A Project report

on

MANUFACTURING OF ECCENTRIC GEAR AND WORKING

OF ECCENTRIC MECHANICAL PRESS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
Mechanical Engineering
Submitted By

NITESH. Y
SANDEEP. G
MANDEEP. P
PRAMODH REDDY. A
08D41A0311
08D41A0315
08D41A0339
09D45A0301
 Under the Guidance of
Dr. P. Mallesham
Principal
B.E., M.E., Ph.D., ISTE(LM)., AMIE (India), IWS, IFS, CSI

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SRI INDU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University)

2015

i
 Accredited by NBA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled

“MANUFACTURING OF ECCENTRIC GEAR AND WORKING OF
ECCENTRIC MECHANICAL PRESS” is the bonafide work done by,

NITESH Y 08D41A0311
SANDEEP GILALLA 08D41A0315
MANIDEEP P 08D41A0339
PRAMODH REDDY A 09D45A0301

The students of Department of Mechanical Engineering in SRI INDU

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY submitted this project
to JNTU, Hyderabad in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of B.Tech degree in Mechanical Engineering. This work has been carried out
under my guidance and has not been submitted the same for any
university/institution for the award of any degree/diploma.

Internal Examiner HOD

Principal External Examiner

ii
 COMPANY
LETTER HEAD
WITH COLOR
PRINTOUT
COPY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

iii
 I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been
possible without the kind support and help of many individuals and organizations.
I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.

I am highly indebted to Prof. N. Vimaleshan, JGM (Mfg), HMT Machine

Tools Ltd., for his support and guidance.

My special gratitude and thanks to M. Sukinder Rao (Mfg) and T. Ravi

(Designs), HMT Machine Tools for providing me with an environment to
complete my project successfully.

My deep thanks to the Principal, Dr. P. Mallesham, the Guide of the

project, for guiding and correcting various documents of mine with attention and
care. He has taken pain to go through the project and make necessary correction
when needed.

I express my thanks to the Head of Department, M. Srinivas Rao,

Mechanical Engineering of Sri Indu College of Engineering and Technology, for
extending his support.

I would also thank my Institution and my faculty members and technicians

without whom this project would have been a distant reality.

Finally, I take this opportunity to extend my deep appreciation to my family

and friends, for all that they meant to me during the crucial times of the
completion of my project.

iv
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
TITLE
NUMBER NUMBER
ABSTRACT i
ii
LIST OF FIGURES
1 INTRODUCTION TO HMT 1
1
1.1 INDUSTRY PROFILE
2
1.2 OBJECTIVES AND GOALS
3
1.3 PRESENT STATUS

2 INTRODUCTION TO GEARS 4
4
2.1 GEAR TERMINOLOGY
5
2.2 CLASSIFIACTION OF GEARS
9
2.3 GEAR MATERIALS

3 ECCENTRIC GEAR 10
10
3.1 INTODUCTION
11
3.2 MEASURE OF ECCENTRICITY
11
3.3 WORKING
12
3.4 ADVANTAGES
12
3.5 DESIGN FEATURES OF ECCENTRIC GEAR
DRIVES

4 MANUFACTURING OF AN ECCENTRIC GEAR 14

14
4.1 INTRODUCTION
15
4.2 STEEL CASTING
18
4.3 GAS CUTTING
18
4.3.1 Hanco Machine
19
4.3.2 Precautions
19
4.4 WELDING
20
4.4.1 Tack Welding
22
4.4.2 Arc Welding
23
4.4.3 Power Supplies
23
4.4.4 Welding Sequence
24
4.5 STRESS RELIEVING
26
4.6 FULL FETTLING
26
4.7 PRIMING
27

v
 4.7.1 Causes of Deterioration 27
4.7.2 Identification of Metal Deterioration 28
4.7.3 Prevention of Corrosion 28
4.7.4 Treatment (Application of Coatings) 28
4.8 MARKING 29
4.9 VERTICAL TURRET LATHES 30
4.10 GEAR CUTTING 30
4.11 GEAR HOBBING 32
4.11.1 Theory of the hobbing process 33
4.11.2 Hobbing Machine Relationship 33
4.11.3 Hobs Speed and Feeds 36
4.12 GEAR MILLING 36
4.12.1 Application of Gear Milling 37
4.12.2 Principle 37
4.12.3 Milling Machine Operation 38
4.13 GEAR SHAPING 39
4.13.1 Cutter 39
4.13.2 Motions 39
4.14 MODIFICATIONS
40
4.14.1 Fettling
40
4.14.2 Engineering Control
40
4.14.3 Process Modification
41
4.15 INDUCTION HEATING
42
4.15.1 Induction Hardening
5 PROCESS LAYOUT 43
6 INTRODUCTION TO PRESSES 51
51
6.1 METAL FORMING PRESS
52
6.2 PRESS DEFINITIONS
52
6.3 FORMING
53
6.4 BROAD CLASSIFICATION OF FORMING
MACHINES 53
6.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMING MACHINES 54
6.6 CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSES 60
6.7 COMPARISON BETWEEN HYDRAULIC AND
61
MECHANICAL PRESSES
62
6.8 PRESS SLIDE CONNECTIONS
62
6.9 SELECTION OF PRESSES
6.10 DETERMINATION OF PRESS
63
SPECIFICATIONS 66
6.11 ANALYZING THE PRESS 66
6.12 BASIC COMPONENTS 67
6.12.1 Frame 67
6.12.2 Slide 68
6.12.3 Drive System 69

vi
 6.12.4 Cushions and Counter Balance 69
6.12.5 Clutch and Brake
70
6.12.6 Flywheel and Motors
71
6.12.7 Slide Connections
71
6.12.8 Crown Assembly
71
6.12.9 Bed
71
6.12.10 Bolster
72
6.12.11 Wiring and Control
72
6.12.12 Lubrication
74
6.12.13 Ejector or Knockout
74
6.12.14 Overload Devices
75
6.13 PRESS OPERATIONS
6.14 FORMING OPERATIONS
7 SPECIFICATIONS 77
77
7.1 ECCENTRIC GEAR
77
7.2 ECCENTRIC MECHANICAL PRESS

CONCLUSION 80
81
REFERENCES

vii
viii
 ABSTRACT
This project report aims at providing a detailed work on manufacturing of an
Eccentric Gear which is used in an Eccentric mechanical press. An eccentric gear can be
used for variable speed transmission. This aim of the project includes discussion on the
various steps and methods involved in designing and manufacturing the eccentric gear.

The basic steps which involve in designing the eccentric gear are its pressure
angle, the rim and hub diameters, the offset for its axis and the type of thread to be
utilized in making the gear. Accordingly a sketch is prepared indicated these parameters
and presented to the manufacturing division.

In the manufacturing division various processes are carried out from marking the
design on a blank to grinding the gear teeth to get the required finish. This project lists
out the intermediate and important processes like gear hobbing, milling to create
complete idea of the generated gear profile.

After manufacturing the next segment to deal with is the application of the
prepared gear. In this project this is dealt with the help of an eccentric mechanical press.
This press utilizes the eccentric gears to convert the rotary motion into translatory motion
for operations like punching, blanking etc.

Hence, this project report covers all the aspects under the eccentric gears. This
makes it a complete in all respects from the initial design to the final application of the
component.

LIST OF FIGURES

ix
Fig 2.1 Spur Gear

Fig 2.2 Herringbone Gear

Fig 2.3 Eccentric Gear with Straps

Fig 3.1 Design parameters of an eccentric gear

Fig 4.1 Production of Molten Steel

Fig 4.2 Arc Welding

Fig 4.3 Vertical Turret Lathes

Fig 4.4 Gear Hobbing Machine

Fig 4.5 An Eccentric Gear in a Hobbing Machine

Fig 4.6 Eccentric Gear with a Milling Attachment

Fig 6.1 Parts in a Eccentric Gear Drive

Fig 6.2 Drive Shaft

Piping Circuit of a Eccentric Mechanical

Fig 6.3
Press

Fig 7.1 Designation Chart

x
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO HMT

HMT Limited is one of the major public sectors undertakings in India for over
400 years. The government of India established HMT in 1953 at Bangalore in
collaboration with M/s Oerlikons, Switzerland to manufacture machine tools with a
service motive. HMT has always seen growth and has contributed a lot to the national
development. HMT widened its product range by entering into technical collaboration
with Fritz Werner, Erma Kolb and Olivetti etc. The second machine tools unit was setup
in Bangalore in 1961 and the third unit at Pinjore in 1963. HMT diversified into product
lines. Gradually HMT is a multi-unit, multi product central government undertaken with
17 manufacturing units and 23 product divisions. Division spread over 10 different states
in the country for its quality products all over the world.

1.1 INDUSTRY PROFILE

HMT limited is the 5th in the chain of machine tool factories build by HMT
limited, a multi product organization. At present there are 940 employees working in
HMT Hyderabad. The foundation stone was laid on 26 th July 1964 on a site of 340 acres
gifted by the government of ap. Construction work was completed in 18 months on a trail
production commenced on 4th august 1965. HMT Limited initially had 5 divisions. The
machines tools division, press division, watch base, tractors, CMFI divisions, HMT was
established with an investment of rupees 8 crore. In the division of special purpose
machines (SPM) are custom built in various purposes, based on the requirement of
costumer. Since each machine has to be designed individually there is a large design
office with more than 200 designers working on board. HMT Hyderabad varying cost
from a low value of rupees 5 lacks to as high as to rupees 2.4 crore meets the
requirements of these types of machines in India. These machines are playing a vital role
producing engineering product in large quantities.

[1]
 A concerted effort is now being made in technical collaboration with M/s Cross
Company, USA, which is now one of the world leaders in building SPM’s. It has already
exported SPM and horizontal boring machines to many other countries.

1.2 OBJECTIVES AND GOALS

The company has set certain objectives:

 Growth in the set volume and add to absorb increase in operating cost to maintain
stable prices and render services to its customers by increasing the market share
of its products.

 Export of the products to a foreign exchange so that each of its business units is at
least a net exporter.

 Import substitution of materials, components and know how to achieve self-

reliance.

 Adequate return on capital employ for the survival and continuity of business and
to fulfill its responsibilities to share holders.

 Self-reliance in product technologies through thorough motion of in house

research and development facility.

 Modernization in its production technologies to meet requirement of new product,

new market.

 Needs to improve its competitive posture in the technological changing market.

 To maintain an annual 10% growth in sales.

 To maintain growth in earnings subject to a minimum return of 16.6% on the

capital employ.

 To pay dividend to share holders from cash surplus.

 To reach export target of 20% on production.

[2]
  To promote R&D by setting aside 2% of its turnover.

1.3 PRESENT STATUS

The management always has been technical people in the past that has managerial
expertise over the fluctuation of prices of different commodities in the market. However
the quality standards have been reasonably high in the past, even at present it is trying to
maintain. Moreover in the past it had a monopoly but at present there are many
competitors who offer the machine at lower price than HMT. So the company is losing
out many offers and this was not the case in the past. There are many departments in the
company for the sake formality. The infrastructure of HMT had always been very good so
are the credibility’s of the employees here.

