CDC 3D153

RF Transmission Systems
Journeyman

Volume 2. Advanced
Communications Concepts

___________

Air Force Career Development Academy
Air University
Air Education and Training Command

3D153 02 1205, Edit Code 02

AFSC 3D153
 Author: MSgt Charles A (Tony) Sargent
338th Training Squadron
RF Transmission Systems Training Flight (AETC)
338TRS/VEAA
809 Hercules Street, Room 114
Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi, 39534–2025
DSN: 597-3870
E-mail address: 338trs.3d1x3@us.af.mil

Instructional Systems
Specialist: Timothy Sackie

Editor: Elizabeth S. Melton

Air Force Career Development Academy (AFCDA)

Air University (AETC)
Maxwell Air Force Base, Gunter Annex, Alabama 36118–5643

Material in this volume is reviewed annually for technical accuracy, adequacy, and currency. For SKT purposes
the examinee should check the Weighted Airman Promotion System Catalog to determine the correct references
to study.
Preface ___________________________________________________________________ i

WELCOME TO SECOND VOLUME of the 3D153, RF Transmission Systems, career development

course (CDC). This volume, Advanced Communications Concepts, covers the building blocks for any
successful radio frequency communications. Also, this volume exposes you to other types of
equipment that we, as a RF Transmission Systems technician, must maintain.
Unit 1 covers antenna theory. This unit will provide you an overview of a communications system to
include transmitters, receivers, transceivers, transmission lines and antennas. The information
provides you with some fundamentals and different types of antennas. It will also touch on site
selection and configuration of the antenna.
Unit 2 contains electromagnetic wave theory. This unit will provide you knowledge on radio wave
propagation and the variables that affect radio propagation. Also, this unit contains the characteristics
of each frequency band.
Unit 3 encompasses transmission security techniques, data linking concepts, and jam resistant
communications. This unit includes a brief review of electronic combat, encryption, frequency agility
and HAVE QUICK. This unit also continues on from the basic apprentice course information
concerning tactical digital information links.
Unit 4 incorporates other RF transmission systems missions. This unit contains land mobile networks
and installation notification and warning systems that you may work on during your career.
Unit 5 focuses attention on radio communication itself. Automatic link establishment in high
frequency communications and MANPACK readios will also be discussed.
A glossary of abbreviations and acronyms is included for your use.
Code numbers on figures are for preparing agency identification only.
The use of a name of any specific manufacturer, commercial product, commodity, or service in this
publication does not imply endorsement by the Air Force.
To get a response to your questions concerning subject matter in this course, or to point out technical
errors in the text, unit review exercises, or course examination, call or write the author using the
contact information on the inside front cover of this volume.
NOTE: Do not use the IDEA Program to submit corrections for printing or typographical errors.
Consult your education officer, training officer, or NCOIC if you have questions on course
enrollment, administration, or irregularities (possible scoring errors, printing errors, etc.) on unit
review exercises or course examination. For these and other administrative issues, you may also
access the Air University e-Campus Support (helpdesk) at https://www.auecampussupport.com and
do a search for your course number. You may find your question has already been answered. If not,
submit a new question or request, and you will receive a response in four days or less.
This volume is valued at 24 hours and 8 points.
ii __________________________________________________________________ Preface

Acknowledgement
Preparation of this volume was aided through the cooperation and courtesy of Harris Corporation and
Whelen Engineering Company who allowed the use of graphics from their commercial manuals.
Permission to use this information is gratefully acknowledged.

Grateful acknowledgement is also due to some members of the 338 RF Transmission Systems Flight.
This CDC was aided through the cooperation of many people: Kenneth Beal, Kevin Hart, Stephen
Johnston and Jonathan Okeefe. Thanks very much for your valuable inputs!

NOTE:
In this volume, the subject matter is divided into self-contained units. A unit menu begins each unit,
identifying the lesson headings and numbers. After reading the unit menu page and unit introduction,
study the section, answer the self-test questions, and compare your answers with those given at the
end of the unit. Then do the unit review exercises.
Contents _________________________________________________________________ iii

Page
Unit 1. Antenna Theory .......................................................................................................1–1 
1–1. Radio Systems Fundamentals .................................................................................... 1–1 
1–2. Antenna Principles ................................................................................................... 1–16 
1–3. Antenna Types ......................................................................................................... 1–30 
1–4. Antenna Site Selection and Configuration ............................................................... 1–48 
Unit 2. Electromagnetic Wave Theory ...............................................................................2–1 
2–1. Radio Wave Propagation............................................................................................ 2–1 
2–2. Solar Ionospheric Physics ........................................................................................ 2–11 
2–3. The Electromagnetic Spectrum ................................................................................ 2–18 
2–4. VHF, UHF, SHF, and EHF Communications .......................................................... 2–25 
Unit 3. Transmission Security Techniques, Data Linking Concepts and Jam-Resistant
Communications ...................................................................................................3–1 
3–1. Electronic Combat...................................................................................................... 3–1 
3–2 Encryption Fundamentals............................................................................................ 3–6 
3–3. Jam-Resistant Communications ............................................................................... 3–15 
3–4. Battlefield Network Links ........................................................................................ 3–31 
Unit 4. Other RF Transmission Systems ...........................................................................4–1 
4–1. Land Mobile Radio Networks .................................................................................. 4–13 
4–2. Mass Notification Alert System (Giant Voice) ........................................................ 4–21 
Unit 5. High Frequency Communications .........................................................................5–1 
5–1. Automatic Link Establishment ................................................................................... 5–1 
5–2. AN/PRC–150 Manpack Radio ................................................................................... 5–6 

Glossary............................................................................................................................................. G–1
Unit 1. Antenna Theory
1–1. Radio Systems Fundamentals .................................................................................................. 1–1 
201. Basic transmit and receive systems ................................................................................................... 1–2 
202. Transceivers ....................................................................................................................................... 1–4 
203. Transmission lines ............................................................................................................................. 1–5 
1–2. Antenna Principles ................................................................................................................. 1–16 
204. Antenna waves................................................................................................................................. 1–17 
205. Polarization ...................................................................................................................................... 1–23 
206. Antenna concepts ............................................................................................................................. 1–25 
1–3. Antenna Types ........................................................................................................................ 1–30 
207. Directivity of the antennas ............................................................................................................... 1–30 
208. Basic antenna types ......................................................................................................................... 1–32 
209. Specific antennas ............................................................................................................................. 1–34 
210. Airborne antenna systems ................................................................................................................ 1–42 
1–4. Antenna Site Selection and Configuration ........................................................................... 1–48 
211. Antenna selection ............................................................................................................................ 1–49 
212. Siting deployable equipment ........................................................................................................... 1–51 

A
COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM is a group of related components designed to transfer information
from one point to another. The basic radio communications system must include a transmitter,
a receiver, and an input/output device. The transmitter creates and modulates radio-frequency
(RF) waves. The transmitter output device is an antenna which converts the output to an
electromagnetic field. This field is felt at the receiver’s input device-another antenna. The receiver’s
antenna converts the electromagnetic field back to an RF wave and the receiver reverses the process
carried out by the transmitter. To fully understand this process, a discussion of antennas, transmission
lines and transmit and receive systems is required.

1–1. Radio Systems Fundamentals

This section explores the general characteristics of transmit and receive systems. Figure 1–1
illustrates a simple radio communications system.

Figure 1–1. Basic communication system.

1–2

201. Basic transmit and receive systems

The transmitter generates RF power, in the form of a carrier wave, and modulates it with the
information to be transferred. Transmission lines carry this RF power, the modulated carrier, from the
transmitter to the transmitting antenna which radiates energy into space as electromagnetic waves. A
receiving antenna picks up some of the radiated energy and converts the energy into a flow of
alternating RF currents. Transmission lines carry the RF currents to the receiver. The receiver
converts these currents into the information that was contained in the transmission.
Transmitters
Equipment used for generating, amplifying, and transmitting RF carrier is collectively called a radio
transmitter. Transmitter may be simple, low-power units, for sending voice messages a short distance
or highly sophisticated, using thousands of watts of power for sending many channels of data (voice,
teletype, telemetry, video, and etc.) over long distances.
Figure 1–2 illustrates a basic AM transmitter block diagram. The transmitter contains a microphone
that detects sound (raw intelligence) and produces an electrical image, using voltage and/or current, to
represent the sound. By using the electrical intelligence signal to modulate (change some
characteristic of) an RF carrier, the transmitter shifts (converts) the electrical intelligence signals to an
assigned higher frequency range. The transmitter amplifies the RF signal and transfers it through a
transmission medium to a distant receiver.

Figure 1–2. AM transmitter block diagram.

Transmitter characteristics
In today’s world, for successful communications to take place, the RF carrier output must be
relatively stable in frequency and amplitude. There should also not be any appreciable amount of
noise, harmonics, and spurious outputs in the RF carrier.
The transmitter’s frequency accuracy refers to its ability to maintain a constant output carrier
frequency. Frequency accuracy is often expressed as a percentage. For example, a transmitter’s
frequency accuracy might be .0001 percent. If the carrier frequency is 146.000 MHz, then the carrier
can vary above or below this frequency by 146 Hz and still be acceptable. So, a carrier frequency that
drifts slightly to 146,000,130 Hz would be acceptable, whereas a drift to 146,000,160 Hz would not.
A transmitter’s output distortion is the total of harmonics, noise and all other spurious signals
contained in its RF output. It is often stated as a comparison between the desired output and the noise
in the output, expressed in decibels (dB). For example, a 15-watt transmitter’s output noise level
could be expressed as 80 dB down. This means the power in the noise must be 80 dB smaller than the
desired output power. In this example, the 15 watts (W) of RF output power from this transmitter
should contain no more than 0.15 microwatt (µW) of distortion.
 1–3

Modulation
Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a periodic wave with an external signal.
Basic transmitters are identified by their method modulation. Three characteristics of the carrier wave
may be varied at an external signal rate: amplitude, frequency and phase. There are many modulation
processes in use today. Some of the most common ones are listed below:
1. Amplitude modulation (AM). AM is the process of combining audio frequency and RF
signals so that the amplitude of the radio frequency waves appears to vary at an audio
frequency rate. This modulation process results in transmission of an RF carrier plus an upper
and lower sideband.
2. Single sideband (SSB). SSB is closely related to AM. SSB consists of only one sideband; the
carrier has been suppressed and the other sideband has been eliminated. SSB system can use
either the upper or the lower sideband.
3. Frequency modulation (FM). FM is a process in which the frequency of the carrier wave is
made to vary at the audio frequency rate. An FM signal should remain constant in amplitude
and change only in frequency.
4. Frequency-shift keying (FSK). FSK is considered a form of FM. It is a digital mode of
transmission commonly used in radio teletype applications. In FSK the carrier is present all
the time. In a keyed condition, the carrier frequency changes by a predetermined amount
called the mark frequency. The unkeyed state is called a space.
5. Phase modulation (PM). As you may remember from volume 1 of this CDC set, PM uses the
modulating signal to control the phase of the RF carrier signal, while the RF amplitude
remains constant.
6. Phase-shift keying (PSK). PSK is similar to FSK except that the phase, not the frequency is
shifted.
7. Pulse modulation. Pulse modulation is accomplished by varying the characteristics of a series
of pulses. This can be done by varying the amplitude, duration, frequency, or position of the
pulses. It can also be done through coding. Pulse modulation is especially suited for use with
communication systems incorporating time-division multiplexing.
Receivers
In order to complete the communications system process, our attention will be focused on the radio
receiver. A receiver receives an electromagnetic wave, amplifies it, and demodulates it to extract the
original intelligence. The raw intelligence can then be applied to a speaker where it is converted into
sound.
A receiver must perform certain basic functions to be useful. These functions are reception, selection,
detection, amplification, and reproduction.
Reception involves having the transmitted electromagnetic wave pass through the receive antenna in
such a manner as to induce a voltage in the antenna.
Selection involves being able to select a particular station’s frequency from all transmitted signals
that happen to be induced in the receiver’s antenna at a given time.
Detection is the action of separating the low-frequency intelligence from the high-frequency carrier.
Amplification involves amplifying the weak RF carrier initially detected into the level required for
reproduction.
Reproduction is the action of converting the electrical signals to sound waves that can be interpreted
by the ear as speech, music, and so forth.
Receiver characteristics
In order to determine the operational condition of a receiver, you will need to know some common
radio receiver characteristics such as its sensitivity, noise, selectivity, and fidelity.
1–4

The ability of a receiver to reproduce the signal of a very weak station is a function of the receiver’s
sensitivity. In other words, the weaker the signal a receiver can receive and still achieve usable
output, the better the receiver’s sensitivity.
Receiver’s capacity to detect and amplify input signals is limited by noise. All receivers generate
noise internally and pass external noise via the antenna. Noise is the limiting factor on the minimum
usable signal that the receiver can process and still produce a usable output. A good receiver is
characterized by a low noise factor.
A receiver’s selectivity is its ability to select and reproduce a desired signal, among several closely
spaced stations. In other words, the better a receiver differentiates between desired and undesired
signals, the better the receiver’s selectivity rating.
Fidelity is a receiver’s ability to reproduce the input signal accurately. Good selectivity requires a
narrow bandpass. Good fidelity requires a wider bandpass to amplify the outermost frequencies of the
sidebands. Knowing this, you can see that most receivers are a compromise between good selectivity
and high fidelity.
Receiver basics
Figure 1–3 illustrates the functions performed by the various section of the basic AM receiver. The
inputs to the receiver are the electromagnetic waves propagated from the antenna of the transmitter.
These waves pass across the antenna of the receiver and induce small AC voltages into it. The
sections of the receiver containing the antenna and L1 perform the function of reception. Inductor L1
is the primary of the input transformer, and the voltage induced in L1 is coupled to the secondary L2.
Inductor L2 and capacitor C1 form a tuned circuit with capacitor C1 as a variable to permit tuning to
a station in the desired band. Thus, the tuned input circuit performs the function of selecting a specific
frequency from those present in the antenna circuit. The received signal is a modulated RF signal.

Figure 1–3. AM receiver functional breakdown.

This modulated RF signal is then fed to the detector circuit where detection (rectification and
filtering) occurs. The output of the detector circuit is a weak audio signal, too weak to satisfactorily
operate a speaker. For this reason, there is an audio frequency (AF) amplifier following the detector,
to increase the intelligence signal’s amplitude. The output of the audio amplifier is fed to the speaker,
which performs the function of reproduction or converting the electrical signal back to sound waves.

202. Transceivers
Transceivers are more commonly used than separate components. At small fixed stations and tactical
units, separate receiver and transmitter equipment is not always practical or necessary. Since both
receivers and transmitters use amplifiers, oscillators, frequency controls, and so forth., most radio sets
are now of the combined type we commonly call transceivers.
 1–5

A transceiver is a combination of a transmitter and a receiver built as a single unit and sharing
common tuned circuits. By sharing these circuits, the transmitter and the receiver are always tuned to
the same frequency.
Transceivers in the Air Force inventory have a wide variety of capabilities. Computerized
components and micro-circuitry in new transceivers can perform internal calibration and internal
equipment tests and then alert the technician to specific equipment faults. These faults can be further
identified as to the specific "card" or component that is bad so that it may be removed and replaced.
Computerization has also allowed our transceivers to become lighter, smaller, and easier to operate.

203. Transmission lines

In our basic communications system, the transmission line’s job is to transfer the energy between the
radio and the antenna (or vice versa). This transfer must take place without radiating energy or
causing excessive loss. If much of our energy or signal is being lost due to the transmission line, we
need to find out why and fix the problem. Any energy consumed by the transmission line reduces the
efficiency of the transmitter or receiver to which the line is connected.
Most people think of transmission lines as nothing more than some sort of wire—that’s pretty much
true. However, a good understanding of them is necessary since they are a critical part of
communications systems. The purpose of this lesson is to provide you some principles of
transmission lines and their use.
What is line loss?
You may not realize it, but you are probably already familiar with transmission lines—the AC power
cord on your stereo, the cable television wire, and your phone cord are all examples of transmission
lines. The term transmission line is defined as a conductor or series of conductors used to carry
energy from a source to a load.
The electrical energy we concern ourselves with in this section is RF energy. Although we strive for
maximum energy transfer with minimum loss, some loss does occur, and is due to properties of the
line. Following is a brief discussion of some of the different types of loss.
Resistive (I2R) loss
The ideal transmission line would be one that has no power loss. However, power loss due to
resistance is present any time a conductor is used to transfer energy. We are accustomed to thinking
of a piece of wire as being a "short"; but, in fact, it’s a very small resistance. There is some measure
of resistance in any conductor. The power loss in a short line may be negligible. In lines of
considerable length, however, the power loss due to resistance becomes a concern. We call this
copper loss or I2R loss.
Skin-effect loss
Skin effect defines the tendency of high-frequency currents to flow near the outer surface of the
conductor. The higher frequencies increase the change in magnetic flux surrounding each moving
electron. This changing flux induces a counter-electromagnetic force (CEMF), which opposes
electron flow. Electrons at the center of the conductor encounter the greatest opposition, but flow
more easily on the surface or skin of the wire. The increased opposition at the center of the conductor
effectively reduces the cross-sectional area of the conductor. Skin effect is directly proportional to
frequency–the greater the frequency, the greater the CEMF and resulting skin-effect loss.
Increasing the diameter of the conductor (more skin available) can reduce power loss due to skin
effect. Another way to minimize skin-effect losses is to make the conductor hollow since the center of
the conductor is high impedance anyway, as stated earlier. This saves material and reduces weight
without appreciably affecting the resistance of the wire.
1–6

Remember that when we talk about "loss," what we are really talking about is conversion. By
"conversion," we mean conversion from one form of energy to another form of energy. The electrical
energy is usually converted into heat that is dissipated by the line. It is possible for this heat to
become so great it melts the wire!
Radiation and induction losses
Current flow causes expansion and collapse of electric and magnetic fields around transmission lines.
When these fields escape from the line, radiation and induction losses occur.
Radiation loss occurs when the expanding lines of flux leave our conductor and fail to return. This
energy is radiated into space as our transmission line acts like a transmitting antenna. Using shielded
conductors will minimize radiation loss. Shielding is a metal housing around the conductor(s).
Shielding also prevents external signals from being induced into our transmission line, which could
cause interference.
Induction loss occurs when expanding lines of flux about our conductor induce a voltage and current
into nearby conductors. The expanding lines of flux can "cut" into and dissipate power into these
neighboring wires. This power is seen as a loss. The use of standoff insulators (to separate
conductors) and shielding can minimize induction losses.
Capacitive losses
Recall that a capacitance is formed by the two conductors separated by a dielectric material. The
conductors and the insulation between them in a two-wire transmission line create capacitance in the
line. As this capacitance charges and discharges, orbits of electrons in the dielectric material are
constantly changing. This causes some of the electromagnetic energy to be converted into heat
energy. The heat generated in this process is then dissipated and is a loss. This type of energy loss,
called dielectric loss, appears as a resistive loss to the power source. Dielectric losses increase with
frequency. Transmission lines with air dielectric have a very low dielectric loss when compared to
those enclosed in a polyethylene plastic insulating material.
Leakage loss
Because no insulation is perfect, some electrons move through the dielectric as leakage current.
Leakage losses are held to a minimum through use of very-high resistance dielectric. Losses caused
by leakage generate heat that, to the power source, is another resistive loss. Some ceramics and mica
(hardened mineral used as electric insulation in electronics) have a higher resistance; thus, they have
less leakage loss than air or plastic insulation.
Types of transmission lines
Figure 1–4 shows several types of transmission lines and many variations of each type. Each job to be
performed determines the type of variations to be incorporated. This section will be limited to the
coaxial cable and waveguide.

Figure 1–4. Transmission lines.

 1–7

Coaxial cables
Two common transmission lines you’ll likely encounter are both coaxial cables—flexible coaxial
cable and rigid coaxial cable.
The flexible coaxial cable consists of an inner conductor of solid or stranded wire, and an outer
concentric conductor of braided wires. The conductors are separated from each other by polyethylene
plastic or a similar insulating material. This type line is capable of transferring large quantities of
power at high frequencies with minimum losses. The major power losses are due to the dielectric and
skin effect. Flexible coaxial cable is commonly used in radio communications sets, television,
microwave radio, and radar.
A rigid coaxial cable transmission line consists of a center conductor placed inside a rigid metal tube
that functions as the outer shield. One type has the center conductor fixed along the central axis of the
outer tube by means of disk-shaped spacers. The insulating disks are polyethylene plastic or similar
type of material. Another type of rigid coaxial cable is constructed with an air dielectric. Metallic
insulators, that are quarter-wave sections of coaxial line, support the center conductor. The space
inside the line is often pressurized to eliminate moisture. These quarter-wave metallic insulators make
this type of line useful only at its designed frequency. You may, however, see small lengths used in
the construction of internal RF connections for radios. Rigid coaxial cable transmission line is used
primarily for high power at frequencies up to 3 GHz (gigahertz). This type line has very little
radiation loss because the energy is confined between the two conductors. The major power loss is
due to copper loss.
Waveguide
A waveguide is a tube through which electromagnetic waves are conducted. Transmitting energy at
microwave frequencies requires special care to avoid energy loss. Transmission lines used at these
frequencies are considerably different, both physically and electrically, from those used at lower
frequencies.
Waveguides are used for frequencies so high that their wavelength is miniscule. You could use a
coaxial line for transmission at these frequencies. Although the inner conductor radiates energy, it
stays within the confines of the outer and inner conductors because the outer conductor prevents this.
The outer conductor of a coaxial line controls the energy more than the inner conductors. The inner
conductor can be removed if it is not needed which gives you a cylindrical (or circular) waveguide
transmission line. It is a rectangular waveguide if you have a hollow rectangular conductor.
Construction
To understand the action of a waveguide, visualize it having the form of a two-wire line. In this
condition there must be some means of supporting the two wires. Furthermore, the support must be
constructed of nonconducting material to prevent power loss through radiation leakage. One method
of insulation and support is shown in figure 1–5. This figure shows a quarter-wave section of RF line
being used as the insulator; this is called a metallic insulator. Since there are no dielectric losses in a
quarter wave section of RF line, the impedance at the open end is very high. A metallic insulator can
be placed anywhere along a two-wire line; Figure 1–6 shows several on each side of the line. It’s
important to note that the supports/insulators are a ¼ wavelength at only one frequency. The use of
several insulators results in improved conductivity of a two-wire line when the insulator sections are
connected together. If enough ¼ wave sections are added to the line until each section makes contact
with the next, the result is a box with the line at the center as shown in figure 1–7. This rectangular
box is a waveguide.
1–8

Figure 1–5. Development of a waveguide, step 1.

Figure 1–6. Development of a waveguide, step 2.

Figure 1–7. Development of a waveguide, step 3.

Although any transmission arrangement serves as a guiding structure for electromagnetic waves, the
term waveguide is reserved for the type that consists of a single hollow conductor. Although a
waveguide may have almost any shape, the two most common types are those having rectangular and
circular cross sections. The characteristics of a rectangular waveguide are determined by the physical
properties of height and the width (as measured on the inside). The characteristics of a circular
waveguide are determined by the inside diameter.
Modes of propagation
Modes of propagation may be separated into two general groups: transverse magnetic (TM) and
transverse electric (TE). In TM mode, the magnetic field is transverse (at a right angle) to the
direction of propagation, while a component of the electric field is in the direction of propagation. In
TE mode, the electric field is transverse to the direction of propagation, but has a component of
magnetic field in the direction of propagation. TM waves are sometimes called E waves, and TE
waves are sometimes called H waves.
Maintenance
Waveguides introduce problems that are not normally encountered when dealing with other types of
transmission lines. Often, these problems will fall within your area of responsibility.
Waveguides generally have very low losses; however, losses do occur and are most often due to
improperly connected joints or damaged inner surfaces. It’s important to take great care when
handling waveguides to prevent physical damage. Since they are constructed from a soft conductive
 1–9

material, they are easily dented. Very slight damage to the inner surface will cause standing waves
and internal arcing. Internal arcing will cause more damage. It’s also very important to conduct
thorough inspections for corrosion as its damaging actions can completely destroy a waveguide.
Moisture is an enemy. Wet air within a waveguide can cause serious internal arcing. For this reason,
care is taken to ensure waveguides are pressurized with air that is dry. Some waveguides utilize
desicant to remove moisture from the waveguide. Checking the pressure and moisture content of the
waveguide air are often regular maintenance routines.
Transmission line characteristics
You can describe a transmission line in terms of its impedance. Impedance is the opposition to
alternating current. The ratio of voltage to current (Ein/Iin) at the input end is known as the input
impedance. This is the impedance presented to the transmitter by the transmission line and its load,
the antenna. The ratio of voltage to current at the output (Eout/Iout) end is known as the output
impedance. This is the impedance presented to the load by the transmission line and its source. If an
infinitely long transmission line could be used, the ratio of voltage to current at any point on that
transmission line would be some particular value of impedance. This impedance is known as the
characteristic impedance (ZO).
The ZO of a transmission line is due to its inductance and capacitance. Exactly how much inductance
and capacitance a line has depends upon its construction. The amount of capacitance is primarily
determined by the size of the conductors, the space between them, plus the dielectric material. These
inductance and capacitance values present in all transmission lines affect the signal applied to the
line.

Figure 1–8. Development of characteristic impedance.

Figure 1–8 shows how ZO is developed in a transmission line. A battery, switch, and ammeter are
connected to an infinitely long line, with its series inductance and shunt capacitance. When the switch
is closed and the DC voltage is applied to the line, current flows and a field builds up around a unit
section of inductance (L1), and the unit section of distributed capacitance (C1) begins to charge. As
the charge on C1 approaches a full charge, C2 begins to charge through L2 and the current through
ammeter A will remain constant. Current continues to flow through the inductance to charge the
capacitance on down the line. Since the line is infinitely long, there will always be capacitance to be
charged, and current will continue flowing into the line even though no load is applied to the other
end. Therefore, the line will have the same effect on the battery as a fixed resistance of a specific
value. Since ZO of a line is determined by the series inductance and shunt capacitance of the line, the
value of ZO does not change whether you lengthen or shorten the line. Characteristic impedance may
be calculated using the formula:

Cutoff frequency
Cutoff frequency is the highest frequency that passes down the line. Each line has series inductance
and shunt capacitance, which change in value if the signal frequency is changed. If we apply a signal
at some frequency to the line, then we will have some value of XL and XC produced. Remember, an
increase in frequency causes an increase in XL and a decrease in XC. You may have noticed this is
essentially a description of a low-pass filter.
1–10

Figure 1–9. Transmission line of theoretically infinite length.

Refer to the transmission line of theoretically infinite length in figure 1–9. Visualize the signal as
moving from left (generator) to the right (load). If the value of XL is small and XC is large, then the
signal will in fact move from source to load. If the value of XL is large and XC is small, then the
signal will be developed across the series inductance and shunted across the line by the capacitance
and it would not pass along the line. The frequency at which this occurs and the line becomes
unstable is called the cutoff frequency.
Wavelength
A very important term to understand when studying transmission lines and antennas is wavelength.
One wavelength is the distance in space occupied by one cycle of a radio wave at any given instant. If
the wave (a full cycle) could be frozen in place and measured, the wavelength would be the distance
from the leading edge of one cycle to the corresponding point on the next cycle. Wavelengths vary
from a few hundredths of an inch at extremely high frequencies to many miles at extremely low
frequencies. Common practice is to express wavelengths in meters. The Greek letter "lambda" "λ" is
used to signify wavelength.

The number 300 represents the speed of light in millions of meters per second; remember that light,
like RF, is an energy wave. Observe that as the frequency changes, the wavelength also changes.
Wavelength varies inversely with frequency–the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength (as
you recall higher frequencies complete alternations more quickly). Have you ever noticed how much
shorter the antenna is on a cellular phone when compared to a CB radio? This is because the phone’s
frequency is in the 800–900 MHz range, while the CB radio has a frequency in the neighborhood of
27 MHz. You will no doubt notice throughout your career that HF antennas are sometimes enormous
while UHF antennas are much smaller.
What is electrical length?
Transmission lines can be measured in terms of physical length and electrical length. Physical length
is self-explanatory (just measure the line); electrical length, however, requires some explanation.
Electrical length is a comparison of physical length and wavelength. Electrical length is expressed in
number of wavelengths. Each complete cycle = 1 wavelength; two complete cycles = 2 wavelengths,
and so on.

Figure 1–10. Physical versus Electrical length.

 1–11

Figure 1–10 shows a transmission line with a physical length of 10 meters. The applied frequency is
150 MHz. Using the formula from above; the wavelength of this signal is 2 meters:

This transmission line’s electrical length is determined as follows:

Electrical length = 5 wavelengths (5λ)

Since wavelength is inversely related to frequency, the electrical length will change with frequency. If
the frequency in figure 1–10 were to be changed to 15 MHz, our line will become a (1/2
wavelength) transmission line:

So this line with a physical length of 10 meters has an electrical length of 5 wavelengths at 150 MHz
and an electrical length of at 15 MHz.

This proves that if a transmission line’s physical length remains constant and frequency increases, the
electrical length increases. Vice versa, as frequency decreases on a given transmission line, electrical
length decreases.
Transmission line terminations
The load for a transmission line may be any device dissipating or using RF power. If the line is used
for transmitting purposes, the load is ordinarily an antenna. If the line is used for a receiver, the
receiver’s input circuitry is the load. The receiver and antenna are the terminations for the line.
Whatever the application, the conditions existing at the load determine the standing-wave ratio
(SWR).
Why do we have standing waves?
When there is an impedance mismatch of a transmission line it causes reflected power. We discuss
the difference between a resonant and nonresonant line and what a standing wave is here.
Nonresonant and resonant lines
A nonresonant transmission line is a transmission line having no reflected waves. An infinitely long
line would be a non-resonant transmission line. The theory is that if a transmission line was infinitely
long, the energy would never reach the load end and there would never be any reflected energy. If a
transmission line is terminated in a load possessing the same impedance as the line’s characteristic
impedance, the load resistance absorbs all the energy transferred down the line. Therefore, any
transmission line terminated in that way acts as an infinitely long transmission line would act. This
line would have no reflected voltage, would induce maximum power transfer and would be termed a
nonresonant line.
The voltage and current waves are in phase as they move from the source to the load. These waves
are called incident or forward waves. Figure 1–11 shows two nonresonant transmission lines. Since
1–12

the load absorbs all the energy, none is reflected back toward the source. Thus, nonresonant lines are
often referred to as "flat lines."

Figure 1–11. Nonresonant transmission lines.

A resonant transmission line is a transmission line that does have reflected waves. When the
impedance of the load differs from the ZO of the line, the impedance is mismatched. Whenever there
is a mismatch of impedance between the line and load, part of the energy is reflected back toward the
source. The greater the impedance mismatch, the higher the amount of reflected energy.
Standing waves
The term standing wave is one you’ll likely hear many times throughout your career. Recall that a
perfect impedance match results in no reflected power. However, if the impedance is mismatched,
we’ll have reflected power. At any point along a mismatched transmission line, there exists a voltage
equal to the vector sum of the forward and reflected signals. This voltage appears as a constant
(standing) wave at that point in the line. If we could measure only the forward or reflected wave by
itself, the voltage would be constant throughout the length of the line. But the amplitude of our
waveform (the vector sum) is not constant because the two signals that are combining are out of
phase. In a perfect impedance match, our voltage would measure the same at all points along the line.
If we measure the maximum voltage found along the line and compare it to the minimum voltage, we
will have a ratio. We call this ratio the voltage standing-wave ratio, or VSWR.

VSWR is always expressed as a ratio and customarily as a ratio to "1." The results can never be
smaller than 1:1, so .5:1 is impossible. The ratio is 1:1 if, and only if, voltage is constant which
indicates impedance is matched.
A high VSWR not only causes communications to fail, it can also damage the equipment or
transmission line. The higher the VSWR, the poorer the impedance match, and the more likely
damage could occur.
If a line has no standing waves, termination for that line is correct and maximum power transfer takes
place. If a mismatch of impedance produces standing waves due to reflected energy, the load will not
use some of the source energy. Therefore, standing waves represent a loss in power and are
undesirable on a transmission line. It’s very important that a transmission line have a ZO equal to the
impedance of the equipment to which it is connected. If your receiver has a 50-ohm RF input, connect
it to the antenna using a 50-ohm transmission line (such as RG–58 cable). Not doing so leads to
standing waves.
Terminating the line
As mentioned earlier, any type impedance termination other than ZO causes reflected waves to occur
on the lines. Regardless of the termination type, if there is reflected energy on the line, the line is
resonant. The reflected energy represents a loss in signal energy.
Open termination
On a transmission line with an open termination, the wave is reflected back to the source and there is
significant signal loss. If an AC meter is used to measure voltage and current along this line, you
 1–13

could plot all the readings along the length of the line and the end result would be as shown in figure
1–12. Observe that voltage is at maximum across the open and current is at minimum. This should
make sense because as you know voltage is always maximum and current at minimum across an
open. Observe that the two voltage waves are in phase, and maximum at the open termination. With
an open termination, voltage is reflected in phase and current is reflected 180° out of phase with the
incident wave.

Figure 1–12. Reflected waves from an open termination.

NOTE: We drew the figure without the negative alternations of the sine waves for simplification
purposes.
Shorted termination
A line terminated in a short also causes reflections. We can take an AC meter again and plot our
readings as before, and it results in figure 1–13. With a shorted termination, voltage is reflected 180°
out of phase and current is reflected in phase with the incident wave. Notice at the shorted termination
that the standing wave of current is at maximum and the standing wave of voltage is at minimum.
Again, our earlier lessons about voltage and current hold true as current are at maximum and voltage
is at minimum across a short.

Figure 1–13. Reflected waves from a shorted termination.

Various terminations
What happens if the load resistance is other than a short or open, yet smaller or larger than the ZO of
the line? We know this causes reflected waves, as an impedance mismatch exists. If the load
impedance is greater than that of the line, the voltage and current at termination possess the same
characteristics as they did when the line was terminated into an open. If the load impedance is less
than the lines, the voltage and current at termination possess the same characteristics as they did when
the line was terminated into a short.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

201. Basic transmit and receive systems

1. The transmitting antenna radiates energy into space with what type of wave?

2. Match the communications component in column B with the characteristic it is associated with in
column A. Items in column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
1–14

Column A Column B

____ (1) Converts audio in RF. a. Transmission lines.

____ (2) Radiates the energy into space. b. Transmitter.
____ (3) Converts modulated RF into audio. c. Receiver.
____ (4) Carries the RF power from antenna to receiver. d. Antenna.
____ (5) Carries the RF power from transmitter to antenna.

3. Name the transmitter requirements for successful communications.

4. Match the modulation component in column B with the characteristic it is associated with in
column A. Items in column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all.

Column A Column B

____ (1) Consists of only one sideband. a. AM.

____ (2) Use for systems incorporated time-division b. FM.
multiplexing. c. FSK.
____ (3) Phase of the frequency is shifted. d. PSK.
____ (4) Amplitude of the RF waves appears to vary at an audio e. PM.
rate. f. SSB.
____ (5) Commonly used in radio teletype applications.
____ (6) Frequency of carrier wave is varied.

5. Name the five basic functions of a communications receiver.

6. What is the difference between a receiver’s selectivity and its sensitivity?

202. Transceivers
1. What is a transceiver?

2. What has also allowed our transceivers to become lighter, smaller, and easier to operate?

203. Transmission lines

1. Define "transmission line" and give an example of one.

2. Match the type of line loss in column B with the characteristic it is associated with in column A.
Items in column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
 1–15

Column A Column B

____ (1) Also called dielectric loss. a. I2R.

____ (2) Loss when line acts like a transmitting antenna. b. Skin-effect.
____ (3) HF currents flow near the outer conductor surface. c. Radiation.
____ (4) Loss because no insulation is perfect. d. Induction.
____ (5) Conductor resists energy transfer. e. Capacitive
____ (6) Dissipates power into neighboring wires. f. Leakage

3. What are the major power losses in a flexible coaxial cable?

4. Why is there very little radiation loss in a rigid coaxial cable?

5. At what frequencies are waveguides used?

6. What physical properties determine the characteristics of a rectangular waveguide?

7. What effect does internal moisture have on a waveguide?

8. Identify the primary determinants of a line’s capacitance.

9. What determines ZO of a transmission line?

10. Describe how a transmission line’s characteristic impedance is affected by changing its physical
length.

11. What does "cutoff frequency" refer to when talking about transmission lines?

12. Define "wavelength."

13. As signal frequency decreases, what happens to wavelength?

1–16

14. What is the unit of measure for electrical length?

15. If the transmission line’s physical length remains constant, what happens to electrical length as
frequency decreases?

16. Describe a nonresonant transmission line.

17. What is an incident wave?

18. What is a standing wave?

19. Define "VSWR."

20. If a transmission line has a perfect impedance match, what would the VSWR be?

21. What is likely happen with a high VSWR?

22. At what level will voltage be at an open termination?

23. What is the phase relationship between forward and reflected voltage waves when the line is
terminated in a short?

1–2. Antenna Principles

Now that we established the foundation of radio communications systems, we will focus heavily on
antennas.
Radio communications plays a vital support role in the accomplishment of the mission. Of all the
variables affecting communications, the one factor that a technician has the most control over is the
antenna and its use. By using the right antenna, a technician can change a marginal radio
communications link into a reliable one. This lesson presents basic antenna theory. It covers the
energy field created by the antenna, the influence of polarization on the antenna and some other
factors affecting an antenna’s operation. A working knowledge of this unit helps you to properly
 1–17

select and use antennas. This lesson is not intended to be a technical handbook on antennas but it does
provide basic antenna facts and usage information that a technician should understand.

204. Antenna waves

To communicate by radio, energy as electromagnetic fields must be radiated into space. The radio
transmitter provides the power required to develop these fields. The transmitter produces a modulated
RF signal (current varying at an RF rate). This current must be converted into electromagnetic fields
that can be radiated through space. This is the function of a transmitting antenna. The antenna is a
transducer because it converts RF energy as current oscillations into electric (E) and magnetic (H)
fields of force. These fields move through space at approximate the speed of light. Only a portion of
the energy originally produced by the transmitter is recovered by the distant location.
Receiver equipment must be used to convert these fields back into an intelligent form. The receiving
antenna converts the received fields, containing the transmitted intelligence, back into RF currents.
When the electromagnetic fields traveling through space cut across the receiving antenna, they
impress a voltage across the antenna, which causes an RF current to flow. The receiver selects and
amplifies the current from the antenna, amplifies the RF energy, detects the intelligence, amplifies the
intelligence and reproduces the intelligence signal.
Understanding how to create and radiate electromagnetic (EM) waves is only the first step towards
comprehending radio communications. Once a radio wave leaves the antenna there are many factors
that need to be understood and considered before actual communication can take place. Let’s first
take a look at how nature’s force fields and electromagnetic radiation make it all possible.
Fields of force
There are three major force fields in nature: gravitational, electric, and magnetic. In radio
communications, we are concerned with the electric and magnetic fields. No one knows the exact
composition of these fields, but scientists have gathered sufficient information to be able to predict
how they behave. Although an accurate representation can’t be pictured, you can visualize a field as
consisting of lines of force. In school, you may have seen the experiment with magnetic lines of
force, where iron filings were scattered on a piece of cardboard. When a magnet was placed under the
cardboard the filings arranged themselves in a pattern that outlined the magnetic lines of force
between the two poles of the magnet (fig. 1–14).

Figure 1–14. Magnetic force fields around a magnet.

Electromagnetic wave
As stated prior, we are mostly concerned with the electric and magnetic fields. An electromagnetic
wave consists of two primary components, an electric field and a magnetic field. The electric field
results from the force of voltage, and the magnetic field results from the flow of current (fig. 1–15).
1–18

Figure 1 –15. E-lines, H-lines, and current flow.

Although electromagnetic fields that are radiated are commonly considered to be waves, under certain
circumstances their behavior makes them appear to have some of the properties of particles. In
general, however, it is easier to picture electromagnetic radiation in space as horizontal and vertical
lines of force oriented at right angles to each other. These lines of force are made up of an electric and
a magnetic field, which together make up the electromagnetic field in space.
The electric and magnetic fields radiated from an antenna form the electromagnetic field. This field is
responsible for the transmission and reception of electromagnetic energy through free space. Even
before the invention of radio, it was known that a relationship existed between the electric and
magnetic fields:
 When an electric field is changing, a magnetic field is being created.
 When a magnetic field is changing, an electric field is being created.

Changing Electric fields

To discuss the phenomenon of changing electric fields, we must briefly explain the principle of
electric current. There are two types of electric current: direct current (DC) and alternating current
(AC). Direct current is simply a flow of electrons through a wire from a negative to a positive charge.
A flashlight battery, for example, produces direct current. Alternating current, on the other hand, is
not a steady flow. Rather, it is continually changing in size and periodically changing in direction.
The speed at which the current changes direction is twice the frequency of the alternating current.
This means that if the current alternate (changes direction) 120 times per second, its frequency is 120
divided by 2, or 60 cycles per second (cps). (The term "cycle" means one complete set of events or
phenomena that occurs periodically. Thus, a cycle consists of two complete alternations.)
Incidentally, the standard frequency for generation of electrical power in the United States is 60 cps.
Before we go any further, you should realize that frequency is normally expressed in "Hertz" (Hz),
not cycles-per-second cps), even though both terms have identical meaning. One Hz equals one cps.
Other terms used to express frequency are "kilo" (thousand) hertz (kHz); "mega" (million) hertz
(MHz); "Giga" (billion) hertz (GHz); and "Tera" (trillion) hertz (THz). In the past few years the
military and scientists have been experimenting with "Peta" hertz (1x10 to the 15th) "Exa" hertz (1x10
to the 18th), "Zeta" hertz (1x10 to the 21st) and "Yotta" hertz (1x10 to the 24th).
Electromagnetic fields
The fact that alternating current changes in size and reverses its direction during each cycle is what
makes radio transmission possible. As you recall, radio waves are electromagnetic fields of force; that
is, magnetic fields generated by continually changing electric fields. As alternating current moves
back and forth in a wire, magnetic fields are created around the wire. With each current increase, the
magnetic fields expand; and with each current decrease, they collapse. The magnetic field collapses
completely at the instant current is at the zero point, just before starting the next alternation. Figure 1–
15 shows a magnetic field (H-Lines) around a conducting wire. This field is continuous along the
 1–19

wire, not just in sharply defined circles as shown in the illustration. It also expands and collapses with
changes in the direction and magnitude of the AC current.
Electromagnetic propagation
The magnetic fields created around a wire conducting a 60-cps current are very small. They extend
only a short distance from the wire and collapse with each current reversal. As the current increases in
frequency, however, the magnetic fields have more and more difficulty in collapsing completely with
each alternation. When the frequency reaches a certain point, somewhere around 10,000 cps, the
magnetic fields no longer have time to collapse completely between alternations.
Instead, they are pushed away from the wire by the fields produced by the succeeding alternations.
This is the principle of electromagnetic propagation. Because of the importance of this phenomenon,
let’s summarize.
When an electrical current is applied to a wire the current flow builds an electromagnetic field around
the wire. This field sends a wave outward from the wire. When the current is removed, the field
collapses which again sends a wave. If the current is applied and removed over and over for a period
of time, a series of waves is propagated at a determine frequency. Once again, alternating current in a
conductor (wire) creates magnetic fields that expand and collapse with each alternation. At
frequencies below approximately 10,000 cps, these fields collapse completely between alternations.
However, at frequencies above 10,000 cps, these fields no longer collapse completely. Instead, they
are pushed away (radiated) from the conductor. They travel out from the conductor in the form of
electromagnetic energy, commonly as radio waves. This radiation is composed of two perpendicular
waves: one electrostatic in nature, the other magnetic. Both of these waves are at right angles to the
direction of propagation (fig. 1–16). These two waves are in time phase with each other and travel at
a constant speed through space. This speed (186,000 statute miles per second, 162,000 nautical miles
per second, or 3 X 108 meters per second) is called the speed of light.

