekwondo. The style of taekwondo practiced by the ATA is
called Songahm taekwondo. The ATA went on to become one of the largest chains of taekwondo
schools in the United States.[14]

The ATA has established international spin-offs called the Songahm Taekwondo Federation (STF)
and the World Traditional Taekwondo Union (WTTU) to promote the practice of Songahm-style
taekwondo internationally.
1970s: Jhoon Rhee-style Taekwondo[edit]

In 1962 Jhoon Rhee relocated to the United States and established a chain of martial arts schools
primarily in the Washington, D.C. area that practiced traditional taekwondo. In the 1970s, at the
urging of Choi Hong Hi, Rhee adopted ITF-style taekwondo within his chain of schools, but like the
GTF later departed from the ITF due to the political controversies surrounding Choi and the ITF.
Rhee went on to develop his own style of taekwondo called Jhoon Rhee-style taekwondo,
incorporating elements of both traditional and ITF-style taekwondo as well as original
elements.[15] (Note that Jhoon Rhee-style taekwondo is distinct from the similarly named Rhee
Taekwon-Do.)

Jhoon Rhee-style taekwondo is still practiced primarily in the United States and eastern Europe.
1972: Kukkiwon/WTF-style Taekwondo[edit]

In 1972 the Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA) Central Dojang opened in Seoul in 1972; in 1973
the name was changed to Kukkiwon. Under the sponsorship of the South Korean
government's Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism the Kukkiwon became the new national
academy for taekwondo, thereby establishing a second "unified" style of taekwondo. This style being
less combat-oriented and more sports-oriented than the first unified style, ITF-style taekwondo. [3] In
1973 the KTA established the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) to promote taekwondo as a
sport. The International Olympic Committee recognized the WTF and taekwondo sparring in 1980.
For this reason, Kukkiwon-style taekwondo is sometimes referred to as Sport-
style taekwondo, Olympic-style taekwondo, or WTF-style taekwondo, though technically the style
itself is defined by the Kukkiwon, not the WTF.[16]

In Kukkiwon/WTF-style taekwondo, the word used for "forms" is poomsae. In 1967 the KTA
established a new set of forms called the Palgwae poomse, named after the eight trigrams of the I
Ching. In 1971 however the KTA and Kukkiwon adopted a new set of color-belt forms instead, called
the Taegeuk poomsae. Black belt forms are called yudanja poomsae. While ITF-style forms refer to
key elements of Korean history, Kukkwon/WTF-style forms refer instead to elements of sino-Korean
philosophy such as the I Ching and the taegeuk.

WTF-sanctioned tournaments allow any person, regardless of school affiliation or martial arts style,
to compete in WTF events as long as he or she is a member of the WTF Member National
Association in his or her nation; this allows essentially anyone to compete in WTF-sanctioned
competitions.
Other Styles[edit]

As previously mentioned, in 1990 the Global Taekwondo Federation (GTF) split from
the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF) to form its own style of taekwondo based on ITF-
style. Essentially this can be considered a variation of ITF-style.

Also in 1990, martial artist and actor Chuck Norris established a hybrid variant of traditional
taekwondo called Chun Kuk Do. Chun Kuk Do shares many techniques, forms and names with Tang
Soo Do and Moo Duk Kwan Taekwondo, and so can be considered a variation of traditional
taekwondo.

Ranks, belts, and promotion[edit]

Exhibition of taekwondo students at the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education,
Mexico City.

Taekwondo ranks are typically separated into "junior" and "senior," or "student" and "instructor,"
sections. The junior section typically consists of ten ranks indicated by the Korean word geup 급

(also Romanized as gup or kup). The junior ranks are usually identified by belts of various colors,
depending on the school, so these ranks are sometimes called "color belts". Geup rank may be
indicated by stripes on belts rather than by colored belts. Students begin at tenth geup (often
indicated by a white belt) and advance toward first geup (often indicated by a red belt with a white or
black stripe).
The senior section is typically made up of nine ranks. Each rank is called a dan 단, also referred to

as "black belt" or "degree" (as in "third dan" or "third-degree black belt"). Black belts begin at first
degree and advance to second, third, and so on. The degree is often indicated on the belt itself with
stripes, Roman numerals, or other methods, but sometimes black belts are plain and unadorned
regardless of rank.

To advance from one rank to the next, students typically complete promotion tests in which they
demonstrate their proficiency in the various aspects of the art before their teacher or a panel of
judges. Promotion tests vary from school to school, but may include such elements as the execution
of patterns, which combine various techniques in specific sequences; the breaking of boards to
demonstrate the ability to use techniques with both power and control; sparring and self-defense to
demonstrate the practical application and control of techniques; physical fitness usually with push-
ups and sit-ups; and answering questions on terminology, concepts, and history to demonstrate
knowledge and understanding of the art. For higher dan tests, students are sometimes required to
take a written test or submit a research paper in addition to taking the practical test.

Promotion from one geup to the next can proceed rapidly in some schools, since schools often
allow geup promotions every two, three, or four months. Students of geup rank learn the most basic
techniques first, and then move on to more advanced techniques as they approach first dan. Many
of the older and more traditional schools often take longer to allow students to test for higher ranks
than newer, more contemporary schools, as they may not have the required testing intervals.

In contrast, promotion from one dan to the next can take years. The general rule is that a black belt
may advance from one rank to the next only after the number of years equivalent to their current
rank. For example, a newly promoted third-degree black belt may not be allowed to advance to
fourth-degree until three years have passed. Some organizations also have age requirements
related to dan promotions, and may grant younger students poom 품 (junior black belt) ranks rather

than danranks until they reach a certain age.

Black belt ranks may have titles associated with them, such as "master" and "instructor", but
taekwondo organizations vary widely in rules and standards when it comes to ranks and titles. What
holds true in one organization may not hold true in another, as is the case in many martial
art systems. For example, achieving first dan ranking with three years' training might be typical in
one organization, but considered too quick in another organization, and likewise for other ranks.
Similarly, the title for a given dan rank in one organization might not be the same as the title for
that dan rank in another organization.

In the International Taekwon-Do Federation, instructors holding 1st to 3rd dan are
called Boosabum (assistant instructor), those holding 4th to 6th dan are called Sabum (instructor),
those holding 7th to 8th dan are called Sahyun (master), and those holding 9th dan are
called Saseong (grandmaster).[17] This system does not, however, necessarily apply to other
taekwondo organizations.

In the World Taekwondo Federation, Students holding 1st-3rd dan are considered an Instructor, but
generally have much to learn. Students who hold a 4th - 6th dan are considered Masters and must
be at least 18 years old. Masters who hold a 7th - 9th dan are considered a Grand-Master. This rank
also holds an age requirement of 40+ (age requirement for this belt is not 100% certain).

Historical Influences[edit]

See also: Korean martial arts

The oldest Korean martial arts were an amalgamation of unarmed combat styles developed by the
three rival Korean Kingdoms of Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje, [18] where young men were trained in
unarmed combat techniques to develop strength, speed, and survival skills. The most popular of
these techniques was ssireum and subak, with taekkyeon being the most popular of the components
of subak. The Northern Goguryeo kingdom was a dominant force in Northern Korea and North
Eastern China prior to the 1st century CE, and again from the 3rd century to the 6th century. Before
the fall of the Goguryeo Dynasty in the 6th century, the Shilla Kingdom asked for help in training its
people for defense against pirate invasions. During this time a few select Silla warriors were given
training in taekkyeon by the early masters from Goguryeo. These Shilla warriors then became known
as the Hwarang. The Hwarang set up a military academy for the sons of royalty in Silla
called Hwarang-do, which means "the way of flowering manhood." The Hwarang studied taekkyeon,
history, Confucianphilosophy, ethics, Buddhist morality, social skills, and military tactics. The guiding
principles of the Hwarang warriors were based on Won Gwang's five codes of human conduct and
included loyalty, filial duty, trustworthiness, valor, and justice. [19]

In spite of Korea's rich history of ancient and martial arts, Korean martial arts faded during the
late Joseon Dynasty. Korean society became highly centralized under Korean Confucianism, and
martial arts were poorly regarded in a society whose ideals were epitomized by its scholar-
kings. [20] Formal practices of traditional martial arts such as subak and taekkyeonwere reserved for
sanctioned military uses. However, taekkyeon persisted into the 19th century as a folk game during
the May-Dano festival, and was still taught as the formal military martial art throughout the Joseon
Dynasty.[18]

Early progenitors of taekwondo - the founders of the nine original kwans - who were able to study in
Japan were exposed toJapanese martial arts, including karate, judo, and kendo,[21] while others
were exposed to the martial arts of China and Manchuria, as well as to the indigenous Korean
martial art of taekkyeon. [22] [23] [24][25] Hwang Kee founder of Moo Duk Kwan, further incorporated
elements of Korean Gwonbeop from the Muye Dobo Tongji into the style that eventually
becameTang Soo Do.

