Presents

Practical
HV Cable Jointing and Terminations
for Engineers and Technicians

www.idc-online.com
idc@idc-online.com
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 Table of Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Electrical cables 1
1.2 Cables – a historical perspective 4
1.3 Types of cables 6
1.4 Types of insulation materials 8
1.5 Installation 9
1.6 Standard specifications 10
1.7 Test procedure 11
1.8 Failures 12

2 Cables 15
2.1 Basic construction 15
2.2 Conductor materials and configurations 17
2.3 Insulation material for different application and voltages 20
2.4 Use of screens in HV cables 40
2.5 Use of armor for ground continuity and mechanical protection 43
2.6 Special aspect of single core cables 47
2.7 Voltage rating of cables and impact of system grounding 49
2.8 Stress distribution in single core and multi-core power cables 53
2.9 Type of aging in cables 55
2.10 HV cables using XLPE insulation 61
2.11 Treeing in XLPE and need for end sealing of cables in storage 63
2.12 Basic manufacturing process 65

3 Cable connectors 71
3.1 Connection material 71
3.2 Types of connectors for terminations and joints 72
3.3 Current path 72
3.4 Connections 74
3.5 Contact resistance 83
3.6 Preferred methods in practice for different cable ratings 84
3.7 Contact of dissimilar materials and galvanic effect 84

4 Joints and terminations – theory 87

4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Basic types of joints 87
4.3 Special versions of joints 93
4.4 Basic types of terminations 96
4.5 Standard components of GIS 97
4.6 Fabricated and pre-fabricated joints/terminations and
comparative merits 99
4.7 Pre-molded (slip-on) joints/pre-fabricated joints 100
4.8 Cable preparation for slip-on joints 102
4.9 Taped joint – prefabricated joint 106
4.10 Cast resin sealed joint 107
4.11 Additional requirements of outdoor termination 108
4.12 Reconstitution of cable properties 109
4.13 Semi conducting tapes 110
4.14 Sealing against moistures 111
4.15 Mechanical protection of joint and terminations 111

5 Stress control 113

5.1 Effects of joints and termination on stress gradients 113
5.2 Area requiring stress control 118
5.3 Terminations 118
5.4 Joints 119
5.5 Basics of stress control approach 119

6 Standards and testing 123

6.1 International/National standards 123
6.2 Selected standards for high-voltage and extra high-voltage
cables 124
6.3 Type test 126
6.4 Limitation 128
6.5 Routine test 128

7 Termination to equipment 131

7.1 Termination to indoor switchgear and transformer 131
7.2 Termination to electrical machine 135
7.3 Termination of outdoor HV installation 137
7.4 Terminations to GIS installation 137
8 Failures and analysis 143
8.1 Failures in high voltage cables 143
8.2 Failure analysis 143

9 New trends 145

9.1 Increasing use of underground cables 145
9.2 New technologies for very high capacities and voltages 147
9.3 EHV XLPE 148
9.4 High temperature superconductivity in cables and
likely impact on current practice 149
Bibliography 151

Appendix – Exercises 155

 1
Introduction

1.1 Electrical cables

An electrical cable is defined as an insulated electrical conductor. The main function of
an electric cable is to transfer electric power between different points of a power system
network. Cables are treated as capital investment, since they have a long life and are of
economic importance. It is estimated that the world market for cables amounts to 20–25
thousand million Euros out of which a thousand million Euros worth are high voltage and
extra high voltage cables.
Underground transmission and distribution is gaining importance day-by-day implying
that the importance of cables and cable systems will increase in the long term. This
prediction is based on the following statistics.

• Energy consumption in developed and industrialized countries is increasing

and will continue to increase due to a systematic population growth that has
put increasing pressure on local public transport.
• Due to non-availability of transmission corridors and problems in maintaining
safe clearances, it is becoming increasingly difficult to construct overhead
transmission lines in both urban and sub-urban areas. Even in rural areas
transmission structures are blamed for visual pollution (spoiling an otherwise
pristine view). This has contributed to the increasing demand for cables.
• Third World countries are also upgrading their power transmission systems to
meet the increasing demand for electrical energy and cables are at the
forefront of this upgrade. One such prominent example is Mumbai (Bombay)
in India, where the 110 kV and 220 kV cable network is being expanded.
• In developing countries there is a huge demand for reliable power supply
systems, especially in big cities. For example – a few years ago an ambitious
program of 150 kV cabling was implemented in various regions of Turkey.
• Additional requirements of cables also arise as existing cable networks reach
the end of their life span and in a few cases technical and ecological
conditions make replacement necessary. This is common with oil-filled paper
insulation as these can suffer from oil losses due to leakage. Since paper
2 Practical HV Cable Jointing and Terminations for Engineers and Technicians

insulated cables have a life span of 40 to 50 years, there will be an increasing

need for re-investment in the next few years. This is especially the case with
110 kV cables that were installed in the big cities up to the end of the 1950’s.

Demand for cables will increase in the near future and environmental compatibility is a
critical issue. Also, cables alone form just a part of the entire transmission system; other
accessories are also required. These accessories consist of cable joints and terminations.
In the case of high voltage cables, these accessories are available in different forms
from different vendors and are critical components due to various reasons:
• Electrical field distribution differs locally (from the standard cylindrical form
in the cable) in spite of specific field control measures.
• Accessories are fitted on-site under completely different conditions from
those under which they were manufactured. Depending on the type, this work
has to be sometimes done by hand.
• Boundary surfaces exist between the cable dielectric and the accessory
insulation end.

But the most important factor is that all these accessories must be electrically, thermally
and mechanically safe to operate as an integral part of the cabling installation itself.
Hence this calls for special attention during the conception, development, design,
installation, testing and, if necessary, maintenance of the cable installation.
Apart from the standard accessories, a range of other accessories are also required.
These include maintenance systems and pressure monitoring of the impregnated fluid or
pressurized gas.

1.1.1 Voltage levels in cables

A three-level network is required to transmit the energy from power stations to
consumers. This network consists of
• Transmission system
• Main distribution system
• Sub-distribution system

High voltage networks with 110 kV cables transmit energy from power stations to the
main points of consumption. This is the first level (transmission) of the network. From
there, medium voltage networks with 10 kV or 20 kV cables come into play. This is the
second level (main distribution). The last level, which connects to the consumer, is
known as the low-voltage (sub-distribution) network. In some parts of the world a fourth
network level is also necessary, this additional level being an extra-high voltage network
– ranging between 220 kV and 380 kV. This helps in exchanging power with neighboring
countries.
 Introduction 3

500
Kv

Rated phase-to-phase voltage

400
Extra high voltage: Un > 150 kV
(380 kV)
300

High Voltage: 45 kV = Un = 150 kV

200 (110 kV

Medium voltage: 1 kV < Un < 45 kV

100 (20 kV)
Low Voltage: Un = 1 kV
(1 kV)
0

Figure 1.1
Voltage ranges for three-phase cables

AC 3-phase supply systems using cables are now used worldwide at all rated voltages
between 400 V (commonly known as ‘1 kV cable’) and 500 kV (extra high voltage
cable). The standard relating to safety (e.g. VDE 0100) talks of high voltage for
continuous potential differences between the line and earth. The term ‘high voltage’ is
usually applied to a plant with a rated voltage between phases of more than 45 kV. The
applicable standards also take this customizing into account by formulating separate
specifications e.g. cables above 45 kV (IEC 60840).

DIN VDE (Deutsches Institut fur Normung): German National standards for Electrical
Engineering
EN/HD (European Norms/Harmonization Documents): European Standards for Electrical
Engineering
IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission): International Standards for Electrical
Engineering

According to VDEW specification, the classification between high and extra high
voltage cables is defined in the following manner:
• High voltage cable 45 kV < Un ≤ 150 kV
• Extra high voltage cable Un> 150 kV (Un : rated voltage for a designated
voltage level or item of plant, in this cable the cable (e.g. 110 kV cable)

Note: The definitions of low voltage, medium voltage, high and extra high voltage
differs from country to country and the above values are only illustrative.
4 Practical HV Cable Jointing and Terminations for Engineers and Technicians

1.1.2 Safety requirements for any cabling system

• The cable should withstand the voltage to which it is subjected.
• Installation should be done in such a manner that it causes no danger to any
person likely to come in contact with the cables.
• Cables must be free of induction or other hazards.

Major factors which determine the type of insulation are

• Installation
• Environment

The temperature rating of the cable must suit ambient conditions. In case of overhead
installations, where cables are subjected to direct sunlight, UV resistance becomes an
important factor. If the installation is done in an area where cables are subject to
flammable dust or liquid, additional factors must be considered.

1.2 Cables – a historical perspective

The first type of commercial electricity generated by Thomas Alva Edison was direct
current (DC). The first electricity transmission systems were also direct current systems.
The basic invention of cable technology or the insulated conductor can be traced to 1830.
After that it took nearly fifty years until the first underground cable for power
transmission was brought into use in Berlin (Germany) in 1880. This is considered to be
the worldwide beginning of power cable technology.
In the beginning guta-percha (a type of plastic rubber, impregnated jute and, somewhat
later, impregnated paper) was used as insulation material. Finally, paper dielectric was
able to handle the requirements of resistance to heat and of dielectric strength.
The evolution of high voltage power cables with paper dielectric is marked by five key
technological inventions:
• Introduction of multi layer dielectric using lapped paper tapes (Ferranti,
1880).
• Vacuum impregnation of dried paper insulation using heated resinous mass
(hence it is also called “mass-impregnated cable”).
• Moisture-proof encapsulation of the insulation by a seamless, continuously
applied lead sheath (Borel, 1879).
• The limitation of the electrical field of the cable cores using metalized paper
to create the radial field cable (Hochstadter, 1913).
• Impregnation of the paper dielectric with low-viscosity insulating oil under
permanent pressure (the “oil-filled cable” principle from Emanueli, 1917).

The first single-phase alternating current cable for 10 kV was invented by Ferranti. He
used an insulation principle whose importance was recognized much later and is suitable
for use in very high voltages; the multi-layer dielectric that distributes and reduces the
risk of failure by using layering.
Hochstadter set the second milestone in handling high voltages by improving the
distribution of the electrical field. He introduced screening of the cores using metallized
paper, which allows the ionization threshold voltage of the cable to be increased
considerably. This improved design, which is known as radial field cable, allowed mass-
impregnated cable up to a rated voltage of 60 kV to be produced.
 Introduction 5

The 100 kV barrier was first crossed with the introduction of the fifth key technology,
the oil filled cable invented by Emanueli. The first partial discharge free and thermally
stable cable for a rated voltage >100 kV was commissioned in 1924 in a research facility
in Italy. Thermal stability is defined as the ability of the insulation to adapt itself to the
load changes that are unavoidable in operation and the changing temperatures resulting
from this without the formation of voids – so that no ionization processes occur even at
the high operation field strength that are usual in the high voltage range. Technological
inventions refined this technology to cope with ever increasing rated voltages and were
available for 220 kV since the 1930’s, for 400 kV in the beginning of 1950s and even for
500 kV since 1974. To demonstrate the feasibility of cables for even higher voltages,
experimental oil-filled cables were tested successfully at 750 kV (1965 in France) and
1100 kV (1980 in Italy by Pirelli).
The first use of present day polymer-insulated cable was manufactured from PVC in the
mid-1940s. This material soon proved unsuitable for high voltage cables due to high
dielectric losses. A new dimension in high voltage cable technology was reached with the
use of thermoplastic polyethylene (PE) with its excellent electrical properties.
Non-polar PE was first used as a cable dielectric in the USA in 1944 at 3 kV and in
1947 in Switzerland at 20 kV and in 1966, the first high voltage PE cable was
commissioned at 138 kV and after three years came the first 220 kV PE cable. Finally, in
1986, the first 400 kV cable with extruded thermoplastic insulation was used in France.
With further developments cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), which is thermoelastic
and is thus suitable for high operating temperatures (90ºC instead of 70ºC and 80ºC), will
fully replace the thermoplastic variant as cable insulation worldwide.

Historical development
1 Beginning of cable technology
1847 First communication cable with gutta-percha insulation.
1880 First power cable with gutta-percha insulation (for DC)
1882 First power cable with impregnated textile insulation and lead sheath.

2 Power cables with paper dielectric

1890 10 kV mass-impregnated cable (for AC)
1913 33 kV mass-impregnated cable (radial field cable)
1924 132 kV low pressure oil filled cable (thermally stable cable)
1931 External gas pressure cable
1931 High-pressure oil-filled cable (oilostatic cable)
1936 220 kV low pressure oil-filled cable
1936 Internal gas pressure cable
1952 400 kV low-pressure oil-filled cable
1974 500 kV low-pressure oil-filled cable
1980 1100 kV low-pressure oil-filled cable (experimental cable)

3. Power cables with extruded dielectric

1947 20 kV cable with PE insulation
1960 20 kV cable with XLPE insulation
1966 138 kV cable with PE insulation
1969 225 kV cable with PE insulation
1979 275 kV cable with XLPE insulation
1986 400 kV cable with PE insulation
1987 500 kV cable with XLPE insulation
6 Practical HV Cable Jointing and Terminations for Engineers and Technicians

In the initial development phase of HV and EHV transmission systems, AC was the
first choice. DC systems were not preferred due to the difficulty in converting DC power
from one voltage level to another. As we discussed earlier, use of higher voltages is
necessary for better transmission efficiency and voltage control.
With the development of high voltage rectifiers and inverters, use of high voltage DC
for power transmission over long distances became a viable proposition, thus giving rise
to HVDC transmission systems. The first commercial installation was completed in 1954.
By now, a large number of HVDC transmission systems have been installed around the
world.

Figure 1.2
By region, the different HVDC transmissions around the world

1.3 Types of cables

There are four different types of cables, which are commonly used:

1.3.1 Single-core cable

Figure 1.2
3.6/6kV XLPE Insulated Single Core Cables
 Introduction 7

Description
This type of cable consists of a circular stranded compacted copper or aluminum
conductor, XLPE insulation, with copper wire or copper tape screen and a PVC outer
sheath. It complies with IEC 60502.

Applications
These cables are ideal for installation on trays, ducts or direct burial.

1.3.2 Three-core cable

• Belted-type construction
• H-type construction

Figure 1.3
18/30 kV XLPE Insulated Three Core Cables

Description
This type consists of a stranded circular compacted copper or aluminum conductor, XLPE
insulation, copper tape screens, three cores assembled together with non-hygroscopic
polypropylene fillers, covered with extruded bedding, armored or unarmored and PVC
sheathed. These cables comply with IEC 60502.

Application
These cables are generally suitable for direct burial or for installation on trays or ducts.
Where there is a risk of mechanical damage, armored cables should be used.

1.3.3 Oil-filled cable

Many high-voltage transmission cables buried underground experience insulating fluid
leaks, typically of a mineral oil. Atmospheric tracers have been applied to locating leaks
in high-pressure oil-filled cables.
Self-contained oil-filled cables, which typically exhibit low leakage rates, present
different challenges to leak location. The atmospheric tracer method offers the benefit of
locating leaks in these cables without removing them from service until the leak location
is excavated.
8 Practical HV Cable Jointing and Terminations for Engineers and Technicians

Figure 1.4
Pipe-type oil-filled cables

1.3.4 Gas-filled cable

These consist of a conductor supported in a rigid external pipe which is filled with a gas
under pressure – usually SF6 at 3* atmospheric pressure.

1.3.5 Solid Dielectric cable for HV/EHV applications

In view of the difficulties faced in operation and maintenance of cables of oil/gas filled
type cables, other alternatives using solid dielectric materials were pursued. Cables with
polymer insulation materials were developed out of the research work in this area. The
materials which were (and continue to be) used were Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC), Poly
Ethylene (PE) and Cross Linked Poly Ethylene (XLPE). Of these materials, XLPE is
superior in many respects and is almost universally used currently over a wide range of
voltages starting from low voltage (LV) right up to the extra high voltage range.
Fujikura was the pioneer in this field for developing systems of extra high voltage
XLPE cables since it first began supplying XLPE cables. The first generation of XLPE
cables has been used in commercial applications since the early 1960's. These types of
cables were manufactured using both the ‘steam-curing-water-cooling system’ and the
‘tandem extrusion system’. Here the insulation, conductor shielding layer, and insulation
shielding layer are extruded from two cross-heads. During 1970, the second generation
system was developed specifically for the manufacturing of extra-high voltage cables,
commonly known as the ‘dry curing system’, the electrical operating stress of which was
much higher than 66 kV, as well as lower voltage cables. The third generation system is
specifically intended for the manufacture of large quantities of XLPE cables in the 230
kV to 500 kV class. These extra-high voltage XLPE cables require a stable and extra-high
quality manufacturing process to prevent voids, irregularity and contamination.

1.4 Types of insulation materials

The factors which influence the type of insulation are:
• Maximum operating voltage of the cable
• Operating temperature of the cables.

These factors influence the quality and type of insulation, coverings, sheathings,
insulating sleeves on connections and sealing compounds used on the cable.
Two different groups of dielectrics are available as insulation, for high and extra high
voltage cables.
 Introduction 9

1.4.1 Impregnated paper

As a natural product from selected soft woods, paper has been used for insulation of
power cables for more than a hundred years. Depending on the rated voltage, the
dielectric consist of a few tens (60 kV) up to several hundreds (≥400 kV) of narrow strips
lapped spirally over each other. The butt gaps of these are axially displaced from layer to
layer. The air spaces in the axial gaps and between the individual machines’ spun paper
layers allow the cables to be bent. The most important common feature of paper
insulation of high and extra high voltage cable is the multi-layer construction of the
dielectric. To prevent pre-discharges, different impregnation media are used. This kind of
insulation thus has a multi-layer, multi-material dielectric.

1.4.2 Extruded synthetic dielectric

The conditions that were naturally satisfied by non-polar thermoplastic polyethylene (PE)
and its chemically cross-linkable XLPE were the availability of low-loss and permanent
voltage-resistant materials. These materials could be extruded without void. These XLPE
provided higher operating temperatures and have large thermal reserves when short
circuits arise.
Another type of insulation that has also been adopted in some markets of Italy, South
America, etc. is the Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR). It is limited to voltages of 150 kV
and below. Though it has good thermal properties and high elasticity, when compared to
XLPE, it has less susceptibility to partial discharges.
Cable insulation possesses the following dielectric properties:
• High insulation resistance
• High dielectric strength
• Good mechanical properties
• Immune to attacks by acids & alkalis
• Non-hygroscopic.

The insulating materials which are commonly used in cables are:

• Oil-impregnated paper
• Vulcanized India rubber (VIR)
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• SF6 ygas
• Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)

1.5 Installation
Installation of cables needs to fulfill the applicable statutory regulations and codes of
practice (Example: Wiring Rules AS/NZS 3000).The precautions that should be
considered for long-term reliability of the cables are:
• Adequate support of cables
• Selection of cables that are suitable for ambient temperatures. Cables selected
should be of the right type and construction to suit the surrounding
temperatures, else they will fail under short circuit conditions, or the
insulation will rapidly deteriorate
• Changing of original installed conditions can cause major cable problems
10 Practical HV Cable Jointing and Terminations for Engineers and Technicians

• Bending radius should not be less than 15 times the cable diameter especially
for large diameter cables and cables of medium voltage and above. Tables are
available which recommend radii Vs cable diameter and type
• Withstanding capacity of cable fixing methods should be considered
• Mechanical protection should be given to cables installed in locations where
there are possibilities of mechanical damage
• Correct terminating accessories must be used when terminating cables

1.6 Standard specifications

The rules or Standard Specifications used to determine the requirements of any cabling
system in Queensland include (and are not necessarily limited to) the following:
• Australian/New Zealand Wiring Rules Standard – AS/NZS 3000 – 2000
• Australian/New Zealand Standard – Electrical Installations – Selection of
Cables – AS/NZS 3008.1.1 : 1998
• Australian Standard AS 3147 – PVC Insulated Electrical Cables and Flexible
Cables for working Voltages of up to and including 0.6/1.0 kiloVolt (kV)
• Australian Standard AS 3198 – XLPE Insulated Electrical Cables for Working
Voltages of 0.6/1.0 kV
• Australian Standard AS 1429.1 – Polymeric Insulated Cables for Electricity
Supply at Working Voltages 1.9/3.3 kV up to and including 19/33 kV.

Other standards which are also considered while developing cable installations include
the following:
• AS 1125 Conductors in electric cables and flexible cords
• IEC 287 Electric cables – calculation of the current ratings of cables
• ERA Reports 69–30 Current Rating standards for distribution cables: Part III
– Sustained current ratings for PVC insulated cables; Part V – Sustained
current ratings for armoured cables with thermo-setting insulation
• F/T 186 – Methods for the calculation of cyclic rating factors and emergency
loading for cables laid direct in the ground or in ducts;
• AS 1531 – Conductors – bare overhead – Aluminium and aluminium alloy
• AS 1746 – Bare overhead – Hard drawn copper
• AS 3158 – Approval and test specification – Electric cables – Glass fibre
insulated – For working Voltages up to and including 0.6/1.0 kV
• AS 3178 – Approval and test specification Electric cables – Silicone rubber
insulated – for working voltages up to and including 0.6/1.0 kV
• AS 3560 – XLPE insulated – Aerial bundled – for working voltages up to and
including 0.6/1.0 kV
• AS 3116 – Approval and Test specification – Electric cables – Elastomer
insulated – For working voltages up to and including 0.6/1.0 kV
• AS 3155 – Approval and test Specification – Electric cables – Neutral
screened – for working voltages of 0.6/1.0 kV
• AS 3187 – Approval and test specification – Mineral Insulated, Metal
sheathed cables
• IEC – 724 – Guide to the short circuit temperature limits of electric cables
with a rated voltage not exceeding 0.6/1.0 kV.
 Introduction 11

1.7 Test procedure

Tests can be classified according to different criteria as specified by the standardization
norms of an organization. The characteristics that are to be tested could include
dissipation factor, conductivity, electrical strength; or the type of stress applied, such as
AC voltage, DC voltage, Impulse voltage, etc. Point-of-tests include the functions and
aims allocated to them; they should be tailored for the different stages in the development
phase and then should maintain the order specified below.
• Development tests
• Pre-qualification and type tests
• Routine and sample tests in the factory
• System tests on site
The details below are mainly concerned with conventional engineered cables,
accessories and systems.

Type of test Task/Objectives Time of test Test piece

Development Simulation of operating stress. In phase of new and Full-sized cables
test Estimation of long-term behavior further development. and accessories.
by acceleration test at increased Model cables.
loads. Test sample.
Determination of dimensioning-
parameter values.
Pre- Proof of operational suitability. At start of important Full sized cables
qualification Estimation of long term behavior projects. and accessories.
test by accelerated tests at increased If requested by
loads. customer.
Confirmation of customer
requirements.
Type tests Proof of operational suitability. After conclusion of Full sized cables
Proof of properties specified in development and accessories.
standards. On change of design
Confirmation of customer and material.
requirement. If requested by the
customers.
Sample tests Proof of properties specified in After manufacture of Individual
standards. specified part of order. construction
elements.
Routine tests Proof of properties specified in Before delivery to site. Every length and
standards. accessory supplied.
Manufacturing check, quality
assurance.
On-site test Installation check, quality After laying Complete cable
assurance. After repair systems.
Proof of readiness to switch on. After long service time
Estimation to ageing condition.

Table 1.1
Overview of tests on cables, accessories and cable systems
12 Practical HV Cable Jointing and Terminations for Engineers and Technicians

Power cable testing should always be performed in accordance with CEC and suppliers
or IEEE specifications. Some diagnostic measurements exist, including field testing for
MV voltage power with OWTS (oscillating wave), resulting in partial discharge
measurement. In addition to this routine test, medium voltage cables are submitted to
aging tests related to the growth of water trees. For two years, cables are exposed to water
at 30°C. The water is also present at the conductor and semiconductor level. The cable in
these conditions operates under current. After two years, the cable has to resist at least 18
kV/mm, which is seven times the service voltage of the cable.

Step I
An initial reflectragram (RG) is made. This measures the anomalies and also identifies
the beginning and the end of the cable as well as the location of all splices.

Step II
8 kV AC is applied to the cable for a specific period of time and partial discharges (PD)
are measured. Then 12 kV AC is applied for approximately 10 seconds to try to induce
partial discharges. Voltage is reduced down to 8 kV and PD is measured once again.

Step III
4 kV AC is applied with a low power – 12 kV superimposed pulse – on the positive half
cycle of the waveform. As a result both partial discharge and reflectragrams are made.
Final measurements are taken by applying an 8 kV AC conditioning voltage. Controlled
experiments show a high correlation of anomaly detection and location with actual AC
breakdown of the insulation. Where anomalies are identified, there are failures and vice
versa.
310 cables have been tested since May 1994. The table below shows a breakdown of
the type of cable tested:

Breakdown of Type Of Cable Tested

Type of Cable Quantity

PILC 30

XLPE 265

PILC/XLPE 6

EPR/XLPE 9

1.8 Failures
Cable failures can occur due to a variety of reasons such as mechanical damages, thermal
or electrical stresses, insulation deterioration due to ageing, etc. Since cables are designed
to work at their rated ambient and environment conditions without any maintenance for
decades, a failure in a well-designed cable system is quite rare. Unless a cable is wrongly
selected or applied, a failure without an external cause has negligible probability. Failures
in most cases occur at the end-terminations or joints (where the factory-manufactured
insulation gets disturbed). The other most common reason is mechanical damage of
 Introduction 13

buried cable installations by workmen or excavating machinery. To a large extent, these

can be avoided by suitable route markers and mechanical protection. We will discuss
various types of failures in cable installations in this section.

Partial discharges
These discharges are among the principal causes of catastrophic failures in cable
terminations and joints in distribution substations. Acoustic Emission techniques can be
used for the detection of partial discharges in cables.

General failures of gas filled cables

• Gas leaks
• Gas blockages in gas ducts within the cables
• Non availability of cables

General problems associated with oil filled cables

• Oil leaks
• Damage to cable outer coverings – usually due to external interference which
leads to corrosion of the metallic sheath and subsequent oil leaks. Extrusion
damage during manufacture
• Cracks of cable sheaths due to mechanical fatigue

Cable movement
An external condition may cause an entire cable to move within a conduit and/or a cable
conductor moving with respect to its insulation and metallic sheath.

Cable ageing
When a cable is operated at a temperature exceeding the assigned operating temperature
the service life of the cable shortens. The extent to which life is shortened, or the degree
of accelerated ageing is correlated to the extent of overheating and the time involved.

Factors involved in the aging of the insulation:

• Processing conditions
• Insulation morphology
• Type of semiconductors
• Moisture barrier
• Strand fill
• Adhesion
• Interfaces
• Residual by products
• Residual strain
• Residual moisture
• Contaminants
• Additives/stabilizers
• Compatibility