INTRODUCTION

• PRAGMATICS STUDIES HOW THE TRANSMISSION OF MEANING DEPENDS NOT ONLY ON

STRUCTURAL AND LINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGE LIKE GRAMMAR AND LEXICON OF THE
SPEAKER AND LISTENER. THE ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND ANOTHER SPEAKER'S
INTENDED MEANING IS CALLED PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE.
• WHEN WE SPEAK OF THE REFERENTIAL USES OF LANGUAGE, WE USE WORDS TO
REFER TO CERTAIN ITEMS. A WORD IS THE LINK OR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
A SPEAKER AND RECEIVER. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TWO GIVES THE
MEANING OF THE WHOLE SENTENCE IN THE UTTERANCE. THIS RELATIONSHIP CAN BE
FURTHER EXPLAINED BY CONSIDERING WHAT WE MEAN BY REFERENCE
• REFERENCE IS A RELATION BETWEEN OBJECTS IN WHICH ONE OBJECT IS INDICATES,
OR ACTS AS MEANS TO CONNECT OR LINK TO ANOTHER OBJECT
ANAPHORA
• SUBCATEGORIES OF ENDOPHORA: AN EXPRESSION THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING
IN THE SAME TEXT.
• ANAPHORA MEANS AN EXPRESSION THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING MENTIONED
EARLIER IN THE CONTEXT.
• ANAPHORA:
Adam loves cats. No wonder he has 20 cats.
John buys new ring for jane. It is a diamond ring.

• CATAPHORA:
Because he is too scared, jim runs faster.
Her friends left anna for lying.
• ANAPHORIC EXPRESSION CAN BE FOUND IN PROFORM WHICH IS TO EXPRESS
STANDS FOR ANOTHER WORD, PHRASE, CLAUSE OR SENTENCE WHERE THE
MEANING IS RETRIEVED FROM THE CONTEXT.
• PROFORM IS USED TO AVOID THE USAGE AND THE REPETITION OF THE WORD
USED IN ONE SENTENCE.
• Samuel loves flowers, and that is why he plant a lot of them and always present them for his
mother and sister.
• PRONOUN, PRO-ADJECTIVE, PRO-ADVERB, PRO-VERB, PRO-SENTENCE.
• A PRONOUN IS USED TO SUBSTITUTES A NOUN OR A NOUN PHRASE IN A SENTENCE
Laptop is the most important gadget in student life because it is needed to do assignment and search for material.
• A PRO-ADJECTIVE IS USED TO SUBSTITUTES AN ADJECTIVE OR A PHRASE THAT FUNCTIONS AS
AN ADJECTIVE.
Her dress is green. So is mine.
• AN ADVERB OR PHRASE FUNCTIONS AS ADVERB IN A SENTENCE WILL BE SUBSTITUTE WITH
PRO-ADVERB.
He exercised regularly. I did too.
• PRO-VERB IT IS USED SUBSTITUTES A VERB OR A VERB PHRASE.
I like cats as he does.
• PRO-SENTENCE SUBSTITUTES AN ENTIRE SENTENCE OR SUB-SENTENCE
Do you love animals? – Yes, I do.
DEIXIS
WHAT IS IT?

i. DEICTIC EXPRESSION
 LYON (1977): GREEK WORD “DEIKTIKOS”
=POINTING AT

ii. DEIXIS
• YULE (1996) ='POINTING' VIA LANGUAGE
• EHLICH (1982) =A LINGUISTIC MEANS FOR ACHIEVING FOCUSING OF
THE HEARER‟S ATTENTION TOWARDS A SPECIFIC ITEM WHICH IS
PART OF THE RESPECTIVE DEICTIC SPACE
TRADITIONAL DEIXIS
• Person deixis • Time deixis deals
deals with the Place with the encoding
correct of temporal points
identification of • That refer to and periods in
the grammatical spatial context relation to the time
persons used to such as here at which an
refer to speaker and there. utterance is
and addressee produced in a
(Iwanov, 2011). speech event
(Iwanov, 2011).