[3]
 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION TO GEARS

Gears are toothed wheels used for transmitting motion and power from the shaft
to another and when constant velocity ratio is desired. The motion and power transmitted
by gears is kinematically equivalent to that transmitted by the friction wheels.

According to the position of the axis of shafts, gears may be classified as parallel,
intersecting, and skew shafts.

There are many advantages of using gears for power transmission. They are the
most durable and rugged of all mechanical drives. In comparison with other drives such
as belt, chain, friction drives, the gears drives are compact and can operate at higher
speeds. They can transmit high power at efficiencies up to 98% and with long service
lines.

2.1 GEAR TERMINOLOGY

Various terms used in study of gears are:

Gear Ratio (G):

It is the ratio of the no of teeth on the gear to that on the pinion.

Where,

T= no of teeth on the gear

t= no of teeth on the pinion.

[4]
Velocity Ratio (Vr):

The velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of the angular velocity of the follower to the
angular velocity of the driving gear.

Vr = angular velocity of follower/angular velocity of the driver.

Addendum Circle:

It is a circle passing through the tips of teeth.

Addendum:

It is the radial height of a tooth above the pitch circle.

Dedendum or Root Circle:

It is a circle passing through the roots of the teeth.

Dedendum:

It is the radial depth of the tooth below the pitch circle.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS

The most commonly used gear types are Spur, helical and herringbone.

1. Spur Gear:

It is cylindrical gear whose traces are straight lines parallel to gear axis. On
external gear, the teeth are formed on the outer surface of a cylinder. In case of internal
gear teeth are formed on the inner surface of the cylinder. Rack is a spur gear of indefinite
diameter. Its pitch line is a straight line and its pitch surface is plane surface.

[5]
 Spur Gears are used for low speed applications. Internal gears are used
extensively in epicyclical gear trains for increasing or decreasing speed. Racks are used
for converting rotary motion into reciprocating motion and vice versa.

Spur gear has its own advantages:

 The drive transmits a constant velocity ratio.

 As the centre distance may be relatively short, the drive is compact.

 A provision can be made for shifting them along the axis to get the various speed
changes for the driven members.

 Loss of power transmitted at constant surface is less than 1%. Hence efficiency is
very high.

Life of the drive is very long and the maintenance of the drive is very less.

Fig 2.1

2. Helical and Herringbone Gear:

It is cylindrical gears whose teeth trace straight helices i.e. the teeth are inclined at
an angle to the gear axis. In case of spur gears, the tooth forces act only normal to the
gear axis. But in case of helical gears, an additional component of force along the gear
axis also acts. If the power transmitted is large than the axial component may also be very
[6]
high requiring good thrust bearings. This effect can be minimized by using 2 gears of
opposite helix together or a gear may be fabricated such that half of the width is cut with
helix in one direction and the other half of the tooth in the opposite direction. Such a gear
is called herringbone gear.

These gears are employed for high pitch line velocities and heavy loads. They
also find applications rolling mills, drives for reciprocating machines, hosting machines,
machine tools, drives for alternator in steam turbine etc. These gears are used to get speed
reduction ratios under 800. For this purpose up to 11 single point pairs are employed. But
for high velocity ratios or triple pair reducers are provided.

These gears have many advantages:

 Used for silent operations, hence pitch line velocities (up to 60 m per sec) can be
employed.

 There will be no vibrations.

 They have higher efficiencies and velocity ratios.

These gears are used in eccentric and velocity ratios.

Fig 2.2

[7]
 3. Eccentric Gear:

Eccentric gear is not a different type of gear. It is just a special type of spur gear.
An eccentric gear consists of stationary gear wheel and an eccentric gear wheel.

The eccentric wheel is freely mounted on the input shaft and is driven round by
eccentric means causing the eccentric wheel to roll round the internal teeth on the
stationary wheel.

Fig 2.3

[8]
2.3 GEAR MATERIALS:

The following factors should be considered while selecting materials for gear.

 Strength

 Application

 Service Condition

 Wear and Tear

 Noise

Cast Iron is widely used for manufacturing of gear due to its good wearing
properties, excellent machinability and ease of producing complicated gears by casting
method. Steel is used for high strength gears. Plain carbon steel or alloy steel is most
commonly used. These gears are usually heat treated in order to combine properly the
toughness and tooth hardness. Phosphor bronze is widely used for worm gears to reduce
wear and tear. Compressed paper and synthetic resins like nylon are used for gears to
reduce noise.

[9]
 CHAPTER 3
ECCENTRIC GEAR

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Eccentric, in mechanics, is a device for changing rotary to back and forth motion
or linear motion. A disk is mounted off center on a shaft. One flat, open, circular end of a
rod fits around the edges of the disk; the other end is usually attached to a block that
slides in a slot. As the shaft rotates the block slides back and forth, carrying along
whatever is attached to it, e.g. a valve. The distance between the centre of the shaft and
the centre of the disk is the eccentricity. The so called throw may mean either the
eccentricity or the distance the block moves, which is twice the eccentricity. Cams and
Cranks perform the same function as the eccentric, which designers often prefer to the
crank for short motions.

An eccentric gear consists of a stationary gear wheel and an eccentric gear wheel.
The eccentric wheel is freely mounted on the input shaft and is driven round by eccentric
means causing eccentric wheel to roll round the internal teeth on the stationary wheel. A
driving dig transmits the slow rotation of the eccentric wheel to an output shaft.
Distinguishing of the invention is that the teeth are corrected such that the eccentric
wheel is adjusted with the aid of the two eccentric means such that there is practically no
backlash. A computer calculated least clearance between respective top lands on the teeth
is obtained with respect to the tooth meshing. The eccentric means comprises two
cylindrical sleeves arranged eccentrically one in the other. At one end part of the each of
the sleeves, on which is arranges eccentrically one in the other, there is a radically
outstanding tongue. These tongues serve as counter weights balancing the imbalance
moment of the satellite gear wheel which is due to its eccentric mounting on the input
shaft. Backlash and play are eliminated by turning the sleeves of eccentric means relative
to each other.

[10]
3.2 MEASURE OF ECCENTRICITY

Concentricity is one condition which exists when the centre of the pitch circle on
which the teeth are cut, coincides with the centre about which the gear turns. When this
condition is not said to be fulfilled the gear is said to run out or to be eccentric. The
distance between these centers is the measure of eccentricity which is measured by the
concentricity tester. The run out is twice the eccentricity.

We measure the concentricity with concentric tester. This device has two points
180 degrees apart-one a fixed stop and the other actuating a dial indicator reading to ten-
thousandth of an inch. The gear to be checked is mounted on a dead centre held with a
clamp and indicator readings are taken on diametrically opposite teeth. The contact points
are mounted on a swinging bracket, which can be lifted while the gear is turned from
tooth to tooth. The run out is equal to one half of the distance between the high and low
readings which makes this method of inspection quite accurate because of the amount of
time required in inspecting gears. They are primarily for periodic and not general
production checking.

3.3 WORKING

Eccentric gear is driven by a motor. The motor is connected to a flywheel which is

located outside the crown casing through belts. The flywheel is mounted on one end of
the main driving shaft and on the other end a herringbone gear is mounted. A herringbone
gear named as LH is meshed with the above gear. RH is another herringbone gear which
is meshed with the above gear. RH is another herringbone gear which is meshed with LH.
Two spur gears are mounted on the same shafts of LH and RH respectively. These two
spur gears drive the eccentric discs on which a rim of spur teeth is welded. Hence the
speed reduction is obtained. Inside the eccentric circle, a circular wheel called hub is
welded. The main purpose of the hub is to carry the coupler link and also to transmit the
rotary motion from eccentric disk to the coupler link converts the rotary motion to the
reciprocating motion of the slide with the help of a rocker arm. The rocker arm is
connected at the top of the coupler link with help of a pin joint.

[11]
3.4 ADVANTAGES

 This unique link mechanism ensures low contact velocity and high tonnage
capacity at points high on the stroke.

 This mechanism can be readily applied to either double action or single action
presses.

 Here noise is also reduced.

 Mechanical shocks to the die are reduced.

 Slide force at the start of the drawing sequence is about 1.7 times than that of an
eccentric gear press.

3.5 DESIGN FEATURES OF ECCENTRIC GEAR DRIVES

Power is transmitted from eccentric to the slide. Eccentric gear presses utilize an
exceptionally long eccentric strap because short eccentric strap delivers force at a greater
at a greater angle creating a high lateral thrust. Maximum power is applied to the work
when a long connection between eccentric and slide is employed with force expanded in
lateral distortion held to minimum. Because the long eccentric strap minimizes the lateral
thrust, it reduces the friction between slide and the gib-way and also reduces stress on the
driving components. The eccentric strap is a flame cut from extra heavy steel plate. The
strap bearing is replaceable Nickel-Bronze alloy with high compressive yield strength.
The saddle bearing mounted to the bottom side of the eccentric strap is renewable high
strength Aluminum-Bronze. Bronze wrist pin bearings are mounted in connection screw
with clearance provided at the top to assure that the press is transmitted through the
saddle bearing and not the wrist pin. The wrist pin is fitted with minimum clearance in
the eccentric strap to provide a solid support for saddle bearing. The connection of the
eccentric strap is made through an adjustable non-oscillating barrel type screw.

[12]
 Fig 3.1

CHAPTER 4
[13]
 MANUFACTURING OF AN ECCENTRIC GEAR

4.1 INTRODUCTION:

Manufacturing is the conversion of the raw material into desired end products.
The word is derived from two Latin roots meaning hand and make. There are a number of
processes that the raw material has to undergo before an eccentric gear is manufactured.

The optimal sequence for manufacturing of eccentric gear is:

 Steel Casting

 Gas Cutting

 Fettling

 Welding

 Stress Relieving

 Full fettling

 Priming

 Marking

 Vertical turning

 Marking

 Gear hobbling

 Fitting

 Horizontal boring for key way

 Vertical Turning

[14]
  Induction Hardening

These are the different processes that are to be performed in order to complete the
manufacturing of eccentric gear. In order to obtain any product of high standard and
superior quality, the manufacturing has to be done in some specific sequence.

For manufacturing an eccentric gear, the first is obtaining new raw material. Raw
material used in M.S plates which is obtained from steel casting.

4.2 STEEL CASTING:

There are two process routes for making steel today, the electric arc furnace and
the basic oxygen converters. The latter requires a charge of molten iron, which is
produced in blast furnaces. The raw materials for producing molten iron are iron ore,
coking coal and fluxes (materials that help the chemical process) – mainly limestone.

The coal and iron ore arrives by sea in very large ships and is off loading at
steelworks that use it. The iron ores arrive in a number of forms: lumps of ore in the form
in which they were mined; fine-sized iron ores; and pellets-fine ores which have been
processed to stick together to form hard spheres of iron ore. The coals and ores are
transported by conveyors belt or rail to stockyards where they are stored and carefully
blended.

[15]
 Fig 4.1

Blended coal is first heated in coke ovens to produce coke. This process is known
as carbonization. The gas produced during carbonization is extracted and used for fuel
elsewhere in the steelworks. Once carbonized, the coke is pushed out of the ovens and
allowed to cool. Fine sized ore is first mixed with coke and fluxes and heated in a sinter
plant. This is a continuous moving belt on which the coke is ignited. The high
temperatures generated fuse the ore particles and fluxes together to form a porous clinker
called sinter. The use of sinter in the blast furnace helps make the iron making process
more efficient.

Iron ore lumps and pellets, coke, sinter and possibly extra flux are carried to the
top of the blast furnace on a conveyor or in skips and then tipped, or charged, into the
furnace. Hot air (900 degrees C etc) is blasted into the bottom of the furnace through
nozzles called tuyeres. The oxygen in the air combusts with the coke to form carbon
monoxide gas, and this generates a great deal of heat. Frequently oil or coal is injected
with the air, which enables less (relatively expensive) coke to be used. The regular
intervals by the opening hole in the bottom of the furnace and allowing it to flow out. The

[16]
fluxes combine with the impurities in the coke and ore to form a molten slag, which
floats on the iron and is also removed at regular intervals.

The hot metal flows into torpedo ladles. These are specially constructed railway
containers which transport iron, still in liquid form, to the steel furnace. The iron
produced by the blast furnace has carbon content of 4 to 4.5% as well as number of other
‘impurities’. This makes it relatively brittle. Steelmaking refines iron, amongst other
things by reducing its carbon content, to make it stronger and more manipulable product.

The BOS (Basic Oxygen Steelmaking) process is the major modern process form
making bulk steels. Special quality steels (such as stainless steel), all flat products, and
long products over a certain size, are rolled from steel made by the BOS products. The
electric arc furnace (EAF) (together with the basic oxygen vessel) is one of the two
modern ways of makings steel EAFs are to be used to produce special quality steels
(steels alloyed with other metals and some ordinary (non-alloy) quality steels the tighter
long products such as those for reinforcing concrete.

Increasingly today, steels after they have been tapped (poured) from the furnace
undergo a further stage of processing called secondary steelmaking before the steel is cast
the Objective in all cases is to fine tune the chemical composition of the steel and /or
improve homogenization of temperature (making sure that the steel is the same
temperature throughout) and remove impurities.

Molten steel is poured into a large mould where it would be allowed to cool and
solidify to form a ingot was then put into an oven called soaking pit, where it would be
gently heated to the core ct and uniform temperature. This red hot ingot steel product,
into one of the three forms of the semi-finished product, into flat piece of steel (with a
rectangular cross-section), a bloom (a long piece of steel with a square cross-section) or a
billet (like a bloom, but with smaller cross-section).

In a continuous casting machine, molten steel is poured into a reservoir at the tip
of the machine. It passes into a controlled rate into a water cooled mould where the outer
shell of the steel becomes solidified. The steel is draws down into a series of the rolls and
water sprays, which ensure that is both rolled into shaped and fully solidifiers at the same

[17]
time. At the end of the machine, it is straightened and cut to the required length. Fully
formed slabs, blooms and billets emerge from the end of the continuous process. The
slabs, blooms or billets are then transported to the hot rolling mill for rolling into steel
products which can be used by manufacturing industry.

4.3 GAS CUTTING

After the raw material of the requisite dimension is obtained it is subjected to

cutting. For cutting plates, general purpose shears are used, which are used only for
straight line cuts also up to thickness of 40 mm. for thicker plates when cut is to be made
along a specified counter, shearing cannot be used; to this oxy-fuel cutting jet with
pressure of the order of 300KPa is directed against the heated plate, the oxygen jet burns
the metal and blows it away causing cut. Gas cutting with the help of Hanco machine is
used in the manufacturing of Eccentric Gear.

4.3.1 Hanco Machine

The layout of the Hanco ordinates is basically very simple the rigid beam runs on
two support rails. One supporting the beam roughly at the center, the other is at the right
hand end. The beam is motorized to travel along the rails. Riding on the beam is a beam
carriage which is motorized to traverse beam.

Between the two support rails is the tracking table on which the drawing to be
scanned in mounted. The cutting table on which the plate is to be cut (parent plate) is
mounted. Is under the unsupported tracing is table head with its electronic eye (photo
cell) for scanning the drawing of the part to be cut.

The drive motors of the servo motor type and receive their control signals from
tracer head one motor drives the burner carriage along the beam, this felt and the right
movement is called travel along X-coordinates the other motor drives the whole beam
along support rills, this forward and back movement is called travel along Y-coordinate.

The electric signal from the tracer head passes through an electronic control unit
which splits into two components. Depending on the required direct ion of travel for a

[18]
straight longitudinal cut, for instance the whole signal is passed to Y-coordinate motor,
none to X-coordinate motor. For a straight traverse cut only X-coordinate motor receives
the signal, the Y-coordinate receives none. For a 45 cut, the signal is split is divided into
equal parts and for any other angle it is split in the appropriate ratio to keep burner travel
always at predetermined cutting speed, when cutting circled or curves the ratio is
constantly changing.

The coordinate control function is carried out automatically by electronic control

unit. There is also a joystick control lever on the control console mounted on the beam
which enables movement of the burners to be controlled by hand.

Different fuel gases can be used in Hanco machine some of the mare propane and
other liquefied petroleum gases, natural gases, coal gas hydrogen gas and Acetylene. For
gas cutting generally Acetylene gas is used because it is easy to store and easily
produced. And also because of the following reasons:

 Coal gas is not used for high speed cutting

 Hydrogen gas is rarely used because the pressure must be high approximately
0.35 kg/cm

4.3.2 Precautions:

 Care must be taken that the drawing must be full scale(1:1)

 While making drawing line should be 0.4-0.6mm thick non reflecting black ink

4.4 WELDING

Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals of

thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the work pieces an
adding a filter material to form a pool of molten material (the weld puddle) that cools to
become a strong joint, but sometimes pressure is used in conjunction with heat, or by
itself, to produce weld. This is in contrast with soldering and brazing, which involve
melting a lower-melting-point material between the work pieces to form a bond between

[19]
them, without melting the work pieces. In general, the welder has little influence on the
choice of welding procedure but assembly techniques can often be crucial in minimizing
distortion. The principal assembly techniques:

 Tack welding

 Back –to- back assembly

 Stiffening

The type of welding used here is tack welding the method used to carry out tack welding
is explained below.

4.4.1 Tack Welding:

A tack weld is weld made to hold the parts of elements in proper alignment until
the final welds are made. A tack is generally a short weld made at intermitted points to
holes abutting edges together tack welding is likely to be done lightly but tack welds
should be subjects to the same quality requirement as the final weld.

There are 2 basic ways to hold pieces together so that they can be solder each
other one way is the wrap them together with binding wire: the other is to tack then that’s
where a tacking machine comes in by running a very high energy, low voltage current
between the two pieces of metal a tacking machine tacks (lightly welds) the metals
together. A ‘tack’ is not a permanent weld. Its purpose is to hold the pieces together in
proper position for subsequent soldering if the position of the pieces when tacked is
wrong, the tack can then be easily broken and retacked, with no damage to the work.
Most work is actually held in the hand when tacking, so getting the right positioning is
very easy and accurate. It’s a tremendous time saver when soldering settings,
hollowware, etc.

The tack welding sequence is important to maintain as uniform root gap along the
length of the joint. Three alternative tack welding sequences are:

[20]
  Tack weld straight to the end of the joint. It is necessary to clamp the plates or to
use wedges to maintain the joint gap during tacking.

 Tack weld one end and then use a back stepping techniques for tacking the rest of
the joint.

 Tack welds the centre and completes the tack welding by stepping.

The tips for making a tack weld are given as:

(1) Specify the length of each tack weld and measurement from centre to center of the
tack welds in advance. In addition, the multi pass weld profile3s and throat
thickness of the tack weld for tracking.

(2) In tacking high tensile strength steel and heat resistant low alloy steel, a short tack
weld bead causes faster cooling rates of the weld and thereby increase the
hardness of the heat affected zone of the base metal which may cause cracking of
the tack weld. In order to prevent this trouble preheating temperature should be 40
to 50 degrees higher than in the final weld.

(3) Use low hydrogen electrodes for tacking thick components of mild steel high
tensile strength and heat resistant low alloy steel to prevent cold cracking of tack
welds.

(4) Avoid tack welding on sharp corners of the component where residual stresses are
apt to concentrate. The below figure shows typical recommended locations for
tack welds for a steel structure.

(5) You should progress symmetrically when you carry out tack welding on strongly
restrained thick section components.

(6) Whether they will be removed or left in the place, tack welds should be made
using a fillet weld or butt weld qualified per the relevant code. Tack welds to be
left alone in place should be made by welders qualified in accordance with the
pertinent specification they should be examined visually for defects and removes
if found defective.

[21]
 Tack welding allows users quickly and easily position parts temporality before
soldering or welding. After tack welding if the alignment for final soldering or soldering
isn’t properly established, the part can be removed easily form the assembly and retacked.
Once an assembly is tack welded, soldering or welding becomes easier because:

 For soldering cumbersome heat sinks such as cross locking tweezers, binding
wire, soldering investment or other holding devices are not needed.

 The technician can focus on soldering or welding rather than the alignment of
parts and components. Track-welded parts will not move during soldering or
welding.

4.4.2 Arc Welding:

Arc welding processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an
electric arc between an electrode and a base material to melt metals at the welding point.
They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-
consumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by the same type of
inert or semi-inert gas, known as shielding gas, and filter material is sometimes used as
well.

Fig 4.2

[22]
4.4.3 Power Supplies:

To supply the electrical energy required for the arc welding processes, a number
of different supplies can be used. The most important classification is constant current
power supplies and constant voltage supplies. In the arc welding, the voltage is directly
related to length of the arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input.

4.4.4 Welding Sequence:

The sequence, or direction, of welding is important and should be towards the free
end of the joint. For long welds, the whole weld is not completed in one direction. Short
runs, for example using the back-step or skip welding technique, are very effective in
distortion control.

 Back step welding involves depositing short adjacent weld lengths in the direction
to the general progression.

 Skip welding is laying short weld lengths in a predetermined, evenly spaced,

sequence along the seam weld lengths and space between them are generally
equal to the natural run-out length of one electrode. The direction of the deposit
for each electrode is the same, but it is not necessary for the welding direction to
be opposite to the direction of general progression.

Best practice

The following techniques are used to control distortion:

 Using tack welds to setup and maintain the joint gap.

 Identical components welded back to back so welding can be balanced about the
neutral axis.

 Attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowling in butt

welds of thin plate structures.

[23]
  Where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique should aim to
deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible.

 In the long runs, the whole weld should not complete in one direction; back-step
or skip welding techniques should be used.

4.5 STRESS RELIEVING

Stress relieving in the metallurgical sense is normally used to refer to relieving of

internal stress (by mechanical or thermal means) in the material that occurs because of
welding, forming, or heat treating. Machining induces stresses in parts, the bigger and
more complex the part, the more the stresses. The stresses can cause distortion in the part
of long term. If the parts are clamped in service, then cracking could occur. Also whole
locations can change causing them to go out of tolerance. For these reasons, stress
relieving is often necessary. There are many sources of residual stresses relieving is often
necessary. There are many sources of residual stresses that can occur during rolling,
casting, forging and forming operations such as shearing, bending, drawing and
machining. These stresses can also result from welding, fabrication and burning
operations.

Thermal stress relieving is the preferred method of reducing or eliminating

residual stress, and the only form of stress-relieving that will lower hardness of burnout
plate edges to improve machinability.

Stress relieving is typical used to remove residual stresses which have

accumulated from prior manufacturing processes. Stress relief is performed by heating to
a temperature below ACL and holding at that temperature for the required time to achieve
the desired reduction in residual stress. Then the steel is cooled at a sufficiently slow rate
to avoid formation of excessive thermal stress. No micro structural changes occur during
stress relief processing.

The stress relieving temperature for different metals is given as:

 550-600 C for unalloyed and low alloy steels;

[24]
  600-700 C for hot-work and high-speed tool steels.

These temperatures are above the recrystallization temperature of these types

of steels. Little or no stress relief occurs at temperature <260 C and approximately 90%
of stress is relieved to 540 C. The maximum temperature for stress relief is limited to 30
C below the tempering temperature used after quenching. Stress relieving results in a
significant reduction of yield strength, in addition to reducing the residual stresses to
“safe” value and crack-sensitive materials. Typically, stress-relieving times for specific
alloys are obtained from standard tables. The stress-relieving times were developed for
the conventional convection heated batch ovens. With rapid stress-relieving technology,
the total stress relieving time for 16mm diameter Cr-Si wire can reduced to 10 min or
less.

Typically, the parts that benefit from stress reliving are large and complex
weldments, castings with a lot of machining, parts with tight dimensional tolerances and
machined part that have had lot of stock removal performed.

Stress reliving is done by subjecting the parts to a temperature of about 75 C (165

F) below the temperature, which is about 727 C (1340 F) of steel thus stress relieving is
done about 650 C (1202 F) for about one hour or till the whole part reaches the
temperature. This removes more than 90% of internal stresses. Alloy steels are relieved at
higher temperatures. After removing from the furnace, the parts are air cooled in the still
air.

There are many benefits to stress-relieving:

 Reduction distortion

 Improved dimension stability

 Improved machinability

Stress-relieving today is an increasingly complex operation. Some stress-relieving

specifications require and/or dictate a controlled rise to the stress relieving temperature,

[25]
holding at that temperature for that dictated length of time, followed by a controlled cool
down to ambient temperature.

4.6 FULL FETTLING

Definition: The removal of sand adhering to castings by hammering, tumbling or

shot basting.

During welding and stress relieving some scales are formed around the welded
area, the cleaning of these scales is known as fettling. For fettling process an abrasive
cutoff is used which is carried out by a portable grinding machine. Typical wheel speed
used is about 80m/s.

Fettling is the term traditionally given to the finishing of castings to remove

excessive unwanted metal e.g. flashing, risers etc. it can include processes like chipping,
short blasting, grinding etc.

Hand head tools such as grinders and chipping hammers or fixed tools such as
pedestals grinding machines, finishers and band saws are traditionally used to remove the
unwanted material. Automated fettling is becoming more common today in a variety of
ways.

4.7 PRIMING

Priming is defined as the first or primary coat of paint or size applied to a surface
which is subjected to corrosion or deterioration.

In priming operation first the material is heated to its red hot condition then
immediately quenched with red oxide so as to prevent formation of scales and rust.

Priming is done to regulate surface absorbency. Traditional gesso panels, for

example, are often too absorbent and metal supports are too nonabsorbent. The challenge
is to regulate the absorbency to the needs. There are various ways to accomplish this; bur
one rule must be observed: never apply a waterborne paint over an oil-primed surface. Do

[26]
not be fooled by appearances. It is not difficult to get waterborne paints to go on an oil
primed surface, but cannot be stayed there over years.

4.7.1 Causes of Deterioration:

1. Corrosion: Iron, steel and other metal may suffer from corrosion due to chemical
and electrochemical reactions which cause the metal to oxidizes or combine
chemicals such as carbonates or sulfides. The salt- and moisture-rich environment
of the coastal fortifications is particularly hard on metals. Contact between
dissimilar metals can also cause electrochemical reactions.

2. Fatigue: Structural iron and steel may be subject to metal fatigue due to excessive
loading, repetitive movement due to wind loading, or stress from cyclical loading.
Harmonic movement from wind loading and seismic movement also can cause
fatigue.

3. Impact: Equipment and vehicles impacting structural metals can cause localized
damage that can lead to further deterioration and failure.

4. Lamellar Tearing: Tearing at welded joints results from improper welding

practices.

5. Loose Connection: Structural steel joints and connections may loosen such as
bolts and nuts.

4.7.2 Identification of Metal Deterioration:

The detection of metal deterioration is vest accomplished by a structural engineer.

However, many problems are found, professional evaluation is recommended. The sign
of metal deterioration include:

 Wearing of metal surfaces

 Cracks especially at points of maximum stress

 Localized distortion twisting of bending

[27]
  Paint or Coating failure (an indication of underlying metal stress)

 Misalignment

 Lack of level sagging or deflection

 Rusting or Straining

 Loose bolts, rivets or other connectors

 Broken welds

 Visible movements

4.7.3 Prevention of Corrosion:

Corrosion is prevented by removal of bare metal and application of appropriate

protective coatings. Grit blasting is the preferred method wrought and cast iron. Grit
blasting should be limited to specific areas of corrosion and adjacent areas protected with
plywood. After cleaning the bare metal the metal surface should be washed with a solvent
and a primer should be immediately applied. Priming should be followed with finish
painting with at least 2 coats of approved paint material applied according to the
manufacturers written instructions.

4.7.4 Treatment (Application of Coatings):

 Clean metal should be free of dirt, oil debris, and corrosion and deteriorated paint.

 Apply approved coatings.

4.8 MARKING

Marking is again done on the material for marking tooth profile for cutting of
tooth on gear hobbing machine.

[28]
4.9 VERTICAL TURRET LATHES

The term "vertical turret lathe" (VTL) is applied to machines wherein the same
essential design of the horizontal version is upended, which allows the headstock to sit on
the floor and the faceplate to become a horizontal rotating table, analogous to a huge
potter's wheel. This is useful for the handling of very large, heavy, short work pieces.
Vertical lathes in general are also called "vertical boring mills" or often simply "boring
mills"; therefore a vertical turret lathe is a vertical boring mill equipped with a turret. A
CNC version is called a "CNC VTL"

Fig 4.3

[29]
4.10 GEAR CUTTING

Toothed gear wheels may be made by cutting teeth, die casting or forming teeth
and by grinding. Teeth may be finished by grinding, shaving or lapping or they may be
used as cut.

When making ready to cut the teeth or any gear blank it is necessary to give
attention to the condition the component reaches the gear cutting section along with the
state of the machine and cutting tools.

The gear tooth cutting methods of milling, hobbing, shaping, planning, shear
cutting and broaching the machine and cutting tools are explained in the following topics.

4.11 GEAR HOBBING

Almost any external tooth form which is uniformly spaced about a center can be
hobbed. It is not necessary that the form be symmetrical about an individual axis, but
each tooth or group of teeth must be a duplicate of any other tooth or group. The kinds of
work which can be hobbed include spur gears, helical gears, splines, serrations, worms,
worm gears and special forms. Many gears are finished hobbed in one cut; others are
hobbed with a semi-finishing hob prior shaving or grinding and some are rough-hobbed
before the finish-hobbing operations. Automatic machines can be designed for the mass
production of a specific part. The ease of setup makes hobbing machines especially
adaptable to small-lot production.

The versatility of hobbing makes it an economical method of cutting gears. One

hob of a given pitch will cut teeth of all involute spur and helical gears of the same
normal pitch and pressure angle, including all numbers of teeth and helix angles.

The size of the teeth and the size of the work are limited only by the capacity of
the hobbing machine on which the part is to be cut. Hobbing machines are available for
cutting any diameter up to 200. Face width is limited by the length of the hob travel. The
accuracy of the parts reduced by hobbing is determined by the accuracy of the machine

[30]
the rigidity of the accuracy of the hob. Precision machines are available for hobbing
closer tolerance when necessary.

The finish on the gear teeth is dependent upon accuracy of the hob, the rigidity of
the tooling and amount of feed. With adequate tooling and a small amount of feed a very
thin finish can obtained. Although it is difficult to inspect the finish on the gear-tooth
profiles, it is possible obtain a finish of 15 micro-inches. On roughing operations, a
coarse feed would be used, and the finish might be as rough as 150 micro-inches.

Hobbing is applicable to all types of gear materials. High speed steel hobs are
used to cut ferrous, non metallic materials. Carbide-tipped hobs can be used for the mass
production of non ferrous metals and non-metallic materials if the hobbing machine can
utilize the high speeds required by carbides. Steel can sometimes be hobbed in the
hardness range of 40 to 48 Rockwell C with high speed steel hobs.

Hobbing machine can also be adapted to perform special operations. Gear teeth
can be changed with a special hob used on the standard hobbing machine. A crowned
tooth form can be hobbed on a machine which continually changes the center distance
between the hob and work according to the desired configuration of the crown. The taper
root splines are cut on a machine which feeds the hob at an angle to the axis of the spline.
Machines which have a work spindle set at an angle to the plane of the hob slide travel
will cut tapered serrations. Special worm gear machines are designed to feed the hub at
90 degrees to the work axis. Worm gears are also hobbed on machines equipped with
power feed in a radial direction. Worm and threads can either hobbed or milled on a
machine which allows the proper angular setting of the tool.

[31]
 Fig 4.4

4.11.1 Theory of the Hobbing Process:

The generator of a gear tooth is continuous indexing process in which both the
cutting tool and the work piece rotating a constant relationship while the hob is being fed
into the work. As the hob is fed across the work piece once, all the teeth in the work are
completely formed.

In most instances the unusual features of the hobbing process is that the form on
the hob is not reproduced on the work. The largest application of hobbing is the cutting
involute gears with a hob having teeth with essentially straight sides at a given pressure
angle. Hobs can also be designed with other than straight sides to produce the desired
from on the work.

The hob is basically a worm which has been fluted and has formed relieved teeth.
The fluids produced the cutting edges. Each tooth is relieved radially to form clearance
behind the cutting edge, allowing the faces of the teeth to be sharpened while retaining
the original tooth profile.

[32]
4.11.2 Hobbing Machine Relationship:

The generating process requires accurate relationships between various elements

of the machine in order to produce the desired result. The hob rotates in a definite
relationship with the work. For spur gears with a single tooth hob, the blank moves one
tooth space while the hob rotates once. The rotation is timed by the means of changed
gears.