Figure 1–16. Electromagnetic wave propagation.

Radio wave creation

As previously mentioned, the creation of radio waves requires a current whose frequency is at least
10,000 Hz. That is, it must be in the radio frequency (RF) range. Mechanical generators, which are
capable of developing frequencies up to 100 kHz, are not adequate to cover the useful RF range (10
kHz to 300 GHz). The solution to this problem has been found in the electronic oscillator. The
oscillator is an electronic device for creating voltages that can be made to surge back and forth at
whatever frequency is desired. Since the output of this oscillator is RF energy, we normally refer to it
1–20

as an RF oscillator. When RF energy is applied to a conductor (antenna), the antenna resonates; that
is, it produces an EM field around itself (vibrates). The antenna provides a means of radiating the EM
waves into the air. The E and H fields that are set up in the transfer of energy through space are
known collectively as the radiation field. This radiation field is responsible for electromagnetic
radiation from the antenna.
There are two basic fields associated with every antenna: the induction and radiation fields.
Although many theories have been proposed on this subject, the most widely accepted theory will be
discussed.
Induction field
The portion of the electromagnetic field that immediately surrounds the antenna and collapses
completely when the antenna voltage and current reverse is termed the induction field. This field is
associated with the stored energy in the antenna, and is mainly responsible for the behavior of the
antenna as a tuned circuit element. Although this field is intense in the immediate vicinity of the
antenna, its strength drops off rapidly at increasing distances from the antenna. This induction field is
responsible for the resonant effects the antenna reflects to the RF oscillator.
Radiation Field
Besides the induction field surrounding the antenna, there is also a field called the radiation field. The
radiation field detaches from the antenna and travels through space. It reaches much greater distance
than the induction field. Figure 1–17 illustrates the time phase of the induction and radiation fields.
Notice the E-lines and H-lines occur simultaneously in the radiation field as opposed to alternately in
the induction field.

Figure 1–17. Radiation field versus induction field.

At a distance of one-sixth wavelength from the antenna, the induction field and the radiation field are
equal in strength (power). The induction field decreases as the square of the distance and rapidly
disappears. The radiation field decreases linearly with distance and, therefore, does not disappear
entirely.
 1–21

Thus, it is the radiation field which is intercepted by receiving antennas within the range. The
transmitter transmits both, but only the radiation field travels any usable distance. That part of the
electromagnetic field call the radiation field induces both electric lines of force and the magnetic lines
of flux. The E-fields cause a buildup of potential (voltage) across a receiving antenna, and the H-
fields cause a buildup of current with the antenna (fig. 1–18).

Figure 1–18. Electromagnetic wave.

Moving wave front

The EM wave is most commonly illustrated as in figure 1–19. This wave represents the wavelength
and amplitude characteristics of an EM wave. By tracing along the wave through points A, B, C and
D, one complete cycle is outlined. If it takes one-thousandth (1/1,000) of a second for this cycle to
occur, the wave would then represent a frequency of 1,000 hertz.

Figure 1–19. Frequency measurement.

The movement of radio waves through space can best be explained by comparing them to the
movement of waves in a pond, figure 1–20 illustrates some of the similarities. When you toss a rock
into the center of a pond, a disturbance is created in the water. This disturbance (ripples or waves)
spreads rapidly in equally spaced circles, and soon leaves floating on the water begin to bob up and
down. In other words, the energy that was transferred to the water by tossing the rock into the pond
has now been transmitted (propagated) to the leaves, making them move up and down.
1–22

Figure 1–20. Comparison of liquid wave to electromagnetic wave.

Radiation patterns
Electromagnetic waves emanating from an antenna are not of equal strength in all directions. Antenna
design, the earth, and surrounding objects affect the direction of radiation. In fact, electromagnetic
waves are radiated from the antenna in definite patterns in both the vertical and horizontal planes.
These radiation characteristics are known as antenna radiation patterns.
Antenna radiation patterns show the radiation characteristics of a specific antenna. Figure 1–21 shows
three different views of radiation patterns for a vertical dipole antenna in free space (nothing near the
antenna is distorting its pattern). The horizontal and vertical views are flat, one-sided views of the
radiation patterns. The horizontal view shows the radiation pattern of the antenna as viewed from
above. The vertical view shows the radiation pattern as viewed from a right angle.

Figure 1–21. Vertical and horizontal radiation patterns.

In figure 1–21, the areas that radiation passes through are called lobes. Areas in which no radiation
passes are called nulls. When a technician understands the radiation pattern of the antenna being used
then it is possible to make sure that the receiving station is within a radiation lobe. The term null is
also used to indicate areas of minimum radiation.
 1–23

205. Polarization
As technology grows, antenna polarization is an important consideration in communications system.
Understanding polarization and how it can influence communications performance is very important
to optimize signal reach. Keeping it simple, antennas radiate energy which is either linear or circular
in polarization.
Linear polarization
We use the electric field component as a point of reference in describing the principal characteristics
of a wave front. For example, we measure the intensity of a radio wave in terms of the strength of the
electric field. In turn, we describe the orientation of the wave in space in terms of the orientation of its
electric field. The plane of polarization of a radio wave is the plane in which the E field propagates
with respect to the Earth. The radio wave is vertically polarized if the E field component travels in a
plane perpendicular to the Earth’s surface and horizontally polarized if that plane is parallel to the
Earth’s surface (fig. 1–22, A and B). Best results occur when the receiving antenna is oriented
(polarized) in the same direction as the electric field from the transmitting antenna. This allows a
maximum amount of the E-field contacts the surface of the receiving antenna.

Figure 1–22. Polarized waves.

A common method of representing the E and H fields of a wave front is with vectors. Figure 1–23, A,
shows a horizontally polarized wave while figure 1–23, B, shows a vertically polarized wave. The
vector length represents the instantaneous intensity of each field and is indicated by the relative length
of the vector arrow, while the vector direction shows the instantaneous field direction (or polarity)
using conventional rectangular coordinate designations. In figure 1-23 A and B, notice that the H-
field vectors and the E-field vectors are shown 90 degrees out of phase with each other. This indicates
that if one field is parallel to the earth’s surface, the other field would be perpendicular to the earth’s
surface as shown earlier in figure 1-16.

Figure 1–23. E and H field vectors.

1–24

The orientation of the E-field portion of the electromagnetic fields in space indicates the direction of
polarization. When the E-field is parallel to the axis of a half-wave dipole, the antenna is in the plane
of polarization. Thus, the radiated wave is horizontally polarized when the antenna is horizontal and
vertically polarized when the antenna is vertical. An antenna needs to be in the proper plane of
polarization for maximum transfer of energy from the electromagnetic fields. This places the
conductor at right angles to the magnetic lines of force that are moving through the antenna and
parallel to the electric lines.
Since the magnetic lines cause voltage to be induced in a conductor as magnetic lines cut across the
conductor, the angle at which the lines cut the conductor is important. In the theory of induction, a
conductor moving in a magnetic field produces the greatest voltage in the wire when the field and the
conductor are perpendicular to each other. If the conductor and the field are parallel to each other,
there is no cutting of the lines and no induced voltage. In antennas, the angle is just as important.
Figure 1–24 is a possible real-world example of what can go wrong with polarization. The figure
shows two good communications sites. The one on the left is the main base, and the site on the right
is a deployed location. You’ll notice that the main base antenna is horizontally polarized. The
deployed site, on the other hand, is vertically polarized. This setup would work, but only using
maximum power levels. Eventually someone notices the antennas are not polarized the same. If either
site were to change to a differently polarized antenna, their communications effectiveness would
significantly improve.

Figure 1–24. Polarization examples.

Circular polarization
In a circularly polarized antenna, the plane of polarization rotates in a corkscrew pattern, making one
complete revolution during each wavelength. A circular polarized wave radiates energy in both the
horizontal and vertical planes and all planes in between.
In linear polarization, we found that the transmitting and receiving antennas must lie in the same
plane to produce maximum energy transfer. Sometimes in radar, satellite communications, and in
radio astronomy, the plane is not fixed and may change. This can cause a loss in energy transfer. To
overcome this, circular polarization is used. Imagine the E-field in vertical polarization being changed
from its fixed position in space and rotated through 360° with every cycle of the RF energy fed to the
antenna. Constant-amplitude electric lines of force are continuously changing their angular position as
they are radiated into space. The resulting effect of this circular motion of the electric field is called
circular polarization. Figure 1–25, A, illustrates the resultant waveform with the arrow depicting the
electric field. Figure 1–25, B, shows the direction of the E-field at a point in space at various instants
of time over a complete cycle. When the circularity polarized energy strikes a receiving antenna,
some portion of the circularly polarized wave will be the same plane as the antenna and energy is
transferred. Figure 1–25, C, illustrates an antenna array that produces a circularly polarized wave.
 1–25

Figure 1–25. Circular polarization.

Satellite communication terminals transmit right hand circular polarization and receive left-hand
circular polarization. Circular polarization overcomes the Faraday Effect of the Earth’s magnetic
field. Essentially, the Earth’s magnetic field bends the RF beam off its bore sight. Let’s assume that
the Earth’s magnetic field bends a vertically polarized beam up or down and a horizontally polarized
beam left or right. In this example, any linearly polarized RF beam veers off bore sight in some
direction. With circular polarization, the beam pulls off to the right as much as to the left. The same
applies for up and down. The errors cancel out for each complete revolution of the beam. In satellite
communications, the beam has to travel around 22,300 miles, so it is very important to keep it as
close on the antenna bore sight as possible.

206. Antenna concepts

The transmitting and receiving antennas play equally important parts in radio communication. If
either antenna is a weak link, then the overall chain from the microphone at the transmitting end to
the loudspeaker at the receiver is weakened. Large losses of power during wave travel between the
transmitter antenna and the receiver antenna must be compensated for to ensure adequate signal
strength at the receiver. To overcome these losses, either the power transmitted must be extremely
high or the efficiency of both the transmitting and receiving antennas must be high. Since large
amounts of power are difficult to generate economically in the higher-frequency ranges, it is
important that as much of the transmitter power as possible be converted into radiated energy to be
picked up at the receiver. Therefore, maximum efficiency of both antennas is required to provide
maximum range for radio communications.
Antenna resonance
Various factors in the antenna circuit affect the radiation of radio waves. If an alternating current is
applied at one end of a length of wire (antenna), the wave travels along the wire until it reaches the
other end. Since the end is free, there exists an equivalent of an open circuit (point of high
impedance) and the wave can’t continue further. The wave bounces back or is reflected from this
point of high impedance and travels back toward the starting point where reflection again takes place.
The energy value of this oscillation is gradually dissipated by the resistance of the wire. If, however,
1–26

each time it reaches the starting point, the wave is reinforced by an amount sufficient to replace the
energy lost because of the resistance, a continuous oscillation of constant energy is maintained along
the wire. If the alternating voltage applied at the end of the wire is an RF voltage, electrical impulses
are applied to the antenna at a rate equal to the frequency of the RF voltage. Since these impulses
must be properly timed in order to sustain oscillation in the antenna, and since the rate at which the
waves travel along a wire is constant at about 300,000,000 meters per second, the length of the
antenna must be such that a wave travels from one end to the other and back again during the period
of one cycle of the RF voltage. If the wave is to travel exactly the length of the wire and back again
during the period of one cycle, it is evident that the wire must be equal to half the wavelength of the
voltage being applied. Under this condition, the wire is said to be resonant to the frequency of the
applied voltage.
Antennas are classified as either resonant or nonresonant, depending on their design. In a resonant
antenna, almost the entire radio signal fed to the antenna is radiated. If the antenna is fed with a
frequency other than its designed frequency, much of the signal is lost and is not radiated.
Bandwidth and frequency range
A resonant antenna effectively radiates a radio signal at transmitter frequencies which are at or near
its designed frequency; usually within a range of plus or minus 2 percent of the designed frequency.
This range of frequencies (from 2 percent above to 2 percent below the operating frequency) is called
the bandwidth of the antenna. The actual range of frequencies within the antenna’s bandwidth is
called the frequency range of an antenna. Therefore, if the design frequency of a resonant antenna is
10 MHz, its frequency range would be from 9.8 to 10.2 MHz (2 percent below to 2 percent above 10
MHz) and its bandwidth is about 0.4 MHz.
Frequency independent antennas
A nonresonant antenna is designed to operate over a wide range of frequencies using maximum
power and is known as a frequency independent antenna. A good example of a frequency independent
antenna is the log-periodic antenna (LPA). An LPA consists of many independent but interacting
antenna elements. This antenna and others are discussed later.
Standing wave ratio
If a resonant antenna is fed with a frequency outside of its bandwidth, large losses of signal power
occur. Signal energy from the antenna transmission line is "turned back" from the antenna and causes
standing waves on the transmission line. A measure of these standing waves, called standing wave
ratio (SWR), is used to determine whether an antenna is resonant at a particular frequency. An SWR
of 1 to 1 (1:1) is the ideal situation; however, in the real world, 1.1 to 1 (1.1:1) is about the best that
can be done. Most modern radio equipment has built-in meters that show the SWR of a circuit.
When constructing wire antennas, adjust the length of the antenna until you measure the lowest SWR.
An SWR of 2:1 is acceptable, but check the technical order (TO) or maintenance manual for that
radio to determine the maximum SWR the radio can tolerate. It’s important to remember that standing
waves are reflected back to the transmission line and cause damage to transmitting equipment. In
some radios, the power output of the transmitter automatically becomes lower if the SWR is too high.
This prevents damage.
Fundamental frequency
A wire in space (an antenna) resonates at more than one frequency. The lowest frequency at which it
resonates is called its fundamental frequency. At this frequency the wire is approximately half a
wavelength long. A wire or antenna can have two, three, four, or more standing waves on it, and thus,
resonates at approximately the integral harmonics of its fundamental frequency.
 1–27

Reciprocity
The various properties of an antenna apply to both transmitting and receiving. The more efficient the
antenna is for transmitting, the more efficient it is for receiving. Another words, the ability of an
antenna to both receive and transmit equally well at a stated frequency is known as the antenna’s
reciprocity. The directive properties are the same for both transmission and reception and, as is the
case for all antenna systems, the gain is the same on both transmitted and received signals. The
current distribution and impedance is likewise identical whether the energy is fed directly to an
antenna from the transmitter or whether it is picked up from passing electromagnetic waves of the
same frequency.
Antenna gain
Keep in mind that an antenna cannot amplify a transmitted or received signal. The term gain refers to
an increase in radiating effectiveness of an antenna system over some standard. An often-used
standard is the isotropic antenna. The isotropic antenna is a theoretical perfect radiator that radiates
equally well in all directions. Keep in mind that an isotropic antenna does not exist, hence the term
theoretical. Many antennas have the ability to focus RF energy in certain directions. They do this by
redirecting the energy from other directions. An antenna with 3 dBi (decibels referenced to isotropic
antenna) is an antenna that will deliver twice as much power to a receiving antenna, or receive twice
as much power from a transmitter, than the theoretically perfect antenna (keep in mind that 3 dB
doubles/halves power). The antenna does this by redirecting the energy from other directions. This
can be visualized by likening it to a light bulb whose radiation pattern can be seen. A bare light bulb
in a socket radiates its light in all directions. If we put a reflector behind it the light will intensify in
the direction of the reflection but dimmed in the direction blocked by the reflector.
The thing to remember is an antenna’s gain is a measure of its effectiveness. An antenna that has gain
does NOT increase the amount of RF that is radiated. It merely focuses the RF that is radiated so that
it can be more effective in a particular direction.
Efficiency
An efficient antenna is one which wastes very little energy, so the higher the efficiency rating the less
the energy loss. The greatest cause of decreased antenna efficiency during the conversion of electrical
energy to electromagnetic energy is the loss of energy in the form of heat.
The effectiveness of an entire transmitting/receiving system depends largely on impedance
matching between the elements of the system. Impedance matching is particularly critical at
the antenna connection. If a good impedance match is maintained between the system and the
antenna throughout the operating frequency band then the power transfer to and from the
antenna is always maximum. The transmission line or waveguide used to transport energy to
and from the antenna should have characteristic impedance equal to that of the antenna. A
proper impedance match allows all available power to be absorbed and radiated by the
antenna without reflections back down the line.
If you have a transmission line or waveguide with impedance mismatch at the termination,
standing waves are set up by the reflections. Standing waves cause losses in the form of
unwanted radiations, heat losses in transmission lines, and arcing in waveguides.
Antenna couplers
Suppose the situation exists where the only antenna that can be erected is one with an SWR, this will
be too large for the transmitter to work. In this situation, an antenna coupler or antenna tuner must be
used. A coupler is a matching device inserted between a transmitter and its antenna to make a
transmitter "think" it is connected to a low-SWR antenna. The advantage is the transmitter can deliver
its full power to the feed line even thought the SWR is high. The amount of power radiated by the
antenna depends on the location of the coupler. If the coupler is located at the transmitter, as it is with
1–28

most tactical equipment, large loss of power still exists at the antenna. If the coupler is located at the
antenna, a greater amount of power is radiated with less loss.
Baluns
Only in a few special cases is the load naturally or inherently of the proper impedance to perfectly
match a practical transmission line. In most cases, it is necessary to use a mismatch that produces an
acceptable VSWR—or—take steps to bring about a proper match between the line and load. Devices
used to impedance match a transmission line to an antenna exist in many forms. We’re going to
discuss one called the balun. Baluns can be used to match the impedance of coaxial cable to an
antenna. The name "balun" comes from one of the device’s purpose—matching BALanced to
UNbalanced circuits. Even though they often don’t look like transformers, baluns function as
transformers. They are often made up of sections or coils of coaxial cable. RG–213 cable has a
characteristic impedance of 52 ohms. If it were connected directly to an antenna that has an
impedance of 600 ohms, large losses would exist. A balun provides a smooth transfer of RF between
the low-impedance coax and the high-impedance antenna with only a small loss of power.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

204. Antenna waves

1. What is the purpose of the antenna?

2. In radio communications, which major force fields are we concerned with?

3. What is the relationship between the electric and magnetic fields?

4. Which type of electric current continually changes in size and direction?

5. Define radio waves.

6. What happens to magnetic fields above approximately 10,000 cps?

7. Describe the induction and radiation fields.

8. At what distance from the antenna are the induction field and the radiation field the same
strength?
 1–29

9. Explain the rate of decrease in the two fields’ strengths as the distance from the antenna
increases.

10. What are the determining factors that affect the pattern of radiation?

205. Polarization
1. What is the polarization if the E-field component travels in a plane parallel to the Earth’s surface?

2. How can an antenna receive a maximum transfer of energy from the EM fields?

3. Describe circular polarization.

206. Antenna concepts

1. Differentiate between a resonant and nonresonant antenna?

2. What is the frequency range of a resonant antenna?

3. What is a frequency-independent antenna?

4. In the real world, what is the ideal standing wave ratio?

5. What is the fundamental frequency of an antenna?

6. Describe the concept of antenna reciprocity?

7. What is an isotropic antenna?

8. How can a transmitting antenna be made to deliver twice as much power to the receiving
antenna?
1–30

9. What allows all available power to be absorbed and radiated by the antenna without reflections
back down the line?

10. Describe an antenna coupler.

11. What can you use to match a 50-ohm cable to a 600-ohm antenna?

1–3. Antenna Types

Now let’s look at some basic types of antennas. There are literally thousands of different types of
antennas and many ways we could categorize them. The basic principles are the same for all.
There is no one right antenna for every job. You have to take all the variables into account before
choosing the correct antenna for the mission at hand. Of course, many sites have established and have
been functioning properly for decades but there are other situations where the needs and operating
environment are constantly changing. You can stick to the old reliable antenna that has always been
there (maybe is still is the best selection), but perhaps there is a better antenna for the new conditions.
If you are setting up a communications system, it is likely you’ll have to make the antenna selection
and perform the setup.

207. Directivity of the antennas

Quite often we want to communicate with particular stations at fixed locations or in particular
directions from our location. In these cases, we don’t need to spray RF all over, wasting energy and
increasing the chances of the wrong stations receiving our signals. We need to understand how an
antenna can be made directional.
Antennas can be classified according to how radio energy is radiated:
 Omni-directional
 Bi-directional
 Uni-directional (sometimes referred to as simply "directional").
An omni-directional antenna radiates radio energy in a circular pattern. A bi-directional antenna
radiates two main lobes of RF, with nulls between them. A uni-directional antenna radiates a single
large lobe of RF energy in one direction and produces greatly reduced lobes or nulls in other
directions.
Omni-directional
An omni-directional antenna radiates energy equally well in all compass directions (fig. 1–26). The
most common omni-directional antenna is the whip. Other omni-directional antennas include the
Marconi, quarter-wave vertical and the crossed dipole. The omni-directional antenna is used when it
is necessary to communicate in several different directions at once such as an air traffic control
(ATC) tower or when operating as part of a multi-station net. Since the omni-directional antenna
radiates equally well in all directions, it also receives from all directions just as well. The down side is
that it also allows interference from any direction to affect the received signal.
Omni-directional antennas are used for communications between multiple stations and are often
found in point-to-point tactical operations. VHF/UHF whip and discone antennas are omni-directional
 1–31

and can be mounted on vehicles. The advantage here is that no matter where the vehicle travels, if the
LOS path is clear, reception is possible.
Besides being smaller, the VHF/UHF whip is no different from a vertically polarized HF whip.
Radiation is at right angles from the antenna and is directed toward the opposite end of the vehicle on
which it is mounted.
The VHF/UHF discone is a round, disk-like plate with ground reflector rods (radials) extending at
angles toward the ground. The discone antenna is horizontally polarized and has a higher takeoff
angle than the whip. It is efficient for short-range, tactical communications with aircraft.

Figure 1–26. Omni-directional radiation pattern.

Bi-directional
Bi-directional antennas produce a stronger signal in two favored directions while reducing the signal
in other directions (fig. 1–27). Deployable bi-directional antennas are usually the inverted-V or
center-fed, half-wave dipole. Bi-directional antennas are usually used on point-to-point circuits and in
situations where the antenna nulls can be positioned to reduce or block out interfering signals when
you’re receiving. They can also be used when many antennas are closely located together. By placing
other antennas in the nulls of bi-directional antennas, interference and interaction among the antennas
can be reduced. A drawback of bi-directional antennas is that they have to be oriented correctly to
radiate in the desired directions.

Figure 1-27. Bi-directional radiation pattern.

Uni-directional
A uni-directional (or directional) antenna is much like a bi-directional antenna with one of its lobes
cut off (fig. 1–28). In fact, several bi-directional antennas (long-wire, sloping-V) are made directional
by adding a terminator that absorbs the second main lobe. Since a unidirectional antenna concentrates
almost all the radio signal in one specific direction, it must be carefully oriented. Depending on the
antenna design, the main lobe of a uni-directional antenna can cover 60° or more or be made to
radiate in a narrow pencil beam. Uni-directional antennas are usually used in long-range, point-to-
point communication where the concentrated radio energy is needed for circuit reliability.
1–32

Figure 1–28. Uni-directional radiation pattern.

Terminating resistors
A terminating resistor absorbs the RF power that would normally radiate from the back of the
antenna.
The reduced back lobes mean less noise and interference from the back of the antenna. A long-wire
antenna can also be made directional by placing a terminating resistor at the distant end of the
antenna. Terminating resistors turn a resonant antenna into a nonresonant antenna.
Beamwidth
The major lobes of the directive pattern are those in which the radiation is maximum. Since no
antenna is able to radiate all the energy in one preferred direction, some is inevitably radiated in other
directions. The areas of lesser radiation intensity are referred to as side lobes. The beamwidth of a
directive antenna is the width in degrees as measured at the half-power points on either side of the
maximum signal strength location. At the half-power point, the field intensity is equal to .707 times
its maximum value or down 3 dB less than the maximum. Figure 1–29 is an example of a lobe having
a beam width of 30 degrees.

Figure 1–29. Beamwidth.

208. Basic antenna types

Two basic types of antennas, named in honor of the scientists who developed them, are the Hertz and
Marconi. The Hertz antenna is an ungrounded length of conductor (normally wire) while the Marconi
is connected to the ground (grounded). All present-day antennas are based on the concepts of either
the Hertz or Marconi antenna. We have further divided Hertz antennas into two basic types because
of varying construction and radiation characteristics. Therefore, almost all of the antennas are really
based on three types of antennas. These are the Marconi quarter-wavelength vertical monopole
antenna, the Hertz half-wavelength antenna (a doublet or dipole antenna), and the Hertz multi-
wavelength antenna (long-wire antenna).
Hertz antennas
Hertz antennas are ungrounded lengths of wire specifically designed to be either a half-wavelength
long, such as a dipole or doublet antenna (fig. 1–30), or more than a full wavelength long, such as a
long-wire antenna (fig. 1–31).
 1–33

NOTE: Normally, long-wire antennas are two or more wavelengths long. Depending on the antenna
design, the transmission line coming from the transmitter can be connected to one of the antenna ends
(end-fed) or to the middle of the wire (center-fed). Dipole antennas are center fed, while long-wire
antennas are end-fed. Other antennas that are based on the dipole or long-wire Hertz antennas have
these same characteristics.

Figure 1–30. Hertz half-wave dipole antenna.

Figure 1–31. Hertz long-wire antenna.

Marconi antennas
Marconi understood that a half-wavelength antenna makes an excellent resonator. He also realized
that, in the lower radio-frequency ranges, a half-wavelength can be very long. A vertical half-
wavelength antenna built for a frequency of 1 MHz would be 468 feet high. Building a tower this
high is expensive and difficult. Mr. Marconi found that when a quarter-wave vertical antenna has its
base on the ground, the earth below the antenna acts like a large reflector (or mirror) and supplies
another quarter-wavelength. In effect, the quarter-wave vertical antenna acts like a half-wave antenna.
A vertical monopole (Marconi) antenna is a single vertical wire or pole, such as a whip antenna.
Figure 1–32 illustrates the reflecting characteristics of a vertical quarter-wavelength Marconi antenna.

Figure 1–32. Marconi quarter-wave antenna.

1–34

209. Specific antennas

A good working knowledge of fixed and deployable antennas is important. In this lesson we look at
some specific antennas that you will probably encounter in your career.
Vertical whip antennas
The vertical monopole whip is the most commonly used HF antenna for covering short distances in a
tactical environment. This is a low-cost, easily constructed, vertically polarized, omni-directional
antenna. This antenna must be cut to the desired frequency of operation. It has a small frequency
range and is limited in power-radiating capability. Couplers and tuners are required for operating
from 2–30 MHz. The vertical monopole whip is used mainly in a ground-wave or direct-wave
propagation mode. Short-range, point-to-point sky wave communications can be achieved by bending
the whip back or by changing to inverted L or dipole antennas. The whip is probably the worst
antenna that can be used on sky wave circuits (fig. 1–33).

Figure 1–33. Vertical, bent, and inverted-L whip antenna configuration.

When a whip antenna is mounted on a vehicle, the vehicle’s metal affects antenna operation. As a
result, the direction in which the vehicle is facing may also affect transmission and reception,
particularly for distant stations or other weak signals. A vehicle with a whip antenna mounted on its
left rear side sends its strongest signal in a line running from the antenna through the right front side
of the vehicle. Similarly, an antenna mounted on the right rear side of the vehicle radiates its strongest
signal toward the left front side. You can find the best reception by driving the vehicle in a small
circle until you locate the best receive signal.
 1–35

Normally, due to reciprocity, the best direction for receiving is also the best direction for transmitting.
In areas with a poor ground plane, it is often desirable to construct a ground plane and/or counterpoise
using one-quarter wavelength or longer ground radials. Counterpoise is way to increase reflecting
characteristics of the ground below a vertical antenna.
HF discone antenna
The HF discone antenna (fig. 1–34) is a complicated multidipole array that’s often used in high-
powered fixed radio stations. Its bandwidth is from 3–18 MHz (virtually frequency independent) and
is vertically polarized. It is omni-directional at horizontal angles from the antenna and has an
effective vertical radiation between 0 and 60°.

Figure 1–34. HF discone antenna

Array antennas
LPAs are common at fixed HF facilities. They get their name from the logarithmic spacing and
proportion of its element. Their outstanding feature is the range of frequencies at which they can
function efficiently.
Because of their many elements, LPAs are frequency independent on the frequency band or bands for
which they were constructed. LPAs are highly directional and can be built horizontally or vertically.
In the horizontal plane, they can be made "rotatable." This means that the technician can rotate and
point (orient) the antenna in any direction.
Figure 1–35 shows the basic LPA structure. Note that the picture seems to be a simple array of dipole
antennas arranged parallel to each other from smallest to largest. Each element in the LPA can be an
active resonator (driven element) when required. When an LPA receives a certain frequency, only the
parts of the LPA that are resonant to the operating frequency are actually being used. Therefore, only
that particular part of the antenna radiates or receives. The elements that aren’t being used
temporarily act as reflectors and directors, thus making the LPA a very directive antenna.
When used with a 3 MHz frequency with an HF LPA, only the longer parts (elements) of the HF LPA
array are in use. At 15 MHz, the center part of the antenna is resonant and only the center section is in
use. Because of this, it’s possible to use a special electronic antenna tuning device called a
multicoupler that lets two or more transmitters operating on different frequencies share the same
antenna. This allows one rotatable LPA to use several operating frequencies. Even a large HPA takes
up much less space than would a field of resonant dipoles.
1–36

Figure 1–35 Basic log-periodic antenna structure

Dipole antennas
Dipole antennas are versatile and can be set up in several variations to suit your communications
needs.
Half-wave dipole
The half-wave dipole (fig. 1–36), also known as the doublet, is one of the simplest and most
functional antennas in use. It is most often used for short-to-medium distance sky wave paths. The
doublet is nearly omni-directional at high takeoff angles and almost bi-directional at medium takeoff
angles. The dipole is a resonant antenna and is usable over a narrow frequency band (plus or minus 2
percent of the designed antenna frequency) unless it is coupled to an antenna tuner. Keep the
transmission line coaxial cable routed at 90° to the antenna for at least one-quarter wavelength.
Excessive antenna sag can actually reduce the gain and efficiency of this antenna. To correct this
problem, you may have to erect a center support for the antenna feed block.

Figure 1–36. Half-wave dipole and dipole sag.

 1–37

Multiband half-wave dipole

Sometimes space or other resources aren’t adequate to erect separate dipoles. In this case, you can
combine three or four dipoles to occupy the space normally required for one. This type of antenna is
called a multiband dipole or multifrequency doublet antenna (fig. 1–37). Each wire in a multiband
dipole is cut to a half-wavelength of an assigned frequency. All the separate antennas are connected to
the same antenna feed block or connector (such as a cobra head connector) and are fed by a single
transmission line. When the antenna is fed with an assigned frequency, the dipole cut for that
frequency radiates.

Figure 1–37. Multiband half-wave dipole.

Inverted-V
The inverted-V is a half-wave dipole, supported in the center by a single mast, with both antenna legs
anchored near the ground (fig. 1–38). Like a dipole, it is designed and cut for a specific frequency and
has a bandwidth of plus or minus 2 percent of its designed frequency. Because of the inclined sides,
the inverted- V antenna produces a combination of horizontal and vertical radiation—vertical off the
ends and horizontal broadside to the antenna. It is a compromise between a dipole and a whip and is
used mainly for short-range sky wave propagation. The use of only a single center support tends to
make this the preferred antenna in some tactical situations.

Figure 1–38. Inverted-V

1–38

Long-wire antennas
A long-wire antenna is one that is long compared to a wavelength. A minimum length is a half -
wavelength, but you need antennas two or more wavelengths long for good gain and directional
characteristics (fig. 1–39). Antennas less than 200 feet long have a relatively small operating range
and require couplers to convert the entire HF band. Un-terminated antennas 250 feet long generally
require couplers at frequencies below 8 MHz. Antennas 250 feet or longer may use baluns, from
about 8 MHz to 30 MHz. 500-foot-long wire antennas aren’t uncommon. Antenna couplers and
tuners are normally used on long-wire antennas to improve efficiency and extend their range from 2
to 30 MHz.

Figure 1–39. Long-wire antenna.

The long-wire antenna has many applications in fixed point-to-point, air-to-ground, and deployable
point-to-point communications. Its gain and takeoff angle depend on the antenna’s length. The longer
the antenna, the greater the gain and the lower the takeoff angle. Gain is normally about 3 dB. A long-
wire antenna is easily made directional by placing a terminating resistor at the distant-station end of
the antenna. The terminating resistor should be a 600-ohm noninductive resistor capable of absorbing
at least half of the transmitter power.
Construction of a long-wire antenna requires only wire, support poles, insulators, and a terminating
resistor (if directionality is desired). Insulators confine radio frequency energy to just the antenna
wire. The antenna must be strung in as straight a line as the situation permits.
Sloping long wire
The sloping long-wire antenna (fig. 1–40) is a simple, easily constructed antenna that needs only one
support. A version of the long-wire antenna, the sloping wire produces best results when it is more
than two wavelengths long. Tactical sloping wires vary in length from 45 feet to over 500 feet. You
only use the shorter lengths when no other antenna can be erected, since their performance is rather
poor. The longer lengths (250 to 500 feet) can produce good radiation for medium-to-long sky wave
paths. Takeoff angles vary according to antenna length and the angle of antenna slope. A sloping wire
can either be terminated or unterminated. As with the long-wire antenna, termination improves
directivity. In orienting a sloping wire, the low end of the wire should be toward the receiving station
and offset 10°. If the wire is unterminated, feed the antenna at the low end; if it’s terminated, feed the
antenna at the high end.
 1–39

Figure 1–40. Sloping long-wire antenna.

Sloping-V
The sloping-V antenna is nothing more than two long-wire antennas arranged in the form of a V and
fed 180° out of phase (fig. 1–41). This long-wire version is an improvement over the standard long
wire and the sloping long wire, in that the two legs tend to reinforce each other for improved
performance and increased effective radiated power. It’s a medium-to-long-range, sky wave antenna
that’s reasonably easy to construct. Its gain and directivity depend on the leg length. Normally, this
antenna is constructed with a center support pole about 40 feet high and its two legs are 500 feet long.
As with the long-wire and sloping long-wire antenna, the sloping-V antenna can be made practically
unidirectional by terminating the two ends with resistors. Adjust the angle between the two antenna
legs (apex angle) to provide the maximum radiation at the desired takeoff angle. The angles in the
table below give good results for the distances indicated.

Sloping V Antenna Angles

Path Length Apex Angle
700 to 1,000 miles 60°
1,000 to 1,500 miles 45°
over 1,500 miles 30°

The sloping-V antenna has a bandwidth of 3 or 4 to 1(3:1 or 4:1). In other words, if the V is designed
to operate at a low frequency of 4 MHz, its upper limit is three to four times that, or 12 to 16 MHz. It
is primarily used for fixed and deployable point-to-point communications. Its gain can be as high as
12 dB, with an 8-dB gain being normal. Orient this antenna so that the line bisecting the V is pointed
directly at the distant station.

Figure 1–41. Sloping-V antenna.

1–40

Inverted L
The inverted L (fig. 1–42) is a combination antenna made up of a vertical section and a horizontal
section. It provides omni-directional radiation for ground-wave propagation from the vertical element
and high-angle radiation from the horizontal element for short-range sky wave propagation. The
classic inverted L has a quarter-wave vertical section and a half-wave horizontal section and is used
for a very narrow range of frequencies. By using antenna couplers, dimensions of the inverted L can
be modified to allow ground-wave and short-range sky wave propagation over a range of frequencies.
Using a vertical height of 35 to 40 feet, the table below provides horizontal lengths that give
reasonable performance for short-range sky wave circuits.

Inverted L Antenna Angles

Horizontal Length Frequency Range
150 feet 2.5 to 4.0 MHz
100 feet 3.5 to 6.0 MHz
80 feet 5.0 to 7.0 MHz

Orient the antenna like a dipole, that is, its broadside should be toward the distant station. Do not use
these lengths outside the frequency ranges specified because the antenna radiation pattern changes
and, for frequencies much removed from the range, the antenna becomes directional off the wire end
(if you want this directional characteristic, use a sloping long-wire). The inverted-L antenna can be
used as a substitute for the dipole, but it has less gain than a dipole and its radiation pattern varies
with frequency.

Figure 1–42. Inverted-L antenna.

Near vertical incidence sky wave (NVIS)

The NVIS omni directional antenna is a HF high-angle radiation and low operating frequencies
antenna. Just as the proper selection of antennas can increase the reliability of a long-range circuit,
short-range communications also require proper antenna selection. The NVIS is one more weapon in
the communicator’s arsenal. To communicate over the horizon to an amphibious ship on the move, or
to a station 100 to 300 kilometers away, you should use an NVIS antenna. The NVIS propagate at
high take-off angles (60° to 90°) to radiate the signal almost straight up. The signal is then reflected
from the ionosphere and returns to Earth in a circular pattern all around the transmitter. Because of
the near-vertical radiation angle, there is no skip zone and communications are continuous out to
several hundred kilometers from the transmitter. The nearly vertical angle of radiation also means that
lower frequencies must be used. Generally, NVIS antennas are used at frequencies from 2-30MHz.
The steep up and down propagation of the signal gives the technician the ability to communicate over
nearby ridge lines, mountains, and dense vegetation. A valley location may give the technician terrain
shielding from hostile intercept and also protect the circuit from ground wave and long-range sky
wave interference. Antennas used for NVIS propagation need good high take-off angle radiation with
very little ground wave radiation, the AS–2259 (fig. 1–43) and half-wave dipole is a good choice for
 1–41

this requirement. While the inverted V and inverted L antennas have high-angle radiation, they also
can have strong ground wave radiation that could interfere with the close-in NVIS communications.

Figure 1–43. AS–2259 NVIS Antenna.

Satellite antennas
All antennas used in satellite communications are designed to be highly directional. They are also
designed to be high-gain antennas in order to overcome free-space loss affecting satellite systems. If
you understand the LOS transmission (discussed in unit 2) and antenna principles, you should have a
good working knowledge of almost all satellite antennas.
Parabolic
The parabolic, or dish, is a common satellite antenna (fig. 1–44). A dipole or feedhorn radiates the
signal, which is reflected from the dish in the direction required. The dipole is the driven element and
the dish is the reflector. Parabolics may have different forms of driven elements to radiate the signal.
However, the basic principle of all parabolics is the same—reflection of a radio signal for controlled
directivity and high gain.

Figure 1–44. Parabolic antenna.

Helical
A helical satellite antenna radiates a signal with circular polarization (fig. 1–25). Circularly polarized
signals are more directional than horizontally or vertically polarized waves. When the signal is
transmitted, the waves spiral in one direction. After it is retransmitted from the satellite, the signal
spirals in the opposite direction back to the ground. A helix antenna has two separate spiraling
antenna elements (a left and right spiral) to transmit and receive both circular polarized signals.
1–42

Microwave antennas
The horn antenna is used in the transmission and reception of RF microwave signals. The horn
antenna derives its name from its flared appearance. The flared portion can be square, rectangular, or
conical. It is usually fed with a waveguide (fig. 1–45).

Figure 1–45. Horn antenna.

Horn antennas are readily adaptable for use with waveguides because they serve both as an
impedance-matching device and as a directional radiator. Horn antennas, like parabolic reflectors,
may be used to obtain directive radiation at microwave frequencies. Because they do not involve
resonant elements, horns have the advantage of being usable over a wide frequency band.
The shape of the horn and the dimensions of the length and mouth largely determine the field-pattern
shape. The ratio of the horn length to mouth opening size determines the beam angle and, thus, the
directivity. In general, the larger the opening of the horn, the more directive is the resulting field
pattern.
A waveguide horn, called a feedhorn, may be used to feed energy into a parabolic dish. The
directivity of this feedhorn that is added to the parabolic dish results in a beam pattern that is very
narrow and concentrated.

210. Airborne antenna systems

As an RF transmission systems journeyman you may be assigned an airborne mission. Therefore, you
may be responsible for operating and maintaining aircraft systems that use airborne antennas. Typical
applications for airborne antennas are wideband and satellite communications; telemetry data
collection, tracking, and signal relay; timing signal reception; and satellite navigation signal
reception.
Airborne antennas must be sufficiently rugged to withstand the effects of supersonic velocity,
including shock-wave effects, radical accelerations, and extreme skin temperatures. Aircraft antennas
are invariably housed inside non-conducting radomes, not only for protection, but also to preserve
aerodynamic design. Some of these radomes are carried outside the fuselage while others are flush
with the skin of the fuselage.
The operational requirements of missiles, high-performance aircraft, and space environments have
been factored into antenna designs to meet or exceed stringent requirements for airborne applications.
Airborne antennas and their radomes are designed to have low drag, withstand vibration and wind
loads, are weather-sealed, high-strength, withstand particle erosion, have a wide operational
temperature range, and operate at high altitudes. Airborne antenna types used in our career field that
you should be familiar with are the whip, probe-tip, fixed-blade/low-profile, phased array, parabolic
dish, and conformal.
Airborne antenna applications for HF bands
The HF band is used mainly for long-range communications. The distances which must be covered
may vary-from several hundred to several thousand miles. Thus, ground-wave communication cannot
be used – sky waves must be employed. Since an unstable change in polarization occurs after
ionospheric reflection, the polarization of radiation produced by the airborne antenna is not important.
 1–43

More significant is the angle at which the signal arrives (or is transmitted) at the aircraft antenna. For
frequencies in the lower portions of the HF band, vertical angles between 20 and 60 degrees above
the horizon are important. For frequencies in the upper portion of the band, where multi-hop long-
distance transmission is used, the important vertical angles are between 5 and 30 degrees. It is
interesting to note that signals transmitted from an aircraft at angles below the plane of the horizon
are also significant in HF communication. This is true because of the reflection which takes place
from the ground. For example, energy radiated at an angle of 20 degrees below the horizon strikes the
ground, and, after reflection, enters the ionosphere at an angle of 20 degrees above the plane of the
horizon.
As shown in figure 1–46, whip antennas used for high frequency (HF) and very high frequency
(VHF) communications are lengths of tapered stainless steel mounted vertically or horizontally and
designed for less drag at higher speeds. Typically, a vertical whip antenna is mounted on top of the
aircraft’s fuselage, whereas, the horizontal whip antenna is specifically designed for mounting to the
underside of an aircraft, where it provides an excellent air-to-ground radiation pattern.

Figure 1–46. Whip antennas.

Similar to whip antennas, probe-tip antennas are also used for communications, but are mounted
horizontally on the aircraft’s wing tips or on the vertical stabilizer as shown in figure 1–47.

Figure 1–47. Probe tip antennas.

Airborne antenna applications for frequencies above the HF bands

Frequencies above the HF band are used for command communications, omni-directional radio range
and position marker reception, instrument low-approach equipment, distance-measuring and terrain
clearance equipment and radar equipment. Propagation at these very-high (VHF), ultra-high (UHF),
and super-high frequencies (SHF) is largely line-of-sight (LOS).
1–44

At VHF/UHF frequencies, transceivers are mainly used for short-range communications, such as air-
to-air and air-to-ground operations. Landings and takeoffs are typical situations using air-to-ground
VHF/UHF transmission.
A serious problem at these frequencies involves the interference between the direct ray and ground-
reflected ray. As a result, a receiver in an aircraft which approaches a ground station from a
considerable distance at a constant altitude will experience a marked rise and fall in signal strength as
the aircraft moves in.
Another difficult problem is the aircraft antenna design. Antenna installation at these higher
frequencies must produce a radiation pattern which has the desired directivity. Obstructions forming
part of the airframe must always be considered since they produce undesired shadows and diffraction
effects which will hinder reception. In addition, reflections from these obstructions produce
interference effects that result in many unwanted lobes which will decrease antenna transmission
capability.
Many other styles of antennas containing crossed monopoles, crossed dipoles, spiral helixes, and
multi-element arrays are used for UHF and SHF applications. Fixed-blade and other low-profile
antenna styles are used for such things as UHF/SHF satellite communications, telemetry data relay,
transponder tracking, and global positioning system navigation. Figure 1–48 shows several styles of
fixed blades and low-profile antennas with aerodynamic half-spherical or square radomes.

Figure 1–48. Fixed blade antennas.

Figure 1-49 shows an example of a fixed crossed dipole antenna (mounted on an aircraft) that is used
for UHF satellite communications.

Figure 1–49. Fixed crossed dipole.

Figure 1–50 shows a steerable crossed dipole antenna which requires a large oblong aerodynamic
radome.

Figure 1–50. Steerable crossed dipole antenna.

 1–45

The important thing to remember is that airborne antennas are mounted in positions on the aircraft
according to their application. For example, satellite communications and global positioning system
navigation are mounted on the top, telemetry data relay to ground is mounted on the bottom and
transponder tracking is mounted both on the top and bottom. Engineers have chosen the antenna’s
location and orientation so the radiating pattern is optimized for its application.
In our career field, two common antennas that are used in uncommon airborne applications are the
phased array and the parabolic dish. In both cases, the airframe is permanently modified to
accommodate these antennas so the aircraft can perform a specialized telemetry mission.
The phased array antenna shown in figure 1–51 is used specifically for receiving telemetry data from
multiple sources (e.g., unmanned target drones and instrumented air-to-air missiles) simultaneously.
The antenna is designed lengthwise into the aircraft’s fuselage allowing reception from only one side
of the aircraft.

Figure 1–51. Phased array antenna.

Figure 1–52 shows a steerable parabolic dish antenna used for telemetry tracking mounted in an
aircraft’s nose. In this case, the original nose of the aircraft is replaced with a special radome that
accommodates the range of movement of the large parabolic dish as it tracks inter-continental
ballistic missiles, space launch vehicles, and cruise missiles.

Figure 1–52. Parabolic dish antenna.

A unique antenna design where the antenna becomes part of the skin of the vehicle is the conformal
antenna shown in figure 1–53. It is designed for missile applications. For example, a missile under
test transmits telemetry data. Regardless of its trajectory or the possibility of the missile rolling during
flight, the antenna maintains line-of-sight with the receiving antenna and data is still received.
1–46

Figure 1–53. Conformal antenna.

The conformal antenna is constructed using printed circuit techniques. Once the antenna pattern is
etched, it is rolled around and cemented to a structural wafer. Thus, the antenna-radiating element
wraps 360° around the body of the missile. The antenna is then electrically connected to the antenna
feed at one end. This type of antenna can be designed into any part of an aerospace vehicle’s surface.
It’s obvious advantage is that it does not upset the aerodynamic properties of the test vehicle. The
whip, probe-tip, fixed-blade/low-profile, phased array, parabolic dish, and conformal are but a few of
the types of airborne antennas you may encounter while working in RF transmission systems career
field.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

207. Directivity of the antennas

1. Describe each classification of antenna in accordance with its radiation pattern.

2. Why would you use an omni-directional antenna?

3. Give examples of a deployable bi-directional antenna.

4. What is the biggest factor about setting up uni-directional antennas?

5. How can you make a long-wire antenna directional?

6. Define beamwidth.

208. Basic antenna types

1. What are the two basic types of antenna?

2. What are Hertz antenna specifically designed for?

3. How did Mr. Marconi overcome great antenna heights at lower RF ranges?
 1–47

209. Specific antennas

1. What is the most commonly used HF antenna for covering short distances in a tactical
environment?

2. Which HF antenna is a complicated multidipole array that’s often used in high-powered fixed
radio stations?

3. When an LPA receives a certain frequency, which parts of the log periodic antenna are actually
being used?

4. What reduces the gain and efficiency of half-wave dipole antenna?

5. Describe multiband half-wave dipole antenna?

6. Define an inverted-V antenna and what is it designed for?

7. What is the minimum length of a long-wire antenna?

8. How many wavelengths are required to produce the best results on a sloping long-wire?

9. What improvements does the sloping V offer over the standard long-wire antenna?

10. Which elements on the inverted L antenna provide omni-directional radiation for ground-wave
propagation and high-angle radiation for short-range sky wave propagation?

11. What is a NVIS antenna?

12. What is all satellite communications antennas designed to be?

13. What is the basic principle of all parabolic antennas?

1–48

14. Which type of polarization does a helical satellite antenna uses to radiate a signal?

15. What is the horn antenna used for?

210. Airborne antenna systems

1. What are the typical applications for airborne antennas?

2. What angles should the signal arrive at the aircraft antenna for frequencies in the lower portions
of the HF band?

3. Where on the aircraft is the vertical whip antenna is typically mounted?

4. What are two problems associated with airborne antenna operating above HF?

5. What types of UHF and SHF application uses the fixed-blade and other low-profile antenna
styles?

6. Where on the aircraft would satellite communications antennas be mounted?

7. Which type of antenna is mounted on the nose of the aircraft and what is it used for?

8. What antenna has a unique design where the antenna becomes part of the skin of the vehicle?

1–4. Antenna Site Selection and Configuration

So far, we’ve covered the antenna theory. Let’s take a look at antenna siting. This information gives
you a foundation to work from. You must build on this foundation with on the- job-training at your
duty station. With an emphasis being placed on deployable communications and the importance of
having fast, accurate, and reliable communications capability, RF Transmission Systems technicians
have to be able to establish a communications site and keep it operational. This lesson covers unique
challenges you can expect to encounter while in a deployed environment.
In this section, we will use HF as our example; however, this information can be applied to SATCOM
and wideband communications. We will focus a detailed analysis on line-of-sight (wideband) path
later in this volume.
 1–49

211. Antenna selection

Antennas take on new meaning for RF transmission systems technicians in a deployed situation.
When deployed, technicians need to be able to set up and orient their antennas and achieve and
maintain communications under less than ideal conditions. Knowing antenna characteristics, such as
directivity, takeoff angle, frequency range, and gain, becomes especially important. Deployable
situations can present unique communications obstacles. Thorough knowledge of deployable antennas
can take you a long way in overcoming these obstacles.
HF antennas
In selecting an antenna for a circuit, the first thing you should consider is the type of propagation.
Ground-wave propagation requires vertically polarized antennas. The whip antenna provides good
omni-directional ground-wave radiation. If you need a directional antenna, select one with vertical
radiation.
Sky wave propagation makes the selection of an antenna more complex. The first step is to find the
distance the communications will travel so that you can find the required takeoff angle. If you are
looking at a circuit distance of 600 miles, the required takeoff angle would be about 25° during
daytime. At night it would be about 40°. Therefore, you need an antenna with high gain from 25° to
40°.
Another consideration is the type of coverage required. If operations include mobile stations or many
fixed stations at different geographic locations, you need an omni-directional antenna. If operations
are from one point to another, you can use either a bi-directional or a directional antenna. Different
types of HF antenna configurations have been discussed earlier in this unit.
Site selection is a major consideration. The terrain usually determines the position of the
communications antennas. The ideal setting would be a clear, flat area with no trees, buildings,
fences, power lines, or mountains. Unfortunately, such an ideal location is seldom available for the
deployed technician. In picking an antenna site, choose an area as flat and as clear as possible. If
obstructions are around the proposed site, check to see whether they are in the lobes or nulls of the
antenna’s radiation pattern. Further, check to see if your takeoff angle will clear any obstructions.
Remember, it’s almost impossible to get a perfect site, but you can use your knowledge of antennas to
ensure the best possible communications from the conditions with which you’re dealing.
Antenna selection procedures
HF sky wave antenna selection involves:
 Determining the range.
 Determining the type of coverage (omni-directional, bi-directional, directional).
 Determining the operating frequency.
 Determining the takeoff angle required to clear site obstacles.
 Selecting the antenna with the highest gain at the required takeoff angle that can be erected
on the available site with the available materials.
Using antenna height in determining antenna radiation patterns
With horizontally polarized antennas, the antenna’s distance above the ground can greatly affect the
radiation pattern. In this example, the focus is the radiation patterns of a half-wave dipole antenna at a
half-wave above the ground and at a quarter-wave above the ground (fig. 1–54).
1–50

Figure 1–54. Dipole antenna height and radiation pattern.

The upper two patterns show a dipole that is one-half wavelength from the ground and the lower two
patterns show a dipole that’s one-quarter wavelength from the ground. The two patterns on the left
view the antenna from the antenna ends; those on the right view it from the front. Notice that, when a
half-wave dipole antenna is placed one-half wavelength above the ground, the radiation pattern has
two main lobes. When it’s lowered to a quarter-wavelength above the ground, the radiation is directed
upwards in one large lobe.
Also, let’s say that you’ve been unsuccessful at transmitting an HF signal over a short distance by
using a vertically polarized antenna and a ground-wave path. By replacing the vertical antenna with a
dipole antenna that’s a quarter-wavelength off the ground, you can get a high takeoff angle
transmission. This transmission takes a "short-skip" sky wave path, ultimately resulting in good
communications with a station that couldn’t be reached by way of a ground-wave transmission. This
type of short-distance, short-skip transmission is called a NVIS transmission and is often used in the
tactical environment. However, don’t forget that no matter what you do with your antenna, your
operating frequency is just as important in considering sky wave paths. To make the short-skip, you
must be able to use a frequency with a very high critical angle.
Figure 1–55 shows the vertical plots for half-wave dipole antennas from 8-to-16 meters in height. In
looking at the plot for 8 meters, for 3 and 9 MHz the antenna has a high-angle radiation. At those
frequencies, the antenna is close to ground (compared to a half-wavelength). The pattern for 18 MHz
shows the characteristic bidirectional pattern, since 8 meters is a half-wave at 18 MHz. To find the
antenna’s gain at a particular frequency and radiation angle, locate the desired radiation angle on the
plot. Follow that line toward the center of the plot until the pattern of the desired frequency is
reached. Drop down and read the gain from the bottom scale. For example, if the gain of an 8-meters
vertical dipole at 18 MHz and 30° radiation angle were desired, first locate 30 degrees along the outer
scale. Follow this line until the 18 MHz pattern (dotted line) is reached. Moving down to the bottom
scale, the gain would be a 7.5 dBi. In this case, the gain of an 8-meters vertical dipole antenna
radiating at 18 MHz at an angle of 30° would be 7.5 dBi.
 1–51

Figure 1–55. Dipole antenna vertical radiation patterns.

Antenna height plays an important role in determining the take-off angle. Be very familiar with this
characteristic as it applies to vertical whips, sloping wire, and long-wire antennas.
Line-of-sight antennas
Selection of a LOS antenna is basically a question of choosing the azimuth for the radiation pattern
from the antenna. The type of communication link (point-to-point or a multipoint link) determines the
choice: antennas, directional, bi-directional or omni-directional. You must always keep LOS in mind
and locate the antenna high enough to overlook the surrounding terrain. When using a directional
antenna, orient the antenna in a straight path to the receiving station. If you have trouble reaching a
distant station, move the antenna short distance and try again. Even a small movement may improve
your transmission.
For a microwave LOS system, the distance to be spanned and the terrain determine if a repeater is
necessary. If the terrain and distance permit, a basic one-hop system is sufficient. If the terrain is very
rugged, the distance is excessive or the propagation conditions are extremely substandard, then a
microwave repeater is necessary.

212. Siting deployable equipment

To get efficient communications in a tactical environment, you must find the best location for
equipment and antennas. Often you’ll have little choice in locating your transmitting and receiving
equipment, but you may be able to pick the location for your antennas—and that’s much more
important. Proper location of antennas can mean the difference between good, bad, or no
communications capability. However, before you can pick the best available antenna location, you
have to consider these general rules and environmental factors:
 Hills and mountains between stations normally limit the range of radio sets. In mountainous
or hilly terrain, select a position high on the slopes, avoiding the base of cliffs or deep ravines
or valleys. For frequencies above 30 MHz, choose a location that allows line-of-sight
communications.
 Dry ground has high resistance and limits the range of the radio set. If possible, locate your
station near moist ground which has much less resistance. Water and salt water in particular
greatly increases the distances that can be covered.
1–52

 Trees with heavy foliage absorb radio waves. Broadleaf trees have more of an adverse effect
than evergreens. Keep antennas clear of all foliage and dense brush to avoid grounding.
 Don’t pick a position in a tunnel or beneath an underpass or steel bridge. High absorption of
radio waves makes transmission and reception almost impossible.
 Avoid all types of wire lines, such as telephone, telegraph, and high-tension power lines.
Such wire lines absorb power from radiating antennas and introduce "hum" and noise
interference in receiving antennas.
 Avoid positions close to heavily traveled roads and highways. In addition to the noise and
confusion caused by vehicle traffic, the ignition systems can cause electrical interference.
 Don’t locate battery-charging units and generators close to the station; they’re very noisy and
can hinder voice communication.
 If possible, choose a relatively quiet area.
Tactical considerations
You must realize by now that the purpose of military tactical communications is to provide
communications in locations that have no communications capability for military purposes. More
often than not, this means an area of military conflict or combat. Let’s look at some special
considerations for siting communications stations in combat environment:
 When possible, place a field radio station some distance from the command post or
headquarters it serves. This diverts enemy air strikes or artillery attacks that might be based
on direction finding away from the command post or headquarters area.
 Some sets can be controlled remotely from distances of 100 feet or more. Such a set can be in
a relatively exposed position while the technician stays concealed.
 All radio antennas must extend well above the ground to permit normal communications, but
they shouldn’t be conspicuous to the enemy.
 Small tactical whip antennas are hard to see from a distance, especially if they are not
silhouetted against the sky.
 Avoid open crests of hills and mountains. A position just behind and below the crest gives
better concealment and, sometimes, better transmission. Be sure your position provides a
good communications path. Remember, providing good communications is the primary
purpose for your being there.
 If possible, place a hill, mountain, or other large obstruction between you and the enemy and
use directional antennas with high gain.
 Camouflage all permanent and semi-permanent positions for protection against both aerial
and ground observation. Remember, the antenna must not touch trees, brush, or camouflage
material.
In siting your equipment in a combat area, your goal is to provide the best communications while still
protecting yourself. Yet, it is almost impossible to select a site that satisfies all technical and tactical
requirements for safe, efficient operations. Therefore, you must usually compromise and select the
best site that’s available. It’s a good idea to select both a primary and an alternate site. If radio
communications can’t be established at the primary location, you can move to the alternate position.
Equipment siting in unusual environments
As you know, any object close to an antenna can affect the radiation pattern and, consequently, affect
communications. The object that has the greatest effect on an antenna is the earth. Variations in the
earth’s conductivity affects ground-wave communications, but different climates and terrains can also
affect sky wave communications. Since tactical requirements can take you to a variety of climates and
 1–53

terrains around the world, let’s discuss some aspects of equipment siting and operation in some
unusual environments.
Jungle areas
Probably the most challenging task an RF transmission technician can be given is to establish a radio
station in a jungle environment. Extreme heat, humidity, fungi, tropical rainstorms, disease, and
insects are some of the problems you would encounter in the jungle. In addition, dense foliage can
absorb enough radio waves to limit the effective operating range of radio equipment to a fraction of
that considered normal in open terrain. This absorption can be partially overcome by installing
antennas so they are clear of the surrounding foliage, when done so, the operating efficiency
approaches that achieved in open terrain.
Such things as impenetrable terrain and proximity of the enemy usually make it impossible to select
an ideal site for a field radio station. When you do have a choice, select a location as high as possible,
preferably on a hill overlooking the surrounding terrain and jungle growth. If possible, site the station
so that the antenna or antennas are in a clearing and on the side of the clearing most removed from the
distant station or stations. That is, the clearing should extend as far as possible in front of the antenna
toward the distant station or stations to allow the best possible propagation of earth and sky waves.
Figure 1–56 illustrates the principles of antenna siting in jungle or heavily forested areas. Avoid siting
the antenna in a narrow valley or between ridges or areas of high jungle growth. Locate directional
antennas so that they can be oriented in a straight-line path toward the distant station or stations.
Should a mountain or dense foliage interfere with the line-of-sight path, shift the antenna location
slightly to one side or the other, particularly if the off-course path is unobstructed.

Figure 1–56. Antenna siting in a jungle or forest.

After you select the site, clear the immediate area of brush and other growth that might interfere with
erection of the shelter for the station. Local terrain and the tactical situation determine how much
clearing you should do. If no enemy action is anticipated, make the clearing as large as possible. The
more open space there is around the shelter, the cooler and more comfortable you’ll be. Be extra
careful in using axes and knives. Medical aid may be hard to reach and wounds become infected
rapidly in a warm, humid climate.
If enemy action is anticipated, clear no more than necessary around the station. Use the surrounding
natural growth as camouflage. Situate radio vans, tents, or shacks so that the available brush or
foliage covers them as much as possible. Be aware of detection through airborne observation. Don’t
rely on sawed-off branches and foliage for camouflage. The leaves soon wilt, change color, and
become conspicuous against the natural growth. Use living growth by bending and securing branches
in place with rope or string. By visualizing the site as it might look from above, you can make the
station blend into the surrounding terrain to such a degree that it seems to vanish. One fundamental
rule about camouflage is that, in nature, the straight line is obvious. Only manmade objects have
completely straight lines so do what you can to disguise antenna poles, roof edges, and tent corners.
1–54

Unless your station is mounted in mobile vans, you must erect tents or shacks to protect the
equipment. If possible, install a floor in the tent or shack to protect equipment from moisture, insects,
and fungi. Try to install the floor so that air can circulate freely beneath the shelter. Make sure jungle
foliage doesn’t touch exposed antenna parts, grounding your antenna and rendering it ineffective.
Keep cables and connectors off the ground to minimize the effects of moisture, insects, and fungi.
Because of heat, moisture, and fungus growth, radio maintenance in jungle areas is difficult. The high
humidity forms condensation on the equipment and short circuits are frequent. To combat this, leave
the equipment turned on around the clock even if you don’t have to operate 24 hours a day, and if
that’s not possible, place lighted electric bulbs in or under the equipment. Use any available means to
keep the equipment dry.
Desert areas
Constant and reliable radio communication is difficult but imperative for military operations in desert
areas. As we saw in Desert Storm, our widely dispersed forces would have been virtually useless
without instant command and control communications. Victory came in the Gulf War in large part
because of precise and reliable radio communications.
As in other areas, communication desert sites should be on a high point and free from obstructions. In
many cases, radio operations in desert areas are conducted from mobile vans using whip antennas
installed on the vehicle. However, the poor electrical ground provided by the dry sandy soil can
reduce the effectiveness of a whip antenna to as little as one-third of its normal efficiency. For this
reason, it’s best to install a regular field antenna system and provide a counterpoise where a good
ground is difficult to achieve, unless the operation is very brief at that location. For best results, install
the antenna on high ground overlooking the surrounding terrain. At frequencies in the 1–to–20 MHz
range, you will get maximum efficiency if the antenna is located near subterranean water, such as in
or near an oasis, since the moisture in the earth improves ground conductivity.
The problem of camouflage in desert terrain is considerably more troublesome than in jungle areas. In
a combat area, radio vans are usually painted in a camouflage pattern or an inconspicuous tan.
Camouflage netting and other means of concealment are also usually provided. By siting the van in a
depression or up against rocks and by using the camouflage netting as a cover, you should be able to
blend the unit into the surrounding terrain. Don’t forget to do what you can to conceal the straight
lines of antenna masts and the edges of the van.
Maintenance problems in desert areas are increased because of dust and sand entering the equipment.
Even if the desert sand isn’t being blown about by the wind, any type of movement raises a fine,
powdery dust that filters in through any crack or crevice. The problem is especially pronounced
during convoy movements where everything behind the lead vehicle is shrouded in a thick haze of
dust. During vehicle movement, enclose radio equipment in dust-proof containers by any means
available unless the station must operate during the movement. Remove all visible sand and dust from
your equipment regularly.
Pay particular attention to lubrication. Too much lubricant attracts dust and sand. Sandy lubricant can
easily damage sensitive gears and parts.
Mountainous areas
Because of its mobility, radio is often the primary means of communication in mountainous areas
where the terrain is often impenetrable. Some problems encountered in mountainous areas are rapid
temperature and weather changes, rock slides, flash floods, high winds, and ice. Terrain obstructions
make movement difficult and, at times, impossible. In many cases, you and your equipment must be
flown in by helicopter to a pre-selected site. Weather can change rapidly in mountainous areas and
may keep you stranded if helicopters can’t land because of high winds or cloud cover.
Many of the rules regarding site selection in jungle terrain also apply in mountainous areas,
depending on the geographical location and the elevation of the new site. If the site is above the snow
 1–55

line, you’ve got more problems. Be careful in handling mast sections and cables since they get brittle
in cold temperatures. Secure the masts with extra guy ropes in anticipation of high winds and possible
ice formation on the antennas and cables. If possible, install a counterpoise since frozen soil has poor
conductivity. Secure tents or shelters with extra ropes or wires to minimize the risk of having them
blow away in a sudden storm.
A mountainous tropical area poses some of the same problems as jungle areas do. Remember the
absorption effects of foliage and try to install the antenna in a clearing facing the distant station or
stations. Make sure that foliage doesn’t ground your antenna. In a cold mountainous climate,
remember that complete antenna systems, such as dipoles, are more effective than fractional
wavelength whip antennas. This is especially true with snow or frozen ground. Install antenna cables
and connectors above ground and clear of rocks, snow, and water. If you’re not in a combat situation,
try to locate antennas on the crest or forward slope of the mountain. Position the antenna in a clearing
high enough to provide a line-of-sight path to the distant station or stations. Figure 1–57 shows the
principle of antenna siting in mountainous or hilly terrain. A NVIS antenna is effective if a high
mountain is in the direct path between you and the distant station or stations. To overcome
obstructions when using a directional antenna, orient the antenna at a small angle off the straight-line
path and exchange signal checks with the distant station or stations to find the best antenna offset.

Figure 1–57. Antenna siting in a mountain area.

Equipment operational considerations

Poorly maintained equipment, rough handling, and improper operation can hinder communications
just as much as excessive distance or enemy action can. Keep equipment clean and dry. Excessive
moisture destroys electronic equipment years ahead of its normal life expectancy. Handle equipment
carefully during transport and installation. Rough handling causes sensitive components to either
malfunction or get out of alignment. Make sure insulation on antenna cables, power cables and
interconnecting cables is intact and that all connections are tight. Make sure cooling motors and fans
operate and are running smoothly. A malfunctioning cooling fan makes a high-powered transmitter
overheat within minutes. If your equipment is battery operated, ensure batteries are fresh and fully
charged before going into the field. Always remove batteries when equipment is in storage or not
being used.
The kind of radio sets you operate in the field depend on the type of mission and the specific
communications requirements of the mission. Here are a few general checks for you to make to
almost any type of radio set you’re likely to operate:
 Check the set for completeness. Make sure all necessary components and accessories are on
hand and ready for use before leaving your home base.
 Check for loose or damaged knobs, dials, switches, and controls. Make repairs or use another
set.
 Check the condition of plugs, receptacles, and connectors. Don’t try to connect the set for an
operational check until you’re sure all plugs, connectors, and receptacles are in good
condition.
1–56

 Check equipment manuals or technical orders (TO) for proper tuning procedures. Make sure
you perform each step in the right sequence.
 Check indicators frequently during operation to be sure the set is working right. If anything
unusual happens, investigate it immediately. If necessary, turn off the power and refer to the
equipment manual or TO. If corrections in the manual or TO don’t work, take the set out of
operation and replace it with a spare. Turn any malfunctioning equipment in for maintenance
at the earliest opportunity.
Most of these items will be checked during a preventive maintenance inspection (PMI). The PMI will
normally be conducted as pre-deployment inspections and/or post-deployment inspections in
accordance with the commercial manual or the TO.
The technician’s ingenuity, common sense, skill and good foundation in radio fundamentals are
essential for successful tactical communications. It is the skill of the technician that primarily
determines the effectiveness of communications. Assignment to a combat communications
organization or a special operations unit is a unique opportunity for RF transmissions systems
technician. In fixed stations, equipment and operational procedures have already been established. In
a tactical unit, you can use your talent and ingenuity to set up, establish, and maintain
communications.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.
211. Directivity of the antennas
1. What is the first thing you look at when selecting an antenna for an HF circuit?

2. What is the first step in selecting an antenna for HF sky wave propagation?

3. Describe the ideal antenna site selection setting.

4. Name the five steps in the HF sky wave antenna selection process?

5. Differentiate the one-half wavelength above the ground and the one-quarter wavelength above the
ground radiation pattern of a dipole antenna.

6. What is the gain of an 8-meters vertical dipole antenna at 18 MHz at a radiation angle of 30°?

7. For a LOS system (microwave), what determines if a repeater is necessary?

 1–57

212. Siting deployable equipment

1. What kind of location should you pick for a tactical antenna that uses frequencies above 30 MHz?

2. Why does dry ground limit a radio set’s range?

3. What object has the greatest effect on an antenna?

4. Why shouldn’t you use sawed-off branches and foliage for camouflage?

5. To what level can the poor electrical ground caused by the dry, sandy soil of a desert reduce the
effectiveness of a whip antenna?

6. In mountainous areas with high winds, what should you do to the antenna masts?

7. What causes sensitive components to either malfunction or get out of alignment?

Answers to Self-Test Questions

201
1. An electromagnetic wave.
2. (1) b.
(2) d.
(3) c.
(4) a.
(5) a.
3. The carrier should be relatively stable in frequency and amplitude and free from excessive noise,
harmonics, and spurious outputs.
4. (1) f.
(2) e.
(3) d.
(4) a.
(5) c.
(6) b.
5. Reception, selection, detection, amplification, and reproduction.
6. Sensitivity—the ability of a receiver to reproduce the signal of a very weak station. Selectivity—The ability
of a receiver to select and reproduce a desired signal from several closely spaced stations or from
interfering frequencies.
1–58

202
1. A combination of a transmitter and a receiver built as a single unit and sharing common tuned circuits.
2. Computerization.
203
1. A conductor or series of conductors used to carry energy from a source to a load. Examples include the
flexible coaxial cable, the rigid coaxial cable, an AC power cord on a stereo, a cable television wire, and a
telephone cord.
2. (1) e.
(2) c.
(3) b.
(4) f.
(5) a.
(6) d.
3. The dielectric and skin effect.
4. Because the energy is confined between the two conductors.
5. For frequencies so high that their wavelength is miniscule.
6. Internal height and width.
7. It can cause serious arching.
8. The amount of capacitance is primarily determined by the size of the conductors, the space between them,
plus the dielectric material.
9. Its series inductance and shunt capacitance.
10. Changing the physical length of a transmission line has no effect on characteristic impedance.
11. The frequency at which the value of XL and XC are such that the signals will be developed across the series
inductance and shunted by the capacitance and, thus, not pass along the line.
12. The distance in space occupied by one cycle of a radio wave at any given instant.
13. Wavelength increases.
14. Number of wavelengths.
15. Electrical length decreases.
16. It is a line having no reflected waves.
17. Voltage and current waves as they move from source to load.
18. It is the vector sum of the forward and reflected waves.
19. This is a comparison (expressed as a ratio) of the maximum and minimum voltages found along the lines.
20. 1:1.
21. A high VSWR not only causes communications to fail, it can also damage the equipment or transmission
line.
22. Voltage will be at maximum across an open.
23. Voltage is reflected 180° out of phase.
204
1. It is a transducer; it converts RF energy as current oscillations into electric and magnetic fields of force.
2. Electric and magnetic.
3. If an electric field is changing, a magnetic field is created; if a magnetic field is changing, an electric field is
created.
4. Alternate current.
5. An electromagnetic field of force; that is, magnetic fields generated by continually changing electric fields.
6. They are radiated from the conductor in the form of radio waves.
 1–59

7. The radiation field detaches from the antenna and travels through space. The induction field is the portion
of the electromagnetic field that immediately surrounds the antenna and collapses completely when the
antenna voltage and current reverse.
8. One-sixth of a wavelength from the antenna.
9. The induction field decreases as the square of the distance. The radiation field decreases linearly with
distance.
10. Antenna design, the earth, and surrounding objects affect the direction of radiation.
205
1. Horizontal.
2. An antenna needs to be in the proper plane of polarization for maximum transfer of energy from the
electromagnetic fields.
3. In a circularly polarized antenna, the plane of polarization rotates in a corkscrew pattern, making one
complete revolution during each wavelength. A circular polarized wave radiates energy in both the
horizontal and vertical planes and all planes in between.
206
1. In a resonant antenna, almost the entire radio signal fed to the antenna is radiated; if the antenna is fed with
a frequency other than its designed frequency, much of the signal is lost and is not radiated (nonresonant).
2. The frequency of a resonant antenna effectively radiates a radio signal for frequencies close to its designed
frequency, usually within a range of plus or minus two percent.
3. A nonresonant antenna designed to operate over a wide range of frequencies using maximum power is
known as a frequency independent antenna.
4. 1.1 to 1.
5. The lowest frequency at which it resonates.
6. The more efficient it is for transmitting, the more efficient it is for receiving.
7. A theoretical antenna that radiates equally well in all directions.
8. The antenna does this by redirecting the energy from other directions.
9. Proper impedance.
10. A coupler is a matching device inserted between a transmitter and its antenna to make a transmitter "think"
it is connected to a low-SWR antenna.
11. A balun can be used to match the impedance.
207
1. An omni-directional antenna radiates radio energy in a circular pattern. A bidirectional antenna has two
main lobes, with nulls between them. A unidirectional antenna has a single large lobe in one direction and
greatly reduced lobes or nulls in other directions.
2. When it is necessary to communicate in several different directions at once, such as an ATC tower or
operating in a multi-station net.
3. The inverted-V or center-fed, half-wave dipole.
4. Since a unidirectional antenna concentrates almost all the radio signal in one specific direction, it must be
carefully oriented.
5. By placing a terminating resistor at the distant end of the antenna.
6. The beamwidth of a directive antenna is the width in degrees as measured at the half-power points on either
side of the maximum signal strength location.
208
1. Hertz and Marconi.
2. Hertz antennas are ungrounded lengths of wire specifically designed to be either a half-wavelength long,
such as a dipole or doublet antenna or more than a full wavelength long, such as a long-wire antenna.
3. Mr. Marconi found that when a quarter-wave vertical antenna has its base on the ground, the earth below
the antenna acts like a large reflector (or mirror) and supplies another quarter-wavelength. In effect, the
quarter-wave vertical antenna acts like a half-wave antenna.
1–60

209
1. The vertical monopole whip.
2. The HF discone.
3. Only the parts of the LPA that are resonant to the operating frequency are actually being used.
4. Excessive antenna sag.
5. When space or other resources aren’t adequate to erect separate dipoles, you can combine three or four
dipoles to occupy the space normally required for one. Each wire in a multiband dipole is cut to a half-
wavelength of an assigned frequency. All the separate antennas are connected to the same antenna feed
block or connector and are fed by a single transmission line.
6. A half-wave dipole, supported in the center by a single mast, with both antenna legs anchored near the
ground; to cut for a specific frequency and has a bandwidth of plus or minus 2 percent of its designed
frequency.
7. A half -wavelength.
8. Two wavelengths long.
9. The two legs tend to reinforce each other for improved performance and increased effective radiated power.
10. The vertical element and high-angle radiation from the horizontal element for short-range sky wave
propagation.
11. A HF high-angle radiation and low operating frequencies antenna.
12. Highly directional and high-gain antennas in order to overcome free-space loss affecting satellite systems.
13. To reflect a radio signal and control the direction and high gain.
14. With circular polarization.
15. To transmit and receive RF microwave signals.
210
1. Wideband and satellite communications; telemetry data collection, tracking, and signal relay; timing signal
reception; and satellite navigation signal reception.
2. Vertical angles between 20 and 60 degrees above the horizon.
3. On top of the aircraft’s fuselage.
4. (1) The interference between the direct ray and ground-reflected ray. As a result, a receiver in an aircraft
which approaches a ground station from a considerable distance at a constant altitude will experience a
marked rise and fall in signal strength as the aircraft moves in.
(2) The aircraft antenna design. Obstructions forming part of the airframe produces undesired shadows and
diffraction effects. In addition, reflections from these obstructions produce interference effects that result in
many unwanted lobes which will decrease antenna transmission capability.
5. For UHF/SHF satellite communications, telemetry data relay, transponder tracking, and global positioning
system navigation.
6. On the top of the aircraft.
7. A steerable parabolic dish antenna; for telemetry tracking.
8. The conformal antenna.
211
1. The type of propagation.
2. To find the distance the communications will travel so that you can find the required takeoff angle.
3. A clear, flat area with no trees, buildings, fences, power lines, or mountains.
4. (1) Determining the range.
(2) Determining the type of coverage (omni-directional, bi-directional, directional).
(3) Determining the operating frequency.
(4) Determining the takeoff angle required to clear site obstacles.
(5) Selecting the antenna with the highest gain at the required takeoff angle that can be erected on the
available site with the available materials.
 1–61

5. When a half-wave dipole antenna is placed one-half wavelength above the ground, the radiation pattern has
two main lobes. When it’s lowered to a quarter-wavelength above the ground, the radiation is directed
upwards in one large lobe.
6. 7.5 dBi.
7. The distance to be spanned and the terrain.
212
1. Line-of-sight.
2. Because the dry ground is highly resistant.
3. The earth.
4. The leaves soon wilt, change color, and become conspicuous against the natural growth.
5. To as little as one-third of its normal efficiency.
6. Secure the masts with extra guy ropes.
7. Rough handling.

Complete the unit review exercise before going to the next unit.
1–62

Unit Review Exercises

Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle
the corresponding letter. When you have completed all unit review exercises, transfer your answers to
the Field-Scoring Answer Sheet.
Do not return your answer sheet to the Air Force Career Development Academy (AFCDA).
1. (201) Equipment used for generating, amplifying, and transmitting RF carrier is collectively called
a. a receiver.
b. an antenna.
c. a transmitter.
d. a transmission line.
2. (201) What basic receiver function involves having the transmitted electromagnetic wave pass
through the receive antenna in such a manner as to induce a voltage in the antenna?
a. Reproduction.
b. Reception.
c. Detection.
d. Selection.
3. (201) The ability of a receiver to reproduce the signal of a very weak station is the characteristic of
the receiver’s
a. fidelity.
b. capacity.
c. sensitivity.
d. selectivity.
4. (201) The ability to reproduce the input signal accurately is the characteristics of the receiver’s
a. fidelity.
b. capacity.
c. sensitivity.
d. selectivity.
5. (202) Which of the following CANNOT be performed by the transceiver’s computerized
components and micro-circuitry?
a. Specific equipment faults.
b. Internal equipment tests.
c. Internal calibrations.
d. Repair itself.
6. (203) Resistance of the conductor material in a transmission line leads to which type of loss?
a. Copper.
b. Radiation.
c. Inductive.
d. Skin-effect.
7. (203) Leakage loss in a transmission line can be minimized by using a
a. thinner conductor.
b. thicker conductor.
c. very low-resistance dielectric.
d. very high-resistance dielectric.
 1–63

8. (203) A transmission line that consists of a center conductor placed inside a rigid metal tube
functioning as the outer tube is called a
a. flexible coaxial cable.
b. rigid coaxial cable.
c. waveguide.
d. twin lead.
9. (203) Which statement concerning waveguides is FALSE?
a. Very slight damage to the external surface of a waveguide can cause arcing.
b. Their conductive material construction is easily dented.
c. Effectiveness of waveguides is hindered by moisture.
d. Waveguides can be destroyed by corrosion.
10. (203) What two properties of a transmission line determine its characteristic impedance?
a. Inductance and resistance.
b. Inductance and capacitance.
c. Resistance and capacitance.
d. Length and type of shielding.
11. (203) Using figure 1–10, determine the electrical length if the frequency is changed from 150
MHz to 250 MHz.
a. 8.33 meters.
b. 8.33 wavelengths.
c. 83.3 meters.
d. 83.3 wavelengths.
12. (203) Which statement concerning line lengths is TRUE?
a. Frequency and electrical length are inversely proportional.
b. Frequency and physical length are directly proportional.
c. With constant physical length, frequency and electrical length are directly related.
d. With constant physical length, frequency and electrical length are inversely related.
13. (203) A nonresonant transmission line is a line
a. having reflected waves.
b. having no reflected waves.
c. with maximum voltage across its open termination.
d. with maximum voltage across its shorted termination.
14. (203) If a transmission line is terminated in an open, what will likely result?
a. Signal loss would be negligible.
b. There would be significant signal loss.
c. Current would be at maximum at the termination.
d. Voltage would be at minimum at the termination.
15. (204) The concept that alternating current changes in magnitude and reverses its direction during
each cycle is
a. an unproven hypothesis.
b. the definition of propagation.
c. what makes radio transmission possible.
d. what led to the discovery of direct current.
1–64

16. (204) At what point do magnetic fields around a wire no longer have time to collapse completely
between alternations?
a. 60 cycles per second (cps).
b. 120 cps.
c. 10,000 cps.
d. 15,000 cps.
17. (204) Which basic field detaches from the antenna and travels through space at great distances?
a. Radiation.
b. Induction.
c. Gravitational.
d. Electromotive.
18. (204) Areas in which no antenna radiation pattern passes through are called
a. nulls.
b. lobes.
c. free space.
d. nonresonant.
19. (205) If the electric field component travels in a plane perpendicular to the Earth’s surface, the
radio wave is considered to be polarized
a. magnetically.
b. horizontally.
c. circularly.
d. vertically.
20. (206) The actual range of frequencies within the antenna’s bandwidth is called the
a. wavelength.
b. operating zone.
c. frequency range.
d. bandwidth range.
21. (206) What measurement is used to determine whether an antenna is resonant at a particular
frequency?
a. Distortion.
b. Standing wave ratio.
c. Signal-to-noise ratio.
d. Percent of modulation.
22. (206) The ability of an antenna to both receive and transmit equally well is known as the
antenna’s
a. bandwidth.
b. resonance.
c. reciprocity.
d. effectiveness.
23. (206) The standard used to measure the radiating effectiveness (gain) of an antenna system is the
a. Marconi antenna.
b. isotropic antenna.
c. Hertz antenna.
d. whip antenna.
 1–65

24. (206) What does the overall effectiveness of an entire transmitting and receiving system depend
largely upon?
a. Impedance matching.
b. Antenna distance.
c. Antenna properties.
d. Line characteristics.
25. (207) Which antenna radiates radio energy equally well in all directions?
a. Omni-directional.
b. Uni-directional.
c. Bi-directional.
d. Directional.
26. (207) Which antenna type is usually used on long-range, point-to-point communication where the
concentrated radio energy is needed for circuit reliability?
a. Omni-directional.
b. Uni-directional.
c. Bi-directional.
d. Circular.
27. (208) Ungrounded lengths of wire specifically designed to be either a half-wavelength or more
than full wavelength long is called a
a. reflector.
b. Hertz antenna.
c. Marconi antenna.
d. vertical monopole.
28. (208) A dipole or long-wire antenna is an example of a
a. whip antenna.
b. Hertz antenna.
c. Marconi antenna.
d. vertical monopole.
29. (209) What type of directivity does the whip antenna provide?
a. Bidirectional.
b. Unidirectional.
c. Omni-directional.
d. Near vertical directional.
30. (209) What is probably the worst antenna that can be used on sky-wave circuits?
a. Whip.
b. Dipole.
c. Rhombic.
d. Discone.
31. (209) What antenna radiates or receives on many of its particular elements?
a. Whip.
b. Dipole.
c. Discone.
d. Log-periodic.
1–66

32. (209) What is one of the simplest and most functional antennas in use?
a. Quarter-wave vertical.
b. Half-wave dipole.
c. Inverted-V.
d. GRA–4.
33. (209) What is the minimum length for a long-wire antenna?
a. One-quarter wavelength.
b. One-half wavelength.
c. One wavelength.
d. Two wavelengths.
34. (209) A long-wire’s takeoff angle depends on the antenna’s
a. length.
b. directivity.
c. front-to-back ratio.
d. standing wave ratio.
35. (209) A common satellite antenna is the
a. whip.
b. discone.
c. parabolic.
d. long-wire.
36. (209) A helical satellite antenna radiates a signal with what type of polarization?
a. Horizontal.
b. Vertical.
c. Circular.
d. Linear.
37. (210) Which type of airborne antenna can be designed into any part of an aerospace vehicle’s
surface, so that it does not upset its aerodynamic properties?
a. Fixed blade.
b. Conformal.
c. Probe tip.
d. Whip.
38. (211) In selecting an antenna for a circuit, what is the first thing to consider?
a. Type of propagation.
b. Type of antenna.
c. Distance of the communication.
d. Operating frequency of the antenna.
39. (211) In HF communications, by replacing the vertical antenna with a dipole antenna that’s a
quarter wavelength off the ground, what are you able to get from your antenna transmission?
a. Higher take-off angle.
b. Increase efficiency.
c. Better reciprocity.
d. Twice the gain.
 1–67

40. (212) In siting a radio station, which foliage would have more of an adverse effect on radio wave
propagation?
a. Broadleaf trees.
b. Evergreen trees.
c. Swamp grass.
d. Sagebrush.
41. (212) What has the greatest effect on an antenna?
a. The sun.
b. The earth.
c. The operator.
d. The ionosphere.
42. (212) Which environment would be considered the most challenging for an RF transmission
systems technician to establish and operate a radio station from?
a. Amazon.
b. North Pole.
c. Sahara Desert.
d. Sierra Nevada Mountains.
43. (212) Radio sets are left on 24-hours a day in a jungle environment to
a. combat fungus.
b. keep insects away.
c. prevent short circuits.
d. maintain frequency stability.
44. (212) Which environment area will increase maintenance problems with dust and sand?
a. Polar.
b. Jungle.
c. Desert.
d. Mountainous.
45. (212) In mountainous terrain, with a mountain between you and the distant end, which of these
antennas is more effective?
a. Whip.
b. Dipole.
c. Discone.
d. Near-vertical incidence skywave.

Please read the unit menu for unit 2 and continue 

1–68

Student Notes
Unit 2. Electromagnetic Wave Theory
2–1. Radio Wave Propagation ......................................................................................................... 2–1 
213. Types of radio waves ......................................................................................................................... 2–1 
214. Electromagnetic wave propagation .................................................................................................... 2–3 
2–2. Solar Ionospheric Physics ...................................................................................................... 2–11 
215. Atmospheric variables affecting radio communications .................................................................. 2–11 
2–3. The Electromagnetic Spectrum ............................................................................................. 2–18 
216. Frequency and frequency bands ...................................................................................................... 2–18 
217. Characteristics of frequency bands .................................................................................................. 2–21 
2–4. VHF, UHF, SHF, and EHF Communications ...................................................................... 2–25 
218. VHF/UHF radio ............................................................................................................................... 2–25 
219. SHF/EHF radio ................................................................................................................................ 2–26 
220. Factors that affect LOS propagation ................................................................................................ 2–26 

R ADIO WAVES of different frequencies are affected by the environment in different ways. As an
example, lower frequency waves are easier to propagate by surface wave than any other
means because they follow the contour of the earth and penetrate obstacles more easily. For
these reasons, a particular type of antenna is usually used for a given radio system.
The propagation of electromagnetic radiation depends on the conditions existing within the
atmosphere, including variations in temperature and pressure as well as the various components
making up the atmosphere. The way radio waves react to atmospheric conditions also depends on the
radio frequency you’re using.
In this unit, you will review the theory of radio communications through electromagnetic propagation.
To begin, you will review the different types of radio waves and look at atmospheric conditions that
affect HF sky-wave propagation. Next, you will become familiar with the frequency characteristics of
the electromagnetic spectrum and radios. Lastly, you will look at line-of-sight (LOS) communications
and factor that affect them. This unit is designed to give you the background necessary to become an
integral part of the Air Force communications team.

2–1. Radio Wave Propagation

Transmission paths can be short or long, may travel along the ground, or be reflected from the upper
parts of the atmosphere. The primary transmission path of a radio wave is determined by the
propagating characteristics of its frequency and the direction and manner in which it is radiated by the
antenna. Remember, all radio waves are propagated by one of three primary transmission paths: direct
waves, ground waves, or sky waves.

213. Types of radio waves

Primarily there are three types of radio waves: ground waves, sky waves, and direct waves. Since
ground waves travel near the surface of the earth, they’re greatly affected by the earth’s conductivity
and by any obstruction on its surface such as mountains, buildings or vegetation. Ground wave
transmission is used mainly for local communications. The sky wave is an electromagnetic wave
that’s propagated at such an angle that it travels up through the atmosphere, strikes its upper layer
(the ionosphere), and refracts back toward the earth. Sky wave transmission is used in long distance
communications. Figure 2–1 shows the various radio wave paths. The radio waves represented are
simplified, of course. All radio waves emitted by an antenna have the components shown in figure
2–1; that is, surface, ground-reflected, direct, refracted, and sky.
2–2

Figure 2–1. Radio-wave propagation paths.

Direct waves
Direct waves are those that travel through the air in a straight line (LOS) from the transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna. Direct waves are also referred to as space waves. Direct waves
continue to travel in a straight line until they are interrupted by an object or weaken over a great
distance. The average distance of direct wave communications is therefore limited by the height of
the transmitting or receiving antenna. At frequencies greater than 30 megahertz (MHz) (VHF) and
above, with antennas at ground level, a direct wave is normally limited to less than 20 miles because
of the curvature of the earth. At distances greater than this, the curvature of the earth becomes an
obstacle and the two antennas can no longer “see” each other. By increasing the height of either or
both of the antennas, this obstacle can be overcome as long as the height is not excessive. By
eliminating obstructions, long-range ultra high-frequency (UHF) or super high-frequency (SHF)
satellite communications or VHF/UHF communications with aircraft are possible using direct waves.
Ground waves
Radio waves that travel close to the earth are called ground waves. When these waves are transmitted
over the earth, they take three separate paths to the receiver: a direct path, a surface path, and a
ground-reflected path. Depending on the conductivity of the earth, the surface path may be more
useful for communications from one ground station to another when lower frequencies are used.
Conductivity is a measure of the ability of a medium to conduct electric current, or the efficiency with
which a current is passed. The earth’s conductivity is determined by the type of soil and water in the
propagation path. Soils with poor conductivity quickly attenuate (weaken) radio signals. Note the
conductivity characteristics in figure 2–2 and you can see quite a difference between types of terrain.
If a ground wave was transmitted over seawater, the direct path would only travel a short line-of-sight
distance, but the surface path might travel up to 700 miles.
 2–3

Figure 2–2. Terrain propagation characteristics.

Sky waves
Sky waves are those waves that travel upward and are redirected by atmospheric properties back to
the earth. High above the earth these radio waves encounter the ionosphere, which consists of layers
of gases ionized by the ultraviolet rays of the sun. Passing through these ionized layers, radio waves
are bent from their original course. Sky wave communications become possible when the bending of
the waves is great enough to return them to earth. Sky wave transmissions are very effective for long-
distance communications in the high-frequency range (3 – 30 MHz).

214. Electromagnetic wave propagation

Radio communications are accomplished by ground-wave or sky-wave propagation. In this section,
we will describe each type of wave propagation in little more detail.
Ground wave propagation
As mentioned earlier, ground wave takes three separate paths to the receiver. They are the direct path,
the ground-reflected path, and the surface path as illustrated in figure 2–3. The effectiveness of
ground waves depends on the radio frequency, transmitter power, transmitting antenna characteristics,
electrical characteristics (conductivity and dielectric constant) of the terrain, and electrical noise at the
receiver site. Low and very low frequencies are propagated much better by surface path than are
higher frequencies. When high-powered transmitters and effective antennas are used, the surface path
has a maximum range of about 500 km (300 miles) at 2 MHz. Surface path range decreases as
frequency increases. About 80 km (50 miles) represents the usual minimum range.

Figure 2–3. Ground wave propagation paths.

Direct path
The direct path is the ground wave component that travels directly from the transmitting antenna to
the receiving antenna. In terrestrial communications, the direct path is limited by the distance to the
horizon from the transmitter. This is essentially line-of-sight distance. It can be extended by
2–4

increasing the height of the transmitting antenna, the receiving antenna, or both. The direct path is
also useful for extra-terrestrial (ground to air) communications in UHF and VHF range.
Ground-reflected path
The ground-reflected path reaches the receiving antenna after being reflected from the ground or sea.
Upon reflection from the earth’s surface, the ground wave undergoes a 180 degree phase shift. Since
the reflected path travels further in reaching its destination, a phase displacement somewhat greater
than the 180° shift caused by this reflection results. The net result near the ground is a weakening of
the direct wave. This weakening is roughly equal to the strength of the reflected wave.
Surface path
The surface path is the ground wave component that’s affected mainly by the conductivity and the
dielectric constant of the earth. When both transmitting and receiving antennas are close to the
ground, the direct and ground-reflected paths tend to cancel each other. The surface path is not
confined to the earth’s surface. It extends up to considerable heights, diminishing in strength as height
increases. Its intensity becomes negligible at about one wavelength over ground and five to ten
wavelengths over seawater.
The ground absorbs part of the surface path’s energy because it attenuates the electric intensity of the
surface wave. This attenuation depends on the conductivity of the terrain over which the wave travels.
Figure 2–2 shows the relative conductivity for various types of terrain. The best type of surface for
surface wave transmission is seawater. The electrical properties of the terrain that determine the
attenuation of the surface wave field intensity vary little. This type of transmission has relatively
stable characteristics.
Sky wave propagation
High frequency (HF) wave propagation takes place by refraction in the ionosphere. As an HF sky
wave enters a region of the ionosphere containing an increasing electron density at an oblique angle,
its phase velocity increases in proportion to the density. This increase in phase velocity results in a
refraction of the wave away from the direction of increasing electron density. Refraction of HF sky
waves gives us the ability to communicate by radio beyond the optical line-of-sight. Normal HF
propagation methods utilize refraction in the F-layer for single hops and reflection between the
ground and the F-layer for multiple hops, as shown in figure 2–4. Notice the difference between
refraction and reflection. Radio waves are refracted by the ionized layers and reflected by the earth.
Refraction decreases with an increase in frequency.

Figure 2–4. Single-hop/multiple-hop transmission.

 2–5

Propagation distance depends on the angle at which the wave enters the propagation medium (in HF,
the ionosphere). This angle is called the angle of incidence. As the angle of incidence increases, the
amount of wave refraction decreases. From this you can see that we can change the frequency, the
angle of incidence, or both to get different degrees of refraction.
Virtual height
The point of the ionosphere from which a radio wave appears to have been refracted is called the
virtual height of the ionosphere. Thus, virtual height is the altitude that refraction occurs.
(Point H in figure 2–5).

Figure 2–5. Ionospheric refraction of radio waves.

Critical angle
The angle at which a radio signal strikes the ionosphere plays an important part in sky wave
communications. The angle of an antenna is the path above the horizon through which an antenna
radiates the largest amount of its RF energy. In HF communications, the takeoff angle of an antenna
can determine whether or not a circuit is successful. HF sky-wave antennas are designed for specific
takeoff angles depending on the circuit distance. High takeoff angles are used for short-range
communications and low takeoff angles are used for long-range communications.
Figure 2–5 shows the sky wave signal, which is not bent back to earth, because of its high takeoff
angle (line CD). The critical angle of a given frequency is the highest angle at which you can send a
radio wave into the ionosphere and have it reflected (returned) to earth and is not applicable to any
particular layer of the ionosphere.
The critical angle applies to the refraction of a single frequency from any part of the ionosphere.
When radio electromagnetic energy is radiated from an antenna, it travels in the form of a wave front
shaped like the contour of a balloon. Waves radiate from the antenna at many different angles. The
wave front that’s at the right angle of radiation is useful to sky wave communications. Waves above
the critical angle pass through the ionosphere. Waves angled too low are absorbed before refraction
can occur.
In figure 2–6, frequency "A" is shown entering the ionosphere at two different angles. At a radiation
angle of 55°, frequency "A" passes through the ionosphere. At a radiation angle of 45°, the same
frequency is refracted back to earth. Figure 2–6 also shows frequency "B" that’s not refracted even at
2–6

the 45°, because it’s a higher frequency. That means that the critical angle of radiation for frequency
"A" is somewhere between 45° and 55°.

Figure 2–6. Critical angles, critical frequency, skip zone, and skip distance.

Our antennas give us some control over the takeoff angle of our signals. Sometimes we can change
their angle of radiation to match our operational frequencies. However, (most of the time) our antenna
radiation patterns are predetermined and not easily changed. Those antennas are also directed toward
certain receiving stations that may not be reached if takeoff angles are changed.
Frequencies also have a bearing on our critical angle of radiation. If we know that one of our regular
operating frequencies will not refract off the ionosphere (due to atmospheric variations) at the angle
of radiation required for our communications path, we can simply change to a frequency that will
refract. To do this we have to know the maximum usable frequency (MUF) for that particular path.
The MUF for a certain path varies according to regular and irregular variations of the ionospere. We
will now define critical frequencies, critical angles of radiation, and maximum usable frequencies.
Critical frequency
Figure 2-7 illustrates that as we increase the frequency of the transmitted signal at vertical incidence,
the wave is returned to earth from successively higher layers of the ionosphere. As the increase in
frequency continues, we reach a frequency that penetrates the F2 layer and won’t return to earth. The
highest frequency at which a vertical signal is returned to earth is known as the critical frequency.
Frequencies higher than this critical frequency pass into space. Frequencies that are too low are
absorbed in the D-layer and also don’t return to earth. Frequencies between the two boundaries are
refracted back to earth and can be used for communications.
Since the critical frequency increases with altitude, a signal that has passed through the E-layer might
be returned from the F1 or F2 layer. The critical frequency also varies, for a given layer, at different
locations on the earth’s surface. In general, it’s higher near the equator where more of the sun’s
radiation is intercepted by the earth’s atmosphere. Later in this unit we will discuss the different
layers of the ionosphere.
 2–7

Figure 2–7. Critical frequency propagation.

Maximum usable frequency

The MUF is the highest frequency that allows reliable long range HF radio communication between
two points by ionospheric refraction. The highest frequency that can be refracted depends on the
angle of incidence, and hence, for a given layer height, on the horizontal length of the hop. The
maximum frequency that can be refracted for a given transmission path is the MUF for that path. The
MUF is closely related to the critical frequency. Like the critical frequency, it changes with the time
of day, season, solar activity, and geographic location. There is a range of usable frequencies,
between the MUF and the lowest usable frequency (LUF) that needs to be predicted for use. The
MUF and LUF vary with solar activity, season, and time of day. At times, if atmospheric conditions
are extremely poor, the available range of usable frequencies may be reduced to zero.
Lowest usable frequency
The LUF is the lowest frequency that arrives at the distant receiver with adequate signal strength on
90 percent of the undisturbed days of the month. The LUF is based on many factors such as
transmitter output power, trunk loading, power distribution, antenna gain, radiation angles (transmit
and receive), modulation type, and bandwidth ambient noise at the receiver site. Below the LUF,
radio communications are highly unreliable. The closer you operate to the LUF, the noisier and more
unreliable the signal becomes.
Frequency of optimum transmission
Because of the strong increase of absorption with decreasing frequency, it is desirable to use as high a
frequency as possible. From a purely physical point of view, a frequency very close to the MUF is
most suitable. This is impractical, since the MUF changes considerably from day to day and (for
operational reasons) the working frequency can’t be adapted to these changes. Even the monthly
median of the MUF is unsuitable, since it’s reached only during 50 percent of the days. In practice we
chose a frequency that corresponds to a 90-percent probability of refraction. It’s considered to be
roughly 0.85 times the monthly median value of the MUF. The frequency thus chosen is called the
frequency of optimum transmission (FOT). FOT is also referred to as the optimum working frequency
or the optimum traffic frequency.
2–8

Ordinary and extraordinary waves

In general, a wave propagating perpendicular to the earth’s magnetic field has components of the
electric field both parallel and perpendicular to the magnetic field. Such a wave in the ionosphere
splits into two refracted waves that travel different paths with different time delays. The process is
termed magneton splitting. The waves are called the ordinary and the extraordinary wave. The
ordinary and the extraordinary waves are shown in figure 2–8. The extraordinary wave suffers greater
absorption at higher frequencies and has a slightly higher critical frequency than the ordinary wave.

Figure 2–8. Ordinary and extraordinary waves.

Skip zone
The skip zone is the area between the most distant point reached by the ground waves of a particular
signal and the point at which the wave reflected from the ionsphere first returns to the earth. Close to
the antenna, strong ground-wave signals would be received. The signal strength of the ground wave
drops off as you move away from the transmitting antenna. At a certain distance out, it is so weak that
it is of no use. You now have reached the limit of the ground-wave range. Now, if you were to
continue to travel outward, you would experience a zone of silence, called the skip-zone. In the skip-
zone, no radio signals are received. Eventually, you would again begin to receive strong signals
where the sky-wave first returns to earth.
Skip distance
The skip distance of a frequency is the distance from the transmitter to the point at which the
refracted sky-wave first returns to earth. Figure 2–6 illustrates both the skip distance and the skip
zone of a signal. The skip distance is determined by many factors. The two most important factors are
the frequency and the angle of radiation. These two factors determine the specific layers of the
ionosphere in which refraction occurs and also the subsequent skip distance that results.
The relationships between these two factors and the skip distance are easily understood. As the
frequency increases, the radiation refracts from a higher layer of the ionosphere and consequently, the
greater the skip distance (direct relationship). The lower the radiation angle, the further out the wave
must travel before reaching the ionosphere and being refracted, and consequently the greater the skip
distance (inverse relationship). To summarize, either a higher radiating frequency or a lower radiating
angle will increase the skip distance. Figure 2–9 shows skip distances at various angles of radiation.
 2–9

Figure 2–9. Skip distances at various radiation angles.

Multihop paths
The wave paths in figures 2–5 and 2–8 have shown a single refraction from the ionosphere. In multi-
hop transmissions radio waves are refracted from the ionosphere, and are then reflected from the
earth’s surface. Multi-hop transmission occurs when radio energy returns to earth, is reflected into the
ionosphere, and is refracted back to earth once more. As a result, the radio wave reaches a distant
receiving point after two or more hops (fig. 2–4). Several such refractions and/or reflections can take
place, and paths involving multiple refractions and/or reflections are called multi-hop paths. Each
time an additional hop is made, considerable signal strength loss occurs. This loss results primarily
from absorption.
Multi-hop transmissions cause the radio wave to enter and re-enter the D-layer as well as reflect off
the earth’s surface. Signal loss can be significant, and noise levels normally increase. For this reason,
effective communications with a distant station will be achieved using as few hops as possible. To a
certain degree, we can control the number of hops by varying the angle of radiation. This is shown in
the radiation angles of frequencies "A" and "B" in figure 2–6. This angle, in turn, depends on the
frequency and the type of antenna used.
Long circuits may require multi-hop paths, but each reflection increases the signal loss and increases
the possibility of multi-path waves. Where possible, use a higher frequency for communications, and
thus avoid a larger number of hops.
Multipath effects
A multi-path signal occurs when a transmitted signal travels over two or more separate paths during
transmission. When a signal is refracted more than once in different layers of the ionosphere, one of
the refracted signals may return to earth slightly ahead of the others. Cancellation and summation of
the received signal occurs at the receiver because of the relative amplitude and phase differences of
these various signals. If your receiving antenna picks up this signal out of phase, distortion, fading,
and complete cancellation of the signals can occur. We call these signal level variations multipath
fading. On the other hand, if the two signals arrive in phase, the signal is strengthened.
Looking back at figure 2–4, notice the receive antenna is receiving a multi-path signal caused by the
multi-hop and single hop transmissions. Multi-path effects also occur in ground wave transmissions
and are caused by multiple reflections from the ground or other objects. No matter what the cause,
multi-path transmissions may seriously hamper transmission of digital or data traffic. Try to avoid
multipath transmissions by changing frequencies if possible.
Selective fading
Another type of fading caused by multipath propagation is called selective fading. Here, selective
fading is referred to as the function of frequency. Selective fading is due to the uneven gains in
different frequencies. Each of the multipath components have different relative propagation delays
and attenuations which, when summing up in the receiver, results in filtering type of effect on the
2–10

received signal where different frequencies of the modulated waveform are experiencing different
attenuations and/or phase changes. In another words, when transmission conditions are not alike for
waves of slightly different frequency, transmission loss on one frequency may be low while on a
nearby frequency, the loss is much higher.
We typically describe such fading as long term or short term based on the time period of disruptive
effects. Long-term fading is seasonal (daily, monthly, and annually) and can be predicted with some
accuracy through data and trend analysis. Short term fading is less predictable; it is caused by abrupt
changes in the refractive index of the atmosphere. These disruptions are generally caused by weather
pattern changes.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

213. Types of radio waves

1. Which radio wave travels near the earth's surface of the earth and are greatly affected by the
earth’s conductivity?

2. What are the limiting factors for direct wave communications?

3. What determines earth’s conductivity?

4. Name the radio wave that is used in long-distance communications?

214. Electromagnetic wave propagation

1. What frequency is used for ground wave propagation?

2. How do you extend line-of-sight distance?

3. What is the best type of surface for surface wave transmission?

4. What gives sky wave propagation its ability to communicate beyond the optical line-of-sight?
 2–11

5. Match the terminology in sky wave communications in column B with the characteristic it is
associated with in column A. Items in column B may be used once.
Column A Column B

____ (1) Highest frequency that allows reliable long range HF a. Virtual height.
radio communication. b. Critical angle.
____ (2) The point of the ionosphere from which a radio wave c. Critical frequency.
appears to have been refracted. d. Maximum usable frequency.
____ (3) The closer you operate to this frequency, the noiser and e. Lowest usable frequency.
more unreliable the signal becomes.
f. Frequency of optimum
____ (4) Roughly 0.85 of the mean of the maximum usable transmission.
frequency.
____ (5) Frequency that penetrates the F2 layer and won't return
to earth.

____ (6) The angle of an antenna above the horizon through

which an antenna radiates the largest amount of its RF
energy.

6. Describe the skip zone.

2–2. Solar Ionospheric Physics

Solar ionospheric physics are key to understanding and operation of long-distance HF radio nets.
Beyond the obvious considerations of heat and light, there are numerous environmental effects caused
by the sun’s direct and indirect solar influences. In this lesson we will discuss some of those solar
influences and how they affect the different layers of the atmosphere, which ultimately affect radio
communications. This lesson covers the following subjects: physical and nonphysical solar particle
emissions, the Earth’s atmosphere, solar effects on the ionosphere and variations in the ionosphere.

215. Atmospheric variables affecting radio communications

In HF sky wave propagation, the transmitter station transmits radio waves that travel up to the
electrically conducting layers of the Earth’s atmosphere (primarily the ionosphere), where the waves
are reflected to the receiver station. Long-distance radio transmissions take place principally by
means of sky waves, and short-distance transmissions take place by means of groundwaves. Some
forms of transmission consist of combinations of both. The propagation of the groundwave is, in part,
affected by the electrical characteristics of the Earth (soil or sea), and by diffraction, or bending, of
the wave with the curvature of the Earth. These characteristics differ by locality, but under most
conditions they are practically constant with time. Sky wave propagation, on the other hand, is
variable, since the state of the ionosphere is always changing due to the effects of the sun. This solar
ionospheric activity affects the reflection, or the refraction of the waves.
Physical particles or corpuscular radiation
In addition to heat and light, the Sun also emits a low-density stream of charged particles (mostly
electrons and protons) known as the solar wind, which propagates throughout the solar system at
about 450 km/sec. The solar wind and the much higher energy particles ejected by solar flares can
have dramatic effects on the Earth, ranging from power line surges to radio interference to the
beautiful aurora borealis.
2–12

Nonphysical particles or solar radiation

Solar radiation is an important factor in the sun’s effect on the Earth’s atmosphere. Solar radiation is
emitted over the entire electromagnetic spectrum. The ultraviolet rays cause the most dramatic
changes in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Earth’s atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into five layers. It is thickest near the surface and thins out with height
until it eventually merges with space. The layers consist of the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere, and the exosphere. Of these five layers, our primary concern is the thermosphere as it
contains the ionosphere where solar variations make long distance communications possible.
Troposphere
The troposphere is that portion of the Earth’s atmosphere extending from the surface of the Earth to
heights of about 7.5 miles. This layer contains about half of the Earth’s atmosphere. The temperature
in this region varies appreciably with altitude. The troposphere experiences all weather phenomena,
and, its temperature decreases rapidly with altitude. The troposphere supports LOS and troposcatter
communications.
Stratosphere
The stratosphere is that portion of the Earth’s atmosphere lying above the troposphere from
approximately 7.5 miles to heights about 31 miles above the Earth. The temperature in this region is
considered to be almost constant, and there is very little water vapor present. Jet aircraft fly in the
stratosphere because it is very stable. The stratosphere has very little effect on radio communications.
Mesosphere
This is the layer where meteors or rock fragments are burned up. It has no effect on radio
communication signals.
Thermosphere
The Earth’s thermosphere includes the region of the atmosphere called the ionosphere, which is filled
with charged particles. The high temperatures (solar radiation) in the thermosphere can cause
molecules to ionize. This is why an ionosphere and thermosphere can overlap. Both the aurora
borealis and space shuttle orbits take place in this region.
Exosphere
Very high up past the thermospere, the Earth’s atmosphere becomes very thin. This is the region
where atoms and molecules escape into space and is referred to as the exosphere.
Ionosphere
Scientists call the ionosphere an extension of the thermosphere. So technically, the ionosphere is not
another atmospheric layer. The ionosphere represents less than 0.1 percent of the total mass of the
Earth’s atmosphere. Even though it is such a small part, it is extremely important!
The ionosphere extends from the stratosphere (approx. 31 miles) to about 250 miles above the Earth’s
surface. The ionosphere is most important to long-distance HF radio communications utilizing sky
wave propagation. The ionosphere consists of several layers of electrically charged gas atoms called
ions. HF radio signals are reflected and refracted off these ionospheric layers to create long-distance
radio links. As you read more about solar effects and the ionosphere, keep in mind that the denser the
ionosphere is, the higher the HF radio signal frequency must be.
The upper atmosphere is ionized by solar radiation. That means the sun’s energy is so strong at this
level that it breaks apart molecules. So there ends up being electrons floating around and molecules
that have lost or gained electrons. When the sun is active, more and more ionization happens.
 2–13

Solar effects on the ionosphere

Solar radiation has a great effect on the ionosphere’s density. It causes a process called ionization. As
the solar radiation lessens at night, the ionosphere goes through a process of recombination.
Depending on the time of day, the ionosphere is divided into different layers.
Ionization
Ionization occurs when high-energy ultraviolet light waves from the sun enter the ionospheric region
of the atmosphere and strike the gas atoms. This literally knocks electrons free from their parent
atoms. A normal atom is electrically neutral since it contains an equal number of positive protons and
negative electrons. The absence of any of its electrons causes an atom to be positively charged –
known as a positive ion. The process of upsetting this electrical neutrality is known as ionization. As
the ultraviolet light continues to produce positive ions, the free electrons absorb part of the ultraviolet
energy. The rate at which ionization occurs depends on the density of atoms in the atmosphere and
the varying intensity of the ultraviolet light. Since the atmosphere is bombarded by ultraviolet
lightwaves of different frequencies, several ionized layers are formed at different layers. Lower
frequency ultraviolet waves penetrate the atmosphere the least and produce ionized layers at the
higher altitudes. The higher frequency ultraviolet light waves penetrate more deeply and produce
layers at lower altitudes. An important factor in determining the density of the ionized layers is the
constantly changing elevation angle of the sun. Thus, the height and thickness vary depending on the
time of day, season of the year, and other solar cycles.
Recombination
When the free electrons and positive ions collide with each other, they recombine to form normal
atoms again. The recombination process is dependent on the time of day. Between the hours of early
morning and late afternoon, the rate of ionization exceeds the rate of recombination. During this
period, the ionized layers reach their greatest density and exert maximum influence on radio waves.
During the late afternoon and early evening, the rate of recombination exceeds the rate of ionization,
and the density of the ionized layers begins to decrease. Throughout the night, density continues to
decrease, reaching a low point just before sunrise.
Layers of the ionosphere
The ionosphere is composed of four layers (fig. 2–10) designated from the lowest level, "D layer," the
"E layer," the "F layer", and the highest portion known as topside. The F layer is further divided into
layers designated F1, the lowest level, and F2, the higher level. Most of the reflection of radio waves
occurs in the F2 layer. The presence or absence of these layers in the ionosphere and their height
above the Earth vary with the position of the sun. At high noon, radiation in the ionosphere directly
above a given point is greatest, while at night it is at its minimum. When the radiation is removed,
many of the ionized particles recombine. Since the position of the sun varies daily, monthly, and
yearly with respect to a specific point on Earth, the exact position and number of layers present is
difficult to determine.
D layer
The D layer ranges from about 30 to 55 miles above the Earth. Ionization in the D layer is low
because it is the lowest region of the ionosphere. This layer has the ability to refract signals of low
frequencies. HF signals pass through the D layer, but experience some attenuation. This layer
disappears at night.
E layer
The E layer extends from about 55 to 85 miles above the Earth. This layer has the ability to refract
signals as high as 20 MHz. It is valuable for HF communications for distances up to 1,500 miles. The
rate of ionic recombination in the E layer is rapid after sunset and the E layer is almost gone by
midnight. The E layer consists of a thick E2 layer and a highly variable thin layer called Sporadic E.
We will discuss the sporadic E layer later in this lesson.
2–14

F layer
The F region is the most important portion of the ionosphere to HF communications. The F layer can
range from about 85 to 250 miles above the Earth. Most sky wave transmissions involve one or more
reflections from the F layer. During daylight hours, the F layer separates into the F1 (85–155 miles
out) and F2 (155–250 miles out) layers. The F1 layer can be further broken down into the F1.5 layer,
however for our discussion you only need to know that the F layer contains sections F1 and F2. The
ionization of these layers is quite high and varies widely during the course of the day. At noon this
portion of the atmosphere is closest to the sun and the degree of ionization is at its maximum.
Because recombination occurs slowly after sunset, there is a fairly constant ionized layer present at all
times. During daytime the F2 layer is the layer that reflects or refracts HF signals. The F1 layer
mainly absorbs and attenuates our signals. Figure 2–10 shows a typical day and night profiles of
electron density in the ionosphere. Figure 2–11 shows the daytime ionospheric layers. The sporadic E
layer (E1) is omitted in this figure because of its irregular occurrence and limited geographic extent.

Figure 2–10. Ionosphere.

Figure 2–11. Daylight ionospheric layers.

 2–15

Topside
This part of the ionosphere starts at the height of the maximum density of the F2 layer and extends
upward with decreasing density to a transition height. The transition height varies but seldom drops
below 300 miles above the Earth’s surface at night or 500 miles in the daytime, although it may at
times lie as high as almost 700 miles. Above this transition height, the weak ionization has little
influence on radio signals.
Solar variations in the ionosphere
Because the existence of the ionosphere is directly related to the sun’s radiation, the movement of the
Earth about the sun, or changes in the sun’s activity, variations in the ionosphere will always be
occurring. There are two general types of ionospheric variations: regular and irregular. Regular
variations can be predicted in advance with reasonable accuracy. Irregular variations are those that
result from abnormal variations and cannot be predicted in advance. Since both regular and irregular
variations affect our long-range HF communications we’ll cover both subjects in detail.
Regular variations
The regular variations can be divided into four main classes: diurnal (daily), seasonal, 27-day, and 11-
year sunspots cycles.
Diurnal variations
The daily variations are due to the 24-hour rotation of the Earth on its axis, giving us our daily
phenomena of day and night. During the day, all three layers (D, E, and F) exist and the daytime F
layer is subdivided into F1 and F2. The ionosphere’s layers are denser during the day. When solar
activity is no longer present the D, E, and F1 layers disappear, leaving only the F2 layer. The F2 layer
decreases in altitude with the setting sun, and combines with the remnants of the F1 layer to form a
single nighttime F layer.
Seasonal variations
Seasonal variations are a result of the Earth revolving around the sun. As the Earth rotates, it tilts on
its axis and changes the angle at which the sun’s energy strikes the Earth. This tilting causes the
seasons of the year. As the Earth tilts, the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern Hemisphere receives
more or less direct energy from the sun. The F2 layer height increases greatly in the summer and then
decreases again in the winter. Also, F2 ionization density is stronger and rises earlier in the day
during winter. Seasonal variations of the D, E, and F1 layers also correspond to the angle of the sun.
In these layers the ionization density is greater in the summer. What this means is that in winter we
have a wider range of critical frequencies and less absorption of all frequencies. There is also more
variation between nighttime and daytime operating frequencies during winter than in summer.
11-year sunspot cycle
Dark irregularly shaped areas known as sunspots appear and disappear on the surface of the sun. The
exact nature of sunspots is not known, but scientists believe they are caused by violent eruptions on
the sun. Sunspots are characterized by unusually strong magnetic fields. Sunspots can occur
unexpectedly and the life-span of an individual sunspot is variable. Even though their characteristics
vary, a regular "cycle" of sunspot activity has been observed. This cycle, characterized by a minimum
and maximum level of sunspot activity, occurs approximately every 11 years. The last maximum
occurred in 2001. We use this sunspot cycle to forecast the ionization density and to predict what
frequencies will reflect or refract off the ionosphere. The index used to make these predictions is
called the sunspot number. The sunspot number is calculated by adding the total number of
individually counted sunspots to 10 times the number of sunspot groups observed on the sun.
During periods of maximum sunspot activity, the ionization of all layers increases. Because of this,
the absorption in the D layer increases and the critical frequencies for the E, F1, and F2 layers are
higher. During these times, higher operating frequencies must be used for long-range
communications.
2–16

27-day sunspot cycle

The number of sunspots in existence at any one time is subject to change. The sun rotates on its own
axis and it takes approximately 27 days for the sun to make one complete rotation. As the sun rotates,
the sunspots are visible from and affect the Earth in a 27-day cycle. The 27-day sunspot cycle causes
variations in the ionosphere layer density on a day-to-day basis. This results in higher critical
frequencies for the E, F1 and F2 layers, and higher absorption in the D layer.
Irregular variations
Irregular variations in the ionosphere have an important effect on long-range HF radio
communications. The unpredictable nature of these variations can drastically affect communications
with no advance warning. The more common irregular variations include solar flares, sudden
ionospheric disturbances, ionospheric storms, and sporadic E.
Solar flares
Solar flares are our solar system’s largest explosive events. The explosive power of a single flare can
be equivalent to approximately 40 billion Hiroshima-size atomic bombs. These explosions on the sun
happen when energy stored in twisted magnetic fields, usually above sunspots, is suddenly released.
Flares produce a burst of radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to x-rays
and gamma-rays. Solar flares can last anywhere from minutes to hours.
Sudden ionospheric disturbances
Sudden ionospheric disturbances (SIDs) are the most startling of the ionospheric irregular variations.
A SID happens when the sun has a bright solar eruption. This solar eruption produces an unusually
intense burst of ultraviolet light that is not absorbed by the F2, F1, or E layer, but instead causes a
sudden abnormal increase in the ionization density of the D layer. The SID results in a sudden
increase in radio-wave absorption that is most severe in the upper medium-frequency (MF) and lower
HF ranges. As a result, frequencies above 1 or 2 MHz are completely absorbed by the D layer. The
effect is so abrupt and intense many technicians believe that their receivers have gone dead. SIDs may
last from minutes to several hours.
Ionospheric storms
Ionospheric storms are disturbances in the Earth’s magnetic field. They are associated, in a manner
not fully understood, with both solar eruptions and the 27-day intervals, thus corresponding to the
rotation of the sun. They usually occur about 18 hours or more after a solar eruption or a SID and tend
to reoccur at 27-day intervals. An ionospheric storm that is associated with sunspot activity may
begin anytime from two days before an active sunspot crosses the central meridian of the sun until
four days after it passes the central meridian. At times, however, active sunspots have crossed the
central region of the sun without any ionospheric storms occurring. Conversely, ionospheric storms
have occurred when there were no visible spots on the sun and no preceding SID. As you can see,
some correlation between ionospheric storms, SID, and sunspot activity is possible, but there are no
hard and fast rules. Ionospheric storms can occur suddenly without warning. The prominent effects of
ionospheric storms are a turbulent ionosphere and very erratic sky wave propagation. Ionospheric
storms mainly affect the higher F2 layer, reducing its ion density. The practical effect of ionospheric
storms is that the range of frequencies that can be used for communications on a given circuit is much
smaller than normal and communications are possible only at the lower working frequencies.
Ionospheric storms can last from a few minutes to several hours.
Sporadic E
Irregular cloud-like patches of unusually high ionization, called sporadic E, often form at heights near
the normal E layer. The exact cause of sporadic E is not known. It is known to vary significantly with
latitude, and in the northern latitude, it appears to be closely related to the aurora or polar lights. At
times the sporadic E is so thin that radio waves penetrate it easily and are returned to the Earth by the
upper layers. At other times, the cloud extends over several hundred miles and is heavily ionized. The
 2–17

sporadic E cloud can be either harmful or helpful to sky wave propagation. For example, sporadic E
may blank out the use of higher, more favorable ionospheric layers or cause additional absorption of
the radio wave at some frequencies. Also, it can cause multipath problems. On the other hand, it may
let you successfully propagate at unusually high frequencies or allow sky wave propagation to
stations that are close to the transmitter station and would normally be skipped over by the sky wave.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

215. Atmospheric variables affecting radio communications

1. List the five basic regions that make up the atmosphere.

2. How are long-distance high-frequency communications made possible?

3. What causes the different ionospheric layers?

4. The recombination process is dependent on what?

5. Name the different layers within the ionosphere?

6. What does the E layer consist of?

7. Describe the difference between the two general types of ionospheric variations.

8. What happens to the ionospheric layers when solar activity is no longer present?

9. What is the length of the sunspot cycle?

10. Solar flares produce what?

11. Which layer do ionospheric storms mainly affect?

2–18

2–3. The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Earlier, we referred to RF as the electromagnetic field that is generated when an alternating current is
received at an antenna. This RF field is used in radio communications over a significant portion of the
electromagnetic radiation spectrum. As frequency increases beyond the RF spectrum, the
electromagnetic energy takes the form of the infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma
rays. One of the major differences in the various types of electromagnetic energy is based upon its
frequency.
There are natural divisions of the electromagnetic spectrum as found in nature. However, man has
divided the spectrum into frequency bands which have been designated by names and letter symbols
and arranged in order of their frequencies. In this section, the characteristics of each frequency band
will be discussed in reference to their role in electromagnetic wave propagation.

216. Frequency and frequency bands

Frequency is defined as the number of complete cycles per unit of time for a periodic phenomenon.
The electromagnetic (EM) wave form and thus the EM frequency spectrum are categorized by their
periodic characteristics. The entire spectrum (fig. 2–12) extends from direct current (DC) with zero
cycles per second (cps) to cosmic rays above 1023 Hertz (Hz). The term "hertz" is the international
unit of frequency and is used more often the cps.

Figure 2–12 Electromagnetic wave spectrum.

 2–19

Frequency band designators

Each frequency range has a band designator and each range of frequencies behaves differently and
performs different functions. The following table is a descriptive designation of international
designators.

While you’re probably familiar with many of the systems that operate within these frequency bands,
figure 2–13 gives a few examples that give you a better understanding of the types of intelligence
they carry.

International Band Designators

Designation Frequency Range
ELF extremely low frequency 3 - 30 Hz
SLF super low frequency 30 - 300 Hz
ULF ultra low frequency 300 - 3,000 Hz
VLF very low frequency 3 - 30 kHz
LF low frequency 30 - 300 kHz
MF medium frequency 300 - 3,000 kHz
HF high frequency 3 - 30 MHz
VHF very high frequency 30 - 300 MHz
UHF ultra high frequency 300 - 3,000 MHz
SHF super high frequency 3 - 30 GHz
EHF extremely high frequency 30 - 300 GHz

For communications purposes, the usable frequency spectrum extends from about 3 Hz, through 300
GHz, while some experimental communication has been conducted up to about 100 Tera Hertz (
THz). This frequency spectrum is shared by civil, government, and military users of all nations
according to International Telecommunications Union (ITU) radio regulations. In radio
communications, we’re mainly concerned with the audio- and radio-frequency ranges. Figure 2–14
shows some advantages and disadvantages of some frequency bands you might use.
2–20

Figure 2–13. Frequency band applications.

 2–21

Figure 2–14. Advantages and disadvantages of frequency bands.

Audio frequency range

Frequencies ordinarily heard by the average person are said to be in the audio range. Although the
audio range of any two persons may be very different, it is considered to be those frequencies
between 15 Hz and 20,000 Hz. For example, the lowest note on a piano is approximately 32 Hz while
the frequencies of human speech fall approximately between 200 and 2,500 Hz. The range of a pipe
organ is from about 16 Hz to 5,000 Hz and the highest fundamental note of the flute is about 4,000
Hz. The high-pitched whine from a jet engine may be above 10,000 Hz.
Radio frequency range
The radio frequency range extends from about 10,000 Hz to over 300,000,000,000Hz (300 GHz). For
convenience, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has divided the radio frequency
spectrum into different bands. These frequency bands, their uses, characteristics, and advantages and
disadvantages are addressed in detail later in this unit. As RF transmission technicians, we’re mainly
concerned with radio operations in the HF, VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF.

217. Characteristics of frequency bands

Each frequency band has their own unique characteristics, and knowledge of these characteristics is
essential to performing your job.
2–22

Extremely low frequency

The ELF range is from 3 to 30 Hz, and it can transmit signals 5,000 miles or more. As used currently,
ELF propagates through the earth’s substrate. ELF waves produce high-power sounds that can
penetrate ocean depths to several hundred feet. ELF communications systems require enormous
transmit antennas covering thousands of acres and operating at very high transmitting powers––in the
100-megawatt range. Called transducers, these "antennas" transfer the transmitted RF energy to the
earth and vice versa. The distance range of ELF is greater than that of any other terrestrial
communications system, and it is not greatly affected by atmospheric disturbances. This area of the
frequency spectrum is used primarily for underwater communications.
Operating in the range of audible sound, ELF is capable of only very low transmission rates. This
slow data rate makes ELF transmissions impractical for normal character message transmission. ELF
traffic is used mainly to communicate with submerged submarines. Currently, the Navy has two ELF
communication stations located in Wisconsin to communicate with the submarines. These sites use
transmission lines that are over 25 miles long. The submarines can only receive using ELF, and the
messages are only one or two characters in length and are transmitted by way of interrupted
continuous wave (ICW).
Very Low frequency
The VLF range is from 3 to 30 kilo (thousand) Hertz. Like ELF, VLF transmissions can span 5,000
miles or more and penetrate vegetation and water. VLF is used mainly for navigation and to
communicate by way of low-speed secure teletypewriter with submarines at sea when they’re
submerged at shallow depths (about 10 feet). While VLF transmitters are normally land (shore)
based, certain command and control (C2) aircraft such as airborne command posts may have a VLF
capability, using long trailing wire antennas and transmitters powered in the 100 to 200 kilowatt
range.
While VLF transmissions are capable of higher data rates than ELF transmissions, they’re still
limited. VLF broadcast systems use minimum shift keying and operates low-speed, 50 baud, secure
teletype. A very common mode of operation on VLF circuits is ICW. An anti-jam (AJ) capability
does exist, but it reduces the data transmission rate dramatically—to about three characters every 12
seconds. The Navy take-charge-and-move-out (TACAMO) aircraft carries a very low frequency
communication system linking the National Command Authorities with naval ballistic missile forces
during times of crisis.
Low frequency
The LF range is from 30 to 300 kHz and can span distances of 1,000 to 5,000 miles. LF is used for
medium-distance communications, particularly with submarines and surface ships at sea, and for
navigation such as LORAN C (a radio navigation service). Airborne operations can be conducted
efficiently using LF. While LF can penetrate vegetation and water, it is less effective than ELF or
VLF. Current shore based LF communications systems use 50–100 kilowatt (KW) transmitters and
use frequency shift keying (FSK) for secure teletypewriter or International Morse Code (IMC) for
communications operations.
Medium frequency
The MF range is from 300 to 3,000 kHz. MF propagates by ground wave, direct wave, and sky wave.
MF can span from 100 to 1,000 miles by way of a ground wave and from 1,000 to 3,000 miles by
way of a sky wave, depending on transmitter output power and atmospheric conditions. The main
uses of the MF band include medium distance communications, radio navigation, and amplitude
modulation (AM) broadcasting.
The 550–1600 kHz part of this frequency band is mainly used for AM broadcasting. A 10 kHz
separation between stations, results in 105 available audio channels. The MF band can support low
capacity multi-channel circuits for both voice and teletype operations, with the latter limited to 75
baud (100 words per minute (wpm)).
 2–23

High frequency
The HF range is from 3 to 30 MHz. The HF part of the spectrum can transmit signals by way of
ground wave or sky wave propagation. Ground wave propagation is effective from 30 to 300 miles.
Sky wave propagation can span the world––depending on atmospheric conditions and the frequency
used. HF is widely used for long-distance communications, short-wave broadcasting, over-the-
horizon (OTH) radar, and amateur radio. HF transmitter power can range from as low as 2 watts to
above 100 kW, depending on the intended use.
In addition to long-range communications, HF is also widely used in tactical environments to
supplement communications when LOS radio isn’t possible or feasible. An example of this
application is short-range near-vertical-incidence sky wave (NVIS) used with the NVIS antenna. The
NVIS is useful when stations are separated by obstacles (such as mountains). When direct
communication isn’t possible, a NVIS antenna can radiate an HF signal almost straight up for
reflection down (over a mountain peak) to another station only a few miles away. NVIS operations
are most effective when using the lower HF range (2–6 MHz). HF can accommodate voice, automatic
link establishment (ALE) and teletypewriter operating modes. It can operate in secure modes using a
variety of available encryption devices. HF radios can be mounted in vehicles, ships, or aircraft and
can be fixed, portable, or manpack configured. Transmissions are normally in either the single side
band (SSB) or independent side band (ISB) mode. HF sky wave propagation is extremely vulnerable
to intercept and direction finding, particularly the high-powered long-haul systems. The HF part of
the spectrum is currently the frequency band most susceptible to jamming. Electronic attack (EA)
jammers far from the receiver can jam or disrupt HF sky wave communications. Proper use of
encryption devices and burst transmission techniques can reduce this vulnerability; however, without
some form of anti-jam protection, HF communications aren’t considered suitable for critical C2
systems.
HF sky wave communications are also considerably more vulnerable to nuclear blackout than any
other frequency band, because nuclear detonations disturb the ionosphere for hours or days. However,
HF ground waves are minimally affected by nuclear bursts and normally continue to provide
communications connectivity. We can usually obtain propagation over a few hundred miles (300 -
600) by siting antennas carefully and using lower frequencies properly.
Very high frequency
The VHF range is from 30 to 300 MHz, and its signals propagate principally by LOS. Although LOS
restrictions limit the ground range of VHF systems, LOS is an effective means of ground
communication for distances up to 25–50 miles (depending on terrain and antenna height) without
using a repeater. By placing repeaters properly along an intended communications path, we can get
long-range VHF transmissions through a series of short LOS hops. Remember, the higher the
antenna, the greater the LOS distance possible in each link. Depending on the use, range, and number
of channels intended, VHF transmitter power can range from 0.25 watts for a portable hand-held FM
radio to 120 watts for a 12/24 multi-channel LOS system. A rule to remember here is: the higher the
frequency, the less power required to transmit VHF signals over a given distance.
VHF radios are portable, vehicular, or airframe mounted, and can usually be operated in motion. The
larger multi-channel systems are commonly mounted aboard ships and on 2 ½- or five-ton trucks in
shelters, and require careful siting of directional antennas. Typical uses include short range FM
combat radio nets, radar, radio navigation, ground-to-air communications, wideband LOS multi-
channel systems (repeatered or nonrepeatered) and television broadcasting. VHF links can provide
excellent circuit quality, comparable to cable systems with up to 99 percent reliability.
Ultra high frequency
The UHF range is from 300 to 3,000 MHz. The main propagation methods include tropospheric
scatter, satellite, air/ground/air, and LOS. Due to the flexibility of UHF communications, the distance
range varies Line-of-Sight (LOS) at 15 to 100 miles depending on terrain, and global for satellite
2–24

communications with relay capabilities. Transmitter power can range from 10 to 100 watts for LOS
and satellite systems.
Many UHF systems are transportable by vehicle, aircraft, or ship. Some UHF satellite terminals are
small enough and lightweight enough to be manpack configured. Common UHF applications are seen
daily in local ambulance, fire, and police radio nets with repeater operations being typical. On
military installations, the non-tactical intrabase radio (IBR) nets are usually VHF or UHF. UHF
systems are capable of high quality, reliable, and high-capacity transmissions with data rates of 2.4
Kbps and higher. UHF is used widely to provide secure and/or nonsecure voice, record, data and
facsimile service in both mobile and fixed configurations. Along with VHF, UHF is the band
preferred for television.
Super high frequency
The SHF range is from 3 to 30 GHz. It is used mainly for high data rate LOS microwave,
multichannel radio relay, troposcatter, and satellite systems. Distances for SHF systems range from
line-of-sight for terrestrial microwave links to thousands of miles for satellite connectivity. Distances
for SHF systems range from approximately 40 miles for LOS to global for satellite.
SHF carrier signals permit large bandwidths which allows them to handle significant amounts of data
over multiplexed voice channels and television. High-speed data with rates of 2.4 Kbps and more
(250 Kbps data rates are possible) can be transmitted by way of SHF systems. Some military satellite
terminals (e.g., ground mobile forces tactical satellite [GMF/TACSAT]) and troposcatter terminals
(e.g., tri-service tactical [TRI-TAC] equipment) have been designed for tactical use. These systems
are transportable by 2 ½- to 5-ton trucks and have antenna dishes of varying size.
Extremely high frequency
The EHF range is from 30 - 300 GHz. Military application in this band includes Space Command,
Control, Communications, Computers and Intelligence (C4I). Two types of applications offer
attractive advantages, EHF satellite systems and millimeter wave transmissions.
The MILSTAR satellite system provides worldwide coverage using geosynchronous space segments
in both equatorial and polar orbits (constellation network). The system uses EHF on the uplink and
SHF on the downlink. The range of EHF satellite systems is global with this satellite cross-linking
capability. EHF transmissions passing through the atmosphere are susceptible to being attenuated by
rain and other atmospheric conditions.
EHF systems can transmit secure voice and high-speed data at rates of up to 100 Mbps (million bits
per second). These systems operate in either the single channel or multichannel mode. The extensive
bandwidths available in the EHF range permit up to as many as 600 channels per link depending on
the type of multiplexing equipment used. EHF also offers increased capacity, jam resistance, EMP
protection, low power, narrow beamwidth and excellent mobility advantages.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

216. Frequency and frequency bands

1. For communications purposes, what is the usable frequency spectrum?

2. What organization regulates the use of the frequency spectrum by all nations?

3. What is the audio frequency range?

 2–25

217. Characteristics of frequency bands

1. How are ELF transmissions propagated?

2. What determines the range of MF propagation?

3. What is the frequency range of the HF frequency band?

4. What determines the distance HF sky waves that can propagate?

5. Why are HF communications not considered suitable for critical C2 systems?

6. What is the general rule to remember when using the VHF frequency band?

7. Name a satellite system that is currently using the EHF frequency range?

2–4. VHF, UHF, SHF, and EHF Communications

LOS propagation characteristics and frequency stability make the upper frequency bands ideal for
many purposes. Technological advances in micro-electronics and satellite systems have resulted in
more and more uses for communications systems in these frequency ranges. As an RF Transmission
Systems technician, you will likely use these systems during your career.
In the military today, VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF communications systems are very common. These
systems possess certain advantages in signal quality and ease of operation over HF systems. They
also provide flexibility for long range command and control of our forces. These systems play a major
role in our command and control communications and their operating characteristics should be
familiar to us.

218. VHF/UHF radio

The main propagation modes of VHF/UHF transmissions are the direct wave and the ground reflected
wave. An important thing to remember about radio wave propagation is that, as frequency increases
from HF to VHF, propagation takes on more of the characteristics of LOS. This means that
propagation takes place in a straight line between antennas. The communications emphasis in the
VHF/UHF frequency range is on air-ground communications and short range point-to-point
communications. The UHF is capable of operating in either LOS or UHF satellite communications.
Antennas used in VHF/UHF communications are usually omni-directional because the receiver may
be fixed or mobile and we must be able to communicate in all directions.
2–26

Characteristics
VHF/UHF communication is used for air-to-ground purposes for a number of reasons including the
need for short range versus long range communications, the requirement for less power and the clarity
of the reception (since it doesn’t travel through the ionosphere). Most transmitters used for air-ground
command and control operate in a range of 10–50 watts output. Approximate maximum air-to-ground
range is 150 miles. VHF/UHF can also be used for ground-to-ground (point-to-point)
communications.

219. SHF/EHF radio

As discussed earlier, direct waves, sky waves and ground waves have similar components However,
the direct wave is the primary transmission path for frequencies in the SHF/EHF range.
Characteristics
Most SHF/EHF systems have characteristics similar to VHF/UHF systems. They require low
transmitter power and range is limited to line-of-sight. SHF/EHF radios provide communications
links, via satellite, between designated mobile units and shore sites worldwide. An example of a SHF
communications system is the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) III.

220. Factors that affect LOS propagation

LOS transmission (fig. 2–15) is the direct distance or radio-horizon distance from the antenna to the
earth’s surface. The radio horizon is farther than the optical horizon. The reason for the difference in
distance between the optical and radio horizons is the slight bending of the transmitted waves in the
lower atmosphere. This bending causes the wave to follow the earth’s curvature beyond the optical
horizon.

Figure 2–15. Radio and optical horizons.

LOS transmission distances can be increased by elevating the transmit or receive antennas or by using
reflector or repeater stations. Calculation determined that antennas for transatlantic LOS
communications would have to be 360 miles high.) The typical LOS radio relay system consists of
terminal stations and relay or repeater stations.
One of the disadvantages of LOS systems is that relay stations are required when the distance to be
covered exceeds 30 to 40 miles. To overcome this drawback, the forward propagation by tropospheric
scatter (FPTS) principle of communication was developed. "Tropo" systems use very high-power and
high-gain directional antennas to transmit energy. This energy is then scattered by the atmosphere
with small amounts reaching the receiver. This principle allows frequencies above 1,000 MHz to span
distances of up to 600 miles without relay.
The typical tropo system requires high-power transmitters (up to 75 kW in some locations), high-gain
parabolic antennas, and extremely sensitive receivers. In a move to overcome the limited range of
FPTS without requiring many costly relay stations, satellite communications systems were developed.
Satellite systems allow either short- or long-range communications using VHF to EHF frequencies.
VHF is not normally used for satellite communications because ionospheric refraction can occur.
They provide multiple voice or data channels, have better reliability and require equipment and power
when compared with other communications systems.
 2–27

No one system (HF, LOS, "tropo" or satellite) is within itself the ultimate in communications. Each
system has its own advantages and disadvantages. Each system used alone or combined provides fast,
reliable and flexible communications as required in today’s Air Force. An understanding of each of
the communications systems you may use or interface with is a must for every technician.
LOS transmissions using the microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum have many advantages
over systems that use the lower part of the spectrum. Transmitter power levels are low, commonly
one watt. Antennas can be made highly directional and reflectors can be used effectively. With
antenna gains as high as 40 dB possible, nominal power output from a microwave transmitter can be
concentrated and directed so it is as effective as 10,000 watts radiated from a standard dipole antenna.
Transmissions in the higher end of the electromagnetic spectrum aren’t subject to the skip phenomena
found in the HF and VHF bands. This allows the same frequencies to be used a number of times in a
comparatively small geographic area. Manmade and atmospheric interference is almost nonexistent
and the narrow beam width of the antenna and lack of skip make unauthorized interception more
difficult.
Even though VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF all propagate by line-of-sight, there are differences in their
propagation characteristics. In LOS communications, the radiated energy is usually transmitted by
focusing it into a narrow beam with parabolic antennas. These beams of energy exhibit many of the
properties of light. They’re subject to path loss, being reflected, refracted and diffracted as they travel
between the transmitting and receiving antennas. Microwave propagation is affected by weather,
climate and terrain. These factors cause a propagated wave to reflect and bend as it travels through
the atmosphere. Since microwave energy is focused into a narrow beam for transmission, reflecting or
bending can make the propagated signal miss the receive antenna completely. Further, LOS
communications are subject to absorption, multi-path, ducting, temperature inversion, curvature of the
earth and free space loss.
Reflection
RF electromagnetic radiation generally travels through space in a straight line. The exception is that it
is bent slightly by the gravitation of large masses in accordance with general relativity. RF waves can
be reflected by certain substances, much in the same way that light is reflected by a mirror. The angle
at which RF is reflected from a smooth metal surface, for example, will equal the angle at which it
approached the surface. In other words, the angle of reflectance of RF waves equals their angle of
incidence.
The reflected wave, like the direct wave, travels through the atmosphere but reflects off the earth’s
surface while going from one antenna to another (fig. 2-16). The reflected wave may cause a
troublesome type of interference. The path traveled by the reflected wave is longer than that of the
direct wave. This sometimes causes the reflected wave to arrive at the receiving antenna after the
direct wave. If the two waves are "in phase", they reinforce each other producing a stronger signal. If
they arrive "out of phase," one signal cancels the other resulting in very poor or nonexistent
communications. You may recall these multipath effects as discussed earlier. It is this canceling effect
that explains why, at times, no signal is received even though the transmitting antenna is in sight.
Moving the antennas either closer or further from each other or changing the height of one of the
antennas should result in a usable signal.

Figure 2-16. Reflected wave.

2–28

The reflection principle is very useful in the design of directional antennas. Reflection allows the
waves to be focused into a "beam" (fig. 2–17). Reflection is the 180° phase shift of a radio wave, in
other words a "mirror image." To understand this principle, look in a mirror. Your name tag appears
on the wrong side (180° out of phase). Maximum reflection of a radio wave occurs when it strikes a
smooth surface such as smooth water or smooth earth. Also, some reflection occurs when a radio
wave passes through the boundary of two atmospheric layers that differ in density.

Figure 2–17. Radio reflection by an antenna.

Refraction
Refraction is the bending of radio waves or light waves as they travel at an angle from one medium to
another medium with a different density (fig. 2–18). As the upper portion of the wave enters the less
dense medium, it speeds up while the lower portion of the wave is still traveling at a slower speed in
the denser medium. As a result, the wave refracts or bends. It is important to understand that the
refraction or bending would be in the opposite direction if the wave traveled from a less dense
medium into a denser medium.

Figure 2–18. Wave refraction.

Refractive index
Radio waves that propagate parallel to the Earth’s surface constantly expand. The upper portion of the
wave is in thinner atmosphere and travels faster than the lower portion of the wave. This causes the
propagated wave to gradually bend or refract downward in the direction of the Earth’s curvature. One
factor affecting the amount of radio wave refraction in the atmosphere is the change in the refractive
index of the air as altitude increases. The refractive index is the ratio of radio wave velocity in free
space or a vacuum to the velocity in a specified medium.
 2–29

The refractive index of air depends on atmospheric pressure, moisture and temperature. These
atmospheric properties decrease at higher altitudes so that the atmosphere becomes less dense. Since
the speed of a propagated wave varies inversely with the density of the propagation medium, it is
evident from the above formula that the refractive index normally decreases as altitude increases.
Refractive index versus frequency
Another factor affecting the amount of atmospheric refraction is the frequency of the electromagnetic
wave. Atmospheric refraction increases as the wavelength decreases. A good example of this is seen
when a beam of light is refracted as it passes through a prism. The shorter violet and blue
wavelengths (higher frequencies) of light are slowed more and consequentially experience more
bending than do the longer wavelengths (orange and red). We can use refraction to extend the range
of our communications links. Within certain limits, microwave energy follows the curvature of the
earth and travels beyond the optical horizon to a point called the radio horizon (fig. 2–15). The radio
horizon is a point on the Earth’s surface where propagated radio waves become tangent to the Earth.
Again, under normal atmospheric conditions, atmospheric density gradually decreases with an
increase in altitude. This extends microwave LOS communications approximately 15 percent farther
than the optical horizon and approximately 33 percent farther than the true horizon (fig. 2–15). The
effective increase in distance to the radio horizon is much the same as the result of hypothetically
reducing the Earth’s curvature or increasing its radius.
Standard refraction
We can treat the propagation path of a microwave as a straight line if we multiply the Earth’s radius
by a constant, "K." Since the distance to the radio horizon is about 33 percent greater than the
distance to the true horizon, we get the formula K = 4/3. This assumes a standard atmosphere where
air pressure, air temperature and humidity decrease linearly with increasing altitude. This is the
standard refraction. When predicting performance, this standard provides us with a best-case scenario.
Standard atmospheric conditions seldom occur over the entire length of a propagation path for a full
day, week or year. For example, standard atmospheric conditions may occur at 80 percent of a given
period. The propagation characteristics may be such that K is more or less than 4/3 for the remaining
20 percent of the time. When K is greater than 4/3, the atmosphere causes the wave to bend less than
standard refraction effectively increasing the radio horizon. This condition is called substandard
refraction. The wave bends more when K is less than 4/3, decreasing the radio horizon. This
condition is called superstandard refraction.
In the early morning hours of late summer and early fall, the atmospheric conditions may be such that
K decreases considerably in value. This effectively bends the wave more, possibly enough to miss the
receive antenna. We design microwave LOS radio systems to overcome signal fading caused by
changes in the refractive characteristics of the atmosphere since we cannot control the weather.
Diffraction
Diffraction is somewhat less familiar phenomena. A LOS radio path is usually designed for a direct
line between the transmitting and receiving antennas. LOS signaling may not always be possible
however, because a hill or other object may be in the way. Diffraction permits communications in
shadow regions behind obstacles. Diffraction is the downward bending of radio waves as they graze
the surface of the earth or the top of an obstruction in a propagation path. This is sometimes called
"knife-edge" diffraction (fig. 2–19). All frequencies scatter around obstacles to some degree but lower
frequencies diffract more easily. It is not uncommon for a lower-frequency signal to diffract across a
hill top and result in reliable communications at a receive antenna located not far below the line of
sight. At the same time however, a higher frequency signal will not be heard.
2–30

Figure 2–19. Knife-edge diffraction.

In using the diffraction "knife-edge" effect, the important factors are sharpness of the edge and height
of the obstacle. A sharper edge attenuates the signal less but the obstacle must also be the right height
for this effect.
You can compare diffraction of a radio wave with a light hitting an opaque object. When light strikes
the object, a shadow forms on the side of the object that is shielded from the light source. Just like
LOS, light ordinarily travels in a straight line, but those light waves that just pass the edges of the
opaque object are bent, producing a fuzzy border region between the shadow area and the lighted
area.
Atmospheric effects
Electromagnetic wave propagation is concerned mainly with the properties and effects of the medium
located between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna. While radio waves traveling in
free space have little outside influence affecting them, radio waves traveling within the Earth's
atmosphere are affected by varying conditions. The influence exerted on radio waves by the Earth's
atmosphere adds many new factors to complicate what at first seems to be a relatively simple
problem. These complications are because of a lack of uniformity within the Earth's atmosphere.
Changes in atmospheric conditions can dramatically change the ability to communicate. In some
instances, communications distances can be extended, reduced or eliminated. The major problem with
reduced communications can be attributed to atmospheric conditions.
Absorption
Absorption causes severe fading of a signal. Absorption results from a loss of energy (attenuation) in
a signal due to the presence of moisture particles (in the form of rain, snow and clouds) in the
transmission path. Absorption in the higher part of the electromagnetic spectrum may occur even
when the transmissions pass through a fog bank. Below are few examples of how weather can effect
radio wave propagation:
 Rain attenuation is another factor that can significantly reduce signal strength through
absorption and scattering; especially when operating above 8 GHz. Rain acts as a poor
dielectric, absorbs power from the electromagnetic wave and dissipates the power by heat
loss.
 Attenuation caused by fog is determined by the density of the fog and droplet size.
Attenuation by absorption seriously affects frequencies above 2 GHz.
 Snow attenuation is less dense than rain. Because snowflakes come in many irregular shapes
and sizes, computing losses for absorption and scattering is difficult.
Precipitation in the atmosphere has it greatest effects on the higher frequency ranges. Frequencies in
the HF range and below show little effect from precipitation.
Fading also results from absorption of the RF energy in the ionosphere. Most ionospheric absorption
occurs in the lower regions of the ionosphere where ionization density is the greatest. As radio waves
pass into the ionosphere, some energy is lost. The amount of absorption varies with the density of the
 2–31

ionospheric density. Under certain conditions, the absorption of energy is great enough that
communication over any distance beyond the LOS becomes difficult.
Anomalous propagation
The term anomalous, or nonstandard, propagation applies to any propagation conditions other than
normal. When there is a gradual decrease of pressure, temperature and humidity with height under
normal atmospheric conditions, a RF beam’s curvature is slightly less than the earth’s curvature. This
causes it to gradually climb higher with distance and is called standard or normal refraction. When
there is an unusual or other-than-normal vertical distribution of moisture and/or temperature,
nonstandard refraction or anomalous propagation takes place. This causes exaggerated bending of the
beam either up or down. There are three categories of anomalous propagation: subrefraction,
superrefraction, and ducting.
Subrefraction
Subrefraction occurs when the refractive index of the atmosphere decreases less rapidly with height
than under standard refractive conditions. As a result, the RF beam is bent downward slightly. This
occurs when density contrast in the atmosphere is weak, such as when water vapor content (humidity)
increases and/or temperature decreases rapidly with height. The beam bends less than normal and
climbs excessively skyward. This phenomenon is known as subrefraction. Subrefraction causes RF
to overshoot its intended targets that are normally detected. Subrefractive conditions are generally
rare and encountered virtually anywhere. They are most likely in the polar regions, large deserts, and
steppe regions. These conditions are generally associated with bad weather conditions or low pressure
system.
Superrefraction
Superrefractive conditions are largely associated with temperature and humidity variations near the
Earth's surface. The effects of a superrefractive layer on a microwave system are directly related to its
height above the Earth's surface. If the atmosphere’s temperature increases with height (inversion)
and/or the water vapor content decreases rapidly with height, the refractivity gradient will decrease
from the standard. The RF beam tends to be bent down slightly more. This situation is known as
superrefraction and causes the RF beam to deflect earthward below its normal path. Generally, RF
ranges are extended when superrefractive conditions exist. Superrefraction conditions tend to be more
frequently encountered in the maritime trading areas of the world and are generally associated with
good weather or high pressure weather system.
Ducting
Under normal conditions, the earth’s atmosphere is densest (thickest) at its surface and becomes
thinner at higher altitudes. The normal refractive characteristics of the atmosphere cause no serious
problems in planning LOS radio systems. However, unusual weather or climate conditions will
occasionally cause the atmosphere to form into layers that differ in density.
During a temperature or humidity inversion, thicker air is on top instead of on the bottom. Instead of
downward, a radio wave entering this inversion is bent upwards, out of the LOS transmission path. If
propagated radio waves encounter another atmospheric layer above the inversion layer, they could be
refracted (bounced) back and forth between the boundaries of the two layers. This results in the waves
being guided through the air layer much the same way water is guided through a pipe (fig. 2–20).
This phenomenon is called ducting. A duct is a relatively rare occurrence and can be identified by its
long duration. A ducting effect usually lasts several hours. If the duct happens to lie between the
transmitting and receiving antennas, communications may actually be enhanced.
2–32

Figure 2–20. Ducting.

Faraday effect
The Faraday Effect is the slow fading caused by the rotation of the plane of polarization of radio
waves as they pass through the ionosphere in the Earth’s magnetic field. This effect produces a
coupling loss between linearly polarized antennas. We purposely rotate the transmit signal with
circular polarization to overcome the Faraday Effect. We continuously change the polarization of the
signal from vertical to horizontal and back to vertical in a 360° arc. This makes the transmit signal
travel in an apparent spiral or circular path. The directions, right and left, merely show the direction
the signal is rotating (fig. 2–21).

Figure 2–21. Faraday Effect.

 2–33

Free space loss

In physics, free space is a concept of electromagnetic theory which corresponds to a theoretically
perfect vacuum. This concept of free space is an abstraction from nature, a baseline, which is
unattainable in practice. Even space itself is considered only a partial vacuum.
If radio waves could originate at a center source in free space, they would spread out in an ever-
growing sphere from the source. The speed of these spheres would be the same as light since light is
also an electromagnetic wave. The speed of light in this environment is 186,282.386 or 299,793,077
meters per second. The path of the ray will always be in a straight line. In free space the intensity of
the field of the radio wave decreases directly with the distance from the source. For instance, if the
field strength one mile from the source has a value of 100 microvolts per meter, the field strength at
two miles will be 50 microvolts per meter. This decrease in field strength is caused by the spread of
wave energy over larger and larger spheres as the distance from the source is increased. The decrease
in field strength is termed as free space loss.
Normally, the major loss of energy is the spreading out of the radio wavefront as it travels from the
transmitter. As distance increased, the area of the wavefront spread out. As the surface area of the
wavefront increases, the intensity (power) of the signal must decrease. By the time the energy arrives
at the receiving antenna, the wavefront is so spread out that the receiving antenna extends into only a
small portion of the wavefront (fig. 2-22).

Figure 2–22. Free space loss principle.

Free space loss is the theoretical radiation loss which would occur in radio transmission if all
variables were disregarded. Calculating free space transmission loss is quite simple. Consider a
transmitter with power Pt coupled to a theoretical isotropic antenna which radiates equally in all
directions. At a distance d from the transmitter, the radiated power is distributed uniformly over an
area of 4 d2 (i.e. the surface area of a sphere of radius d), so that the power flux density (S) is:
(1)

The transmission loss then depends on how much of this power is picked up by the receiving antenna.
If the capture area, or effective aperture of this antenna is Ar, then the power which can be delivered
to the receiver (assuming no mismatch or feedline losses) is simply

(2)

For the hypothetical isotropic receiving antenna, we have

(3) 

Combining equations (1) and (3) into (2), we have

(4) 
2–34

The free space path loss (FSPL) between isotropic antennas is Pt / Pr. Since we usually are dealing
with frequency rather than wavelength ( ), we can make the substitution = c/f (where c is the speed of
light) to get
(5) 

By analyzing the expression, we can say free space loss increases with the square of distance
between the transmitting and receiving antenna and the square of frequency.
The trouble with this equation is that path loss increases with the square of the frequency.
Does this mean that there is more loss at higher frequencies? While it is true that absorption
of RF by various materials (buildings, trees, water vapor, etc.) tends to increase with
frequency, we are talking about "free space" here. The frequency dependence in this case is
solely due to the decreasing effective aperture of the receiving antenna as the frequency
increases. This is reasonable since the physical size of an antenna type is inversely
proportional to frequency.
Most RF comparisons and measurement are performed in decibels. Computing free space loss is
expressed in a logarithmic format:
Free Space Loss = 20log10 (f) + 20log10 (d) +32.44
Where:
d = distance of the receiver from the transmitter (km)
f = is the signal frequency (MHz)
Free space loss is the major loss in satellite and tropospheric communications. The free space loss for
a transmission to a Defense Satellite Communication System (DSCS) Phase III satellite (at an altitude
of 22,300 miles) is about 200 dB.
Doppler Effect
The relative motion between transmitter and receiver induces the Doppler Effect on microwave
signals. The faster the rate of approach or recession, the greater the apparent frequency changes. Both
the amount of Doppler shift and the rate at which the shift occurs are important design considerations
because the receiver must be able to respond to them. The receiver needs to accommodate the
maximum expected Doppler shift. It needs either sufficient bandwidth or a means of following the
frequency shift.
Other factors that affect the distance of a LOS shot
Three other factors also determine the reliable distance of an LOS shot. They are terrain, climate and
frequency.
Terrain
The average distance between stations is 20 to 30 miles using direct wave communications. The
terrain over which signals travel will have a significant effect on the signal. Hills and mountains will
considerably attenuate the signal making reception impossible.
Climate
The effects of climate on an LOS system vary with area. Areas prone to wild swings in temperature
and humidity can expect variations in received signal power.
Frequency
The higher the frequency, the more the atmosphere absorbs the signal. (Atmospheric absorption is
double at 10,000 MHz compared to 2,000 MHz).
 2–35

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

218. VHF/UHF radio

1. What is the general rule of thumb for radio wave propagation as frequencies increase from HF to
VHF?

2. What is the approximate air-to-ground range of VHF/UHF communications?

219. SHF/EHF radio

1. What is the primary transmission path for frequencies in the SHF/EHF range?

2. Name an example of a SHF communications system.

220. Factors that affect LOS propagation

1. Explain the reason for the difference in distance between the optical and radio horizon.

2. Which principle of communication was developed to overcome the LOS distance disadvantage?

3. Why is the principle of reflection very useful in the design of directional antennas?

4. What happens to the speed of a propagated wave as the atmosphere becomes less dense?

5. How much farther is the radio horizon than the true horizon in a standard atmosphere?

6. What effect happens to the radio horizon if K experiences a significant decrease in value?

7. Which propagation characteristic permits communications in shadow regions behind obstacles?

8. What causes absorption of a radio signal?

2–36

9. In superrefraction, what will decrease from the standard the refractivity gradient?

10. Describe how ducting can occur.

11. What is free space loss?

12. Why does the free space path loss increase with the square of the frequency?

13. What is the major loss in satellite and tropospheric communications?

14. How do receivers overcome Doppler shift?

15. What is the average distance between stations using direct wave communications?

Answers to Self-Test Questions

213
1. Ground waves.
2. The height of the transmit or receive antenna.
3. The type of soil and water in the propagation path.
4. Sky wave.
214
1. Low and very low frequencies.
2. The height of the transmitting antenna, the receiving antenna, or both.
3. Seawater.
4. Refraction of HF sky waves.
5. (1) d.
(2) a.
(3) e.
(4) f.
(5) c.
(6) b.
6. The area between the most distant point reached by the ground waves of a particular signal and the point at
which the ionospheric wave first returns to the earth. In this zone, you would experience a zone of silence
because no radio signals are received.
 2–37

7. The skip distance of a frequency is the distance from the transmitter to the point at which the refracted sky-
wave first returns to earth.
8. From absorption.
9. The relative amplitude and phase differences of various signals.
10. Selective fading.
215
1. The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and the exosphere.
2. By reflections/refractions of radio waves from ionized layers in the ionosphere.
3. The bombardment of the atmosphere by ultraviolet rays of different frequencies.
4. Time of day.
5. D, E, F1, F2 and the topside.
6. It is broken down into a thick E2 layer and a highly variable thin layer called Sporadic E.
7. Regular variations which can be predicted in advance with reasonable accuracy; irregular variations cannot
be predicted in advance.
8. The D, E, and F1 layers disappear, leaving only the F2 layer. The F2 layer decreases in altitude with the
setting sun, and combines with the remnants of the F1 layer to form a single nighttime F layer.
9. Every 11 years.
10. A burst of radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum.
11. The higher F2 layer.
12. It’s not known.
216
1. 3 Hz through 300 GHz, and up to about 100 THz.
2. International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
3. 15 Hz and 20,000 Hz.
217
1. Through the earth’s substrate.
2. The transmit output power and atmospheric conditions.
3. 3–30 MHz.
4. Atmospheric conditions and the frequency used.
5. The inherent vulnerability of intercept and jamming.
6. The higher the frequency, the less power required to transmit VHF signals over a given distance.
7. MILSTAR.
218
1. Propagation takes on more of the characteristics of line-of-sight.
2. 150 miles.
219
1. The direct wave.
2. The Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) III.
220
1. The slight bending of the transmitted waves in the lower atmosphere.
2. Forward propagation by tropospheric scatter (FPTS).
3. Because the reflection allows the waves to be focused into a beam.
4. It increases.
5. 33 percent farther.
6. It decreases along with the value of K.
2–38

7. Diffraction.
8. The presence of moisture particles such as rain, snow, and clouds in the transmission path.
9. If the atmosphere’s temperature increases with height (inversion) and/or the water vapor content decreases
rapidly with height, the refractivity gradient will decrease from the standard.
10. During a temperature or humidity inversion, thicker air is on top instead of on the bottom. Instead of
downward, a radio wave entering this inversion is bent upwards, out of the LOS transmission path. If
propagated radio waves encounter another atmospheric layer above the inversion layer, they could be
refracted (bounced) back and forth between the boundaries of the two layers.
11. If radio waves could originate at a center source in free space, they would spread out in ever-growing
spheres from the source. In free space the intensity of the field of the radio wave decreases directly with the
distance from the source. This decrease in field strength is caused by spread of wave energy over larger and
larger spheres as the distance from the source in increased.
12. The frequency dependence solely based on the decreasing effective aperture of the receiving antenna as the
frequency increases. This is because the physical size of an antenna type is inversely proportional to
frequency.
13. Free space loss.
14. It needs either sufficient bandwidth or a means of following the frequency shift.
15. 20 to 30 miles.

Complete the unit review exercise before going to the next volume.
 2–39

Unit Review Exercises

Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle
the corresponding letter. When you have completed all unit review exercises, transfer your answers to
the Field-Scoring Answer Sheet.
46. (213) Radio waves that travel near the earth’s surface are called
a. earth waves.
b. global waves.
c. ground waves.
d. terrestrial waves.
47. (213) The earth’s conductivity is determined by the type of
a. air and moisture content in the propagation path.
b. antenna being used at the time of transmission.
c. soil and water in the propagation path.
d. soil and air in the propagation path.
48. (213) Sky wave transmission is used for which type of communications?
a. Long distance.
b. Subterrestrial.
c. Atmospheric.
d. Line of sight.
49. (214) The angle at which a radio wave enters the ionosphere is known as the
a. skip angle.
b. critical angle.
c. angle of entrance.
d. angle of incidence.
50. (214) Radio waves that angled too low are
a. absorbed.
b. refracted.
c. returned to earth.
d. passed into space.
51. (214) In HF communications, the lowest frequency that arrives at the distant receiver on 90
percent of the undisturbed days of the month is called the
a. maximum usable frequency.
b. lowest usable frequency.
c. operating frequency.
d. critical frequency.
52. (214) Magneton splitting creates two waves called
a. direct and indirect.
b. ordinary and abnormal.
c. in-phase and out-of-phase.
d. ordinary and extraordinary.
2–40

53. (214) In dealing with sky/ground wave propagation, the area of silence where no signals are
received is known as the
a. propagation distance.
b. skip distance.
c. dead zone.
d. skip zone.
54. (215) How many regions make up the atmosphere?
a. 2.
b. 3.
c. 4.
d. 5.
55. (215) Scientist call the ionosphere an extension of the
a. thermosphere.
b. stratosphere.
c. mesosphere.
d. exosphere.
56. (215) What occurs when high-energy ultraviolet light waves from the sun enter the ionospheric
region of the atmosphere and strike the gas atoms?
a. Ionization.
b. Modulation.
c. Conductivity.
d. Recombination.
57. (215) Sunspots are disturbances
a. in the sun’s atmosphere.
b. on the sun’s surface.
c. in the ionosphere.
d. beneath the sun’s surface.
58. (215) Sunspots occur on an
a. 11-day cycle.
b. 11-week cycle.
c. 11-month cycle.
d. 11-year cycle.
59. (216) What U.S. government agency divides the radio frequency spectrum into different bands?
a. Federal Aviation Agency.
b. American National Standard Institute.
c. Federal Communications Commission.
d. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers, Inc.
60. (217) Near-vertical-incidence sky wave operations are most effective when you’re using
a. lower high frequency (HF) range.
b. higher (HF) range.
c. medium HF range.
d. low takeoff antenna angles.
 2–41

61. (217) Which frequency band is most susceptible to jamming?

a. Low frequency.
b. Medium frequency.
c. High frequency.
d. Very high frequency.
62. (217) What frequency bands does the MILSTAR satellite system uses?
a. High frequency (HF) and ultra high frequency (UHF).
b. Super high frequency (SHF) and extremely high frequency (EHF).
c. Very high frequency (VHF) and SHF.
d. VHF and UHF.
63. (218) The main very high frequency/ultra high frequency communications emphasis is on
a. long range deployable communications.
b. short range fixed communications.
c. emergency communications.
d. air-ground communications.
64. (219) What is the primary transmission path for frequencies in the super high/extremely high
frequency range?
a. Direct.
b. Ground.
c. Surface.
d. Sky wave.
65. (219) Super high/extremely high frequency range is limited to
a. scattering.
b. line-of-sight.
c. Earth’s conductivity.
d. atmospheric absorption.
66. (220) The refractive index of air depends on moisture,
a. atmospheric pressure, and temperature.
b. atmospheric pressure, and frequency.
c. receive signal level, and temperature.
d. receive signal level, and frequency.
67. (220) When comparing the radio and optical horizons, which one is farther away and by what
percent?
a. Optical; 15.
b. Radio; 15.
c. Optical; 33.
d. Radio; 33.
68. (220) What permits communication in shadow regions behind obstacles?
a. Reflection.
b. Scattering.
c. Refraction.
d. Diffraction.
2–42

69. (220) What frequency range will show little effect from precipitation?
a. High frequency.
b. Ultra-high frequency.
c. Super-high frequency.
d. Extremely-high frequency.
70. (220) Line of sight radio waves that are guided through the air between two layers of the
atmosphere are known as
a. channeling.
b. guiding.
c. ducting.
d. piping.

Please read the unit menu for unit 3 and continue 

Unit 3. Transmission Security Techniques, Data Linking
Concepts and Jam-Resistant Communications
3–1. Electronic Combat .................................................................................................................... 3–1 
221. Electronic warfare.............................................................................................................................. 3–1 
222. Electromagnetic warfare effects ........................................................................................................ 3–4 
3–2 Encryption Fundamentals ........................................................................................................ 3–6 
223. What is encryption? ........................................................................................................................... 3–7 
224. Secure communication devices.......................................................................................................... 3–8 
225. Wireless encryption ......................................................................................................................... 3–13 
3–3. Jam-Resistant Communications............................................................................................ 3–15 
226. Theory of spread spectrum and frequency hopping ......................................................................... 3–15 
227. Single channel ground and airborne radio system ........................................................................... 3–18 
228. Defining HAVE QUICK ................................................................................................................. 3–24 
229. Ultrahigh-frequency transceiver AN/GRC–171B (V) 4 .................................................................. 3–25 
3–4. Battlefield Network Links ...................................................................................................... 3–31 
230. Joint tactical information distribution system .................................................................................. 3–31 
231. Other data links................................................................................................................................ 3–33 
232. Joint tactical radio system ................................................................................................................ 3–36 

G
OOD COMMUNICATIONS are essential to any military operation. Making sure your intended
receiver and only your intended receiver gets that information is part of communication
security principles. In this unit we go over electronic combat, transmission security
techniques, data linking and jam-resistant communications concepts. The first part introduces you to
basic electronic warfare concepts. Next, some encryption devices used to make sure our
communications are secure will be discussed. Then jam-resistant communications are discussed and
how they increase our communications survivability in a hostile electromagnetic environment. And
finally, some of the data links that connect the joint battle space environment in a net centric force
will be examined. Understanding these concepts will ensure U.S. forces have information superiority
in every mission area and secure connectivity on a protected global network.

3–1. Electronic Combat

The use of radio and radar early in World War II as the means to find targets on the surface and in the
air illustrated the first technological exploitation of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum in aerial
warfare. The advent of countermeasures to these systems produced what we now consider electronic
warfare (EW). Today’s weapon systems and support systems rely on radio, radar, infrared (IR),
electro-optical, ultraviolet and laser technologies to function in peace and war. Unhampered use of
the EM medium is vital to assure the success of any modern military operation. Coalition forces in
Operation DESERT STORM operated “at will” over Iraq and Kuwait after gaining control of the EM
spectrum early in the war. More recently, insurgents in Iraq, Afghanistan and elsewhere exploit the
electromagnetic spectrum to kill and maim through improvised explosive devices (IEDs). In this
section, we will review electronic warfare and it components.
221. Electronic warfare
Today, our military forces rely heavily on a variety of complex, high technology, electronic systems.
We depend on the electromagnetic spectrum for many applications including, but not limited to,
communications, detection, identification and targeting. The effective application of electronic
warfare in support of mission objectives is critical to the ability to find, fix, track, target, engage and
assess the adversary while denying that adversary the same ability. Control of the EM spectrum has a
major impact on the success of military operations.
3–2

EW is any military action involving the use of the EM spectrum to include directed energy (DE) to
control the EM spectrum or to attack an enemy. EW assists air and space forces in gaining access to
the battlespace and operating free from interference from adversary threat systems.
EW uses three tenets called control, exploit and enhance. These three tenets are employed by the
three components of EW: electronic attack (EA), electronic protection (EP), and electronic warfare
support (ES). Proper application of these components produces the effects of detection, denial,
disruption, deception and destruction in varying degrees to enhance overall mission objectives.
Electronic warfare tenets
EW employs three doctrinal tenets to be effective: control, exploit, and enhance.
Control
To control is to dominate the EM spectrum, directly or indirectly, so that friendly forces may exploit
or attack the adversary and protect themselves from exploitation or attack. Electronic warfare has
offensive and defensive aspects that work in a “move-countermove” fashion. Often, these aspects are
used simultaneously and synergistically to support the mission. In the same way that air superiority
allows friendly forces the freedom from attack, freedom to maneuver and freedom to attack, the
proper coordinated use of EW allow friendly forces to use the EM spectrum. As examples, the
offensive denial of a command and control (C2) network by jamming disrupts the adversary’s ability
to marshal forces that would otherwise engage a friendly strike force. The proper use of EP allows
friendly radar and communications to continue operating in the presence of enemy jamming.
Exploit
To exploit is to use the electromagnetic spectrum to the advantage of friendly forces. Friendly forces
can use detection, denial, disruption, deception, and destruction in varying degrees to impede the
adversary’s decision loop. For instance, one may use electromagnetic deception to convey misleading
information to an enemy or use an enemy’s electromagnetic emissions to locate and identify the
enemy. During World War II, the United States tracked Japanese Navy ships by their radio
transmissions. This usually provided the location and since each radio operator had a unique touch,
Navy Intelligence could often identify particular ships.
Enhance
To enhance is to use EW as a force multiplier. Careful integration of EW into air and space operations
will detect, deny, disrupt, deceive or destroy enemy forces in varying degrees to enhance overall
mission effectiveness. Through proper control and exploitation of the EM spectrum, EW functions as
a force multiplier and improves the likelihood of mission success. During the first night of Operation
DELIBERATE FORCE, airborne jammers and anti-radiation missiles negated adversary SAM
systems, allowing North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) aircraft unimpeded access to prime C2
targets in Bosnia.
Electronic warfare components
The three major components of EW are EA, EP, and ES. Figure 3–1 illustrates this concept, and the
relationship between them.
 3–3

Figure 3–1 EW components.

Electronic attack
EA involves the use of electromagnetic energy, directed energy or anti-radiation weapons to attack
personnel, facilities, or equipment with the intent of degrading, neutralizing, or destroying enemy
combat capability. EA also prevents or reduces an enemy’s use of the electromagnetic spectrum. It
can be accomplished through detection, denial, disruption, deception and destruction. EA includes
direct attack with high-speed anti-radiation missiles and active applications such as decoys, noise
jamming, deceptive jamming and expendable miniature jamming decoys. It also employs EM or DE
weapons (lasers, radio frequency weapons, particle beams, etc.). Electronic emission control and low
observable technologies are passive applications of EA.
EA examples include:
 Standoff jamming.
 High-speed anti-radiation missile.
 Chaff.
 Flare.
 Self-defense jamming.
 Directed energy.
Electronic protection
EP includes the actions taken to protect personnel, facilities, and equipment from any EW
employment that may degrade, neutralize, or destroy friendly combat capability. Examples of EP
include frequency agility, changing pulse repetition frequency, and so forth. Integration of EP and
other security measures can prevent enemy detection, denial, disruption, deception or destruction. EP
is part of defensive counter information (DCI) and needs to be properly integrated into the
information operations (IO) plan. Friendly force reliance on advanced technology demands
comprehensive EP safeguards and considerations. Proper frequency management is a key element in
preventing adverse effects, such as jamming friendly forces, by friendly forces. Much of the success
of EP occurs during the design and acquisition of equipment.
EP examples include:
 Frequency agility in a radio.
 Change pulse repetition frequency on a radar set.
 Electronic and material shielding for systems.
 Processes to counter meaconing, interference, jamming, and intrusion.
Electronic support
ES responds to tasking to search for, intercept, identify and locate sources of intentional and
unintentional radiated electromagnetic energy for the purpose of threat recognition. Commanders,
3–4

aircrews and operators use ES to provide near-real-time information to supplement information from
other intelligence sources. Additionally, ES information can be correlated with other intelligence,
surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) information to provide a more accurate picture of the
battlespace. This information can be developed into an electronic order of battle (EOB) for situational
awareness and may be used to develop new countermeasures. The relationship between ES and
signals intelligence (SIGINT), which includes electronic intelligence and communications
intelligence, is closely related since they share the common functions of search, interception,
identification, location and exploitation of electromagnetic radiation. The distinction lies in the type
and use of information and who has tasking authority. ES resources are tasked by or under direct
control of operational commanders. The operational commander may have authority to task national
SIGINT assets to provide ES or may have direct operational control over tactical resources capable of
providing ES. In either case, ES is distinguished by the fact that the operational commander
determines aspects of resource configuration required to provide ES that meets immediate operational
requirements. SIGINT is tasked by national authorities. The passive nature of ES allows it to be
effectively employed during peacetime.
ES examples include:
 Radar warning receivers.
 Communication intelligence.
 Electronics intelligence.
Counter-counter measures are those measures taken to ensure the continued use of the frequency
spectrum by DOD and friendly forces. Those measures include, but are not limited to, various
security techniques, operational procedures and electronic signal processing techniques. In the next
couple of lessons, we will look at some of those techniques. Remember this list is not all-inclusive
but it should give you a good idea of techniques available.