Person Time
PERSON DEIXIS
• CONCERNS WITH THE GRAMMATICAL PERSONS INVOLVED IN THE
UTTERANCE:
1. THOSE WHO DIRECTLY INVOLVED IN THE DISCOURSE (THE SPEAKER
AND THE ADDRESSEE),
2. THOSE WHO NOT DIRECTLY INVOLVED (OVERHEARERS)
3. THOSE WHO MENTIONED IN THE UTTERANCE.

EXAMPLE:
“DO YOU KNOW? I WAS NEARLY DEAD YESTERDAY! LUCKILY, HE SAVED ME”
“ I’VE GOT A NICE PLACE HERE, HE SAID, HIS EYES FLASHING ABOUT
RESTLESSLY.”
 PLACE DEIXIS
• SPACE DEIXIS DEALS WITH THE SPECIFICATION OF LOCATION IN SPACE IN RELATION TO THAT OF THE
SPEAKER OR HEARER AT THE MOMENT IN A SPEECH EVENT.

• 3 LINGUISTIC FRAMES OF REFERENCE - CONVEY SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE ENTITY TO BE

LOCATED (IWANOV,2011):

1. INTRINSIC FRAME-THE OBJECT-CENTERED COORDINATES

“THE DOG IS BEHIND THE CAR”

2. RELATIVE FRAME-THE SPATIAL RELATION BETWEEN A VIEWPOINT, WITH A FIGURE AND GROUND
THAT ARE DISTINCT FROM VIEWPOINT

“THE DOG IS TO THE LEFT OF THE CAR.”

3. ABSOLUTE FRAME-SHOW THE COORDINATE SYSTEM BASED ON ABSOLUTE COORDINATES OF THE

OBJECT AND THE FIGURE.

“THE DOG IS STANDING AT THE EAST OF THE CAR.”

• PROXIMAL OR DISTAL INTERPRETATIONS
• „HERE, THIS AND THESE‟:LOCATE SOMETHING NEAR TO THE
SPEAKER
• „THERE, THAT AND THOSE‟: LOCATE SOMETHING FAR FROM THE
SPEAKER.

“I’VE GOT A NICE PLACE HERE, HE SAID, HIS EYES FLASHING ABOUT
RESTLESSLY.”
“SHE’S GOING TO SPEND LOTS OF WEEK-ENDS OUT HERE THIS
SUMMER.”
 TIME DEIXIS
• IWANOV (2011) CLAIMED THAT THERE ARE TWO WAYS TO LOOK AT TIME:

1. REGARD TIME AS A CONSTANT AND THE “WORLD” AS MOVING THROUGH TIME

FROM THE PAST TO THE FUTURE OR THE YEARS AHEAD

2. THINK OF THE “WORLD” AS STABLE AND OF TIME FLOWING THROUGH THE

“WORLD” FROM THE FUTURE TO THE PAST WHICH IS THE COMING YEARS.

 PEOPLE CAN DISTINGUISH BETWEEN TIME POINTS SUCH AS “ELEVEN O‟CLOCK”

AND TIME PERIODS, FOR EXAMPLE “TOMORROW MORNING”.

“SEE YOU ON TWO O’CLOCK” (TIME POINTS)

“WE’LL CONTINUE THIS DISCUSSION TOMORROW EVENING, OKAY?” (TIME PERIODS)

 MARCUS TOMALIN (2002)
• TIME DEIXIS CAN BE CALENDRICAL AND NON-CALENDRICAL

• CALENDRICAL PERIOD : THE FIXED-LENGTH SEQUENCE OF NATURALLY GIVEN TIME UNITS, SUCH AS
”SEPTEMBER”,” YEAR”

• CAN BE POSITIONAL:

“I WILL SEE YOU ON MONDAY”,

“YOU HAVE TO SUBMIT THE PROPOSAL BY THE END OF APRIL”