The drive to the hob and the work spindles is obtained from a main drive motor
through speed change gears. From the driven shaft of the speed change gears, the speed
of the hob spindle is fixed by the gearing in the machine. The drive to the work spindle
from the speed change gears goes through index change gears, a definite relationship
between the rotation of the hob and rotation of the work is maintained. Since the drive
that feeds the hob into the work is taken from the index changing gears through feed
change gears to the feed screw, a relationship is established between the work and the
feed. It is the relationship between the rotation of the hob, the rotation of the work, and
the amount and the direction of the feed that enables the gear to be cut. Speed change
gears can be changed without affecting the gear the relationship between the hob, work
and the feed.

4.11.3 Hobs Speed and Feeds:

Hob speed (surface feet per minute) is a primarily a function of the machinability
of the material being hobbed, the hob specifications, the machine capacity, and the hob
life desired. The machinability rating of a material varies with its structure and it’s
hardened. It is commonly composed with machinability of AISI B-1112 cold drawn steel,
which is rated as 100%.

With other things being equal, an increase in machinability rating would warrant
an increase in hob speed. However, hob material and the hob tooth from should also be
considered. Where carbide tipped hobs have been applied to non ferrous metals and non-
metallic materials, hob speed steel hobs. In many cases, hob speed is limited by the
maximum machine speed available. In addition, the pipe of high speed in the hob

[33]
influences the speed which can be used and the wear that is obtained. Pointed hob teeth
are forms with only a small corner radius may require reduced hob speeds to eliminate
excessive wear. The top corner of a tooth on a gear hob does a great deal of work in
forming the root fillet of a gear tooth. With a small portion of the cutting edge doing a big
cutting job, too high hob speed may cause premature cutting edge failure.

The amount of feed applied to a specific job varies with a finish and accuracy
required and with the machine capacity and tooling employed. Fine pith precious gear is
usually hobbed within the range of 0.005 to 0.020 per revolution.

A high feed rate produces long, deep feed marks, resulting in a rough finish
having peaks and valley, which affects the accuracy of the part. The feed rate applied
must be within the capacity of the machine and the tooling used to clamp and drive the
part. Lack of rigidity enhances deflections which often cause chatter marks and gauges on
the hobbed surfaces.

[34]
 Fig 4.5

4.12 GEAR MILLING

[35]
 Gears are produced by milling with worm milling cutter. After each tooth space is
milled, the gear blank is indexed to the next cutting position. Gear milling can be applied
to the roughing and finishing of spur, helical and bevel gear teeth.

4.12.1 Application of Gear Milling:

Gear milling finds its widest application in roughing external spur gears and in
prior to generating; and in some cases these are finished by milling. In addition to gears,
milling is applied to sprockets, splines, racks, ratchets and other forms. Although it is
usually applied to external tooth forms, internal tooth forms are also be produced by
milling.

Milling can be used to machine almost any tooth form. Standard type milling
machines are available in various sizes for application to gear milling. The size and the
pitch of the gear that can be produced will largely depend upon the machine capacity
available. In addition to the standard milling machines, special milling machines are
available for the primary function of milling gears and other tooth forms. For fine-pitch
gears, small machines with automatic features provide a method applicable to volume
production.

Although milling can produce gears of accuracy equivalent to that which is

produced by other gear cutting methods, it is normally not used where accurate tooth
spacing is required. Since milling gear teeth is a form cutting operation in which each
cutter tooth produces the complete gear tooth profiles, fine surface finishes can be
obtained. Depending upon the conditions, such as gear material, milling cutter design,
and milling setup, surface finishes in the range of 15-20 micro inches can be provided.

4.12.2 Principle:

[36]
 Gear milling is a machine process in which the gear teeth are produced by a form
cutter. In the case of spur gear, the form on the cutter teeth is reproduced on the gear.
When helical gears are milled, the cutter tooth form is not reproduced on the gear.

4.12.3 Milling Machine Operation:

Milling gear tooth are primarily a form milling operation to which the general
techniques of milling apply. Expect for the addition of an indexing mechanism, and
determination of lead gears and setup for helical teeth, machine operation is comparable
with convectional milling process.

The feed for finishing gear teeth is normally in the range of 0.002” to 0.004” per
cutter tooth. Higher feeds can be used for roughing cuts. To improve the finish, reduced
feeds may be required. Other factors which may affect the feed include cutter design,
tooling rigidity, machine capacity and work material.

Cutting speed is primarily dependent upon the machinability of the gear-blank

material. Steel at 100 BHN can be milled at approximately 150sfm with high speed steel
cutters. If the hardness is increased to 300 BHN the speed should be reduced to
approximately 50sfm. Normally, reduced speeds are required for lower machinability
rating of the work material.

[37]
 Fig 4.6

4.13 GEAR SHAPING

The gear shaper was introduced at the beginning of the century by E.R.Fellow of
U.S.A. The machine is designed for cutting teeth on spur, helical and internal gears.

Approach and the overrun: When designing a cluster of gears a groove of suitable width
should always be provided for the cluster over run and chip space. The gear-shaper is also
used for cutting teeth on the helical gears. The modifications required are small. Firstly,
the cutter has to have teeth cut on an angle; secondly, a cam must be fitted to the vertical
slide so as to give the necessary angular movement to the tool. Where a double helical
gear has to be cut, two operations are necessary and an index plunger to locate the work
for the second set of teeth.

[38]
4.13.1 Cutter:

The cutter takes the form of a pinion, and after rough machining and heat
treatment it is brought to the final shape by grinding. In some instances the cutter is
designed with a shank. The cutting edges are ground in special machines which generates
a true involute curve. Owing to the rotary action given the cutter, all the teeth are brought
into contact with work piece, and this increases the number of gears that may be cut
before re-sharpening becomes necessary. Suitable clearance is given on the front and
sides and a small rake.5 degrees, on the top.

4.13.2 Motions:

The cutting stroke of the machine is similar to that is it has a reciprocating motion
on a vertical side.

There are two distinct feed motions:

(a) Forward to bring cutter to the correct depth

(b) Rotary to give the necessary generating action which alone ensures a true involute
tooth form

The rotary motion is such that the work piece and the cutter rotate in a similar
manner to a pairs of gears. One cutter of the correct tooth size and pressure angle will cut
all gears from the smallest pinion having the minimum number of teeth to the largest gear
that one can hold in the machine.

Methods of Holding: The method adapted to the component varies with the design of the
latter. Given a bore in the gear it is usual to hold on a mandrel having a reverse taper.

4.14 MODIFICATIONS

Above mentioned processes are general processes for manufacturing of eccentric

gear. The above processes can be modifies slightly so as to improve the efficiency of
production. Modifications can be done to fettling process and induction hardening.

[39]
4.14.1 Fettling

Problems associated with fettling process: Hand-held tools such as grinders, pedestal
grinders are traditionally used to remove the unwanted material. In these traditional tools
very high noise levels are produced and excess 117dB. Personal noise exposures levels of
100-110dB have regularly been measured during routine fettling operations. Exposure to
dust and vibrations are also significant in many cases.

The risk to hearing at noise level of 110dB is high. Only % minutes exposure is
required at this level for daily persona noise exposure of a UN protected operator to
exceed the 90dB second action level of noise at work regulations 1989.

The following hierarchy should be followed to prevent hearing damage:

 Elimination of noise producing parts of the process.

 Implementation of adequate engineering controls to reduce noise levels.

 Provision and use of suitable personal hearing protection as an interim measure.

4.14.2 Engineering Control:

Companies should operate a positive purchasing policy for new machinery and
ensure that noise levels are acceptable before interdiction into the factory. For example
low noise grinding discs are now available and can reduce noise levels by around 5dB.
Exhaust silencers can be fitted to some pneumatic rules. Low noise below guns is also
available.

4.14.3 Process Modification:

In some cases it may be possible to substitute rough or even finish for hand
fettling processes. For example chipping hammers can be replaced by grinders to achieve
significant noise reductions.

[40]
4.15 INDUCTION HEATING

Placing a metal body in an alternating magnetic field creates eddy currents,

causing losses through which the metal is heated. Skin effects concentrate these currents
in the outer layers. The induction traversed by an alternating current creates a magnetic
field, which should be optimally adapted to the work piece. The depth of heating can be
influenced by varying the AC frequency, but it also depends upon the concentration of the
flux capacity, on the length of treatment and the material of work piece, i.e., its heat
conduction properties. Medium frequency is usual used for melting, forging heat
treatment and annealing. For hardening and soldering, medium or heavy frequency may
be used, depending upon the treatment required.

Induction heating is a subfield of industrially used electric heating. Al electrical

conductive materials can be heated quickly and cleanly with pollution free induction
heating. Features include:

 Selected parts of the work piece can be heated.

 Heating time and temperature can be precisely controlled.

 There is no smoke or soot pollution.

 Heating operation can be ignited in semi-automatic production sequences.

 Induction equipment can be usually bee operated by unskilled personal.

Major uses of induction heat treatment:

 Melting ferrous and non ferrous metals with temperatures up to 1800 degrees
centigrade.

 Heating for forging up to 1250 degrees centigrade.

 Stress relieving and normalizing steels after cold forming between 750-950
degrees centigrade.

[41]
 Surface hardening of steel or cast iron work pieces at 850-950 degrees centigrade.

 Soft soldering and brazing up to 1100 degrees centigrade.

 Recrystallization.

 Tube and pipe welding.

Key advantages of induction heating:

 Very fast partial hardening.

 High production rates.

 Significant reduction in pollution, distortion, forging scale, energy and space

requirements.

 High degree of reproduction and automation.

4.15.1 Induction Hardening

Limitations of induction hardening:

 Components with regular shapes and surfaces requiring treatment can be difficult
to induction harden in view of restrictions imposed by coil designing or limited
accessibility

 The size and shape of a component that can be induction depends on the type of
equipment operated.

Problems that could arise: There is a danger of overheating in sections and edges. To
avoid the above problems alternate process called induction heating can be used.

[42]
 CHAPTER 5

PROCESS LAYOUT

Parent section Object Material Quantity Basis

2262 Eccentric gear Ms weldments 2 Tooling
Time/piece
Description of operation
Opn Section M/c Special tools
of net weight 4993kgs
TS TO
1 62 090 Marking: mark off to Height gauge, 30 240
distribute machining scriber,
allowance completely marking table,
scale
measuring
tape, centre
punch, hammer

2A 2262 190 Vertical turning: Rough

and finish turn Ǿ1600-
0.2*full length face Ǿ1600/
Ǿ1392 to Ǿ6205 Turn
Ǿ300*2lg inner face
Ǿ650+140/ Ǿ300

Face Ǿ1840/1640 to
dim.530

Dim .530=(830-300)

Face to as R575*dim.

[43]
 54+0.1 as per diagram

Bore Ǿ250.08+0.05 * full

length

Counter bore
Ǿ251.08+0.05 * 315 lg

Chamfer edge of bore at

1×45°

Round off edge at R6 as

per diagram Break sharp
edges

3 212 090 Marking-mark off ‘c’ lines 30 60

of bored maximum
eccentricity 80.2+0.1 on
both sides of rim face as
per diagram

Follow orientation of
scribe and mark RH&LH
as per diagram

4A 2263 645 Gear hobbing-finish cut 240 300

spur teeth

Z=76

M=20

α=20*234 length

Note: ‘c’ line of tooth

[44]
 space should be incline of
eccentric bore.

Change gears=36/72*40/65

4B 2263 070 Fettling: debur teeth if 10 220

edge of teeth at 1.5*45 for
further generation

5A 2263 478 Horizontal boring as rotary

table mount on rollers,
butting against angle plates
facing to spindle

Drill and tap 2 holes

M16*37/30 deep for fixing
alignment plate after fixing
alignment plate.

Drill and ream 1 hole at

eccentricity 80.2+0.1
φ50+17*20 deep on align
plate.

Drill and tap 2 sets of 2

holes.

M16*37/30 deep

Note:

1) Mark c line of tooth

space on both sides of rim
face.

[45]
2) ‘C’ line of tooth space
bore and maximum
eccentricity should be
incline.

3) Don’t remove
alignment plate index by
180* align

Drill and tap holes

M16*37/30 deep.

With key way milling

attachment

Mill key way

40+-0.02 breadth with RL

x274.5 length to dim
400.2+0.1

After fixing alignment

plate; with spindle

Φ50H7*20 deep on align

plate

Eccentricity 80.2+0.1

Note:

1) Mark c line of tooth

space on rim face.
2) c line of tooth space
bore and max eccentric
should be in line

[46]
 3) Don’t remove alignment
plate.

6A 2262 190 Turning: 90 460

Turn at 80.2+0.1 ecc.
Φ640-0.10 (polish) x188’.
188 length face φ676/φ640
to draw /85+-0.2 break
sharp edges.
Note:
1) use belt polishing
attachment for polishing
2) Eccentricity 80.2+-0.1
should be same as both
sides of both pieces.
3) ‘c’ line of tooth space,
maximum eccentricity and
box should be in line

6B 2262 070 Fettling

7 1170 X45 Induction hardening

8 2271 083 Painting

[47]
 Operation Material Quantity Basis
Parent section
Gear hub rolling Ms weldments 2 Tooling

Time/piece
Special
Opn Section M/c Description of operation
Tools TS TO

1A 1261 090 Marking: mark to size 680breadth 20 22

x 2226length
2226=1926+300 Trimming
Allowance
1B 1261 758 Gas cutting: Gas cut to size 680br 18 50
x 2226lg

1C 1261 069 Fettling 6 34

2 1170 X32 Rolling: Roll to size

Q550+1/Q676 and weld

3 2262 191 V-Turning: 50 140

Face both sides to 671 length of
edges at 30 degrees to diameter as
per diameter

[48]
 Operation
Material Quantity Basis
Parent section Eccentric Gear
Ms weldments 2 Tooling
rolling

Special Time/piece
Opn Section M/c Description of operation
Tools
TS TO
1 1170 s/c The details of items given
in 4/4 sheet

2A 1170 090 Marking: Mark off profile

with pilot holes, keep
20mm allow in bore φ380.8
2B 1170 453 .Drilling: pilot hole φ33

2C 1170 755 CNC Gas cutting: Profile

as per diagram, keep 20mm
allowed in bore φ380.8
2D 1170 069 Fettling

3A 1170 090 Marking-Scarves & hole as

per diagram

3B 1170 758 Gas cutting: Scarves

3C 1170 069 Fettling

[49]
4A 1261 453 Radial Drilling

4B 1261 032 Tin smithy

4C 2263 090 Marking: Mark off the lines

on faces

5A 1170 750 Welding

5B 1170 069 Fettling

6A 1261 766 Stress relieving

6B 1261 069 Fettling

6C 1170 081 Priming

[50]
 CHAPTER 6

INTRODUCTION TO PRESSES

The Press Division came into force in 1972. In Press Division, Hydraulic Presses
and Presses and press Brakes of tonnage up to 200 are designed and manufactured. It is
fulfilling the bulk of requirement of the Defense Sector and Automobile industry. The
Division was originally built in collaboration with M/s. Verson USA, the collaborators
now over and HMT is on its own. Its main products are Mechanical Presses, Hydraulic
Press Brakes, and Mechanical Press Brakes.

The thrust of HMT Machine Tools Ltd., is manufacturing of special purpose

machines. The total manufacturing operations of HMT are divided into metal cutting
operations and metal forming operations. These metal forming operations are mainly
done by Mechanical and Hydraulic Presses.

The strong engineering base established in Machine Tool Division and Press
Division has enabled the two divisions to (a) diversify their production program (b)
undertake major projects on turnkey basis.

Since the business for the major products of the two divisions highly fluctuates, it
has been found necessary to have strong engineering base which has enabled them to
diversify into products other than machine tools and presses in demand for these
machines. Thus, HMT have successfully executed orders for coil winding machines,
halters for coal mines, equipment for Radar etc.

6.1 METAL FORMING PRESS

Technology has exerted a far greater inference on the development of our past
than most history books gives credit for. As late as nineteenth century, craftsmanship and
technology were practically synonymous. It is only with the advent of mechanization
through the use of machines that the term took a new meaning of its own.

[51]
 Today technology is one of the bastions of our modern life style and the basis for
our prosperity in which metal forming technology plays a central role. Its field of
application range from automotive engineering, production line, and container
construction through to the building constriction, household appliances and packaging
industry.

Development in the field of material forming crated a technological basis to allow

the benefits of formed work pieces such as a more favorable flow line, optimum strengths
characteristics and low material and energy inputs to be combined with higher production
output, dimensional control and surface quality.

6.2 PRESS DEFINITIONS

A press is a metal forming tool machine used primarily to supply force for the
reshaping of materials principally metal. It is a chip less manufacturing process by which
various components are made from sheet metal.

Presses are machine tools in which material e.g. sheet or billet is worked by
forming or cutting operations taking place below the bottom or lower part of the tool
fixed to a stationary table and the top or upper part of the tooling, which is fixed to a
reciprocating member called the ram.

During pressing, the table is subjected to the forces applied by the ram. A
mechanical or hydraulic driving mechanism is required to reciprocate the ram and also
provide the power required for the pressing operation. The presses more commonly
encountered for metal working are of certain general design, which, by virtue of their
mechanical principles and dimensions may be used with all type of tools required in the
various branches of metal forming technology.

6.3 FORMING

Forming is the modification of shape with controlled geometry. These are

categorized as chip less or non-material removal processes. With such significance to
metal forming industry, the machines used for the purpose becomes equally important.

[52]
6.4 BROAD CLASSIFICATION OF FORMING MACHINES

Various forming processes are associated with different type of forming machines.
Out of all, pressing type of machines are most widely used and applied for different
variety of processes. These machines can be classified into the three types based on their
drive and variety of processes. These machines can be classified into three types based on
their drive and velocity characteristics,

1. Load restricted machines (Hydraulic presses)

2. Stroke restricted machines (Crank and eccentric presses)
3. Energy restricted machines (Hammers and screw press)

6.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMING MACHINES

Significant characteristics of press consist of all design and performance data on

that machine, which are pertinent to its economical use. This data is necessary for
optimum selection of type of equipment for a given process. The characteristics data for
these machines can be classified into three groups, i.e.

1. Characteristics for load and energy (available load, available energy, etc.,)

2. Time related characteristics (Displacement, dwell time and slide velocity, etc.,)

3. Characteristics for accuracy (flatness, perpendicularity, parallelism and

deflection under load, etc.,)

Furthermore one or combination of the following characteristics can classify the presses.

 Based on the source of power, presses are classified into manual, mechanical,
hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical.etc.

 Based on type of frame, as given in figure presses are further classified into gap,
straight side, ring type frame, etc.

[53]
  Based on method of slide actuation, as given in figure presses are further
classified into eccentric shaft, eccentric gear, crank shaft, knuckle lever, rocker
arm type, etc.

 Based on number of slides in action, presses are further classified into single,
double and triple action, etc. where each slide can move separately in controlled
motion. Presses are also provided with overload safety. The standard presses
accessories are die cushions, lift outs, slide knockouts, etc.

6.6 CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSES

The presses are classified based on the following factors. They are

 Source of power and

 Slide actuation

These can be explained in detail as below:

1. Source of power:

Power press for sheet metal work can be driven hydraulically or mechanically.
Hence the presses are called hydraulic presses and mechanical presses respectively. The
performance characteristics and other operational features of hydraulic and mechanical
presses are compared as follows:

 Force developed by a mechanical press varies with the position of the slide.
Force is exerted constantly throughout the stroke of a hydraulic press.
 The length of stroke is easily adjusted and controlled in a hydraulic press. In a
mechanical press, the stroke is fixed by the throw of the crank or eccentric.
 The speed of a hydraulic press is adjustable over a wide range; where as the
speed of a mechanical press is limited by the type of drive. Also mechanical
press is better suited for high production than hydraulic presses.
 A hydraulic press cannot be over loaded. It can deliver only a preset force and
slide motion stops when that force is reached. A mechanical press can be over

[54]
 loaded resulting in damage to the press, if it is not equipped with overload
protection.
 Because energy stored in the flywheel, a mechanical press can use a small
motor. For same applications, the size of the motor in hydraulic press maybe
as much as 2.5 times more than mechanical press.
 Ram velocity in mechanical press is higher, making this equipment more

useful in operations such as blanking and piercing in which a high impact

blow is needed. The shock of the punch through the metal can damage the

hydraulic system while blanking and piercing.

The presses can be explained as,

Hydraulic Press:

Hydraulic pressure against one or more pistons provides the power for hydraulic

press. Pumps, reservoirs and other components of the hydraulic system usually are

housed in the frame and in the crown of the press. These presses with capacities up to

50,000 tons have been built, but most have a capacity of less than 15,000 tons. The

typical press is rated at 100 to 1,000 tons.

Because of their construction these presses can be designed at low cost. They can

be designed with a number of slides and separate hydraulic circuits. Most presses are

straight side models, but small, fast, gap type presses designed to complete with

mechanical open back inclinable presses have been developed.

Mechanical Press:

In most mechanical presses, a flywheel is the major source of energy that is

applied to the slides by cranks, gears, eccentrics or linkages during the working part of

the stroke. During operation, the flywheel runs continuously and is engaged by the clutch

[55]
only when the press stroke is needed. In some very large mechanical presses, the drive

motor is connected directly to the press shaft thus eliminating the need for a flywheel and

a clutch.
Two types of drives are used to transfer the rotational forces of the flywheel to the

main shaft. They are non-geared drive and gear drive.

Non geared drive: In a non-geared drive, the flywheel is on the main shaft and its

speed, in rpm, controls the slide speed. Press speeds with this type of drive usually are

high, ranging from 60 to 100 strokes per minute. Energy stored in the flywheel should be

sufficient to insure that the reduction in the speed of the flywheel will be no greater than

10% per stroke, if the energy in the flywheel is not sufficient to maintain this minimum in

speed reduction, a press with a gear drive should be used.

Gear drives: These drives have the flywheel on auxiliary shaft that drives the

main shaft through one or more gear reductions. A single reduction gear drive develops

speeds of 30 to 100 strokes per minute. Speed for a multi reduction twin gear drive

usually is 10 to 30 strokes per minute, which provides exceptionally steady pressure.

Eccentric Mechanical Press: It is a type of mechanical press in which the drive

system is eccentric. The power-driven eccentric press is one of the single action groups

and is used for such operations as blanking, chipping, piercing, bending and forming. It

may, according to the pressure required, be ungeared or geared. The ungeared machines

have a direct drive, and usually run quicker than the higher powered gear machine.

Generally speaking, the pressure range for ungeared machines is less than the geared

machine. This design leaves the front open and the movement of stock is usually from the

left to right. To meet the different production demands, the press may be with

a) A fixed table
b) An adjusting table to accommodate end number of tools which differ greatly

in their shut height

[56]
 c) As a bar or honing press.
2. Slide Actuation:

Rotary motion of the motor shaft of a mechanical press is converted into

reciprocating motion of the slides by one of the following:

a) Crankshaft
b) Rocker arm drive
c) Eccentric gear drive

Crankshaft:

The most common mechanical drive or presses with capacities up to 300 tons is

the crankshaft drive. The crankshaft imparts sine curve speed to the press to the press

slide. However an eccentric gear actuates most mechanical presses with longer with

longer strokes because it provides greater strength. Crankshaft drives usually are limited

to strokes because it provides greater strength. Crankshaft drives usually are limited to

strokes of 6 to 12 in. The main advantage of a crankshaft driven press is its lower cost

particularly when capacities do not exceed 300 tons.

Rocker Arm Drive:

Rocker arm drives apply crank or eccentric motion to a rocker arm that is

connected to the press slide. In this mechanism, the linkage is driven by an eccentric gear

and a connecting rod. However, a press with rocker arm drive is not limited to coining

operations, but can be used also for drawing or forming operations.

Eccentric Gear Drive:

[57]
 Eccentric gear drives are used universally for large straight side presses that

operate at speeds of less than 50 strokes per minute. In place of crankshaft, an eccentric is

built as an integral part of the press drive gear. However with eccentric as part of the gear,

accuracy and alignment of slide is determined by the accuracy and alignment of the

gears. The principal advantage of the eccentric gear is that it permits greater torque at the

end of the stroke.

The chief limitation of eccentric gear design is that it requires an over hung

flywheel. In addition, a single gear eccentric press usually costs more than a crankshaft or

eccentric press or equal capacity.

[58]
 Fig 6.1

6.7 COMPARISON BETWEEN HYDRAULIC AND MECHANICAL

PRESSES

Based on source of power, presses are classified into hydraulic, mechanical, pneumatic,
electrical, etc. hydraulic and mechanical presses are compared below better understanding.

HYDRAULIC PRESS MECHANICAL PRESS

Force is exerted constantly Force developed varies with the position

throughout the stroke. of slide.

Length of stroke adjustable up to Stroke is fixed by the throw of the crank

maximum designed value. of eccentric.

Speed of operation adjustable over a

This type of drive limits speed.
wide range.

Can be overloaded resulting in the

Overload free system press cannot
damage of press, if it is not equipped
be overloaded than pre-set value.
with overload protection.

[59]
 Higher strikes per minute and better
Slow rate of production.
suited for high production rates.

Since energy is stored in flywheel

Large motor size. smaller motor is required (in some cases
2.5 times smaller).

Particularly suitable for deep

Suitable for blanking and piercing and
drawing, extrusion, nosing, coining
also for shallow forming, coining,
and embossing operations. Metal
embossing and sizing operations. In
flow is well controlled because both
forming process like deep drawing it is
the force on the slide and velocity of
necessary to available at the point of
slide are constant throughout the
stroke at which begins.
stroke.

Not suitable for blanking and

Higher ram velocity makes a
piercing operations unless special
mechanical press more suitable for
provision is made for resistance
blanking and piercing operations.
cylinders, to absorb the shock.

6.8 PRESS SLIDE CONNECTIONS

Mechanical straight slide presses are generally arranged so that the rotary motion
arranged so that the rotary motion of their drives are transmitted to their reciprocating
slide. Depending upon the number of connections, the presses are referred to as being of
single-point, two-point or four0point suspension.

The number of points of suspension is determined by the left to right and front to
back dimensions of the slide face. Location of the applied press loads in relation to
number of slide connections influences the performance of the press and quality of the
parts produced.

[60]
Single Point Suspension:

Presses with small, nearly square slide face areas are generally of single point
suspension when a single point is loaded at ant position other than directly under the
connection, the slide tits. Presses with single point suspension are also not generally
recommended for precision, long run operations because die wear can excessive
progressive dies are used, loading at the various stations should be balanced.

Two-Point Suspension:

Presses with two-point suspension generally have rectangular slides with a front
to back dimension not exceeding about 54”. The maximum load should be placed at the
midpoint between the connections to avoid overloading.

Four Point Suspension:

Presses with four point suspension generally provide the highest accuracy and
longest die life. The rating for each connection is usually either one-fourth or one-third of
the capacity, depending upon the press builder.

The four Pitman’s on these presses are better able to reduce tilting in either
direction when off center loading occurs.

6.9 SELECTION OF PRESSES

The selection of a given metal forming process is influenced by the time, accuracy
and load/ energy characteristics of that machine. Optimum equipment selection requires
consideration of the entire forming system including lot size, conditions at the plant,
environmental effects and maintenance requirements, as well as the requirements of the
specific part and process under consideration.

In practical sense, each forming process is associated with at least one type of
forming machine. The introduction of new forming process invariably depends on the
cost effectiveness and production rate of the machine associated with the process.

[61]
6.10 DETERMINATION OF PRESSES SPECIFICATIONS

Following factors must be considered while specifying a press for a particular

need, i.e.

The first important task required in press selection is to analyze the basic sales,
production and material handling aspects, setting these parameters can save much time in
the press selection analysis.

Major considerations are;

 Total volume requirement.

 Methods of manufacturing.

Total Volume Requirement:

Based single shaft or two shaft basis, we have to select a high speed press with an
automatic feed only for a long run large volume requirements.

Methods of Manufacturing:

Based on above volume requirements, now we can decide the basic method of
manufacturing that fits the situation i.e., progressive die press with automatic feed line or
separate presses for each operation. The size and type of press already available in plant
can guide this discussion.

6.11 ANALYZING THE PRESS

Basic information required here be the tonnage required.

 Distance above BDC where tonnage required.

 Energy (work) consumed to make the part.

[62]
 First, we have to calculate the above three items for each individual operation
required making the part. Then calculate an acceptable operating speed at which the part
can be made.

Tool selection:

Once we know the type of metal forming operation we can know the size of the
tools, i.e., LR*BF dimension, the shut height of range of tools those are being loaded on
the press. With this information we can decide the shut height and ties adjustment,
LR*FB dimensions of the bolster the design ratings.

Tonnage Capacity:

The physical members of the press must be designed to withstand the rated
tonnage industry standards of deflection. Ample design strength for the safety. Factors
must and manufactures vary in design factor based on their philosophy of cost versus
accuracy and life.

Energy capacity:

The energy capacity of the press the most important factor, yet it seems to be most
confusing. Therefore many people make the drastic error of not considering it in their
press selection process. Actually more mechanical press selection is chosen based on
their energy requirement of a job on the tonnage requirement. Energy capacity is the
ability of the press to do the work, that is force*distance.

Energy rating of mechanical press:

We must know that, energy rating given are against particular speed and press
energy varies square times with speed.

Sizing the press:

Size the press such that, type of press, number of suspension, tonnage capacity
and energy, capacity and type of drive are well covered with in the requirement.

[63]
 Type of cushion and capacity of cushion can be selected based on the blank
holding tonnage requirement.

Clutch can be selected based on the crank torque requirement.

Motor can be selected based on the requirement of single speed or varying speed
and drive capacity requirements.

JIC Identification System:

The joint industry conference (JIC) system of identification press characteristics is

in general use. In a typical sample:

S4-750-96-72

The press is identified by the S as a single-action model ( D is used for double-

action model, T for triple-action, and OBI for open-back inclinable) by the 4 as’ having
four point suspension, by the 750 as being rated at 750-ton capacity, and by the 96 and 72
as having a measuring 96 in left-to-right and 72 in front-to-back, any other press can be
so identified, by substitution of appropriate numerals for number of suspensions points
tonnage rating, and bed dimensions.

[64]
 Fig 6.2

6.12 BASIC COMPONENTS

1. Frame
2. Slide
3. Drive system
4. Cushions and counter balance
5. Clutch and brake
6. Flywheel and Motors
7. Slide Connections
8. Crown assembly
9. Bed
10. Bolster
11. Wiring and controls
12. Lubrication
13. Ejector or Knockout
14. Overload devices

[65]
6.12.1Frame:

When a force is exerted in one direction there is resisting force acting in the
opposite direction. The result, in a press, is tool damaging deflection.

The function of the press frame is to absorb forces to provide precise slide
guidance and to support the drive system and other auxiliary units. The structural design
of the frame depends on

 The pressing force-this determines the required rigidity.

 The dimensions of dies influencing the size of the tool area.

 The work area accessibility that determines on the shape of the press frame.

 The degree of guidance precision.

This influences both the shape and the rigidity of the frame. The different types of
press frames are:

a) Tie rod frames

b) Solid frame

c) C-frame

6.12.2Slide:

The slide, which is moved in the vertical direction by a drive system acting in the
press crown, transfers the forming or blanking force to the die. In mechanical presses,
force is transmitted to the slide by means of connecting rods. Depending on the number
of force transmitting elements, there is one, two or four point’s configuration in the slide.

The slide which generally has a welded bon shape is guided in the press frame. In
general force applied on the slide is only 2.3 rd of the bolster length (L-R).

6.12.3Drive system:

[66]
 The press drives are mainly classified depending upon the energy transmission
and torque and torque transmission.

The eccentric press drive used in mechanical presses is mainly used to convert the
rotary motion of the drive into the reciprocating motion of the slide. They produce a sine
curve motion to the slide. Eccentric gears are most commonly used in presses of over 300
tons capacity.

The different gearing and drive combinations are,

a) Single geared, single drive. It can be applied for 1 point of power application
on the upper shaft, flywheel is at the left and the pinion which drives the
intermediate gear on the right* Right o left shaft.

b) Single gear, twin drive-with two point of power application. Right to left
shafts.

c) Double geared-single drive-with 1 point of power application. Right to left

shaft.

d) Double geared-twin drive-with 2 and 4 points of power application. Shafts

arranged front to back.

6.12.4Cushions and Counter Balance:

Counter balances on presses perform several functions, including the following:

a) Counter balance the moving weight of the press slide and the driving
components attached to it as well as the die member attached to the slide. A
properly counter balanced press may stop somewhat more quickly with fewer
loads on the brake.

b) Take up backlash from clearances in bearings, in adjusting-screw threads, and

between gear teeth, thus ensuring accurate bottom of stroke and shut height
positions. By reducing shock loads, wear of the press members is reduced.