Philosophy[edit]

Different styles of taekwondo adopt different philosophical underpinnings. Many of these

underpinnings however refer back of the Five Commandments of the Hwarang as a historical
referent. For example, Choi Hong Hi expressed his philosophical basis for taekwondo as the Five
Tenets of Taekwondo:[26]

 Ye-Ui, courtesy
 Yom-Chi, integrity

 In-Nae, perseverance, patience

 Guk-Gi, self-discipline
 Beakjul-bool-gul, invincibility

These tenets are further articulated in a taekwondo oath, also authored by Choi:

 I undertake to comply with the principles of Taekwondo

 I undertake to respect my coaches and all superiors

 I undertake to abuse Taekwondo never

 I pledge to stand up for freedom and justice

 I undertake to cooperate in the creation of a more peaceful world

Modern ITF organizations have continued to update and expand upon this philosophy.[27] [28]
The World Taekwondo Federation also refers to the commandments of the Hwarang in the
articulation of its taekwondo philosophy.[29] Like the ITF philosophy, it centers on the development of
a peaceful society as one of the overarching goals for the practice of taekwondo. The WTF's stated
philosophy is that this goal can be furthered by adoption of the Hwarang spirit, by behaving rationally
("education in accordance with the reason of heaven"), and by recognition of the philosophies
embodied in the taegeuk (the yin and the yang, i.e., "the unity of opposites") and the sam
taegeuk (understanding change in the world as the interactions of the heavens, the Earth, and Man).
The philosophical position articulated by the Kukkiwon is likewise based on the Hwarang tradition.[30]

Competition[edit]

Sparring in a taekwondo class

Taekwondo competition typically involves sparring, breaking, patterns, and self-defense (hosinsul).
In Olympic taekwondo competition, however, only sparring (using WTF competition rules) is
performed.[31]

There are two kinds of competition sparring: point sparring, in which all strikes are light contact and
the clock is stopped when a point is scored; and Olympic sparring, where all strikes are full contact
and the clock continues when points are scored.[citation needed]
World Taekwondo Federation[edit]

Official WTF trunk protector (hogu), forearm guards and shin guards

Under World Taekwondo Federation and Olympic rules, sparring is a full-contact event and takes
place between two competitors in an area measuring 8 meters square.[32] A win can occur by points,
or if one competitor is unable to continue (knockout) the other competitor wins.[33] Each match
consists of three semi-continuous rounds of contact, with one minute's rest between rounds. There
are two age categories: 14–17 years and 18 years and older. Depending on the type of tournament
and club, competitors may also wear fist protectors, foot protectors, instep guards, helmets, or
mouth guards.

Points are awarded for permitted, accurate, and powerful techniques delivered to the legal scoring
areas; light contact does not score any points. The only techniques allowed are kicks (delivering a
strike using an area of the foot below the ankle) and punches (delivering a strike using the closed
fist).[34] In most competitions, points are awarded by three corner judges using electronic scoring
tallies. Several A-Class tournaments, however, are now experimenting with electronic scoring
equipment contained within the competitors' body protectors. This limits corner judges to scoring
only attacks to the head. Some believe that the new electronic scoring system will help to reduce
controversy concerning judging decisions,[35] but this technology is still not universally accepted.[36]

Beginning in 2009, a kick or punch that makes contact with the opponent's hogu (the body guard that
functions as a scoring target) scores one point. (The trunk protector is referred to as a momtong
pohodae 몸통 보호대 or trunk guard in the WTF rules.) If a kick to the hogu involves a technique that
includes fully turning the attacking competitor's body, so that the back is fully exposed to the targeted
competitor during execution of the technique (spinning kick), an additional point is awarded. A kick to
the head scores three points; as of October 2010 an additional point is awarded if a turning kick was
used to execute this attack.[37] Punches to the head are not allowed. As of March 2010, no additional
points are awarded for knocking down an opponent (beyond the normal points awarded for legal
strikes).