• OR NON-POSITIONAL- THE TIME ADVERBS CAN BE RELATIVE TO THE TIME WHEN AN UTTERANCE IS
MADE OR WHEN THE UTTERANCE IS HEARD- FILLMORE (1971) CALL THE MOMENT OF UTTERANCE AS
ENCODING TIME (ET) AND THE MOMENT OF RECEPTION AS DECODING TIME (DT).
“I HOPE YOU WILL BE HAPPY WHEN YOU SEE THIS PICTURE” (DT)
“HEY, COME HERE, NOW!” (ET)

• NON-CALENDRICAL: THE PERIODS OF MEASURE IS IN RELATION TO SOME FIXED POINTS OF INTEREST.

AS AN EXAMPLE, “FORTNIGHT”
“WHEN WILL THE RITUAL END, MOTHER?”
“THE RITUAL WILL BE FINISHED ON FORTNIGHT FROM NOW”

• TENSE INFLECTION ON VERBS CAN ALSO BE ANALYSED AS TEMPORAL DEIXIS.

“BY SEVEN O’CLOCK THE ORCHESTRA HAS ARRIVED…”

“SHE WENT TO THE SCHOOL”
“I HAD EATEN”

# NO NEED TO PUT THE SPECIFIC TIME IN THE SENTENCES ABOVE BECAUSE THE RECIPIENTS OF THE
MESSAGES KNOW IT IS IN THE PAST, BASED ON THE PAST TENSES USED
MODERN DEIXIS
• DISCOURSE DEIXIS (TEXT DEIXIS)= REFERS TO THE EXPRESSIONS
USED IN A DISCOURSE AND THESE EXPRESSIONS INCLUDE THE
UTTERANCE ITSELF (DYLGJERI AND KAZAZI, 2013).

“IT SOUNDED LIKE THIS: WHOOSH”

“THIS IS AN UNUSUAL PARTY.”

• “THIS” REFERS TO AN UPCOMING PORTION OF THE DISCOURSE, AND,

“YOU ARE WRONG’. THAT'S EXACTLY WHAT SHE SAID”

• “THAT” REFERS TO A PRIOR PORTION OF THE DISCOURSE.

SOCIAL DEIXIS

• “THOSE ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE STRUCTURE THAT ARE ANCHORED TO THE

SOCIAL IDENTITIES OF PARTICIPANTS (INCLUDING BYSTANDERS) IN THE SPEECH
EVENT, OR TO RELATIONS BETWEEN THEM, OR TO RELATIONS BETWEEN THEM
AND OTHER REFERENTS.” (LEVINSON (1979)

• RELATED TO THE SOCIAL INFORMATION ENCODED WITHIN AN UTTERANCE.

• TWO MAJOR FORMS:
i. T-V DISTINCTIONS
ii. HONORIFICS
 T-V DISTINCTIONS
• T-V DISTINCTIONS=LATIN WORDS “TU”, THE SINGULAR 2ND PERSON
PRONOUN=INFORM. “VOS”, THE PLURAL 2ND PERSON PRONOUN=FORMAL OR
POLITE CONTEXT.

“ I TELL THEE WHAT ANTHONIO, I LOVE THEE, AND IT IS MY LOVE THAT SPEAKS”

• OR

“TO FURNISH THEE TO BELMONT, TO FAIR PORTIA.”