222. Electromagnetic warfare effects

EW is waged throughout the electromagnetic spectrum to secure and maintain effective control and
use through the integration of detection, denial, deception, disruption and destruction. The operational
application of EW is not limited to manned airborne application; it is also applied from land and
space by manned and unmanned vehicles. While control of the EM spectrum through the proper
application of EW is advantageous, when improperly used without coordination it may heighten the
risk to friendly forces. An ill-timed jamming package may highlight an otherwise unseen force or
deny the use of a frequency by friendly forces. An incorrect or wrongly interpreted radar warning
receiver indication may cause an inappropriate action to be taken. The proper employment of EW
involves various applications of detection, denial, deception, disruption and destruction.
Detection
Detection is assessing the electromagnetic environment to include radar/radio frequency, electro-
optics/laser and the IR spectrums using active and passive means. It is the first step in EW because
effective mapping of the electromagnetic environment is essential to develop an accurate EOB. The
EOB is critical for EW decision making and for using the electromagnetic spectrum to meet mission
objectives. The various means of detection include on-board receivers, space-based systems,
unmanned aerial vehicles, human intelligence and other ISR systems. Detection supports EA, EP and
ES while enabling the avoidance of known hostile systems. When avoidance is not possible, it may
become necessary to deny, deceive, disrupt or destroy the enemy’s electronic systems.
Denial
Denial is controlling the information an enemy or adversary receives, preventing the acquisition of
accurate information about friendly forces. For example, denial can be done by traditional noise
jamming techniques designed to block communications channels or radarscope presentations. Denial
may also be accomplished through more advanced electronic deception techniques or destructive
 3–5

measures. The EC–130H COMPASS CALL provides an excellent denial example as the Air Force’s
premier communications jamming weapon. A discriminate electronic attack asset, it has the ability to
deny enemy communication while allowing friendly communications to remain unhindered.
Deception
Deception is confusing or misleading an adversary. One objective of EW is to exploit the decision-
making loop of the opposition through use of the electromagnetic spectrum, making it difficult to
distinguish between reality and the perception of reality. If an adversary relies on electromagnetic
sensors to gather intelligence, deceptive information can be channeled into these systems to mislead
and confuse. Deception efforts must stimulate as many adversary information sources as possible to
achieve the desired objective. Multisensor deception can increase the adversary’s confidence about
the “plausibility” of the deception story. Deception efforts are coordinated with the military deception
officer and considered during development of an overall deception plan, IO plan and the overall
campaign plan. Operational security is critical to an effective deception plan.
Electromagnetic deception
Electromagnetic deception as it applies to EW is the deliberate radiation, reradiation, alteration,
suppression, absorption, denial, enhancement or reflection of EM energy in a manner intended to
convey misleading information to an enemy or to enemy EM-dependent weapons thereby degrading
or neutralizing the enemy’s combat capability. Deception jammers/transmitters can place false targets
on the enemy radar’s scope or cause the enemy radar to assess incorrect target speed, range or
azimuth. Such jammers/transmitters operate by receiving the pulse of energy from the radar,
amplifying it, delaying or multiplying it, and reradiating the altered signal back to the enemy’s
transmitting radar. In general, EW deception planning determines how to use EM means to mislead
the adversary and create an advantage for friendly forces.
Disruption
Disruption is degrading or interfering with the enemy’s use of the EM spectrum to limit the enemy’s
combat capabilities. Disruption is achieved by using electronic jamming, electronic deception,
electronic intrusion and destruction. These will enhance attacks against hostile forces and act as a
force multiplier.
Destruction
When used in the EW context, destruction is the elimination of some or all of an adversary’s
electronic defenses. It is the most permanent countermeasure. Target tracking radars and C2 are high
value targets because their destruction seriously hampers the enemy’s effectiveness. Destruction
requires determining the exact location of the target. This location may be found through the effective
application of ES measures. Onboard receivers and direction finding equipment may pinpoint the
location of the target. Enemy EM systems can be destroyed by a variety of weapons and techniques,
ranging from bombardment with conventional munitions to intense radiation and high energy particle
beam overloading.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

221. Electronic warfare

1. What is electronic warfare?

2. Match the electronic warfare tenets in column B with the description associated with in column
A. Items in column B may be used once.
3–6

Column A Column B

____ (1) Use as a force multiplier. a. Control.

____ (2) Dominate the EM spectrum. b. Exploit.

____ (3) Use the EM spectrum to the advantage of friendly forces. c. Enhance.

3. How does electronic attack prevents or reduces an enemy’s use of the electromagnetic spectrum?

4. What is the key element in preventing the jamming by friendly forces?

5. Name examples of electronic protection

6. What tasking do electronic support responds to?

222. Electromagnetic warfare effects

1. What electronic warfare effects are waged throughout the electromagnetic spectrum to secure and
maintain effective control and use?

2. Match the electronic warfare effects in column B with the description associated with in column
A. Items in column B may be used once.

Column A Column B

____ (1) Controlling the information an enemy or adversary receives, a. Detection.

preventing the acquisition of accurate information about b. Denial.
friendly forces. Use as a force multiplier. c. Deception.
____ (2) Elimination of some or all of an adversary’s electronic
d. Disruption.
defenses.
e. Destruction
____ (3) Assessing the electromagnetic environment.
____ (4) Confusing or misleading an adversary.
____ (5) Degrading or interfering with the enemy’s use of the EM
spectrum

3. Define electromagnetic deception as it applies to electronic warfare.

3–2 Encryption Fundamentals

With so much information going over computer networks, cell phones, radios and wireless networks,
the security of this information to keep it from getting into the wrong hands becomes more important.
In order to keep this information secure you need to understand encryption principles. This section
begins with a definition of encryption. Then secure communication devices and wireless encryption
will be discussed.
 3–7

223. What is encryption?

Any information we transmit, either voice or data, can be intercepted and looked at or listened to by
unauthorized individuals. One of the methods used to keep this information from being viewed by
anyone is to encrypt it. Encryption is the process of scrambling information so it is unintelligible to
anyone but the intended recipient. The process of unscrambling the encrypted information so that it is
intelligible is called decryption. The original unscrambled information is called “plaintext.” Once the
information is scrambled it is now “cipher text.”
Cryptography is the art or science of mathematical techniques related to such aspects of data security
as:
 Confidentiality—keeping secret the content of information from unauthorized parties.
 Data integrity—detecting the unauthorized alteration of data.
 Authentication—identifying either entities or data origins.
 Non-repudiation—preventing an entity from denying previous commitments or actions.
Types of encryption
There are two types of encryption used: voice and data encryption.
Voice encryption
Voice encryption telephone devices are designed to operate reliably, with high-voice quality, as both
ordinary telephones and secure instruments over the dial-up public switch telephone network. The
secure terminal equipment (STE) and wireline terminal are two such devices. Secure voice is a term
in cryptography for devices which are designed to provide voice encryption for voice communication
over a range of communication types such as radio, telephone or IP. Most encryption methods include
a digital secure voice. This usually includes two components, a digitizer to convert between speech
and digital signals and an encryption system to provide confidentiality. What makes ciphony (the
process of encrypting telecommunications signals) difficult in practice is a need to send the encrypted
signal over the same circuits used to transmit unencrypted voice, e.g. telephones or mobile radios.
This has led to the use of Voice Coders (vocoders) to achieve tight bandwidth compression of the
speech signals.
Data encryption
Data encryption uses a set of mathematically expressed rules for rendering data unintelligible by
executing a series of conversions controlled by a key. Systems that hold the correct key code variable
can decrypt this information. The TSEC KIV–7 and the TSEC KIV–19 are two such devices. When
you speak of data you must use the term cryptography.
Cryptography
A cryptographic algorithm is the set of rules or directions used to encrypt or decrypt data. The method
of encryption and decryption is called a cipher. All modern cryptographic algorithms are not secret
but instead base their security on key. This way message can only be decrypted if the recipient uses a
key that matches the one used to encrypt the message.
There are two classes of key-based encryption algorithms, symmetric (or secret-key) and asymmetric
(or public-key) algorithms. The difference between the two is that symmetric algorithms use the same
key for both encryption and decryption where the decryption key is derived from encryption key and
asymmetric algorithms use a different key for encryption and decryption, the decryption key cannot
be derived from the encryption key.
Symmetric algorithms use either stream ciphers or block ciphers. Using a stream cipher the plaintext
is encrypted one bit at a time while block ciphers take a number (block) of bits and encrypts them as a
single unit.
3–8

Asymmetric algorithms permit the encryption key to be public, allowing anyone to encrypt with the
key, but the decryption key is private so only the intended recipient can decrypt the message. With
asymmetric algorithms the encryption key is called a public key and the decryption key is called a
private key. The security provided by these ciphers is based on the private key being kept secret.
The military uses both manual and electronic crypto-systems. Electronic crypto-systems use secure
communications devices which we will discuss in the next section. Manual crypto-systems are
cryptographic tables that allow you to encode messages. Once you encode them, you can safely
transmit messages over unsecured networks. This is always a backup plan to a secure network. The
risk of misunderstandings and errors increases with the volume of encoding and decoding that takes
place. There are several types of manual crypto-systems but we will not get into them in this text.
Telecommunications encryption
The Air Force uses encryption in nearly all telecommunications. Below is a table with the four types
of telecommunications which use encryption.

Types
Wideband Encryption
Narrowband Encryption
Bulk Encryption
Network Encryption
Telecommunication encryption
Description
Wideband Communications is data that can come from many different types
of equipment such as computers. Encryption is done by hardware devices.
Some examples are the KG–84(A) or KIV–7. The data is encrypted to be
carried securely over leased lines, satellite, microwaves or radio signals.
Narrowband Communications are voice. Encryption is done by hardware
devices. Some examples are the KY–57, KY–58, KY–99, STU-III, STE-III and
Omni devices. The data is encrypted to be carried securely over leased lines,
satellite, microwaves or radio signals.
Bulk Communications is a multiplexed line which comes from combining
multiple single data and/or voice lines into one. Encryption is done by
hardware devices. Some examples are the KG–94(A), KG–194(A), KIV–19
and KG–81. The data is encrypted to be carried securely over leased lines,
satellite, microwaves or radio signals.
As you can see throughout the Air Force network there are multiple points of
hardware based encryption. Network encryption includes all of the previous
types plus software encryption.

224. Secure communication devices

Almost all radio communications stations use some kind of encryption system to protect message
information during transmission. Encryption protects information by converting it into a code
(encoding) before transmission, then reconverting the code into readable intelligence (decoding) after
reception. The two types of encryption at radio stations are online and off-line encryption. Online
encryption is accomplished when data entered into the encryption device is immediately transmitted
over the radio circuit. With off-line encryption, there are two separate methods that the data is entered
into the encryption device, either manually or electronically. Manual off-line encryption uses pencil
and paper while electronic off-line encryption uses keyboard entry of plain text into an electronic
encryption device that automatically converts the entered text into encrypted text. Online and offline
encryptions devices can be done with various types of electronic equipment or computer software.
Both on-line and off-line encryption devices can be stored, manipulated and transmitted at a later
time.
When an encryption device is appropriately configured with the proper codes, it is considered to be
“keyed.” Absence of this configuration code renders the device useless; it is then considered to be
“unkeyed.” A keyed encryption device assumes the same security classification as the code you enter.
If an operator uses a SECRET code key, the encryption device is classified SECRET. If the operator
uses a TOP SECRET code key, the device is considered TOP SECRET.
 3–9

Unkeyed encryption devices are classified differently. You must check with your local COMSEC
custodian about their security classification and any special handling instructions. When the device is
empty and free of codes, we categorize COMSEC hardware as a “controlled cryptographic item”
(CCI).
No matter what encryption device is used, the basic principles and purposes are the same. The
translation code, which tells the equipment of software how to encrypt and decrypt the message, is
changed regularly so even if enemy cryptographers manage to break the code, another code should be
in use by that time. Even if the worst occurs—a code is broken while in use—changing codes holds
any security leakage to a minimum and avoids its repetition.
Encryption Devices
Many types of cryptographic equipment are used in Air Force radio operations. They are used in fixed
and deployable operations. To provide a brief insight into a general selection of these devices, let’s
discuss four different types—KY–99, KG–84, KY–57 VINSON, and KIV–7. These devices make
sure our fixed and deployable facilities can provide secure and/or non-secure voice, data and fax
capability to our customers. In addition, some of these encryption devices can be used for SATCOM.
Once again these are just some examples of the encryption devices we have in the DOD inventory.
KY–99
The KY–99 is a self-contained terminal with embedded communication security and is designed to
provide secure voice and/or data communications for military customers. It encrypts voice and data
communications for half-duplex transmissions over narrow band channels including HF, VHF and
UHF radios, satellite systems and wire line networks. The KY–99 provides two independent modems,
one for LOS and one for HF radio channel transmission, with forward error correction, robust
synchronization and adaptive equalization. The KY–99 (fig. 3–2) is classified to the level of the
encryption key loaded in it.

Figure 3–2. KY–99.

KG–84
The KG–84 family of equipment devices are general, high capacity key generators used to encrypt
and decrypt teletypewriter and digital data in both tactical and fixed environments. The KG–84A
device has four selectable traffic key slots and improved remote rekeying. It processes data at digital
rates from 50 to 9,600 baud (nonsynchronous), up to 32,000 Kb/sec using its internal clock. The KG–
84 can operate at data rates up to 64,000 Kb/sec using an external clock for synchronization. It is
capable of operating in full duplex, half duplex or simplex modes. The KG–84A may be used in
tactical, strategic, ship and/or air, and fixed environments. It is approved for use at all classification
levels.
3–10

KY–57 VINSON
The KY–57 (fig. 3–3) is an electronic device that is used to encrypt UHF and VHF radios. It is both
manpackable and installs easily in the GRC–206 pallet. In the manpack mode, it requires a BA–5590
and a fill battery. In a vehicle, it operates off the same source as the radio pallet. The fill battery is
particularly important. It provides the memory “keep alive” function, which maintains stored fills
even when power is off or disconnected.

Figure 3–3. KY–57.

By encrypting transmissions, the KY–57 allows you to send and receive classified or operationally
sensitive information without the need for encoding and decoding. The unit holds up to six codes and
can receive a fill from a KOI–18, KYK–13 or OTAR. It’s also a simple piece of equipment to
operate. The following list provides information on all knobs and connectors on the front of the KY-
57 (fig. 3-3).You’ll need to become familiar with this list to operate the device.
 Power switch. In the OFF position, the unit is off, which permits messages to be broadcast
unsecured or in the clear. The ON position supplies power to the device and the time-delay
(TD) setting and helps the unit to synchronize with a distant receiving station.
 Mode switch. The mode switch allows you to transmit in the clear (P) or secure mode (C). It
also controls the loading of encryption codes. In the LD position, you load the fills manually
from a KYK–13 or a KOI–18. In the RV setting, the device converts a radio signal into
encryption data. This setting is for OTARs.
 Fill switch. Just like with the KYK–13, the fill switch allows you to change from channel to
channel. It also zeroizes channels one through five. When receiving an OTAR, you can
zeroize channels one through five and receive the new fills on channel six.
 Volume control. The volume control knob controls the volume coming out of the handset
attached to the KY–57. If the volume level is too high, you’ll experience a very distracting
side tone from the feedback.
 Audio connector. This is where the handset is connected.
 Fill connector. Fill devices load the KY–57 through this five-pin connection.
 Radio connector. The radio interface cable connects to this point.
 3–11

KIV–7
The KIV–7 is part of the family of embeddable KG–84 COMSEC modules; they are lightweight,
compact cryptographic devices that provide protection for digital and voice communications. The
KIV–7 provides security protection through TOP SECRET, dependent on the classification of the fill
key. There are currently three models in the KIV–7 family: the normal speed (KIV–7), the high-speed
(KIV–7HS) and the high-speed revision A (KIV–7HSA). The KIV–7 cryptographic device was
designed as a miniaturized KG–84A/C and intended to be completely interoperable with KG–84A/Cs.
The miniaturization of the KIV–7 family units makes them suitable for space-constrained
environments.
The KIV–7 has storage for up to 10 traffic encryption keys which simplifies multinet
communications. A removable cryptographic ignition key (CIK) prevents unauthorized access and
protects all internally stored keys. The KIV–7 fill interface is compatible with AN/CYZ–10 Data
Transfer Device (DTD), KYK–13, KYX–15 and KOI–18 common fill devices. When bunkered or
when the CIK (cryptographic ignition key) is removed; and not collocated, the KIV–7 is handled as
UNCLASSIFIED CCI. When the KIV–7 is keyed, it is handled at the classification level of the
highest level of stored key.
Fill devices
Fill devices, along with associated fill cables, are used to store, distribute and key-up the different
encryption devices that radio operators use in fixed and deployable missions. Here is a small sample
of the many devices you may use.
KOI–18
The KOI–18 is a tape reader. It converts the paper-based key tapes to electronic format and transfers
the data either to a storage device or to the actual encryption equipment. Although the KOI–18 does
not have a memory, it does require a battery. The BA–1372/U is commonly used. This battery is
referred to as a fill battery since the device cannot hold a key without it.
The operation of a KOI–18 is very simple. You merely slide the key tape into the reader and pull it
out at a moderate rate. If you pull the tape through the device too fast, it will not read the data
correctly. The only other consideration is that the key tape must be properly aligned so that its dots
line up with the guide dots on the face of the tape reader head. Figure 3–4 shows a picture of the
KOI–18.
KYK–13
The KYK–13 is a six-channel code storage device. It receives its encryption data, or fills, from the
KOI–18 or other fill devices. This code storage device also requires a single fill battery to operate.
Codes are available on demand by simply attaching the KYK–13 directly to the radio or to an external
encryption device. The device can deliver an unlimited number of fills. The KYK–13 and its parts are
depicted in figure 3–5. The following list provides information on all switches and lights on the front
of the KYK-13. You’ll need to become familiar with this list to operate the device.
 Mode select switch. In the OFF/CHECK position, the KYK–13 verifies the presence of a
code in any of the six channels. You simply select the channel you are interested in and then
press the rubber-covered initiate pushbutton switch. As you do this, watch the red indicator
light. If it blinks, there is a code in the channel. The KYK–13 doesn’t indicate the currency or
type of code; it only confirms that a code is loaded in the channel you are checking. In the
ON position, you can send fills to other devices. The Z, or zeroized, setting permits you to
delete the codes one at a time. In the Z position, the switch is spring-loaded to prevent
accidental zeroing.
 Indicator light. In addition to code verification, the light flashes when codes are transferred
and received.
3–12

 Initiate push-button switch. You must press this button before receiving or deleting a code.
 Channel select switch. Use the channel select switch to selectively fill or zero each of the six
channels. If you must delete all the codes simultaneously, use the Z ALL function.

Figure 3–4. KOI–18 fill device.

Figure 3–5. KYK–13 fill and storage device.

CYZ–10
The AN/CYZ–10 (fig. 3–6) is a data transfer device, but we are primarily concerned with its use as a
fill device. The data transferred is the encryption code. It takes the place of the KYK–13 and other
systems. You can use this device to accomplish over-the-air-rekeying (OTAR). OTAR will be
discussed in the next section. This device is much more complex than the KYK–13.
One of the advantages of this system is the ability to carry hundreds of fills in a single device.
 3–13

Figure 3–6. CYZ–10.

The CYZ–10 provides an integrated accounting system. There are several disadvantages to any DTD.
Of the disadvantages, one of the biggest is that the system is not intuitive requiring up to 18 steps to
fill a radio. The system is also not as rugged as a KYK-13. And finally, one of the biggest
disadvantages comes from its greatest advantage. Since the CYZ-10 can hold hundreds of different
fills, the loss of a single device allows the compromise of all fills stored in the device at the time.

225. Wireless encryption

To load an encryption key into a communications security device or into a land mobile radio system
you would have to manually load each radio or security device individually. With new technology
that is not always the case. Systems like the AN/PSC–5 and land mobile radios with OTAR capability
built into them are now being rekeyed wirelessly.
OTAR is the common name for the method of changing the encryption keys in a two-way radio
system over the radio channel or “over the air.” OTAR gives you a centralized control over
encryption keys which reduces procedural, operational and security problems assuring the integrity of
keys at a high level. With OTAR technology, it takes users only a few seconds to rekey their radios
over the air from a remote location.
OTAR allows the central controller to change the encryption key in remote crypto equipment by
sending the new key directly to the remote crypto-equipment over the communication path it secures.
If a radio does not have the correct encryption key to begin with it will not be reprogrammed. Not
only does the central controller have the ability to change encryption keys but the controller also has
the ability to remove equipment from the net that has been compromised.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

223. What is encryption?

1. Define encryption.

2. What is secure voice?

3–14

3. Describe the difference between symmetric and asymmetric algorithms?

4. What permits the encryption key to be public and the decryption key to be private?

5. Match the telecommunication encryption type in column B with the description associated with in
column A. Items in column B may be used once.

Column A Column B

_____ (1) Encryption of data. a. Wideband.

_____ (2) Software encryption. b. Narrowband.
_____ (3) Encryption of voice. c. Bulk.
_____ (4) Encryption of multiplexed lines.
d. Network.

224. Secure communication devices

1. Describe the difference between “keyed.” and “unkeyed” encryption devices.

2. If the operator uses a TOP SECRET code key, what security classification would the device take?

3. How is COMSEC hardware categorized when it is empty and free of codes?

4. Describe the KY–99 encryption device?

5. Which encryption device are general, high capacity key generators used to encrypt and decrypt
teletypewriter and digital data in both tactical and fixed environments?

6. What does the mode switch on a KY–57 do?

7. When the cryptographic ignition key is removed and not collocated, how should the KIV–7 be
handled?

8. How do you operate a KOI–18?

9. How do you verify the presents of a code in a KYK–13?

10. What is one advantages of the CYZ–10?

 3–15

225. Wireless encryption

1. What is OTAR?

2. What does OTAR give you?

3–3. Jam-Resistant Communications

Jam-resistant devices are needed to increase survivability of command, control and communications
intelligence systems in a hostile electromagnetic environment. Jam-resistant techniques allow us to
prevent adversaries from controlling our primary electromagnetic communications systems,
restricting communication capabilities and manipulating our combat operations. This type of hostile
environment is considered a form of information warfare. This type of warfare does not use bullets or
bombs but is just as important. It enables the exploitation of operational limitations and weakness of
our opponents during major combat operations.

226. Theory of spread spectrum and frequency hopping

This section introduces the basic theory of operation for frequency hopping and spread spectrum
systems. A little known fact is Hedy Lamar, famed actress of the 1940s, and her husband George
Antheil, were the pioneers for frequency hopping. They filed some of the original patents on
frequency hopping in a design for steering torpedoes to their targets. This patent included the basic
concept of changing frequencies so that the enemy could not jam the torpedo’s signal, causing it to
miss the target. Surprisingly enough, the radio controller in their patent was founded on the same
concept used in old-fashioned barrel organs—paper roll strips with perforations cut in them. The
torpedo and the ship it was fired from had an identical roll of paper for synchronization. The rest is
history!
Frequency hopping principles
Frequency hopping is a method of transmission where the radio automatically changes frequencies in
constant and rapid succession using an assigned seemingly random pattern. To reduce the effects of
interference or jamming of the normal signal, frequency hopping changes the frequency of the radios
several times per second; keeping the radios on the same frequency at the same time. To a receiver
that is not synchronized to the transmitter, the frequency hopping signal looks like impulse noise.
Purpose of frequency hopping techniques
The purpose of frequency-hopping techniques is to counter the use of enemy electronic
countermeasures. Frequency-hopping techniques are the primary electronic counter-countermeasures
(ECCM) technique that makes HAVE QUICK (HQ) and the Single Channel Ground and Airborne
Radio System (SINCGARS) radio quite effective against jamming, compared to older radio systems.
Frequency hopping spread spectrum
Frequency hopping spread spectrum uses a narrow band carrier that changes frequency in a pattern
known to both transmitter and receiver. It has the effect of functioning as a single channel. This
allows for effective frequency diversity that provides excellent transmission characteristics. It is
possible for several units to operate on the same hopping sequence as part of a network, but they
cannot communicate with units operating on a different hopping sequence.
Categories of hopping rates
Each transmitter remains on a given frequency during an interval called dwell time and needs a
minimum time interval to change from one frequency to another. The rate of frequency changes is
3–16

called the hopping rate. Below are three different hopping modes used to identify the hopping rate of
spread spectrum systems:
1. Slow frequency hopping—less than 10 hops/sec. Slow frequency hopping occurs if one hop
contains several modulation symbols.
2. Medium frequency hopping—on the order of 100 hops/sec.
3. Fast frequency hopping—more than 1,000 hops/sec. Fast frequency hopping exists if one
modulation symbol is spread over several hops.
Synchronization
An operational problem with spread-spectrum systems is that the receiver must be able to synchronize
with the transmitted signal. For this process to occur, the dispreading process must take place before
demodulation. Therefore, no information on the incoming signal is available at this time. The receiver
must do several steps to determine the synchronization time window. Take the following into
consideration:
 The distance between the transmitter and receiver could give a propagation delay.
 Relative clock instabilities in both the transmitter and receiver.
 The receiver’s relative velocity with respect to the transmitter, could produce a Doppler
frequency shift in the receiver signal.
 Transmitter and receiver oscillator instabilities could produce frequency offsets.
 Parallel search allows the receiver to try to dispread the incoming signal through several
paths using the same spreading signal at different delay times.
Benefits of frequency hopping spread Spectrum technology
Spread spectrum technology has provided many benefits. Two primary benefits are interference
suppression and low probability of intercept systems. Interference suppression allows the user to
transmit information without being detected by anyone other than the desired receiver. The goal of
low probability of intercept systems is to make the detection of transmitted signals undetectable
where possible.
Transmission security parameters
Transmission security (TRANSEC) keys initiate a pseudorandom algorithm for choosing frequencies.
There are some parameters common to every type of spread spectrum system. Every
transmitter/receiver involved in communications net configuration must be fed with the following set
of parameters before being able to communicate:
• Time reference—the time reference makes sure that, within each net, the hopping sequences
are synchronized. This parameter input may be absolute and external to the system or
arbitrary and internal to a part of the system.
• Net number—the net number forces two transceivers to follow the same hopping sequence.
Other techniques
There are other ways to do frequency hopping. A derivative of this frequency hopping technique is
called free channels search. We can see it as a frequency hopping method, with each hop
corresponding to one complete transmission. The frequency remains constant for the duration of the
transmission, and then the system selects another frequency for the next transmission.
Spread spectrum
Spread spectrum is a wideband radio frequency technique developed by the military for use during
critical missions requiring reliable, secure communications that are nearly immune to jamming and
difficult to intercept. Detection of the transmitted spread spectrum signal requires the receiver to
 3–17

know the parameters of the transmitted signal. This makes this technique a highly reliable mode of
communications.
Spread spectrum communications cannot be said to be an efficient means of using bandwidth.
However, it does come into its own when combined with existing systems occupying the frequency.
The spread spectrum signal being “spread” over a large bandwidth can coexist with narrow band
signals only adding a slight increase in the noise floor that the narrowband receivers see. As for the
spread spectrum receiver, it does not see the narrow band signals since it is listening to a much wider
bandwidth at the prescribed code sequence.
Types of spread spectrum techniques
There are five types of spread spectrum systems. These are direct sequence, frequency hopping, time
hopping, pulsed FM (chirp) and hybrid systems.
Direct sequence systems
Direct sequence is perhaps one of the most widely known and used spread spectrum systems and it is
relatively simple to implement. A narrow band carrier is modulated by a code sequence. The carrier
phase of the transmitted signal is abruptly changed according to this code sequence. A pseudorandom
generator that has a fixed length generates the code sequence. After a given number of bits the code
repeats itself exactly. The speed of the code sequence is called the chipping rate measured in chips
per second. For direct sequence, the amount of spreading is dependent upon the ratio of chips per bit
of information. At the receiver, the information is recovered by multiplying the signal with a locally
generated replica of the code sequence.
Frequency hopping systems
With frequency hopping systems, the carrier frequency of the transmitter abruptly changes (or hops)
according to a pseudorandom code sequence. The order of frequencies selected by the transmitter is
dictated by the code sequence. The receiver tracks these changes and produces a constant
intermediate frequency (IF) signal.
Time hopping systems
A time hopping system is a spread spectrum system in which the period and duty cycle of a pulsed
RF carrier are varied in a pseudorandom manner under the control of a coded sequence. Time
hopping is often used effectively with frequency hopping to form a hybrid time-division multiple
access (TDMA) spread spectrum system.
Pulsed FM (chirp) systems
A pulsed FM system is a spread spectrum system in which an RF carrier is modulated with a fixed
period and fixed duty cycle sequence. At the beginning of each transmitted pulse, the carrier
frequency is frequency modulated causing an additional spreading of the carrier. The pattern of the
frequency modulation will depend upon the chosen spreading function. In some systems, the
spreading function is a linear FM chirp sweep that sweeps either up or down in frequency.
Hybrid systems
Hybrid systems use a combination of spread spectrum methods to use the beneficial properties of the
systems used. Two common combinations are direct sequence and frequency hopping. The advantage
of combining the two methods is to capitalize on characteristics that are not available using a single
method.
Advantages/disadvantages of using spread spectrum
Spread spectrum has many unique properties that cannot be found in any other modulation technique.
Should you use spread spectrum? This question can be answered by listing the advantages and
3–18

disadvantages of spread spectrum. Bear in mind these come about because of the nature of spread, not
because they are direct attributes.
Some advantages of using spread spectrum are it resists intentional and nonintentional interference, it
has the ability to eliminate or alleviate the effect of multipath interference, and it can share the same
frequency band with other users. Also, spread spectrum provides privacy due to the pseudorandom
code sequence (code division multiplexing).
The disadvantages of spread spectrum are the increase in both bandwidth and complexity.
Properties
There are several unique properties that arise as a result of the pseudorandom code sequence and the
wide signal bandwidth that results from spreading. Two of these are selective addressing and code
division multiplexing. By assigning a given code to a single receiver or a group of receivers, they may
be addressed individually or by group away from other receivers assigned a different code. Codes can
also be chosen to minimize interference between groups of receivers by choosing ones that have low
cross correlation properties. In this manner, more than one signal can be transmitted at the same time
on the same frequency. Selective addressing and Code Division Multiple Access are implemented via
these codings.
A second set of properties is low probability of intercept and antijamming. When the intelligence of
the signal is spread out over the frequency spectrum, the resulting power is also spread out. This
results in the transmitted power being spread out over a wide frequency bandwidth making detection
in the normal sense (without the code) very difficult. Thus, spread spectrum can survive in an adverse
environment and can coexist with other services in the band. The anti-jamming property results from
the wide bandwidth used to transmit the signal.

227. Single channel ground and airborne radio system

SINCGARS is a family of VHF FM radio sets designed to provide tactical communications
capability. Its primary uses are command and control of combat forces and combat support agencies.
It allows simple, quick operation using a keypad for push button tuning. SINCGARS is capable of
short-range or long-range operation for voice or digital (data) communications. It functions in single-
channel operation or in a jam-resistant, frequency-hopping mode. If you ever work in a tactical,
mobile unit, it’s quite possible you’ll need to become familiar with the SINCGARS. The SINCGARS
family of radios provides lightweight, tactical, VHF FM communications capability. Its use is popular
throughout the tactical community due to its durability, versatility and ease of use.
SINCGARS fundamentals
The specific receiver/transmitter (RT) we discuss is the RT–1523. Many AF units are using other
SINCGARS equipment—such as the RT–1439 (the first one produced), but the concepts are very
similar.
Description
It’s important to note the RT–1439 requires external communications security (COMSEC) devices to
enable encrypted communications. However, the RT–1523 uses ICOM. ICOM stands for integrated
COMSEC which means it has COMSEC capability embedded within the radio.
SINCGARS operates on any or all of the 2,320 frequencies between 30 and 87.975 MHz in 25 kHz
increments. SINCGARS employs frequency hopping as its primary means of communications against
a hostile (jamming) environment. It is capable of processing voice and analog and digital data in
either the frequency hopping or single channel mode.
Figure 3–7 depicts RT–1523 section interconnects.
 3–19

Figure 3–7. SINCGARS RT–1523 section interconnect diagram.

The control section digitally tunes the RF section. When receiving, the RF section is responsible for
demodulation. The recovered audio or data signal passes through the control section. When the radio
is transmitting, the RF section is responsible for modulating the RF carrier with the audio or data
signal.
The control section contains the microprocessors, programming, and interface circuits that:
1. Scan the front panel for operator instructions.
2. Provide feedback to the operator through the keyboard display.
3. Control frequency selection during FH operation.
4. Control signal routing between modules.
5. Provide the remote control interface.
The ICOM I/O section provides:
1. The interface circuitry for audio and data I/O.
2. Audio/Data signal level control.
3–20

3. Enhanced data handling capability.

4. COMSEC encryption/decryption.
To have a better understanding of their role in the radio, the control and RF sections will be discussed
in more detail.
Control and RF sections
The control section consists of five modules; electronic components assembly—control 1A4 (control
module); control, counter-countermeasures—electronic 1A5 (ECCM module); circuit card
assembly—remote l/O 1A2 (remote l/O module); circuit card assembly—two-wire interface 1A6
(two-wire interface); circuit card assembly—switch 1A7 (switching module). The RF section consists
of five modules; impedance matching network 1A1; IF/demodulator 1A8; tuner/mixer 1A9;
synthesizer, electrical frequency 1A10 (synthesizer); exciter/power amplifier 1A11.
Control section
The control module contains a microprocessor and the programming used in single channel operation.
Buffers, registers and interface circuits permit the microprocessor to communicate with the other RT
modules. It checks the FCTN (function), MODE, RF, and CHAN switches and the keyboard for
operator action. If the operator’s actions are valid, the control module informs the other modules and
the front panel display of any directed changes.
The ECCM module contains another microprocessor and the programming used in frequency hopping
operation. The ECCM module has two connectors. One connects to the control module and the other
to the RT chassis. With the MODE switch set to FH, the microprocessor in the control module
executes instructions in the ECCM module. The microprocessor uses the hopset and lockout sets to
build a look-up table of frequencies. A frequency is selected from that table using the TRANSEC
variable, FH sync time (time-of-day or TOD), and net ID number. When the radio is transmitting, the
ECCM module converts the analog signal into a digital data signal. The ECCM module
microprocessor interleaves the data signal onto the frequency hops.
When the radio is receiving, the process reverses. The remote I/O module and two-wire interface
provide the remote operating capability. The two-wire interface sends and receives information to and
from the remote control unit over a two-wire link. Frequency shift keying (FSK) enables encoding of
control information. It converts instructions received into a digital data stream for the remote I/O
module. A microprocessor in the remote I/O module interprets the instructions and exchanges data
with the control module. During remote operation, the control module executes instructions from the
remote I/O module instead of from the front panel (local operation).
The switching module functions like a railroad switching yard. Many signals pass through the
switching module when traveling between subassemblies. Control input signals determine the path
the signals take. The switching module also performs the following functions.
 Bit synchronization.
 Pre-modulation filtering.
 Tone squelches.
 Notch Filtering.
 Modulation level control.
 Generation of clock frequencies using the 3.2-MHz clock signal from the synthesizer.
 Input and output control during retransmit operation.
The switching module is involved in most functions of the RT.
 3–21

RF section
The impedance matching network provides the impedance matching required for the RT to operate
with two different antenna types. It provides a 50-ohm impedance when used with a vehicular
antenna. To keep the VSWR below 3.5:1 when used with a man-pack antenna, the system uses one of
the other three circuits in the module. The module receives frequency data from the control module,
which is used to select the matching circuit. A detector in the impedance matching network checks
the VSWR when transmitting with a man-pack antenna. If it goes above 5:1, sidetone is disabled and
output power is reduced 10 to 15 dB.
The tuner/mixer and IF/demodulator perform basic receive functions. The tuner/mixer filters and
amplifies the received RF signal and mixes it with the local oscillator (LO) signal from the
synthesizer. The resulting IF signal passes to the IF/demodulator. It demodulates the IF signal to
recover the transmitted audio or data signal. The IF/demodulator detects cue signals during FH
operation.
The exciter/power amplifier performs the basic transmit functions. It modulates the RF carrier with
the audio or data signal. It then amplifies it to the required output level. The synthesizer provides the
reference frequencies for the tuner/mixer and the exciter/power amplifier.
Frequency hopping
FH is a method of transmitting radio signals over a seemingly random series of frequencies. These
signals are known to both the receiver and transmitter. FH is commonly used in the military and the
radios used function as both the transmitter and receiver. However, the radio acts differently during
receive mode and transmit mode. Let’s take a look at those differences.
Receive
Received FH signals are in digital format (fig. 3–8). Bit-synchronized (BS) data is the received FH
signal synchronized to internal clocks and converted to RT (receiver/transmitter) digital signal levels.
BS data goes to the ECCM (electronic counter-countermeasures) module interleave circuits. The
interleaver removes synchronization and frequency-hopping information that is embedded in the
signal. Afterwards, the signal is re-clocked at 16 kilobits per second (kb/s) rate. It is now the FH
DATA signal. In RCV data mode, FH DATA goes directly to the switching module. When the radio
is receiving audio, the ECCM module’s continuously variable slope detector (CVSD) converts the FH
data back to an analog signal and sends it to the switching module as RCV FH AUDIO.

Figure 3–8. SINCGARS frequency hopping block diagram.

3–22

Transmit
The ECCM module requires two signals during FH transmit—BS DATA and XMT PT (transmit
plain text) AUDIO. BS DATA goes directly to the interleaver where it is interleaved (layered) with
synchronization and FH information. The RT will need this information to coordinate
communications. The CVSD converts PT AUDIO to a 16 kb/s digital signal output as CVSD DATA
to the interleaver. Re-clocked to 20 kb/s, this signal is output on the FH DATA line to the switching
module.
The interleaver supplies the control and data signals needed by the time sync and correlator. This
module’s function is to synchronize the operation of the RT and the ECCM module. It manipulates
control signal outputs to control RT operations in FH mode. These outputs shut down reception and
transmission during frequency shifts, provide the next frequency to the control module (via the data
and address busses) and supply clocking for the ECCM module.
The ECCM module is also responsible for storage of the FH operation programming, generation of
random numbers for hopping frequency selection and processing and storage of FILL data. The RT
chooses the frequencies in FH by pseudorandom number generation. The TRANSEC variable, time of
day (TOD), and net ID number are used to select the next frequency. The control module uses the
hopset and lockout set to create a look-up table of frequencies for the net. The ECCM module picks
one of these frequencies from the table. The result travels to the control module over the data bus.
The control module informs the rest of the modules of the frequency selected by the SERIAL DATA
LINE.
Signal flow
As with most systems utilized in the RF Transmission System career field, block diagrams provide a
way to easily understand the signal flow as it passes through the system. These block diagrams are
also used to troubleshoot the system(s). The discussion begins with the receive signal flow (fig. 3-9).
Receive
The received RF signal passes through the impedance matching network 1A1, exciter/power amplifier
1A11, tuner/mixer 1A9, to IF/demodulator 1A8.

Figure 3–9. SINCGARS RT–1523 receive signal flow.

The RF signal enters the RT at the ANT connector (J1) and passes through the impedance matching
network. The impedance matching network has four different impedance bands. One is a 50-ohm
 3–23

circuit used for connecting a BNC-type connector. When a man-pack antenna is connected to the RT,
one of the other three networks will be used depending upon the frequency selected.
The SERIAL DATA line distributes the operating frequency. TUNE GATE-N and TUNE CLK are
used to decode the SERIAL DATA. The RF signal from the impedance matching network goes to the
exciter/power amplifier. After passing through a low-pass filter, it passes to the tuner/mixer. The
tuner/mixer filters and amplifies the RF signal and then mixes it with the local oscillator (LO) signal
from the frequency synthesizer 1A10. The LO is 12.5 MHz higher than the operating frequency,
which, of course, produces a 12.5 MHz IF. The tuner/mixer and synthesizer use the SERIAL DATA
line for digital tuning. The 12.5 MHz IF signal travels to the IF/demodulator. The IF/demodulator
demodulates the IF signal to recover the baseband audio or data signal (FM DEMOD). The signal
path is unchanged for FH operation.
Transmit
A PTT (push-to-talk) input from outside the RT initiates transmit mode (fig. 3–10). The SERIAL
DATA signal from the control module tunes the exciter/power amp, frequency synthesizer and the
impedance matching network. TUNE GATE-N and TUNE CLK are used to decode the SERIAL
DATA. The exciter/power amplifier modulates the carrier with the FM MOD signal from the
switching module The frequency synthesizer has a 3.2 MHz reference frequency. The exciter/power
amplifier generates the FM signal using two phase-locked loops (PLL). In the first, the FM MOD
signal controls a 3.9 MHz voltage controlled crystal oscillator (VCXO). This produces an FM 3.9
MHz signal. Mixing it with the 3.2 MHz reference frequency generates a 700 kHz FM output. The
phase detector samples the 700 kHz output and the feedback regulates the VCXO frequency.

Figure 3–10. SINCGARS RT–1523 transmit signal flow

The second PLL operates the same. It phase locks the 700 kHz output of the first loop with the RF
REFERENCE signal to generate the modulated RF signal. The modulated RF signal is amplified,
filtered, and then sent to the impedance matching network. The RF REFERENCE signal provided by
the frequency synthesizer is 7 MHz higher than the carrier frequency. The RF switch on the front
panel selects the RF output level.
3–24

The impedance matching network routes the RF signal to the ANT connector. A 50-ohm circuit
provides a connection for a BNC-type connector. When using a man-pack antenna, selection of one of
the other three networks depends upon the frequency selected.
A VSWR detector in the impedance matching network checks the output versus reflected power. If
the VSWR goes above 5:1, the SIDETONE DISABLE line goes to logic level 1. The SIDETONE
DISABLE line can also be set to logic 1 by the exciter/power amplifier if the temperature of the
module exceeds 105°C. This logic 1 signal reduces the RF power output level 10 to 15 dB.