The referee can give penalties at any time for rule-breaking, such as hitting an area not recognized
as a target, usually the legs or neck. Penalties are divided into "Kyong-go" (warning penalty) and
"Gam-jeom" (deduction penalty). Two "Kyong-go" are counted as an addition of one point for the
opposing contestant. However, the final odd-numbered "Kyong-go" is not counted in the grand
total.[38]

At the end of three rounds, the competitor with most points wins the match. In the event of a tie, a
fourth "sudden death" overtime round, sometimes called a "Golden Point", is held to determine the
winner after a one-minute rest period. In this round, the first competitor to score a point wins the
match. If there is no score in the additional round, the winner is decided by superiority, as
determined by the refereeing officials.[37]

Until 2008, if one competitor gained a 7 point lead over the other, or if one competitor reached a total
of 12 points, then that competitor was immediately declared the winner and the match ended. These
rules were abolished by the WTF at the start of 2009. In October 2010 the WTF reintroduced a point-
gap rule, stating that if a competitor has a 12-point lead at the end of the second round or achieves a
12-point lead at any point in the third round, then the match is over and that competitor is declared
the winner.[37]
International Taekwon-Do Federation[edit]

Common styles of ITF point sparring equipment

The International Taekwon-Do Federation's sparring rules are similar to the WTF's rules, but differ in
several aspects.

 Hand and foot attacks to the head are allowed.[39]

 The scoring system is:
 1 point for: Punch to the body or head.
 2 points for: Jumping kick to the body or kick to the head
 3 points for: Jumping kick to the head

 The competition area may vary between 10×10 meters and 20×20 meters in international
championships.

Competitors do not wear the hogu (although they are required to wear approved foot and hand
protection equipment, as well as optional head guards). This scoring system varies between
individual organisations within the ITF; for example, in the TAGB, punches to the head or body score
1 point, kicks to the body score 2 points, and kicks to the head score 3 points.

A continuous point system is utilized in ITF competition, where the fighters are allowed to continue
after scoring a technique. Full-force blows are allowed, but judges penalize any competitor with
disqualification if they injure their opponent and he can no longer continue (although these rules vary
between ITF organizations). At the end of two minutes (or some other specified time), the competitor
with more scoring techniques wins.

Fouls in ITF sparring include: attacking a fallen opponent, leg sweeping, holding/grabbing, or
intentional attack to a target other than the opponent.[40]

ITF competitions also feature performances of patterns, breaking, and 'special techniques' (where
competitors perform prescribed board breaks at great heights).
Other organizations[edit]

American Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) competitions are very similar, except that different styles of
pads and gear are allowed.[citation needed]

Apart from WTF and ITF tournaments, major taekwondo competitions (all featuring WTF taekwondo
only) include:

 Olympic Games
 Universiade

 Asian Games
 South East Asian Games

 South Asian Games

WTF taekwondo features in all multi-sport games except the Small Island Games. It was accepted
as a Commonwealth Games sport in June 2010.

Safety[edit]

Although taekwondo competitors have an apparently substantial risk of injury, most injuries are
minor. A 2009 meta-analysisreported that an average of about 8% of competitors are injured per
exposure to competition. Age, gender, and level of play did not significantly affect the injury
rate.[41] The legs are the most common location for injuries, and bruising is the most common injury
type.

Injuries may occur if students are taught to block punches in a formal manner (chamber position,
perfect angles, etc.) even when sparring. When comparing the speed of a punch and the reaction
time taken to block effectively, it is difficult to block a punch. Many taekwondo schools teach
students blocking for grading and classwork, and dodging or parrying for sparring.

Korean commands[edit]

In taekwondo, Korean language commands are often used. Korean numerals may be used as
prompts or commands, or for counting repetition exercises. Often, students count in Korean during
their class, and during tests they are usually asked what certain Korean words mean. These words
are fairly common amongst taekwondo dojos, but accuracy of pronunciation can vary widely.

Romanization Hangeul Hanja English

Charyeot (chah-ryuht') 차렷 Come to attention

Gyeongnye (kyuhng-nyeh) 경례 敬禮 Bow

Baro (bah'-roh or pah'-roh) 바로 Return

Shwieo (shwee-uh) 쉬어 At ease (relax)

Hyushik (hyoo'-sheek) 휴식 休息 Rest period (break)

Gihap (kee'-hahp) 기합 氣合 Yell (shout)

Junbi (joon'-bee) 준비 準備 Ready

Shijak (shee-jahk') 시작 始作 Begin (start)

Gallyeo (kahl'-lyuh) 갈려 Break (separate)

Gyesok (kyeh'-sohk) 계속 繼續 Continue

Geuman (geuh'-mahn) 그만 Finish (stop)

Dwiro dora (dwee'roh doh'-rah) 뒤로돌아 About face (180 degrees)

Haesan (heh'-sahn) 해산 解散 Dismissed