„THEE‟=AN ARCHAIC PRONOUN DERIVED BY „THOU‟, NOWADAYS USED ONLY IN

ECCLESIASTIC FUNCTIONS, HAS THE SAME ROLE AS „VOUS‟ IN FRENCH, OR „LEI‟
IN ITALIAN, OR „SIE‟ IN GERMAN. THIS TYPE OF DEIXIS IS COMMONLY USED IN
EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
 HONORIFICS
• INVOLVE THE USAGE OF PARTICULAR LEXEMES IN ORDER TO
SHOW THE ACTUAL STATUS OF THE SPEAKER AND HEARER. FOR
EXAMPLE,
“THE PRESIDENT”
• CAN BE FOUND IN VARIETY OF LANGUAGES, ESPECIALLY IN
SOUTH AND EAST ASIA. AS AN EXAMPLE, IN MALAY LANGUAGE,
A ROYAL-BLOOD PERSON WILL USE:
“BAGINDA” AND “BETA”
• INSTEAD OF “DIA” AND “SAYA” OR “YOU” AND “I”, TO DISTINCT
HIS OR HER HIGH STATUS WITH THE ORDINARY CLASS PEOPLE.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANAPHORA
AND DEIXIS
• AN ANAPHORA IS AN EXPRESSION THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING MENTIONED EARLIER IN THE TEXT
John is tired because he has been working all day.
WHILE, DEIXIS, IT IS AN EXPRESSION WHOSE EXACT MEANING VARIES WITH THE CONTEXT IN
WHICH IT IS UTTERED.
Who exactly is meant by you?
Where is here?

• ANAPHORA IS THE PATTERNS OF REDUCTION.

Key is handsome and he is intelligent.
Dani loves aminal so do i.
FOR DEIXIS, IT CONCERNS THE USE OF CERTAIN LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS TO LOCATE ENTITIES IN
THE CONTEXT.
I'll meet you over there.
Put that here and then move this over there.
• ACCORDING TO LYON (1977), CERTAIN EXPRESSIONS CAN BE BOTH DEICTIC AND ANAPHORIC AT THE
SAME TIME. FOR EXAMPLE:

“ I LIVE AT WEST EGG. –REALLY? I LIKE IT THERE (OR HERE) .”

„HERE‟ AND „THERE‟ ARE ANAPHORIC EXPRESSIONS SINCE THEY REFER TO A REFERENT PREVIOUSLY
MENTIONED, WEST EGG.

DEICTIC BECAUSE THE USAGE OF „HERE‟ OR „THERE‟ INDICATES THE CURRENT LOCATION OF THE
SPEAKER.

IN ORDER TO DISTINGUISH THE TWO POSSIBILITIES WE MUST BE CAREFUL TO DEFINE WHAT THE
EXPRESSION REFERS TO. IT HAS TO BE ANAPHORIC IF IT REFERS TO A PRIOR REFERENT, ALREADY
MENTIONED WITHIN THE UTTERANCE AND IT IS DISCOURSE DEICTIC WHEN IT REFERS TO A PIECE OF
DISCOURSE (DYLGJERI AND KAZAZI 2013).
• THE ANAPHORA, IN THE LINGUISTICS SENSE, MAKES USE OF DEICTIC EXPRESSIONS, FOR EXAMPLE,

“SAM WENT HOME BECAUSE HE WAS TIRED.”

"HE" IS THE ANAPHORA EXPRESSION REFERRING TO "SAM", BUT IT'S ALSO A DEICTIC EXPRESSION,
BECAUSE IT CAN CHANGES ACCORDING TO THE CONTEXT OR SUBJECT. DEIXIS, ON THE OTHER HAND,
IS NOT NECESSARILY RELATED TO ANAPHORA. FOR EXAMPLE,

“YOU, YOU AND YOU, COME OVER HERE.”

THERE IS NO ANAPHORA IN THIS SENTENCE THOSE ARE JUST DEICTIC EXPRESSIONS REFERRING TO
THREE DIFFERENT SUBJECTS, BUT NO ANAPHORA.
CONCLUSION
• BOTH ANAPHORA AND DEIXIS HAVE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EACH OTHER ALTHOUGH
THEY ARE UNDER THE SAME CONTEXT OF REFERENCE.

• ANAPHORA MEANS AN EXPRESSION THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING MENTIONED

EARLIER IN THE CONTEXT.

• MEANWHILE, DEIXIS IS AN EXPRESSION THAT IS USED TO REFER TO THE WORDS AND

PHRASES THAT CANNOT BE FULLY UNDERSTOOD WITHOUT ADDITIONAL
CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION.