Fourth International Conference on Natural Computation
Applying Artificial Immune System to Minimize Construction Cost of Water
Distribution Networks
Min-Der Lin, Chien-Wei Chu
Department of Environmental Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan, R.O.C.
mdlin@nchu.edu.tw
Abstract
Recent studies increasingly indicate that heuristic
algorithms are powerful and effective for solving water
distribution networks (WDN) optimization problems. This
paper employs the artificial immune system (AIS), to solve
the least-cost design problems of WDN. The well-known
WDN problem, New York City tunnel problem, is used as
a case study. The results reveal that the computational
efficiency and quality obtained by AIS are as good as or
better than the results reported in literatures.
Furthermore, AIS significantly retrenches the number of
iterations for searching the optimal solution. AIS is shown
to be an evolutionary technique capable of solving
complex combination optimization problems.
1. Introduction
Since water distribution networks (WDN) are vital
components in urban infrastructure and require
considerable investment, optimization of WDN has
received considerable attention over the past 30 years.
Such optimization problems consider various aspects such
as capital, operation and maintenance costs, layout design,
hydraulics, reliability, material availability, and demand
pattern. Various traditional optimization techniques, such
as linear programming gradient [1-3], dynamic
programming [4], and nonlinear programming [5], have
been developed principally for solving minimal-cost
problems. However, most of these models are either
linearized or simplified to make application possible.
Additionally, selection of commercially available
discrete-value pipe diameters to generate a least-cost
water supply network is an NP-hard problem that is
extremely difficult to solve using traditional optimization
techniques [6]. Recently, probabilistic heuristic
algorithms such as genetic algorithms (GA), simulated
annealing (SA), tabu search (TS), and ant colony
optimization (ACO), have been utilized to solve water
distribution networks (WDN) optimization problems [7-
11]. Another important heuristic algorithm in simulating
biological processes is the artificial immune system (AIS)
which is a relatively new optimization algorithm that
imitates the immune system defense process against
invaders in a biological body [12]. This work is the first to
apply AIS to a WDN optimization problem.
978-0-7695-3304-9/08 $25.00 © 2008 IEEE
DOI 10.1109/ICNC.2008.376
2. Optimization model formulation
The WDN optimization model proposed in this study
is a least-cost problem for identifying the pipe size that
generates minimum cost for a given layout. We assume
that pipe layout, nodal demands, head and velocity
requirements are all known. The networks have no pumps
and the reservoirs are considered water source nodes with
fixed heads. The objective function for network cost is
formulated a function of pipe diameters. The optimal
design problem for a general water distribution network
can be shown as the following mathematical statement [8,
13-14]:
n
Minimize f ( D1 ,…, Dn ) = ∑ C ( Di , Li ) (1)
i =1
where n is the total number of pipes in the system, Di is
the diameter of pipe i selected from the set of commercial
pipe sizes {D}, and Ci(Di, Li) is the cost of pipe i with the
diameter Di and length Li. This objective function is
conditioned using the following constraints.
For each junction node, the mass conservation law
should be satisfied:
∑Q in ,m − ∑ Qout ,m = S m , ∀m ∈ NN (2)
where Qin,m and Qout,m are the inflow and outflow of node
m, respectively, Sm is the external inflow or demand at
node m, and NN is the node set.
For each basic loop in the network, the energy
conservation law is utilized as another constraint set:
∑ ΔH k = 0, ∀k ∈ NL (3)
k ∈Loopl
where ΔHk is head loss in pipe k, and NL is loop set. The
head loss in each pipe is the head difference between its
connected nodes, and can be formulated using the Hazen-
Williams equation:
628
 Lk α −1 cells [17]. When exposed to a second antigenic stimulus,
ΔH k = H1,k − H 2,k = w Qk Qk (4) these cells begin differentiating into plasma cells capable
C k Dkβ
α
of producing high-affinity antibodies, preselected for the
∀k ∈ NP specific antigen that stimulated the primary response.
From this viewpoint, antibodies and antigen can be
where H1,k and H2,k are head of both ends of a pipe, k, w is looked as through operation generate feasible solutions
the numerical conservation constant (depending on units), and global best solution, respectively, for an objective
Ck is the roughness coefficient of pipe k (depending on function when solving WDN optimization problems.
the material), α and β are regression coefficients, Qk is the Figure 1 presents the computational procedure of AIS.
flow of pipe k; and NP is the pipe set. Generally, the pipes For further information, AIS theory and processes are
with large values of w result in increased head loss and, described in detail by [18] and [12].
therefore, require increased diameters to deliver the same
amount of water because WDN may violate minimum
pressure requirements, whereas small w values may just
meet the constraints. When a WDN is designed using
different w values, the designs with high w values will
have unfavorable hydraulic conditions and result in
expensive alternatives.
The next set of constraints express the pressure head
requirements at each node:

H m ≥ H mmin , ∀m ∈ NN (5)

where H mmin is the minimum pressure head requirement at

each node. Moreover, the diameter of each pipe must
belong to a commercial size set:

Dk ∈ {D}, ∀k ∈ NP (6)

3. Methodology for artificial immune system

The immune system discriminates between self cells
and foreign non-self pathogens, and is the first line of a
defense system against foreign pathogens. Immune
responses include natural immunity that quickly
eliminates foreign non-self pathogens and adaptive
immunity that targets particular pathogens.
The second line of defense, humoral immunity and
cell-mediated immunity, comprise the immune response
of immunocompetent cells, which include B lymphocytes
(or B cells) and T lymphocytes (or T cell) [15]. Both cell
types have surface receptor molecules (the B cell receptor
molecule is also called an antibody). Foreign pathogens,
also called antigens, are recognized by antibodies. After
an antigen is recognized by immune cell receptors, the
antigen stimulates B cells to proliferate cells that secrete
antibodies that are plasma cells. Proliferation of B cells in
the immune system is followed by mitosis. Once
proliferate B cells, the system has a clone of cells that
copies stimulative B cell [16]. This function, called a
clonal selection state, occurs when a pathogen invades an
organism. During immune response, some of the immune
cells that recognize the pathogens proliferate become
plasma cells, whereas others are maintained as memory
Figure 1. Flowchart of artificial immune system
Step 1: Define antigen.
When using AIS to evaluate WDN optimization,
representation of the objective function and constraints
are regarded as antigens.
Step 2: Generate an initial population of antibodies.
The initial population of antibodies is generated, as in
the genetic algorithm procedure, via random coding.
Binary and real number coding are the two most common
coding techniques used. In this study, decision variables
are the commercial pipe diameters in each segment of the
WDN.
Step 3: Evaluate the fitness of each antibody in current
population.
The fitness of each antibody in the current generation
is calculated based on its objective function value and
potential constraint violations. In evaluating the fitness of
individual antibodies, the constraint requirements were
also examined. When a constraint is violated, the degree
of violation is weighted to penalize its fitness. Antibodies

629
with high fitness (fiti) represent good individuals. In
solving the minimum cost problem for WDN design, the
fiti of each (antibody) i is calculate by
fit i = 1 /(1 + f i ) (7)
where fi is the cost of the WDN, as indicated in Eq. (1).
Step 4: Select the n best antibodies in the initial
population based on their fitness.
Step 5: Clone these n best antibodies to generate a
temporary population of clone set (C).
Generate the clone set (C) for the best n individuals
(antibodies) selected in step 4. The clone set (C) has
possession of better antibodies, thereby increasing the
function of fitness with the antigen [18].
Step 6: Clone set (C) executes genetic operations for
generating new antibodies.
In this step, genetic operations, such as crossover and
mutation, similar to those in a GA, are performed by the
clone set (C) to generate new and generally improved
antibodies. The crossover operation produces new
antibodies by mixing the genetic material in chromosome
from the original antibodies in the current population.
Step 7: Evaluate the new fitness of new antibodies
generated by genetic operations. Re-select improved
individuals that are superior to individuals in the memory
set. When the memory set is updated, improved
individuals are replaced by inferior individuals in the
memory set, thereby generating a new memory set [19].
Step 8: When a termination criterion is satisfied, the
algorithm is stopped; otherwise, return to Step 3. The
termination criteria used in this work is the maximum
number of iterations.
4. Case study
The New York City Tunnel (NYCT) problem, which
was first considered by Schaake and Lai in 1969[4], and
has since been the subject of numerous studies [5, 14, 20-
22], was used to demonstrate the utility of the proposed
approach. The layout of the NYCT system consists of 20
nodes connected by 21 tunnels in Figure 2. For each
duplicate tunnel, 16 possible decisions, including 15
available diameters, and the “do nothing” option, exist;
therefore, the search space for this optimization problem
contains 1621 = 1.93 × 1025 possible designs. For
summaries of system data and unit costs of tunnel
network, please refer to [14].
630
R E S E R V O IR
3 0 0 ft
1
15
1
2 15
2
14
3 14
3 13
4
13
4
12
5
12
17
18
18
19
5
6 11
6
11
7 19
7 9
10
8 20
8
9 21
10 16
20
16
17
Figure 2. Layout of New York City Tunnel System
Tables 1 and 2 present summaries of optimal network
designs identified with the AIS, and those from previous
studies. The figures in Table 1 represent new pipe
diameters to be added in parallel to existing lines. For the
NYCT problem, the optimization model was run twice,
each time using different coefficients in the Hazen-
Williams Eq. (4). The values w = 10.5088, α = 1.85, and β
= 4.87 were used for the first run (AIS run 1), whereas w
= 10.9031, α = 1.85, and β = 4.87 were used in the second
run (AIS run 2). Computational results were based on 100
runs of the AIS using different random starting points.
The optimal costs of $37.13 million (for w =10.5088) and
$40.42 million (for w =10.9031) obtained by the AIS,
respectively, are as good as those obtained using the GA
(for w =10.5088 and 10.9031) and TS (for w =10.5088)
[9].
As the computational results indicated, optimal
solutions were found by the AIS in a minimum of 13,700
and 14,500 evaluations for w =10.5088 and w =10.9031,
respectively, (Table 1 and Figure 3) compared with
37,186–1,000,000 evaluations required by the GA and
fast messy genetic algorithm (fmGA). The computational
result indicated that AIS’s evaluations retrenched over
63% of iterations for previous solutions [8, 21]. Table 3
presents the success rate for AIS based on the percentage
of algorithms achieving a global optimum in 100 runs.
The computational result reveals that 100% of solutions
achieved using AIS was within 5% of the global
minimum cost.
Table 1. Optimal Solutions of New York City Tunnel
System Obtained by Different Techniques
fmGAa－ fast messy Genetic Algorithm
NAb－ not available
AISc － artificial immune system
Table 2. Nodal Pressures for Optimal Solutions of New
York City Tunnel System Obtained by Different
Techniques
Table 3. Success Rates of IA for Searching Optimal
Designs of New York City Tunnel System
631
120
IA
100
Pipe Cost (million $)
80
60
40
20
0 4000 8000 12000 16000
Evaluation Number
Figure 3. Evolution of pipe cost for New York network
using AIS (w=10.5088)
5. Conclusion
This work is the first attempt to apply AIS for solving
the least-cost design problem of WDNs, with the goal of
generating insights that may prove useful. By combining
a large number of solutions, the AIS investigates different
regions of the solution space to generate solutions and
searches for the global optimum solution.
The AIS developed in this study was evaluated by
solving the NYCT WDN optimization problem, which
employs two different Hazen-Williams coefficient values
in previous studies. The AIS provides solutions as good as
those obtained by other studies in terms of ability to find
the global optimum solution and computational
efficiency. The AIS obtained the optimal solution in
fewer iterations than some of the most competitive
algorithms, such as the GA, fmGA and TS. The success
rates based on 100 runs of the AIS using different random
starting points demonstrate that AIS is a promising
technique for solving the WDN optimization problem.
Application of AIS to the WDN optimization problem
is still in its infancy and further improvements is
necessary. For example, sensitivity analysis of AIS for
parameters utilized in the model, and development of
algorithmic strategies to improve computational
efficiency and quality, is likely required for solving
practical or large WDN optimization problems.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the anonymous
reviewers for their expertise and auditing which help
improve this work.
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