[67]
 c) Assist in making slide adjustments by minimizing the weight that has to be
moved. If adjustments is motorized, life of the unit can be increased and/or a
smaller motor used.

d) Improve safety by preventing the press slide from falling inadvertently due to
failure of the brake connection or other members.

e) Reduce noise levels caused by drive gear on the press.

f) Permit high speed operation by reducing vibration.

There are two basic types of counter balances

1. Spring counter balances

2. Air counter balances

6.12.5Clutch and Brake:

The pulsating ‘heart beat’ of the modern mechanical press is its clutch and brake
unit. This part must work perfectly, if the press is to operate successfully. The function of
the clutch is to deliver and control the surge of force that is required for the working of
metal. When the press is running continuously, the function of the clutch is to transmit
torque from the flywheel to the crankshaft or eccentric. If the press is single stroked, the
clutch must accelerate the gears and other rotating members from zero to their full
operating speed as well as transmit the required torque. These rotating members must be
accelerated for each stroke of the press. The brake must decelerate these rotating parts in
order that the slide may be stopped. Thus, the selection of the proper clutch is dependent
upon two completely different factors:

a. The torque required to deliver adequate to the slide.

b. The acceleration of parts that must be started at each stroke of the press.

[68]
 The selection of the brake is dependent upon the deceleration of the moving parts that
must be stopped at each stroke of the press. The two type of clutch and brake system
commonly employed are:

a. Inter locked clutch and brake

b. Low inertia clutch and brake

6.12.6Flywheel and Motors:

Flywheel is a device which is interposed to redistribute the energy between the

source and the place where it is used.

In mechanical presses, energy is supplied at an almost constant rate by an electric

motor. The demand for energy however varies from a maximum during the press
acceleration period and the working part of the down stroke down to almost zero for the
balance of the cycle. The flywheel stores the energy supplied by the motor during the
upstroke and delivers it to the press on the down stroke. The use of flywheel greatly
reduces the required horsepower of the driving motor.

Flywheel requirements:

It depends upon two facts,

a) The pressure of force required to perform the operation

b) The distance through which this force must be exerted.

Motor:

The size of the main motor is dependent upon,

a) The amount of flywheel energy used for performing work.

b) The energy dissipated as heat by clutch and brake and other drive members.

c) The time available for restoring the energy used.

[69]
 d) Starting requirements of the flywheel.

6.12.7Slide Connections:

Mechanical straight-slide presses are generally arranged so that the rotary motions
of their drives are transmitted to their reciprocating slides through one, two or four
connections. Depending upon the number of connections the presses are referred to as
being of single point, two-point or four-point suspension.

The number of points of slide suspension is determined by the left-to right and
front to back dimensions of the slide face. Location of the applied press loads in relation
to the number of slide connections influences the performance of the press and quality of
the parts produced.

6.12.8Crown Assembly:

The connecting rod (Pitman) links, gear and main drive systems determines the
capacity and size of the press crown.

6.12.9Bed:

The bed is a stationary lower part of the press that serves as a table or support for
the die or bolster plate. The bed in an inclinable press is usually horizontal. The die may
be bolted to the press bed, but usually is supported by a bolster that is secured to the bed.
One or more fillers or raisers can be used on the bed to decrease the shut height, putting
the bolster atop the filler, to raisers the height of the stationary parts. The bed is
sometimes called lower platen, as in some hydraulic presses. When moving, bolster
handling device and supports replace the conventional press bed.

6.12.10 Bolster:

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 It is an attachment provided the bed so as to hold the die in a proper position. The
commonly used rolling bolster are of two types depending upon the availability of floor
space. They are,

a) Front to back

b) Side to side

Both types permit setting up tooling on one bolster while the other bolster is in
use in the press. Thus, tool changes are made with a minimum interruption of production.

6.12.11 Wiring and Control:

The press is provided with a tight oil conduit system using a NEMA12 junction
boxes, heavy wall rigid conduit and liquid tight metal conduit. Multi conductors cable
with oil resistant synthetic jacket, oil tight fittings and connectors with all conduits to
terminal boxes are sealed by gasket assemblies, and all control connections are made an
terminal beards. All control wires are flexible from air control to cushion when self
contained or to surge tanks when tanks are piped by customer.

6.12.12 Lubrication:

Lubricating systems are automatic pressure type designed to meet the

requirements of the specific press. The type of lubricating systems furnished with any
machine is determined by the size and application of the machine and in all cases to fit
the requirements.

6.12.13 Ejector or Knockout:

It is the mechanism for ejecting the work-piece from the die. The ejector may be actuated
by a crossbar through a slot in the slide, a bell crank worked by a cam a die cushion, springs or a
rubber pad.

[71]
[72]
Fig 6.3

[73]
6.12.14 Overload devices:

Mechanical presses are subjected to two distinct types of overloads because of the
inherent characteristic of the sine curve motion which is generated by the crankshaft (or)
eccentric. They are torque overload and force overload (or) tonnage overload.

Torque overload occurs higher up on the stroke than the rated tonnage point
whereas the force overload occurs near the bottom of stroke below the rated tonnage
point.

There are two types of overload devices, they are- Replaceable type overload and
permanent type overload.

6.13 PRESS OPERATIONS

Sheet metal operations done on a press can be categorized into cutting operations,
forming operations, the work piece is stressed beyond ultimate strength. In forming
operations, the stresses are below ultimate strength. Here there is no cutting of the metal
but only the contour of the work piece is changed to get the desired shape.

The cutting operations include blanking, punching, notching, perforating,

trimming, shaving, slitting and laminating. Forming operations include bending, drawing,
redrawing and squeezing.

1. Blanking:

It is the operation of cutting a flat shape from sheet metal. The article punched out
is called blank and is the required product.

2. Punching or Piercing:

It is a cutting operation by which various shaped holes are made in sheet metal.
The hole is the desired product, the material punched out to from hole being the waste.

3. Notching:

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 This is cutting operation by which metal pieces are cut from the edge of a sheet,
strip or blank.

4. Perforating:

This is a process by which multiple holes which is very small and close together
is cut in flat work material.

5. Trimming:

This is operation consists of cutting unwanted excess material from the periphery
of a previously formed component.

6. Shaving:

This is operation of involves removing a thin strip of metal along the edges to
form an even and square blank part.

7. Slitting:

It refers to the operation of making incomplete holes in a work piece.

8. Lancing:

This is a cutting operation in which a hole is partially cut and then one side is bent
down to form a sort of tab or louver.

6.14 FORMING OPERATIONS

1. Bending:

In this operation, the material in the form of flat sheet or strip is uniformly
strained around a linear axis which lies in the neutral plane and perpendicular to the
length wise direction of the sheet.

2. Drawing:

[75]
 This is a process of forming a flat work piece into a hollow shape by means of a
punch which causes the flow into a die cavity.

3. Squeezing:

Under this operation, the metal is caused to flow to all portions of die cavity under
the action of compressive forces.

[76]
 CHAPTER 7

SPECIFICATIONS

7.1 ECCENTRIC GEAR

No. of teeth (spur) = 78

Module = 20

Tooth depth = 45

Pressure angle = 20

Centre distance = 980+ -0.08

Mating pinion = H1904 0604-2

Back lash = 0.38+ -0.05

Final Condition = finish cut

7.2 ECCENTRIC MECHANICAL PRESS

Type of Press:

Capacity = 1600 ton at 12mm up from BDC

Stroke of slide = 160mm

Adjustment of slide (motorized) = 300mm

Stroke per minute = 20

Break Down:

Bed = 45000 kg

Bolster = 15200kg

[77]
Moving carriage assembly = 12700 kg

2-Nos Columns assembly = 21000kg

Slide assembly = 49000kg

Crown assembly = 62600kg

Holder, railings& platforms = 3500kg

Pneumatic and electrical elements = 4000kg

Total weight on press = 237000 kg

Static load on foundation = 237000 kg (approx)

Dynamic load on foundation = 875000kg

Electrical Service Requirements:

Line voltage = 415+-10%v

Phase and cycles = SPH& 50+-3% H2

Main motor = 132 KW, 1500rpm

Slide elevating motor (with brake) = 11kw, 1500 rpm

Carriage clamp motor = 2.2kw, 1500rpm

Lube motor = 0.55 KW, 1500 rpm

Air compressor motor = 7.5kw, 1500 rpm

Total connected load = 99.75 KW

Control voltage = 110VAC/24 V DC

Air Service Requirements:

Supply pipe size = φ25 x 2

[78]
Supply air pressure = 2kg/cm2

Free air consumption per engagement = 43000cc (of clutch and brake)

Free air consumption per engagement = 6000cc (of F.W brake)

Lubrication Requirements:

Lubrication oil = 300 litres/6months

(10c servo mesh SP 220)

Fig 7.1

CONCLUSION
[79]
 The presses that are manufactured today have capacities for bigger than what
people imagined that they would be when they were invented. Today, they cater the needs
of automotive and defense sectors with presses capable of almost 3000 tons.

Our project which was on Manufacturing of Eccentric Gear and Working of an

Eccentric Mechanical press has exposed various manufacturing processes and
international standards of component manufacture. Through the opportunity given to us,
we were able to study in detail the various processes and their implementations. The
intricacies and the fine detail too were instructed.

This report brings about an overall view of the work we did at HMT. It covers
almost all manufacturing steps with a detailed process layout which indicates the clear
cut methods and step wise details. Each process brings out some peculiar feature and its
importance while manufacturing an Eccentric Gear.

An Eccentric Mechanical Press is show in this report as an application to the

manufactured Eccentric Gear. Because, application is an essence of creation hence a 4-
point suspension press is taken up which utilizes an eccentric gear that helps in
converting the rotary motion into linear motion. The specifications of both the Eccentric
Gear and the Press are specified clearly in the report.

Through this industrial exposure we could understand the importance of working

in an industry. We visited the industry for a period of 30days. Through this we were to
see the coordination between various departments and the hectic work the company
employees face. This provided us with immense knowledge and we are sure that working
on such a project like this in a industrial environment will pay a good way in our
futuristic careers.

REFERENCES

[80]
1. Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R. Schmid, Manufacturing Processes, 5th Edition, for
Engineering Machine Tool

2. Joseph E. Shigley, Charles R. Mischke, Mechanical Engineering Design, 6th

edition (Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2006).

3. Darle W. Dudley Stephen P. Radzevich, Handbook of Practical Gear Design,

Technomic Pub. Co.

4. Erik Oberg, Machinery’s Handbook, 25th Edition, Industrial Press (1996)

5. Ferdinanad P. Beer, E. Russell Johnson JR, John T. Dewolf, David F. Mazurek,

Mechanics of Materials, 5th Edition (Tata McGraw-Hill Education Private
Limited, New Delhi, 2009)

6. Production Technology, HMT Bangalore (Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2006).

7. International Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol 2

Number 2, 0976-6812, (Published by International Science Press).

8. http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/gears/gears_introduction.cfm

9. http://www.howstuffworks.com

10. www.google.com

11. www.wikipedia.com

[81]