228. Defining HAVE QUICK

The ability to communicate during periods of conflict has always been a big obstacle. Enemy
transmissions often jam our communications. The term HAVE QUICK refers to a program name for
the production and fielding of UHF radios that are capable of rapidly and simultaneously changing
frequencies (frequency hopping) during communications. Using 25 kHz spacing, it is possible to
operate on any one of 7,000 channels in the UHF spectrum at any given moment in time.
Fundamentals
Signal generators and distant transmitters can easily interfere with (or jam) radios operating on a
single fixed frequency. But if we’re using HAVE QUICK communications, hostile forces can’t jam
communications unless they either predict each frequency and the precise moment it is in use, or jam
the entire frequency spectrum. Jamming the entire spectrum requires an enormous amount of power
and the source would be easily detected … and dealt with.
To prevent jamming, HAVE QUICK radios rapidly change frequency several times per second. The
hard part is getting all the radios to change to exactly the same frequency at exactly the same time so
they can communicate with each other.
To get each radio on the same frequency at the same time, they must use the same word-of- day
(WOD) and TOD. The radios use WOD and TOD to decide which frequency it should be on at any
given time. If two radios have the same WOD and TOD, they will be on the same frequencies as they
hop around the spectrum; therefore, they are able to communicate with one another.
WOD and TOD
Every HAVE QUICK radio has an identical program in its read-only-memory. This program uses the
WOD and TOD to decide where in the sequence to start hopping. The WOD is a binary coded word, a
set number of highs and lows. While there are many possible combinations available, the TOD is
exactly what it sounds like–the time of the day. By loading each radio with the same coded WOD and
TOD, the radios use the same program.
Using a common TOD may not sound like much, but the times must be synchronized to millisecond
accuracy. TOD can best be received from a global positioning satellite (GPS) receiver such as the
AN/PSN–11 precision lightweight GPS receiver. TOD can also be received over the air from other
transmitters. The TOD used is typically universal coordinated time (UTC) normally referred to as
ZULU time or Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
All radios using the same WOD and TOD can communicate with each other. Using differing WODs
and/or TODs can establish different networks, such as the refueling tanker net, the fighter net, and the
bomber net. Individual nets can be dialed into each radio as the need to communicate with that
particular group of users or net arises. During Operation Desert Storm, 14 different noninterfering
HAVE QUICK nets were utilized.
Keep in mind that frequency hopping is used to prevent being jammed; it is not to be confused with
secure voice, which encompasses encryption. Broadband spectrum analyzers can quickly “see” each
frequency as it is being used and thereby listen to the communications. As an alternative, a
determined enemy can simply tune 7,000 receivers to the respective frequencies and listen to the
communications.
 3–25

There are two types of HAVE QUICK radios in use—HQI and HQII. HQI or AJI (anti-jam I) is also
referred to as “basic AJ” or as “single word-of-day” (SWOD). HQII or AJII is also referred to as
“advanced AJ” or “multiple word-of-day” (MWOD).
HQI, AJI, or SWOD all refer to the same thing. One word of day can be loaded into the radio at a
time. The word can have up to six segments. The more segments a word has, the more combinations
that are available for the enemy forces to figure out. The word is valid until it is changed. There is no
time limit on using a particular WOD.
HQII, AJII, or MWOD—again, all three terms refer to the same thing. Up to six words can be loaded
in at one time; each word is used for a 24-hour period. Each word is six segments in length. In AJII,
net numbers can be anything such as Axx.xZZ, where x can be a digit from 0–9 and ZZ must be 00,
25, or 50. This allows up to 3,000 possible combinations.
Net numbers must not end in 75 since that is presently an illegal net number which will result in a
fault indication.
As a maintainer/operator, you are not normally responsible for developing the word of day or
developing the net numbers. These are normally classified and are part of an overall operations plan
used Air Force wide. It’s important to note that simply reloading TOD and/or WOD will often solve
many maintenance problems when communications are failing.

229. Ultrahigh-frequency transceiver AN/GRC–171B (V) 4

The AN/GRC–171B(V)4 transceiver provides antijam (AJ) communications in AM and FM
narrowband modes. Both HAVE QUICK and HAVE QUICK II modes of antijam operation are
supported.
SAFETY NOTE: The AN/GRC–171B (V) 4 is a fairly heavy piece of equipment; always ensure you
have help when lifting this item, and observe proper lifting techniques to avoid potentially serious
back injuries.
Basic transceiver characteristics
The AN/GRC–171B(V)4 can communicate on any one of 7,000 available channels spaced 25 kHz
apart from 225 MHz to 399.975 MHz. In this section we will go over the basic characteristics of the
AN/GRC–171B(V)4.
Block diagram
There are many similarities between the AN/GRC–171B(V)4 and the basic AN/GRC–171 which has
been around much longer. Some improvements over the original are as follows:
• HAVE QUICK capability.
• Microprocessor control.
• FM capability.
• Electronically tuned preselector which replaces the servo.
• Dedicated guard receiver.
Refer to the Foldout (FO) 1. In our discussion here, assume the transceiver is being operated remotely
from the radio set control. Control information is transmitted from the radio set control to the
electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) module of the transceiver. The ECCM module controls
all activities of the transceiver. The radio set can be powered from either a 120 or 240 VAC power
line.
The transceiver consists of a receiver section (lower half of FO 1), a transmitter section (upper half of
FO 1) and a separate guard receiver (FO 1, B5 and B6). Through a transmit/receive switch, the
transmitter and receiver share a common low-pass filter and directional coupler to the antenna port of
the transceiver. The received signal is routed through a preselector tuned to the operating frequency.
3–26

It passes only the desired receive signals and rejects all-others. Both transmit and receive signals are
routed through the low-pass filter. The low-pass filter attenuates undesirable harmonics during
transmit and image frequencies during receive.
Other common circuits between the receiver and transmitter sections are frequency control, mode
control, key line and power supplies. A phase-locked loop frequency synthesizer provides frequency
control. The phase-locked loop receives binary coded decimal frequency select information from the
ECCM processor. It provides, through the synthesizer transmit/receive switch, either a transmit RF
signal or receive injection signal. Mode control is provided by mode control logic circuits (FO 1, B2)
in the FM modem and control module A11. The mode control logic receives mode enable information
from the control processor and provides various control signals to circuits of the transceiver.
Transceiver keying circuits convert remote key information into four transmitter key lines—key 1,
key 2, key 1 (mod), and key 2 (mod). The various key lines determine key-up and key down timing
for the different modes of operation. Two voltage regulator circuits and a transformer/rectifier/filter
circuit provide power supply voltages. These circuits convert input AC into regulated DC voltages.
AM receive
When operating in AM mode—AM WB (wideband) or AM NB (narrowband)—the receiver section
of the transceiver operates as a double-conversion receiver—using two intermediate frequencies.
Mixing the received RF signal (225 to 399.975 MHz) with an injection signal (195 to 369.975 MHz)
in the first mixer produces a 30 MHz IF signal. Mixing this 30 MHz IF signal with a 19.3 MHz
oscillator signal in the second mixer produces the second IF of 10.7 MHz. The AM detector extracts
the audio from this 10.7 MHz signal. The audio signal passes through the blanking gate to audio
circuits through an analog switch that is closed in AM mode. After the audio switch, the audio is
applied to the AM/FM NB AF amplifier and then to receive audio circuits in the audio module A4.
The audio circuits amplify and filter the receive audio and feed it to the headset and audio output.
Pulse-type noise (often radar) is-blanked from the audio output by a noise channel blanking circuit in
the 30 MHz IF circuit. The noise channel blanking circuit is disabled when operating in any of the
data modes. Receive squelch is provided by an AM squelch circuit in the audio circuit. Squelch can
be disabled via the ECCM processor by a squelch switch located on the radio set control.
Overall receive selectivity is determined by one of two filters which follow the second mixer circuit
in the RF receiver module A3—a wide-band LC filter or a narrowband crystal filter (FO 1, C3). The
crystal filter is automatically selected for narrowband voice mode. The LC filter is selected for
wideband data modes.
AM transmit
The audio input is applied in at the top left of FO 1, A1. Locate the main audio input and center tap
(CT) keying input that is applied to the audio module A4 to the input circuits. Locate the WB data
and microphone inputs and follow them in also. At the output of the A4 module, the transmit audio is
combined with the time-of-day/conference (TOD/CONF) TONE signals from the ECCM processor.
The combined signals are applied in to the clipper/low pass filter at the first junction below the
clipper/low-pass filter to the right. The audio is applied into the power amplifier A8 module where it
is used to amplitude-modulate the carrier from the frequency synthesizer A2 module.
The operating frequency RF signal originates in the frequency synthesizer A2 module. This signal is
applied to the RF switch which, when in AM mode, routes this signal to the RF filter module A7. In
AM mode, the RF signal from the A2 is used as a reference in the A7 module to generate the carrier
that will actually be transmitted. RF output power is 20 watts out during AM transmit.
FM receive
The noise channel is disabled in TADIL-A (tactical digital information link-A) and TADIL-C modes
since these are data modes. When operating in FM mode (FM NB, TADIL-A, or TADIL-C) the
 3–27

receiver section of the transceiver operates as a triple-conversion receiver. The first two frequency
conversions are identical to the AM mode except that AGC is disabled (this allows the IF amplifiers
to operate at maximum gain). The third conversion in FM receive is at the third mixer in the FM
modem and control module A11. Mixing the 10.7 MHz IF signal with a 15.2 MHz oscillator signal
produces a third IF of 4.5 MHz. The 4.5-MHz IF signal is frequency-discriminated at the 4.5 MHz IF
amplifier/discriminator.
An FM squelch control and gating circuit provides needed squelch control. This circuit mutes the
received signal when in FM NB mode and TADIL-A mode. The TADIL-C mode is not squelched.
Squelch can be disabled via the ECCM processor by the squelch switch on the radio set control.
FM NB
In FM narrowband mode, the audio signal from the 4.5 MHz IF amplifier/discriminator passes
through an analog switch to the same audio circuits used in the AM modes. The audio signal appears
at the headset and audio outputs.
TADIL-A and TADIL-C
When operating in TADIL-A or TADIL-C mode, the FM audio signal is amplified and appears at the
TADIL-A or TADIL-C data output respectively. TADIL will be discussed further in the next section.
FM transmit
When transmitting in FM mode, the audio signal follows the same path as in AM up through the
clipper LP filter. After the clipper LP filter, the FM audio is applied to an audio switch. When
transmitting in FM, the switch is closed and the audio is applied to the AF amplifier in the FM
modem and control module A11. The audio in to the VCXO frequency modulates the 30 MHz output
of the VCXO.
The frequency-modulated signal from the VCXO is applied through the low-pass filter to a mixer
circuit. The transmit RF signal from the frequency synthesizer A2 is passed through the RF switch to
the same mixer. The mixer combines the output from the VCXO with the synthesizer output to
produce the FM transmit signal at the operating frequency (225 to 399.975 MHz). The FM signal
from the output of the mixer follows the same path as the AM RF signal. The output RF power when
in FM mode is 50 watts.
ECCM module A1
The ECCM module A1 contains control and memory circuits for antijam operation. Contained within
this module are two processors: the control processor A1A1 and the ECCM processor A1A2. The
A1A2 sends out frequency select information on a data bus. This information is sent to the frequency
synthesizer module and RF filter module to control the operating frequency of the transceiver. The
A1A2 also provides blanking pulses that are used to attenuate transmit power output during frequency
changes. This reduces spurious RF energy as the synthesizer changes from one frequency to the next.
These pulses are used to eliminate any “popping” noise when the frequency changes.
Auxiliary circuits and functions
The AN/GRC–171B(V)4 contains an independent guard receiver that is permanently tuned for
243.000 MHz. It is used for emergency communications reception. The AN/GRC–171B(V)4 also has
built-in test (BIT) capabilities to facilitate expeditious troubleshooting. We will discuss the auxiliary
circuits and their function next.
Guard receiver
The guard receiver is a self-contained dual-conversion AM receiver. The receiver can be connected
either to the common antenna or to a separate antenna. Control signals from the control processor are
used to bring the guard receiver into operation. A switch on the radio set can be used to manually
disable the guard receiver and it is automatically disabled when the transceiver is keyed. The guard
3–28

receiver receives and processes signals transmitted on the 243.000 MHz guard channel. The detected
audio is applied to the audio receive circuits. Guard receiver audio and squelch functions are
controlled from the transceiver front panel. Guard audio is present at the headset and audio outputs.
Metering circuits
A meter circuit in the transceiver allows measurement of the following signals from the front panel:
• Power-supply voltages.
• Antenna forward power.
• Antenna reflected power.
• Percent modulation of the transmit RF signal In AM mode.
• The relative heat-sink temperature of the power amplifier.
BIT circuits in the transceiver continuously monitor synthesizer lock and all power supply voltages.
In case of a failure, the front panel FAULT indicator lights. If a power supply voltage fails, a red
light-emitting diode (LED) located on the BIT module also lights.
When in local mode, switches on the front panel can be used to select frequency and mode, disable
the squelch circuit and key the transceiver. The control processor interfaces front-panel controls with
various circuits in the transceiver. The ECCM processor controls frequency selection when operating
in the antijam (HAVE QUICK) mode.
If an over temperature condition exists at any time, no matter what mode the transceiver is in, all 6s
will be displayed on the FREQ/CHAN display. They will flash alternately with the normal display
information. The transceiver will operate normally, but with reduced RF output power.
Self-test
A self-test of the transceiver can be started from the front panel to provide operational checks. The
position of the mode switch (XMT AM, XMT FM, RCV FM, RCV AM) sets up the required
conditions for the self-test. The results are compared with allowable limits (using reference voltages)
by circuits on BIT module A13. If an out-of-tolerance condition is detected, the FAULT lamp on the
front panel will illuminate.
Remote control functions
Refer to figure 3–12 for a block diagram of the radio set control (serial-type). In response to front
panel switch action, the microcomputer formulates a serial command word that is sent to the receiver-
transmitter.
The receiver-transmitter returns a serial status word that is received by the microcomputer. The
selected frequency or channel is displayed on a six-digit, seven-segment display. A brightness control
allows the display intensity to be varied. From data contained in the status word, the microcomputer
lights the XMT lamp when the transmitter is keyed and RT FLT lamp when a receiver-transmitter
fault is detected.
 3–29

Figure 3–11. AN/GRC–171B(V)4 Radio set control.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

226. Theory of spread spectrum and frequency hopping

1. What does the frequency-hopping signal look like to a receiver that is not synchronized to the
transmitter?

2. What type of techniques makes the HAVE QUICK and SINCGARS radios effective against
jamming, compared to older systems?

3. What is the hopping speed of the fast frequency-hopping mode?

4. Name the types of spread spectrum systems.

3–30

5. What type of system uses a combination of spread spectrum methods to use the beneficial
properties of the systems used?

6. What four properties arise as a result of the pseudorandom code sequence and the wide signal
bandwidth that results from spreading?

227. Single channel ground and airborne radio system

1. What does the term “ICOM” indicate?

2. Which section of the RT–1523 is responsible for modulation and demodulation?

3. Name the 3 items used to select a frequency from the look-up table during FH mode.

4. Where does the control module obtain and execute instructions during remote operation?

5. Which RF section module performs modulation of the carrier?

6. State the purpose of the interleaver during receiver operations.

7. How many different impedance bands are contained in the impedance matching network?

8. Which band of the impedance matching network is used if a BNC-type connector is connected to
the RT?

9. State two conditions which will cause the SIDETONE DISABLE line to be set to logic level 1

228. Defining HAVE QUICK

1. State the purpose of HAVE QUICK radios.

2. What is the purpose of WOD and TOD?

 3–31

3. Why isn’t HAVE QUICK considered a means of secure communications?

4. List two differences between HQI and HQII.

229. Ultrahigh-frequency transceiver AN/GRC–171B (V) 4

1. Which module of the AN/GRC–171B(V)4 controls all activities of the transceiver?

2. What is the RF output power when in FM mode?

3. What happens to the guard receiver when the transceiver is keyed?

4. Which module determines frequency selection when in the HAVE QUICK mode?

5. What causes all 6s to be displayed FREQ/CHAN display?

6. What does it mean if the FAULT Lamp comes on?

3–4. Battlefield Network Links

Rarely does anyone service tackle a military operation on its own. Rather, such operations involve a
joint task force made up of elements of the different services. This requires a great deal of teamwork
between the different services as well as an understanding of the operating methods and interfacing
capabilities of each service involved.
TADILs are approved, standardized communications links for use in transmitting digital information.
There are variety different types of TADIL, but we will limit our scope to joint tactical information
distribution system (JTIDS). Situation awareness data link (SADL), and enhanced position location
reporting system (EPLRS). There are several data links used to transmit and receive digital
information. This lesson covers some of the other common types of data links used in military
operations.

230. Joint tactical information distribution system

Several communications systems have been developed over many years to support TADIL
communications, or the near-real-time exchange of data among tactical data systems. Each such
system is specified by hardware/software characteristics (e.g., waveform, modulation, data rates,
transmission media, etc.) as well as by message and protocol standards.
3–32

TADIL A, also called Link 11, is a secure half-duplex TADIL radio link used by NATO that receives
and transmits, not simultaneously, a sequential data exchange digital link. It exchanges digital
information among airborne, land-based, and ship-board tactical data systems. TADIL A operates on
HF or UHF.
TADIL B, also called link 11B, is a secure, point-to-point data link utilizing serial transmission,
frame characterization, and standard message formats. TADIL B operates on UHF.
The most recent system is the JTIDS/TADIL J system, which is commonly referred to as link–16.
Link 16 is an encrypted, jam-resistant, nodeless tactical digital data link network established by
JTIDS-compatible communication terminals that transmit and receive data messages in the TADIL J
message catalog. JTIDS support every type of military platform from Air Force fighters to Navy
submarines (fig. 3–12). Current weapon systems that use TADIL J in the Air Force include the F–
15C/D, F–22, EC–130E Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center, and the AN/TYQ–23
Modular Control Equipment (used by Air Control Squadron Control and Reporting Centers).

Figure 3–12. Joint tactical distribution system

Overview
TADIL J is an improved data link used to exchange near real time information. It is a communication,
navigation and identification system that supports information exchange between tactical command,
control, communications, computers and intelligence (C4I) systems. The radio transmission and
reception component of TADIL J is the JTIDS. This high-capacity, ultra high frequency (UHF), line
of-sight (LOS), frequency hopping data communications terminal provides secure, jam-resistant voice
and digital data exchange. JTIDS terminals operate on the principal of time division multiple access
(TDMA), wherein time slots are allocated among all TADIL J network participants for the
 3–33

transmission and reception of data. TDMA eliminates the requirement for a net control station (NCS)
by providing nodeless communications network architecture.
Communications
TADIL J uses a network design that assigns unique time slots for transmission of data to each JTIDS
Unit (JU), thus eliminating the requirement for an NCS. Link–16 assigns each unit a JU number. The
JU identifies the units and determines a preassigned set of time slots that designate when the unit
transmits and receives data.
In TADIL J, there are no critical nodes. Time slots are preassigned to each participant and the link
functions regardless of the participation of any particular unit. The closest thing in TADIL J to a
critical node is the network time reference (NTR), which acts as the single time source for time
synchronization of all units entering the network.
Both the message and the transmission are encrypted. The message uses an encryption device for
message security (MSEC) and the transmission is encrypted using a time-based transmission security
(TSEC). For a unit to receive another unit’s transmission, they must both be assigned the same TSEC
crypto variable. For a unit to decrypt the data contained in that transmission, they must both be
assigned the same MSEC crypto variable.
The time slots of each frame are allocated to particular functions. The functional groups are called
network participation groups (NPG). Because an NPG is defined by its function, the types of
messages transmitted on it are also defined. Each of the transmit time slots is assigned an NPG which
it supports. Some of the NPG employed are surveillance, EW, mission management, air control,
fighter-to-fighter nets, secure voice channels, mobile platforms and positive friendly identification.
Spread-spectrum and frequency hopping techniques make JTIDS resistant to jamming and data
encryption makes it secure. As a digital system for both data and voice, JTIDS can handle large
amounts of data - far more than the communication systems now used for similar purposes.
The JTIDS terminal operates in the L-band (between 960 and 1215 MHz). The range between JTIDS
participants is limited by LOS propagation due to the frequency the terminal uses. To insure
information can be exchanged beyond LOS, terminals can be designed as relays in the network
design. This allows a terminal that receives information to relay the information back on a different
net.
Increased communications capacity is obtained through the use of stacked net and multinet operations
in which different groups of participants transmit in the same time slot, each on different nets. A
stacked net involves having an NPG occupy the same slots on conservative nets. In multinet
operation, different NPGs that do not have common participants use some of the same time slots on
different net numbers.
TADIL J uses specially formatted messages (and free text) to convey information. These message
formats, called J-series messages, are composed of sets of fields, each of which is composed, in turn,
of prescribed numbers of bits that may be encoded into predetermined patterns to convey specific
information.

231. Other data links

Besides the TADIL links already discussed, there are several other data links used to transmit and
receive digital information. This lesson covers some of the other common types of data links used in
military operations.
Enhanced position location reporting system
The EPLRS is a joint service, software programmable, networking digital radio that accomplishes two
critical battlespace functions. First, EPLRS provides secure, jam-resistant wireless digital connection
among battlefield computers allowing field commander’s to form a joint network. Second, EPLRS
3–34

provides platform position information independent of GPS. EPLRS aids in fratricide prevention
because it is highly jam resistant and thus allows weapons platforms to see where other EPLRS are
located even in a congested battlefield environment.
EPLRS currently consists of an EPLRS network manager (ENM) and radio set (RS) that can be
configured for manpack, vehicular and airborne use. EPLRS uses a TDMA communications
architecture to avoid transmission contention along with frequency hopping, error detection and
correction with interleaving. It also uses spread spectrum technology to provide jamming resistance.
The system also incorporates internal COMSEC devices and has OTAR capability. EPLRS operates
at UHF frequency over eight channels. Its waveform by design is highly jam-resistant and bandwidth
efficient. EPLRS uses a management system which maintains EPLRS network availability at 99
percent.
Theory of operation
An EPLRS network is a collection of a number of RS nodes that are configured and managed by one
or more EPLRS ENM nodes. The EPLRS system uses virtual circuits, called needlines, to set up
communications between EPLRS RSs. A needline is a common set of time and frequency resources
shared among two or more RSs to exchange data. The needlines can be either many- to-many or one-
to-one and every RS can support many needlines at the same time. This allows RS units to
simultaneously send and receive different information from different RSs. Figure 3–13 shows a
conceptual illustration of how EPLRS needlines provide communication between multiple units in the
battlefield.

Figure 3–13. Conceptual structure of needlines in a battlefield.

 3–35

EPLRS network manager

The older version of EPLRS includes a NCS, which has been replaced in the latest generation of
EPLRS by an ENM. Both versions are similar, but have some significant differences. The information
presented applies mainly to the ENM version.
The ENM contains tactical computers that provide the focal point for automated technical control and
centralized dynamic network management of EPLRS. It is the primary technical control interface.
Software provides dynamic network monitoring and resource assignment that satisfies
communications, navigation, identification data distribution and position location requirements.
The ENM controls the EPLRS control network, performs all the necessary calculations, routes control
net messages and queries, and graphically displays the positions of all active RSs. It sets up and
monitors communications needlines used for host-to-host communication between the ENM and
other computer systems.
Some of the other functions include:
 Processes position, navigation and identification information automatically for participating
users.
 Furnishes supported C2 systems with EPLRS information.
 Provides real-time display of RSs and determines position of EPLRS RSs under its control.
 Provides EPLRS services to authorized units and assigns/unassigns timeslot automatically for
transmission and reception.
 Provides OTAR.
 Provides, establishes and maintains, control of network management functions.
EPLRS radio set
The EPLRS radio set (RS) accepts and implements ENM-issued commands and reports its status to
the ENM. These reports are essential for accomplishing the automatic control of the EPLRS. The RS
is a small, lightweight (man portable) radio providing low-to-moderate data throughput and a
sophisticated POS/NAV capability. The RS consist of a receiver-transmitter, an operator interface
device and an appropriate installation kit for ground, vehicle or airborne use. The radio sets provide
the following features:
 Displays user position location with accuracy of 10 to 30 meters for manpack, surface
vehicle, and grid reference RS and 25 to 100 meters for airborne RS.
 Provides automatic reporting of RS position location.
 Provides user-to-user digital readout communications.
 Provides range and bearing to other RS, designated reference points or predesignated
positions.
Within the Army and Marine Corps, EPLRS is the digital backbone for the ground forces. The
Navy’s primary use of EPLRS is to provide over-the-horizon location and tracking of amphibious
assault and logistics craft in support of Marine operations. Within the Air Force, EPLRS is the data
communication system used by the SADL. The SADL provides the aircraft commander a heads-up
display of friendly EPLRS positions on the ground and some aircraft status information
Situation awareness data link
The SADL integrates modified US Air Force close air support aircraft with the digitized battlefield
information via EPLRS on their heads up display showing where Army/Marine/ground radios are
located.
3–36

SADL provides fighter-to-fighter, air-to-ground and ground-to-air data communications that are
robust, secure, jam-resistant and contention-free. Contention-free means that multiple messages are
not collided when attempting to access the communication channel at the same time. SADL provides
an effective air-to-ground combat identification.
The pilot commands the SADL radio to synchronize with specific ground networks. The radio will
share fighter-to-fighter data while recording ground positions from the EPLRS network. EPLRS
tracks the fighter and provides the fighter position and altitude for ground-to-air combat
identification. At the beginning of an air-to-ground offensive, the pilot can view EPLRS-netted
“friendlies” (by EPLRS RS locations) shown on the heads-up display. The pilot can decide whether to
fire or not based on the proximity of friendly position.
In addition, forward air controllers equipped with SADL can digitally direct aircraft.

232. Joint tactical radio system

Joint tactical radio system (JTRS) was originally envisioned as a way to replace the multitude of non-
interoperable legacy radios in use throughout the Department of Defense (DOD).
Since program initiation in 1997, this vision evolved to encompass not just legacy radio functionality,
but also support Joint Vision 2020 operational concepts and Network Centric Warfare through the
fielding of a family of high-capacity multi-band, multi-mode, software defined tactical radios that
provide line-of-sight and beyond-line-of-sight RF links enabling advanced communications
capabilities to the war fighters. Figure 3–14 provides the architecture view of JTRS. In this lesson, we
briefly describe JTRS.

Figure 3–14. JTRS Integrated Architecture View

 3–37

Overview
The JTR family of radios will be scaled for use in all environmental domains (i.e., airborne, ground,
mobile, fixed station, maritime, personal communications), able to function with programmable
waveforms and modes and based on common core communications systems architecture. JTRS is
designed with a basic networking architecture to enable it to support specific tactical operations. It
will link the global information grid (GIG) to the war fighter for achieving overall battlefield
superiority. Ultimately, the goal is to produce a family of interoperable, modular, software-defined
radios that operate as nodes in a network to ensure secure wireless communication and networking
services for mobile and fixed forces. These goals extend to U.S. allies, joint and coalition partners
and, in time, disaster response personnel.
The four attributes of JTRS are:
1. Modular. JTRS will be a plug and play voice, high data throughput and video capable
communication system.
2. Scalable. JTRS enables additional capacity (bandwidth and channels) such as hardware
configurations; multiple programmable waveforms and modes.
3. Backwards compatible. JTRS allows standard interfaces and legacy radio emulation to
operate in selected legacy radio nets.
4. Network-capable. JTRS allows all hardware and software to form and manage a seamless
mobile tactical radio internet. It contains common operating environment and dynamic power
management. Its embedded position location and automatic situational awareness feed the
network. Lastly, it has dynamic routing and traffic load management.
Wireless tactical networking is one of the most critical capabilities the JTRS program will deliver.
Today’s forces employ a variety of unique voice and data link waveforms that are not interoperable
with each other or with modern internet protocol (IP) networks. The JTRS networking waveforms are
based on IP standards that permit tactical edge users to connect to the DOD’s GIG.

Joint tactical radio system networking programming

JTRS improves interoperability by providing the ability to share waveform software applications
between JTR sets, even sets in different physical domains. A waveform is the entire set of radio and
communications functions that occur from the user input to the radio frequency output and vice versa.
Legacy interoperability deals with the ability for JTR sets to communicate with designated radios
currently fielded and, more specifically, the waveforms associated with each of those radios. The
networking capability of the JTR system when employing the JTRS Networking Waveforms provides
flexibility to our war fighters at the tactical and operational levels by allowing information to move
around the battlefield. JTRS introduces additional networking services that supports interoperability
between otherwise incompatible networks and permits the rapid stand-up and reconfiguration of
networks whether stationary or mobile.
JTRS extends the GIG to the tactical edge as illustrated in figure 3–15. The GIG extension is
accomplished by providing an IP-based transport network infrastructure to the war fighter from a
backbone connected to a JTRS networking waveform.
3–38

Figure 3–15. Providing IP connectivity to the tactical edge.

JTRS networking waveforms are designed to support the networking needs of the ground,
maritime/fixed station and airborne domains. These networking capabilities will integrate to provide
line-of-sight (LOS) and beyond line-of-sight (BLOS) communications across the war fighting
domain.
JTRS networking waveforms encapsulate networking services and defined protocols. It provides both
peer-to-peer communications and multi-conference communications.
Each waveform is based on mobile ad-hoc networking (MANET) technology and is designed to
handle the unique characteristics of the wireless tactical environment for each domain. MANETs is a
type of ad hoc network (network connection) that can change locations and configure itself on the fly.
Because MANETs are mobile, they use wireless connections to connect various networks via Wi-Fi,
cellular or satellite transmission. However, they are bandwidth constrained and experience variable
capacity links. Other characteristics separating MANET nodes from their wired counterparts include
power constraints and increased security threats.
Waveforms
Interoperability within JTRS will be supported by way of software-based waveforms. The waveform
software developed for JTRS includes not only the actual radio frequency (RF) signal in space, but
also the entire set of radio functions that occur from the user input to the RF output and vice versa.
For example, in the transmitting JTRS, the waveform software controls the receipt of the data (either
analog or digital) from the input device and manages the encoding. The encryption engine receives
encoded data. The resulting encoded and/or encrypted data stream modulates into an intermediate
frequency (IF) signal. Finally, the IF signal is converted into an RF signal and transmitted to the
 3–39

antenna. These same functions reverse in the receiving JTRS with the ultimate output of the data to
the user. JTRS waveforms include HAVE QUICK and SINCGARS-V waveforms as well as the
waveforms from other country’s radios. The British BOWMAN VHF waveform is the first non-US
military waveform added to the JTRS waveform library.
Four new JTRS networking waveforms are currently in development; Wideband Networking
Waveform (WNW), Soldier Radio Waveform (SRW), Joint Airborne Networking – Tactical Edges
(JAN-TE), and Mobile User Object System (MUOS). The JTRS program is also developing the
Enterprise Networking Services (ENS) to provide a common set of networking services to waveforms
and user applications. These networking elements will be hosted on the JTRS family of multi-band,
multi-mode, software device, programmable/reconfigurable radios to provide a common interoperable
IP data transport for net-centric operations.
Wideband networking waveform
WNW enables high data capacity throughput and provides improved situational awareness and speed
of command. It is designed to operate on manned vehicular-based communication systems. The
WNW network provides a secure backbone routing infrastructure that passes network traffic within
and between ground and airborne domains. It also provides network access to the GIG.
Soldier radio waveform
SRW operates as a stub network for battery-powered platforms including dismounted soldiers and
unmanned systems. The SRW provides a networked battlefield communications (voice, video and
data) capability for users engaged in land combat operations. SRW enables data and imagery
situational awareness and provides enhanced combat effectiveness. It is designed for the dismounted
soldier and battery-operated small form factors that are size, weight and power constrained. SRW
network relies on WNW for backbone routing. SRW is compatible with legacy waveforms such as
the EPLRS, SINCGARS, HF and UHF SATCOM radio nets.
Joint airborne network - tactical edge
The JAN-TE waveform supports the tactical airborne domain of weapons platforms that require very
low-latency traffic. It provides net-centric sensor-to-shooter technology over the tactical network
edge. It is designed to operate on fast moving tactical airborne platforms that require high
speed/capacity networking to locate, correlate and engage time critical targets.
Mobile user objective system
The MUOS common air interface waveform provides beyond-line-of-sight satellite communications.
MUOS provides critical connectivity and speed of command for rugged/urban environments. It
provides simultaneous voice, data and video services communication through the MUOS UHF
satellite constellation and accompanying ground segment.
ENTERPRISE networking services
The four networking waveforms provide a collection of individual networking services. JTRS ENS
will provide a common set of network services and capabilities (routing, mobility and information
assurance) for the JTR sets. Usage of standardized Application Programming Interfaces between ENS
and the waveforms allow very different waveforms such as WNW or MUOS to access the same
services. ENS will provide a common API and code base for networking services instead of
embedding them within the individual waveforms.
JTRS products are all based on software defined radio technology to enable a more scalable and
extensible radio system in comparison to a system composed of dedicated hardware. Each channel of
a JTR is capable (in general) of executing a different waveform (e.g. WNW, EPLRS …) depending
on the mission requirements determined by the operator. A multi-channel JTR may execute several
different waveforms, or multiple instances of the same waveform, simultaneously. This flexibility of
JTRS enables transformational change from earlier DOD communications systems.
3–40

JTRS includes a cluster of radios for all of the different military services, including handheld, tactical,
air-to-ground, and fixed radios. In our example, we will look at the AN/PRC–148 Multi-band
Inter/Intra Team Radio.
AN/PRC–148 multiband inter/intra team radio
Multi-band inter/intra team radio (MBITR) or PRC–148 is a handheld, “brick style” radio. It is more
capable than any handheld radio available today. In a ruggedized package weighing less than two
pounds, the MBITR provides unprecedented interoperability with existing military legacy systems
and commercial radios, while ensuring future operation with the next generation of communication
equipment.
MBITR is the handheld radio of choice for USSOCOM. The first fielding under the spiral
development was in 2000, with the first development adding a frequency-hopping capability for the
SINCGARS and HAVE QUICK in late 2001. In January 2002, the last of the enhancements was
included with the addition of advanced narrowband digital voice terminal narrowband encryption
capacity. Because all of these modifications are software-based, the upgrades can be added too.
Being software-based, MBITR holds seven programmable devices, supported by a memory card that
offers embedded security (type 1 encryption suitable for top secret) for both AM/FM voice and data
communications. The transceiver operates in the 30 to 512 MHz (UHF/VHF continuous) frequency
range and steps in either 5 kilohertz or 6.25 kHz. The RF output selection ranges from 100 mW to 5
W. There is an AM swept-tone beacon that allows MBITR to serve as a personal survival radio when
necessary. There is also an external GPS interface to a precision lightweight GPS receiver.
It is relatively small in size measuring 8.4 inches by 2.6 inches by 1.5 inches. A maritime version
offers immersion protection down to about 20 meters while the “urban” version can withstand depths
of about two meters. Using rechargeable lithium ion batteries, the user can expect about eight hours
of life per charge. When replaced with commercial lithium non-rechargeable batteries the life is about
10 hours.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

230. Joint tactical information distribution system

1. What is JTIDS commonly referred?

2. State the principle of operation that eliminates the requirement for a net control station?

3. What acts as the single time source for time synchronization of all units entering the network?

4. What makes JTIDS resistant to jamming?

5. The JTIDS terminal operates in what frequency band?

 3–41

231. Other data links

1. Describe the EPLRS.

2. What are the EPLRS system virtual circuits called and what is its purpose?

3. Who controls the EPLRS control network, performs all the necessary calculations, routes control
net messages and queries, and graphically displays the positions of all active RSs?

4. Name the four features the EPLRS radio sets provide.

5. Describe the SADL.

232. Joint tactical radio system

1. What is the ultimate goal for the joint tactical radio system family of radios?

2. What does legacy interoperability deals with?

3. Match the JTRS waveform in column B with the description associated with in column A. Items
in column B may be used once.
Column A Column B

____ (1) Operates as a stub network for battery-powered a. Wideband Networking.

platforms. b. Soldier Radio.
____ (2) Enables high data capacity throughput and provides c. JAN-TE.
improved situational awareness and speed of command
____ (3) Provides beyond-line-of-sight satellite communications.
d. MOUS.

____ (4) Supports the tactical airborne domain of weapons

platforms.

4. What can each channel of a JTR capable of executing?

5. How many programmable devices can MBITR hold?

3–42

Answers to Self-Test Questions

221
1. Any military action involving the use of the EM spectrum to include directed energy to control the EM
spectrum or to attack an enemy.
2. (1) c.
(2) a.
(3) b.
3. It can be accomplished through detection, denial, disruption, deception, and destruction.
4. Proper frequency management.
5. Frequency agility in a radio, change pulse repetition frequency on a radar set, electronic and material
shielding for systems, and processes to counter meaconing, interference, jamming, and intrusion.
6. To search for, intercept, identify, and locate sources of intentional and unintentional radiated
electromagnetic energy for the purpose of threat recognition.
222
1. EW is waged throughout the electromagnetic spectrum to secure and maintain effective control and use
through the integration of detection, denial, deception, disruption, and destruction.
2. (1) b.
(2) e.
(3) a.
(4) c.
(5) d.
3. The deliberate radiation, reradiation, alteration, suppression, absorption, denial, enhancement, or reflection
of EM energy in a manner intended to convey misleading information to an enemy or to enemy EM-
dependent weapons, thereby degrading or neutralizing the enemy’s combat capability.
223
1. A process of scrambling information so it is unintelligible to anyone but the intended recipient.
2. A cryptography for devices which are designed to provide voice encryption for voice communication over a
range of communication types such as radio, telephone or IP.
3. Symmetric algorithms use the same key for both encryption and decryption where the decryption key is
derived from encryption key and asymmetric algorithms use a different key for encryption and decryption,
the decryption key cannot be derived from the encryption key.
4. Asymmetric algorithms permit the encryption key to be public, allowing anyone to encrypt with the key,
but the decryption key is private so only the intended recipient can decrypt the message.
5. (1) a.
(2) d.
(3) b.
(4) c.
224
1. When an encryption device is appropriately configured with the proper codes, it is considered to be
“keyed.” Absence of this configuration code renders the device useless; it is then considered to be
“unkeyed.”
2. TOP SECRET.
3. Cryptographic controlled item.
4. A self-contained terminal with embedded communication security and is designed to provide secure voice
and/or data communications for military customers.
5. KG–84.
6. It allows you to transmit in the clear and secure mode and it controls the loading of encryption codes.
 3–43

7. As an UNCLASSIFIED cryptographic controlled item (CCI).

8. Slide the key tape into the reader and pull it out at a moderate rate.
9. The red indicator light blinks when you press the initiate button in the OFF/CHECK position.
10. You can carry hundreds of fills.
225
1. Method of changing the encryption keys in a two-way radio system over the radio channel or over the air.
2. A centralized control over encryption keys which reduces procedural, operational, and security problems.
226
1. Impulse noise.
2. FH techniques.
3. More than 1,000 hops/sec.
4. Direct sequence, frequency hopping, time hopping, pulsed FM (chirp), and hybrid systems.
5. Hybrid systems.
6. Selective addressing code, division multiplexing, low probability of intercept, and antijamming.
227
1. An integrated COMSEC capability.
2. The RF section.
3. The TRANSEC variable, FH sync TOD, and net ID number.
4. From the remote I/O module.
5. The exciter/power amplifier.
6. Removal of synchronization and frequency-hopping information that is embedded in the signal.
7. Four.
8. The 50-ohm band.
9. Temperature exceeding 105° Celsius or VSWR exceeding 5:1.
228
1. To prevent unfriendly forces from interfering with our communications.
2. To decide which frequency they should be on at any given time.
3. Broadband spectrum analyzers can quickly “see” each frequency as it is being used and thereby listen to the
communications. A determined enemy can tune 7,000 receivers to the proper frequencies and listen to the
communications.
4. HQ1 allows one word to be loaded at a time; the word has no time limit for how long it can be used. HQII
allows up to six words to be loaded at a time and each word expires after 24 hours.
229
1. The ECCM module.
2. 50 watts.
3. The guard receiver is disabled.
4. The ECCM processor.
5. An over temperature condition.
6. It indicates an out-of-tolerance condition exists.
230
1. Link–16.
2. Time division multiple access.
3. Network time reference .
4. Spread-spectrum and frequency hopping techniques.
5. The L-band (between 960 and 1215 MHz).
3–44

231
1. EPLRS is a joint service, software programmable, networking digital radio. It provides secure, jam-resistant
wireless digital connection among battlefield computers; allowing field commander’s to form a joint
network. Also, it provides platform position information independent of GPS. EPLRS aids in fratricide
prevention because it is highly jam resistant and thus allows weapons platforms to see where other EPLRS
are located even in a congested battlefield environment.
2. Needlines; to set up communications between EPLRS RSs.
3. EPLRS network manager.
4. The radio sets provide the following features:
(1) Display user position location with accuracy of 10 to 30 meters for manpack, surface vehicle, and grid
reference RS and 25 to 100 meters for airborne RS.
(2) Provide automatic reporting of RS position location.
(3) Provide user-to-user digital readout communications.
(4) Provide range and bearing to other RS, designated reference points, or predesignated positions.
5. SADL integrates modified US Air Force close air support aircraft with the digitized battlefield information
via EPLRS on their heads up display showing where Army/Marine/ground radios are located.
232
1. To produce a family of interoperable, modular, software-defined radios that operate as nodes in a network
to ensure secure wireless communication and networking services for mobile and fixed forces.
2. The ability for JTR sets to communicate with designated radios currently fielded and, more specifically, the
waveforms associated with each of those radios.
3. (1) b.
(2) a.
(3) d.
(4) c.
4. In general, capable of executing a different waveform (e.g. WNW, EPLRS …) depending on the mission
requirements determined by the operator.
5. Being software-based, MBITR holds seven programmable devices.

Do the unit review exercises before going to the next unit.

 3–45

Unit Review Exercises

Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle
the corresponding letter. When you have completed all unit review exercises, transfer your answers to
the Field-Scoring Answer Sheet.
71. (221) Examples of electronic protection includes all of the following EXCEPT
a. frequency agility in a radio.
b. communications intelligence.
c. electronic and material shielding for systems.
d. process to counter meaconing, interference, jamming, and intrusion.
72. (221) Which electronic warfare component responds to taskings to search for, intercept, identify,
and locate intentional and unintentional sources of radiated energy?
a. Attack.
b. Control.
c. Support.
d. Protection.
73. (222) What is the first step in electronic warfare application?
a. Denial.
b. Detection.
c. Deception.
d. Disruption.
74. (223) Name the process of unscrambling the encrypted information so that it is intelligible.
a. Decryption.
b. Encryption.
c. Cryptography.
d. Cryptanalysis.
75. (224) How many selectable traffic key slots does the KG–84A have?
a. 1.
b. 2.
c. 4.
d. 8.
76. (224) Which switch on the KY–57 VINSON zeroizes channels one through five?
a. Fill.
b. Mode.
c. Power.
d. Volume.
77. (225) The common name for the method of changing the encryption keys over the radio channel
in a two-way radio system is called
a. over-the-air-rekeying.
b. asymmetric.
c. symmetric.
d. off-line.
3–46

78. (226) In frequency hopping operation, the interval at which each transmitter remains on a given
frequency for a specific time is known as
a. dwell time.
b. hopping rate.
c. frequency offset.
d. transmitter velocity.
79. (227) From what source does the RT–1523 SINCGARS radio’s control module obtain
instructions during remote and local operation respectively?
a. Keyboard interface and front panel.
b. Remote I/O module and front panel.
c. Keyboard interface and local I/O module.
d. Remote I/O module and keyboard assembly.
80. (228) Concerning HAVE QUICK II communications multiple word-of-day (MWOD), how long
can each word-of-day (WOD) be used?
a. Each is used until it is manually changed.
b. For a total of three days.
c. For 48 hours.
d. For 24 hours.
81. (229) Which statement is NOT a characteristic of the AN/GRC–171B(V)4 transceiver?
a. It operates from 116 MHz to 149.975 MHz.
b. It provides antijam communications in AM and FM.
c. It contains both HAVE QUICK and HAVE QUICK II.
d. It can communicate on any one of 7,000 available channels.
82. (229) What identifies the output power of the AN/GRC–171B(V)4 transceiver?
a. 25 watts in both AM and FM.
b. 20 watts in AM and 50 watts in FM.
c. 20 watts in AM and 20 watts in FM.
d. 50 watts in narrowband and 25 watts in wideband.
83. (230) What commonly referred link is the joint tactical information distribution system?
a. 4A.
b. 11.
c. 16.
d. 22.
84. (230) Which multiple channel access method eliminates the requirement for a net control station
in the joint tactical information distribution system?
a. Code division.
b. Time division.
c. Space division.
d. Frequency division.
85. (231) What type of network radio does the Air Force use for close air support?
a. Single channel ground and airborne radio system.
b. Enhanced position location reporting system.
c. Joint tactical information distribution system.
d. Situation awareness data link.
 3–47

86. (232) The family of radios that are scaled for use in all domains, will function with programmable
waveforms, and be based on a common core architecture is the
a. joint tactical information distribution system.
b. single channel ground and airborne radio.
c. multiband radio sets.
d. joint tactical radio.
87. (232) How many programmable devices can the multi-band inter/intra team radio hold?
a. 3.
b. 5.
c. 7.
d. 10.

Please read the unit menu for unit 4 and continue 

3–48

Student Notes
Unit 4. Other Radio Frequency Transmission Systems
4–1. Land Mobile Radio Networks ................................................................................................. 4–1 
233. Conventional land mobile radio systems ........................................................................................... 4–1 
234. Trunked land mobile radio networks ................................................................................................. 4–8 
4–2. Installation Notification and Warning System (INWS) ...................................................... 4–12 
235. Giant voice function ........................................................................................................................ 4–12 
236 The Whelen system .......................................................................................................................... 4–12 

A
S AN RF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS TECHNICIAN, you will work on many types of
communications-electronics equipment. The first section of this unit will expound on the
conventional LMR system, the trunked radio system and repeaters. The final section
discusses the means for mass notification of routine and/or emergency information at a fixed location
or forward operating base (FOB). Although all equipment discussed here may be operated by
emergency or command post personnel, you will be expected to maintain the equipment.

4–1. Land Mobile Radio Networks

Land mobile radio (LMR) systems provide a fast and convenient method of communication for
people engaged in various occupations or career fields: Security forces, safety, transportation and
service related occupations. Basically, anytime a fast command and control function is required. LMR
systems consist of varying designs based on the needs of the individual users. Radios do not rely on
infrastructure to communicate, but certain kinds of infrastructure can dramatically increase range,
flexibility and capabilities.
Typically, LMR systems are designed using one of three architectures: conventional, trunked or
hybrid. Hybrid is a combination of the first two. This section describes just two architectures
(conventional and trunking) and the principal differences between them.

233. Conventional land mobile radio systems

LMRs are the oldest of the wireless networks in use on Air Force bases. Conventional systems have
been, and continue to be, the most popular type of two-way radio system in existence. Conventional
systems range from analog, voice-only communications over a small area (single-site), to region-wide
(multi-site) integrated voice and data networks with digital signaling, voting, multicast and simulcast
broadcasting. Conventional systems have many advantages; they are cost effective, they are easy to
maintain, and their limited infrastructure ensures that communication is possible in the event of a
catastrophic failure. Unfortunately, these systems generally require more frequencies allocations than
some of the more sophisticated systems. If you do not have an issue with frequency availability or
spectrum saturation, then conventional systems are hard to beat.
Conventional systems vary in both size and sophistication. With regard to size, systems are often
configured as single-site or multi-site depending on the area that needs coverage. A typical
conventional system is composed of portable handsets, vehicular mobiles, base stations, and
repeaters. Before we look into equipment types and site configuration, let’s describe the basic LMR
system operations.
Conventional system operations
Conventional radios operate on a fixed channel. Each channel is assigned a specific frequency. Users
select the proper channel with a specific frequency on the radio (called a net) to communicate with
one another. When you key and speak into the radio, everyone on that particular channel can hear
you. However, when you key the radio you are unable to hear any transmission. With a multiple
channel radio, users can only operate one channel at a time.
4–2

In multi-channel systems, channels may be reserved for a specific function. For example, one channel
may be used by an air traffic controller to talk to maintenance personnel wishing to cross the runway
on the ground frequency. A second channel may allow the controllers to communicate with first
responders on a fire/crash frequency in cases of aircraft accidents on runways.
LMR works on three different principles: simplex, half-duplex and duplex operations.
Simplex
In simplex operation one LMR radio transmits while the other radio receives. It is used as point-to-
point communications without the use of a repeater. Simultaneous transmission and reception on a
radio is not possible with simplex operation. The simplex radio system consists of a base station and
mobile units, all operating on a single frequency.
A simplex radio system (figure 4–1) works well when there are only a few users who are closely
located. When additional users are added to the system, the competition for the one available
frequency can make it difficult to get a message across. In addition, great distances and natural
obstacles such as high hills and tall buildings can interfere with the ability to communicate. The
advantages of simplex systems are low cost, ease of operation and simplicity. The disadvantages are
limited geographical coverage of the control station radio and line of sight (LOS) coverage between
portables and mobiles in the system.

Figure 4–1. Simplex Radio System

Half-duplex
Half-duplex communication (fig. 4–2) uses two frequencies. The system can receive and transmit, but
not at the same time. Most portable radios are half-duplex. In a half-duplex system, transmit takes
place on one frequency and receive on another. Generally this type of system is designed for a
repeater or some other radio interface operation. When used with a repeater, this arrangement
provides a “talk-around” feature allowing direct communication between users. By using channel 2,
the system becomes simplex and permits all users to talk directly to each other. Most half-duplex
systems use one set of frequencies for the primary channel to access the repeater and, when required,
a secondary channel for “talk-around.” Another common practice for the channel operation deletes
the base station and connects the remote(s) directly to the repeater via wire line.
 4–3

Figure 4–2. Half-duplex Radio System

Duplex
Duplex or “full duplex” is a format in which two communication channels are used simultaneously;
one to transmit and one to receive. A repeater is an example of a radio that is full duplex. It receives a
signal from a radio unit, and, re-transmits the signal on a separate frequency. Another example of
duplex operation is the telephone.

For full-duplex single-antenna configuration, additional equipment is required such as a duplexer

which enables the receiver and transmitter to use the same antenna simultaneously. A duplexer
separates and isolates the incoming receive signal from the outgoing transmitted signal and vice
versa. For example, a receiver may become desensitized by strong RF levels entering the receiver
(interference); not allowing the receiver to pick up the weak desired RF signal. This interfering signal
can be wideband noise or spurious emissions from a nearby transmitter. When this receiver
desensitization occurs, the symptom includes a reduced, noisy or faded out signal. The results are
poor reception and limited communication capability. Now imagine how much trouble there will be if
the transmitter and receiver are close together and connected to the same antenna with only a tee
adapter. The transmitter would blow away the input to the receiver. With a duplexer, it isolates the
receiver from “hearing” the transmitter and prevents damage to the receiver.
Typical Equipment
There are many different types of LMR equipment you may encounter throughout your Air Force
career. The following are just a few of the most common:
Portable (handheld) LMRs
Portable radios are designed for personal use. They range in size from slightly larger than a pack of
cigarettes to the size of a small “brick.” Air Force owned portables normally have a transmitted power
of 6 watts in the VHF band and 5 watts in the UHF band and operate in either the “simplex” or “half-
duplex” mode. Portable radios have a realistic operating range of three to five miles in a line-of-sight
or conventional mode. Most portables are capable of being encrypted to varying levels depending on
the classification of the intelligence being transmitted. Modern portables can be programmed to tune
to more than 48 frequencies in a given LMR band. The vast majority of base radio nets, however,
have access to no more than 2-to-4 channels. The number of channels any one individual is
authorized to use is determined by the mission they are assigned to fulfill. Because of their size,
4–4

ability to be encrypted, and their ability to operate without an infrastructure, portables are the
preferred means of communication in a deployed environment.
Mobile (vehicular) LMRs
Mobiles are vehicular mounted transceivers with RF power outputs of 20–110 watts, depending on
the model. Mobiles have increased power and a better antenna than their portable radio counterparts.
Mobiles also operate in both the simplex and half-duplex modes and are capable of tuning to a large
number of frequencies in the UHF or VHF frequency bands. The size, weight and power requirements
generally limit their use to the confines of a vehicle. The antenna is usually mounted on the roof or
trunk lid on the outside of the metal body of the vehicle, where the metal can act as a ground plane.
This helps to extend the range of the radio, while preventing you from irradiating yourself.
Base stations
Base stations are fixed transceivers designed to be installed in a building or a weather proof shelter.
They can be fairly small, low power devices, designed for desktop operations or higher power,
remotely controlled, rack mounted radios. The base stations provide increased range over mobiles and
portables. Base stations are connected to fixed antennas mounted either on or near the
shelter/building.
In conventional LMR systems the base station serves as the hub of a net or “talkgroup.” The system
usually operates on one to six frequencies, within either the UHF or VHF frequency bands. If the base
station is remoted to a console, it is also necessary to provide either a two wire (“half-duplex”) or a
four wire (“full-duplex”) telephone line between the base station and the remote device. The half-
duplex circuit allows transmissions to occur in only one direction at a time. The full-duplex circuit, on
the other hand, permits simultaneous two-way conversations.
Repeaters
A repeater is a medium to high power, facility-installed transceiver designed to retransmit or “repeat”
a radio signal. It receives a signal from a portable, mobile or base station and simultaneously
retransmits it on a different frequency. This can significantly improve the effective operating range of
portables and mobiles. It maximizes the communications distance between lower powered equipment.
Normally, repeaters have antennas mounted high above the existing terrain to allow low powered
portables and mobiles to access the site and thusly communicate with each other. Special use mobile
repeaters are available for short term, quick response communications. The repeater can act as a base
station when a remote is connected to the audio distribution and control section.
Tactical repeaters works just like full size repeaters but are smaller in size and generally put out less
power. They come in a variety of configurations but the most popular type fits into a ruggedized
suitcase. While tactical repeaters are quite expensive (almost three times as expensive as a rack
mounted version) they are invaluable in tactical situations.
Telephone interconnect equipment
Most of the major LMR equipment manufacturers sell key pad equipped portable and mobile
transceivers configured for either manual (through the console) or automatic telephone interconnect
operation. These transceivers permit their users to make and receive telephone calls over a LMR net
frequency.

While this option enhances the capabilities of specific portable or mobile units, there is a down side.
The range is limited (i.e., one to three miles for portables), it significantly increases the cost of the
radio, and it ties up a channel for the duration of the call.
Site configuration
Depending on the size of the coverage area, there are different types of site configurations to meet
your requirement.
 4–5

Single-site
A single-site system was designed to provide coverage for a small geographical area. A single-site
system contains either a base station or a repeater station. Single-site systems, which initially
consisted of one simplex base station, evolved into the base station/repeater which operated in a half-
duplex fashion with a paired set of frequencies as shown in figure 4–11. Mobile radio users
communicate with a dispatch or other radio users by accessing the base station/repeater, which
retransmits the signal on the mobile, receive frequency to all user radios. It also facilitates
communicating with the dispatch console operator through the base station without using the repeater
function. In all cases, the user radio must be within the range of coverage of the repeater, base station,
or other radio asset.

Figure 4–3. Single-site system configuration.

The repeater or base station in a LMR system typically has much more power than mobiles or
portable radios. Their antennas are at a much higher elevation than mobile or portable radio antennas.
For these reasons, mobiles and portables communications are limited by their talkback capability.

To extend the coverage of an area and improve its talkback capability, a receiver voting system is
employed to the existing LMR architecture (fig. 4–4). Additional receivers are located in strategic
areas to receive RF signals from a mobile or portable unit. These receive-only sites act as “listening-
only” base stations that receive signals from mobiles and portables and relay them back to a base
station or repeater by either a dedicated telephone circuit or microwave links. By using one or more
receive-only sites in conjunction with a high-power base station or repeater transceiver, the overall
system talk back coverage can be expanded. A receiver voter or comparator selects the best receive
signal. The “best signal” is voted in the comparator and the user hears the voted audio.
4–6

Figure 4–4. Voting system

Multi-site
Multi-site systems usually contain multiple receivers and transmit sites that extend radio coverage
beyond that of a single-site system. These sites are generally tied together via hardwire (T1 or
telephone line) or RF link like a microwave shot. Different system designs and methods are available
such as voting, simulcast and multi-cast systems that extend radio range. Figure 4–5 illustrates a
multi-site simulcast or multicast system.
Simulcast
When a wide geographical area requires communications throughout the system, simulcast provides a
solution. Simulcast provides wide-area coverage by keying multiple transmitters simultaneously that
shares a common frequency. Because simulcast sites typically overlap, these sites should be set up
carefully to avoid ringing or echo from receiving several identical signals that are slightly out of
phase from each other.
Multicast
Multicast systems are similar to simulcast systems. While a simulcast system transmits on the same
RF channels simultaneously from each base station/repeater, multicast systems use different RF
channels at each site. Frequencies are reused in different cells, but the arrangement ensures the same
frequency is never used in adjacent cells. This configuration offers the same coverage advantages of a
simulcast system, eliminates the occurrence of co-channel interference from multiple sites, and allows
smaller cell configuration which can allow greater RF penetration within the cell. The conventional
LMR frequency spectrum is very crowded and additional frequencies are difficult to obtain. For this
reason there has been a great deal of work in developing new techniques to conserve the spectrum.
Trunking is one of these conservation systems.
 4–7

Figure 4–5. Multi-site configuration of a two-site simulcast or multicast system.

4–8

234. Trunked land mobile radio networks

While a conventional LMR network is mostly an analog system, a trunked LMR network is a digital
system. A trunked radio system is one that automatically and dynamically allocates a small number of
radio channels to support a large number of users. In operation, you’re “assigned” a radio channel
during your call. The channel is released for others to use when you release the PTT switch. Trunking
uses half duplex user equipment in conjunction with full duplex, centrally located repeater sites.
The typical trunking system consists of some type of access control (whether in each mobile unit or
centralized at a base station site), switching equipment, system management computer, control and
voice channel repeaters, modems and telephone interconnect as illustrated in figure 4–16. Centralized
trunking uses a microprocessor that governs all of the base station repeaters after receiving and
processing service requests over the control channel. The switching equipment provides the interface
between dispatch consoles and the central controller. The system computer allows computer access
and monitoring of the central controller. In addition, trunking systems can be programmed to include
specific options depending on the user’s needs. Talk groups, encryption, emergency operation and
telephone access are examples of some of the programming options. The central repeater site houses
all this equipment, except the antennas, in an environmentally controlled shelter. Repeater site
antennas are mounted as high as possible to provide the range of coverage required. Receive and
transmit antennas are typically mounted on a 100 ft. to 300 ft. tower. Just like a conventional LMR
repeater, a trunking repeater is a special kind of fixed station radio that receives a signal on one
frequency and retransmits (or repeats) the same signal on a different frequency.

Figure 4–6. Typical configuration of a trunked system.

All radio communications pass through the central repeater site. One of the repeaters serves as the
control channel. All signaling between the user equipment and the central controller is done digitally
over the control channel. The data rate for this signaling varies by model. Every subscriber (radio) in
the system has a unique ID programmed in the radio.
In conventional LMR systems, user groups are assigned different frequencies commonly known as
“nets.” When you set up a trunking network, you define these different user groups as “talkgroups.”
Talkgroups help you coordinate communications among various units or squadrons. You can also
assign special priorities to different talk-groups. For example, you can specify calls for emergency
personnel (Fire/Crash) in the field will take precedence over nonemergency calls (Aircraft
Maintenance).
How trunking works
Trunking is the commonly accepted term for the electronically controlled sharing of a relatively small
number of communications channels among a relatively large number of users. In general terms, a
trunk is a shared voice or data traffic path between two points. Trunked systems use access control
schemes to share channel capacity among many users. The electronic control enables users to take
 4–9

advantage of some transmitted channels that are idle at a particular time while others are busy. This
results in a more balanced load sharing between trunks. This is in contrast to a conventional system
where the users exercise their own coordination regarding access to system resources by listening for
idle time and making manual channel selections, which may result in unbalanced channel loads.
A typical operational pattern of control channel trunking is as follows: User A wants to contact all of
the units in his or her talk group. The PTT is keyed, which causes the radio to send a short burst of
data to the control channel repeater. This data identifies the caller attributes and enters a channel
request to the system controller. User A’s radio then switches to receive mode to await a data
response from the controller. Upon receipt of the request, the system controller attempts to select an
available voice channel. If a voice channel is available, the system controller sends a data message
over the control channel switching all units in User A’s talk group to the available voice channel.
Only units in this particular talk group are automatically switched to the assigned channel. When User
A starts talking, all the members of the talk group will hear the conversation. This preempts any other
use of that assigned channel for the duration of the call. After the user is done speaking, the users’
radios return to monitoring the control channel for additional transmissions. This arrangement allows
multiple groups of users to share a small set of actual radio frequencies without hearing each others’
conversations.
The trunking LMR system has some inherent benefits:
 Faster system access (the controller handles channel selection, not the user).
 Better channel efficiency (instead of lying idle, a channel that’s not in use can be assigned to
another user who needs it for a call).
 More user privacy (users can be configured into talk-groups and the receiver only hear the
calls intended for that call group).
 Flexibility to expand (you can easily reconfigure the system and how it manages channels to
accommodate a growing number of users).
 Selective radio inhibit (system managers can completely disable lost or stolen radios from the
system terminal).
Trunking user equipment
User equipment for trunking systems differs somewhat from conventional LMRs. Portables and
mobiles look and function similarly to their conventional counterparts. The “channel selector” is now
a “talkgroup selector.” The radios are programmed with all the repeater frequencies, control channels
and talkgroups. The radio’s operating frequencies are determined by the repeater site’s central
controller.
Instead of base stations, “control stations” are used in a trunking system. These radios are mobile
radios that have been modified with a line voltage power supply to function as a desktop base station.
They serve most dispatch functions on typical Air Force bases. Control stations, mobiles and
portables can be programmed to monitor most or all of the talkgroups at an Air Force base; however,
they can only monitor one talkgroup at a time. The “scan” function on the radios cycle through the
talkgroups programmed in the scan function but again they are only monitoring one talkgroup at a
time.
Dispatch consoles provide the capability to monitor more than one talkgroup at a time. Dispatch
consoles also give users the ability to patch between the LMR system and telephone circuits, and
between different talkgroups on the trunking system. All user trunking equipment (except dispatch
consoles) is capable of operating in conventional mode in the same frequency band.
COMSEC
Information security is a vital component of LMR systems. Security, or protection of vital
information, is provided through end-to-end encryption and decryption. There are multiple encryption
types currently used.
4–10

Different types (or levels) of encryption are required for different missions. The US Federal
Government categorized digital based cryptographic solutions into one of four primary categories:
Type 4, Type 3, Type 2, and Type 1. Type 1 is for US classified material (national security), Type 2 is
for general US federal interagency security (secret), Type 3 is interoperable interagency security
between US Federal, State and Local agencies (for official use only) and Type 4 is for proprietary
solutions (exportable as determined by each vendor and the US State Department).
Data Encryption Standard (DES) protects radio transmissions from intelligible reception by
unauthorized listeners. Basically, DES is an algorithm or method of enciphering and deciphering
digital data to protect sensitive information. There are different types of DES. The most common are:
DES/XL, DES/OFB, and DES. These systems are cleared for type 3 communication needs. Another
common and soon to be the primary type 3 encryption standard is Advanced Encryption Standard
(AES). AES will use a 256 bit key compared to the 56 bit key used for DES encryption. This offers a
more secure means of encryption. Fascinator and indictor are also fairly common but they are cleared
for type 1 communications. LMR radios can support OTAR of encryption keys without having to
physically recall the radios from the field.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

233. Conventional land mobile radio systems

1. What are some of the advantages of a conventional LMR system?

2. When you key and speak into a radio, who can hear you?

3. When would you use a simplex radio system?

4. In a half-duplex operation, what are the two frequencies used for?

5. Why do repeaters use duplexer?

6. Match the IDS equipment subsystem in column B with the characteristic it is associated with in
column A. Items in column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all.

Column A Column B
____ (1) Permits users to make/receive telephone calls. a. Portable.
____ (2) Designed to retransmit radio signal. b. Mobile.
____ (3) Transceiver installed in buildings. c. Base Stations.
____ (4) Vehicular mounted transceiver. d. Repeaters.
____ (5) Designed for personal use. e. Telephone Interconnect
____ (6) Serves as a hub. Equipment.
____ (7) Mounted high above the terrain.
____ (8) Antenna mounted on roof or trunk of vehicle.
 4–11

7. What are the limitations of a single-site configuration?

8. What system is employed to increase area coverage and to improve radios talkback capability?

9. Describe the primary difference between a simulcast and multicast system?

234. Trunked land mobile radio networks

1. What does a typical trunking system consists?

2. When you set up a trunking network, how are different user groups defined?

3. What is trunking?

4. How does trunking results in a more balanced load sharing?

5. What part of the trunking system sends a data message over the control channel to automatically
switch all radios in a particular talk group to the available voice channel?

6. Besides spectrum conservation, what are the other inherent benefits of a trunking system?

7. On the radio what does the scan function do?

8. Which trunking user equipment provides users the capability to monitor more than one talkgroup
at a time?

9. How are LMR radios rekeyed without having to physically recall the radios from the field?
4–12

4–2. Installation Notification and Warning System (INWS)

Terrorism, severe weathers, major disasters; these scenarios can occur instantly. The question is
whether your base is prepared to communicate before it’s too late? During any emergencies, it is
critical to quickly and accurately notify all personnel of threats and to give instructions to assure their
safety and ability to respond. From terrorist threats to approaching tornados, all bases must be able to
instantly reach mass audience and targeted individuals, whether they are outdoors or in buildings. As
a RF Transmission Systems technician, you may be tasked to maintain a mass notification alert
system such as a Technomad or a Whelen System. There are no set Air Force standards on what mass
alert system to use. In this section, we will describe the function of the giant voice and the Whelen
system.

235. Giant voice function

A public address system is an electronic amplification system used as a communication system in
public areas. A public address system is normally used in parades or change of command ceremonies.
A mass alert system is generally the same thing but instead of just covering one area, a mass alert
system can be used to cover an entire base.
The INWS you encounter during your career can be the type found permanently installed on Air
Force bases or they can be deployable systems you find at a deployed location during an AEF tasking.
INWS are more commonly known as giant voice. Giant voice provides the base with crucial safety
and security information.
Depending on what type of mission you support, your warning system could range in size from a
small audio amplifier and some horn type speakers, up to the large Whelen type systems. AFI 10–
2501, Full Spectrum Threat Response Planning and Operations, requires communication squadrons
to maintain an INWS and also to originate, verify, and maintain an audibility footprint map showing
area of coverage and low audible/hazard areas. To do this you need to know the capabilities of the
equipment you will be using. This helps you to effectively place your system to deliver maximum
coverage.
When choosing the size and type of INWS to use, you must factor in the coverage area you have to
support. Do you just plug the microphone in and hook up the speakers or does the notification system
allow remote access via telephone or radio. Systems with this type of access give you added
versatility and increase the effective range of the system. Another important consideration to keep in
mind would be the best location of the drivers so as to help increase the distance at which personnel
can hear any warning messages clearly.
One of the common problems with INWSs in a deployed environment is cleanliness. You must take
measures to protect your equipment from dust and rain. When possible, install the equipment in
protective cabinets to shield it from the elements. Keep cabinets clean and, if applicable, clean or
change any filters when they get dirty. Proper airflow prevents overheating and extends equipment
life. If equipment is not installed in cabinets or some other sort of housing, regular thorough cleaning
becomes even more important.
Luckily many of the current audio equipment companies make complex environment mass
notification system packages. These usually involve hardened shipping boxes that not only stand up
to cargo loaders but also to various weather conditions. Some are also fitted with adaptable power
supplies that easily convert to regional power infrastructures. In fact, contacting some of the
companies can result in unique characteristics being built for an individual unit’s needs and
restrictions.

236 The Whelen system

The Whelen mass alert system is made up of three basic components: the siren stacks, the siren
cabinet, and the encoder. In this lesson, the Whelen WPS–2800 series model will be discussed.
 4–13

Capabilities and limitations of the Whelen INWS

The siren stacks produce the actual sound heard. Siren stacks come in two different types: omni-
directional horns or rotational horns. With the rotational horns, a rotor is mounted underneath the
horn to turn the speaker in the direction you want. The siren cabinet controls the sirens and the
encoder is used as the operational interface of the system. These components will be discussed
individually. See Figure 4–15.
Siren stacks
The siren stacks or sirens are made up of speaker cells. A speaker cell is made
up of a single 400-watt speaker driver located in dual, hardened plastic cones
with a compacted aluminum base plate. A 400-watt amplifier located in the
siren cabinet powers each speaker cell. A siren stack can contain anywhere
from one to 10 speaker cells. It is only 18.7 inches high with one speaker cell
or up to 130.5 inches tall with all ten-speaker cells attached.
The manufacturer recommends the siren stacks be located at least 50 feet off
the ground. A 60-foot slightly tapered class one or class two utility poles is
recommended, this gives 10 feet of pole situated in the ground for better
stability. A pole with a siren stack of five or less speaker cells can be erected
with the siren stack attached to the pole. Because a siren stack with six or more
speaker cells is too heavy, mount the siren stack to the pole after the pole is
erected.
Siren cabinet
The siren cabinet is located on the poles of the siren stack. The model number
on the siren cabinet tells you the cabinet type, the version number and the
number of amplifiers inside. A WPS–2807 represents a Type III cabinet with
seven amplifiers inside. A Type II cabinet can hold up to five amplifiers and
has a single battery shelf. Type III cabinets can hold up to 10 amplifiers and
have two battery shelves.
Inside the siren cabinet are the motherboard, control board, a radio or landline
Figure 4–7. board, ammeter, voltmeter, batteries and a battery disconnect switch. The
Whelen System
cabinet operates on 28 VDC supplied by the batteries. The batteries maintain
their proper voltage from a battery charger, either one that is plugged into a 110 VAC single phase
power source or optional solar panels. The factory installed voltmeter shows the direct current (DC)
voltages across the batteries and the ammeter provides the charging current reading from the battery
charger.
The motherboard controls signal routing and power distribution of the system. A 10 amp fuse protects
the components with the exception of the amplifiers and rotor (they are protected separately). The
control board controls the system’s key functions. The key functions include tone generation, event
timing, status reporting, diagnostics, rotor control and remote and local activation. The control board
also houses the diagnostic light emitting diodes (LED), a microphone jack and a serial port. The serial
port allows you to connect a Palm PC (a laptop computer with vendor CD has replaced the Palm PC
in recent years) for local control of the siren cabinet and troubleshooting.
The cabinet is controlled by receiving dual tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signals. This can be done
remotely with either the landline or radio board installed in the cabinet. The landline board requires
the cabinet to be connected to the encoder by a landline. With the optional radio board installed,
DTMF signals are transmitted and received using a VHF or UHF frequency modulation (FM) radio.
This option requires a transceiver to be connected to the encoder and the siren cabinet.
The siren amplifiers are mounted on the inside of the upper cabinet door. They amplify the audio to
400 watts for the speaker drivers. For a Type III cabinet there is space for up to 10 amplifiers.
4–14

Warning tones from the siren cabinet and the pre-recorded digital voice messages are the best types of
information to be relayed by the amplifiers. The frequency response of the drivers is not very wide, so
music and other audio sources do not sound terribly accurate and could possibly damage the siren
stacks.
The AC-powered battery charger has two charging modes: equalization mode and float charge mode.
The charger is in the equalization mode when alternating current (AC) power is first applied; the
charger stays in equalization mode until the battery voltage reaches approximately 31.5 VDC. The
charger then switches to float mode and trickle charges the batteries to the appropriate voltage relative
to the ambient temperature of the batteries (26 to 29 VDC). The batteries have a capacity for
approximately 230 amp-hours.
There are optional pieces of equipment that can accompany the siren cabinet. These include solar
panels for the batteries, intrusion detection alarms, strobe lights, antennas for the radio board and
antenna polyphasers. The antenna polyphasers are used to suppress high-voltage charges (like
lightning strikes) that could be present at the antenna
There are two ways to operate the WPS–2800 system; remote or local position. Remote position
operation involves transmitting signals from the encoder to the desired station via a landline
connection or through FM transceivers. Local position operation is accomplished through the control
panel on the front of the siren cabinet. The control panel has all of the same basic functions as the
encoder. In addition to standard operations, it can be used for troubleshooting as well.
The encoders
The Whelen system has many different encoders that can be utilized. We discuss only two of them
here.
E–969 Encoder
The E–969 encoder is a desktop remote interface that works off of a nominal 12 volt DC charge
through a provided wall mounted transformer. The encoder provides one-way communication with
the siren cabinet. It has a sealed membrane keypad and a two-line by 24 character configured liquid
crystal display (LCD). The display is also backlit for low light situations. The encoder, when not
being actively used by the operator, displays a stand by message, the day of the week, and the time.
The encoder has internal batteries that are trickle charged while the unit is plugged into an AC outlet.
When primary power is lost, the unit maintains current time for up to three months.
The rear panel, two-piece, screw terminal connector is available for field wiring to a base station
transceiver or for connecting to a landline system. This connector supports a transformer coupled
audio, a PTT closure, squelch monitor input, and a channel grant input for trunking systems.
The encoder can be used to select up to 35 different command or control functions in addition to
supporting up 10,000 unique addresses. Once the operator performs a command, the information is
sent out the back of the encoder via a two wire balanced audio output in the form of a 10-digit DTMF
protocol.
The 10-digit DTMF can be used for troubleshooting purposes and is broken down like this; the first
three digits are the system area code, the next four digits are the address of the siren stacks and the
last three digits are the command line. A line like 123–1001–002 would tell you siren cabinet 1001 in
area code 123 to sound an attack warning. The area code is assigned to the system by the Whelen
Company and should not be changed for risk of interfering with a neighboring Whelen system. The
area code is in the system’s memory, so you won’t have to enter it manually. The address has to be
known in order to set off individual cabinet stacks. The first digit in the three digit command line is
designated to the base ID number. This identifies which encoder transmitted the command (this is
useful when you have more than one encoder attached to the system). The last two digits are the
actual command. To activate the system, the operator selects a command from either the encoder’s
 4–15

command subgroup or voice message subgroup. Then the operator enters the four digit address of the
siren stack they would like to activate and presses the send button.
The system has “wildcard” features that allow replacing one of the digits with a # sign if one of the
address’s digits is forgotten. If you knew you wanted a speaker in an area code to go off but weren’t
sure of the last digit of the address, you could just input “100#” and all the stacks from 1000 – 1009
would go off! Inputting an address of “####” would set off all of the speaker stacks in an area code
(which is an entire base). The ALL button on the keypad does the same thing as entering ####.
There are two ways to program the system. The encoder may be programmed through the use of a
personal computer or through the encoder’s keypad. To program the E–969 with a computer, connect
the encoder via the serial communication port on the back of the encoder to your computer’s serial
port.
The E–969 encoder has eight call keys that can be programmed by the user for different situations.
Four are hot keys (which are switch accessible manually pushed keys on the keypad). Of the other
four keys, two are time of day presets (timed to automatically initiate at a certain time) and two can
be accessed through remote inputs. Call keys are the easiest way to manage a system for the typical
day to day actions. In general a call key can have up to 100 sequences (00–99) that can mix recorded
digital voice messages and siren tones where each command is generated for a certain programmed
time period.
When a call key is selected and sent, it starts with sequence 00 and progresses until the next sequence
cannot be found. Knowing the length of a command message is vital because each new command cuts
off the prior command message or tone. If the timing of a sequence is too short, you could cut off
important information from that sequence.
Once a call key is selected and sent, it cannot be canceled until the key runs its entire sequence. If a
cancel command is not programmed into the sequence, then the system runs the last command
programmed until it times out.
The time of day preset call key is set to a 24-hour time clock; it can be arranged to activate a single
programmed command or it can activate one of the hot keys. It can be set for announcements on a
single day, several days or all days of the week. The system can also be assigned to sound off more
than once a day, if you choose, by programming both timed transaction keys for the same day. If you
select a hot key for a timed transaction, the system goes through the sequence as described above
automatically at the time and day(s) that you designated it to activate.
The remote inputs are for external inputs to the encoder so that it will automatically send out a
command line to the siren cabinet. You can program the remote inputs, like the timed presets, in two
different ways. It may activate a predefined call key or it may be set for an individual command and
address of a siren stack.
E–2010 Encoder
Another encoder that is commonly found out in the field is the E–2010. This central control station
employs all of the same functions as the E–969 plus quite a few more. For instance instead of only
eight call keys, the E–2010 has 62 call keys. Sixteen of them are hot keys; the next forty are auxiliary
call keys. Six are hidden (two timed transactions and four remote inputs). This encoder also has a call
key cancel switch that allows you to stop a call key that is in progress which is not available on the E–
969 encoder. The LCD display is larger (four lines, 40 characters), but it has the same messages and
clock applied to it.
A great feature that the E–2010 has is software that allows it to interface with a PC for the
manipulation of data. This allows for the following:
 Storing data to the hard drive.
 Call key programming.
 Call key descriptions.
4–16

 Storing data via a Microsoft Access format.

 Selectable printing, based on site or date.
This encoder also has two communications channels as opposed to the single channel in the E–969.
These two channels allow for operating with two radio frequencies or one RF link and one landline.
When sending out commands or requests, you choose which channel you want to communicate with.
Channel one is the default channel.
The E–2010 also can be setup to automatically poll each of the WPS–2800 siren cabinets that are in
the system. This retrieves status information from the equipment and feeds it back to the control
station. From there it can be viewed on the display screen or printed out on a printer. The typical
printout consists of the time, whether it was a transmitted or received signal, what channel it took
place on, the DTMF string and the decoded message.
An internal alarm is provided with this encoder that sounds (depending on the wiring) on two separate
occasions, a low battery condition at the cabinet or when an intrusion detection alarm is tripped
somewhere in the system. Pressing the ALARM ACK silences the alarm.
Maintenance of the Whelen mass alert
The Whelen system comes with a Palm PC that has the Whelen configuration software loaded on it.
However, using a laptop computer with vendor software on CD has replaced the Palm PC. The laptop
computer is connected to the siren cabinet at the serial port and becomes the system interface. The
software allows you seven tabs (screens) to do a number of things like making configuration changes,
extracting the current configuration from the station, obtaining valuable diagnostic information and
activating any station function.
The model tab allows you to choose the type of Whelen system the cabinet is configured to.
The siren tab is where the current configuration of the siren cabinet is displayed. From this area you
can read any changes to the system that have been made. Examples of configuration choices would be
enabling wild card options and what fault feedbacks to send to the encoder. Not only can you see the
current configurations, but you can also program in new changes to the system from this tab.
The radio tab presents the radio card information. It shows if the system is in a trunking or
nontrunking arrangement, and also displays the transmitter warm up time.
Status tab displays recent or immediate updates to the system. It allows for fault detection and tells
you how often faults have occurred to the cabinet that you are plugged into. This tab, along with the
DTMF tab, allows you to troubleshoot the system.
Act tab is the screen where you are able to activate all of the messages and sirens that the system
produces. This tab is like locally interfacing with the encoder.
The DTMF tab allows you to view the actual DTMF codes that are being sent to and from the siren
cabinet. This is a valuable tool that helps in troubleshooting the system. It allows you to half split the
system which cuts out 50 percent of the system. You can tell if the problem is coming from the
encoder or if the problem is at the siren cabinet and stack.
MFD (multi-format decoding) tab is the screen that displays the type of decoding that the siren
cabinet uses to interpret the digital information being sent to it (DTMF or other encoding). This is a
factory setting and should never be changed.
Loading the Whelen Configuration Software to a desktop PC (or a laptop) allows you all of the same
functions that a Palm PC has during interface with the system as long as the desktop PC is connected
into the overall system. Through the use of the software, troubleshooting and status can be ascertained
from the office before traveling to the local position to look at the equipment and repair time can be
shortened. The configuration software requires Windows for a run platform.
 4–17

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

235. Giant voice function

1. What does giant voice provide?

2. What AFI requires communication squadrons to maintain “installation warning systems”?

3. Besides maintaining “installation warning systems,” what else must a communications squadron
do?

4. What is one of the common problems with mass alert systems in a deployed environment?

236. The Whelen system

1. What are the three basic components of a Whelen system?

2. Match the Whelen system components in column B with the characteristic it is associated with in
column A. Items in column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all.

Column A Column B
____ (1) Provides current readings from the batter charger. a. Motherboard.
____ (2) Allows remote access to cabinet. a. Control Board.
____ (3) Shows DC voltages across batteries. b. Radio or Landline Board.
____ (4) Supplies 28 VDC. c. Ammeter.
____ (5) Controls key functions such as status reporting. d. Voltmeter.
____ (6) Control signal distribution and power distribution. e. Batteries.
f. Battery Disconnect.

3. Differentiate the operation between the remote and local position of the WPS–2800 system?

4. How long does the E–969 encoder maintain current time when power is lost?

5. Name the two ways you can program the E–969 encoder.

6. How many call keys does the E–2010 have?

4–18

7. Match the tabs on the Whelen configuration software menu in column B with the characteristic it
is associated with in column A. Items in column B may be used once.

Column A Column B
____ (1) Displays trunking or non-trunking arrangement. a. Model.
____ (2) Choose type of Whelen system. b. Siren.
____ (3) Views codes that are sent from and to the cabinet. c. Radio.
____ (4) Current configuration of cabinet is displayed. d. Status.
____ (5) Displays type of decoding that the cabinet uses. e. Act.
____ (6) Show recent updates to the system. f. DTMF.
____ (7) Activates all messages and sirens of the system. g. MFD.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

233
1. Cost effective, easy to maintain, and their limited infrastructure ensures that communication is possible in
the event of a catastrophic failure.
2. Everyone on that particular channel.
3. Simplex radio system works well when there are only a few users who are closely located.
4. When transmissions take place on one frequency and receive on another.
5. With a duplexer, it isolates the receiver from “hearing” the transmitter and prevents damage to the receiver.
6. (1) e
(2) d
(3) c
(4) b
(5) a
(6) c
(7) d
(8) b
7. The user radio must be within the range of coverage of the repeater, base station, or other radio asset.
8. A receiver voting system.
9. While a simulcast system transmits on the same RF channels simultaneously from each base
station/repeater, multicast systems use different RF channels at each site.
234
1. A type of access control (whether in each mobile unit or centralized at a base station site), switching
equipment, system management computer, control and voice channel repeaters, modems, and telephone
interconnect.
2. As talkgroups.
3. Trunking is the commonly accepted term for electronically controlled sharing of a relatively small number
of communications channels among a relatively large number of users.
4. Trunked systems use access control schemes to share channel capacity among many users. The electronic
control enables users to take advantage of some transmitted channels that are idle at a particular time while
others are busy.
5. If a voice channel is available, the system controller sends a data message over the control channel
switching all units in User A’s talk group to the available voice channel.
6. Other inherent benefits include faster system access, better channel efficiency, more user privacy, flexibility
to expand, and selective radio inhibit.
 4–19

7. The scan function on the radios cycle through the talkgroups programmed in the scan function but again
they are only monitoring one talkgroup at a time.
8. The capability to monitor more than one talkgroup at a time.
9. LMR radios can support over-the-air rekeying of encryption keys without having to physically recall the
radios from the field.
235
1. The base with crucial safety and security information.
2. AFI 10–2501.
3. To originate, verify, and maintain an audibility footprint map showing area of coverage and low
audible/hazard areas.
4. Cleanliness.
236
1. (1) Siren stacks.
(2) Siren cabinet.
(3) The encoder.
2. (1) d.
(2) c.
(3) e.
(4) f.
(5) b.
(6) a.
3. There are two ways to operate the WPS–2800 system, remote or local position. Remote position operation
involves transmitting signals from the encoder to the desired station via a landline connection or through
FM transceivers. Local position operation is accomplished through the control panel on the front of the
siren cabinet.
4. Up to three months.
5. Through a personal computer or through the encoder’s keypad.
6. 62.
7. (1) c.
(2) a.
(3) f.
(4) b.
(5) g.
(6) d.
(7) e.

Do the unit review exercises before going to the next unit.

4–20

Unit Review Exercises

Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle
the corresponding letter. When you have completed all unit review exercises, transfer your answers to
the Field-Scoring Answer Sheet.
Do not return your answer sheet to the Air Force Career Development Academy (AFCDA).

88. (233) Which conventional land mobile radio device serves as the hub of a net?
a. Portable.
b. Mobile.
c. Repeater.
d. Base station.
89. (234) How many talkgroups can a trunked mobile radio monitor at one time?
a. 1.
b. 2.
c. 3.
d. all the talkgroups programmed in the radio.
90. (234) Who has the ability to patch different talkgroups together?
a. Control station.
b. Dispatch console.
c. Portable.
d. Mobile.
91. (235) What Air Force instruction (AFI) requires communications squadrons to maintain
“installation warning systems”?
a. AFI 10–2501.
b. AFI 21–116.
c. AFI 33–106.
d. AFI 33–118.
92. (235) What is a common problem with a mass alert system in a deployed environment?
a. Low power out.
b. Efficiency.
c. Cleanliness.
d. Reliability.
93. (236) In the Whelen siren cabinet, what controls signal routing and power distribution of the
system?
a. The landline board.
b. The control board.
c. The motherboard.
d. The radio board.
94. (236) In the Whelen system, how many digits make up the dual tone multi frequency (DTMF)
protocol.
a. 6.
b. 8.
c. 10.
d. 12.
Please read the unit menu for unit 5 and continue 
Unit 5. High Frequency Communications
5–1. Automatic Link Establishment ............................................................................................... 5–1 
237. Automatic link establishment, what is it? .......................................................................................... 5–1 
238. Sounding and link quality analysis .................................................................................................... 5–4 
5–2. AN/PRC–150 Manpack Radio................................................................................................. 5–6 
239. Equipment description ....................................................................................................................... 5–6 
240. Simplified functional description....................................................................................................... 5–7 

I F YOU’VE EVER watched one of those old war movies and seen someone sweating over an old
radio to tune in a distant station, you’ve seen what high frequency (HF) communications used to
be. HF has always been very vulnerable to weather, atmospheric disturbances, and even time of
day. It is often quite a task to find a “good” frequency to use at any given time. There are still many
HF radio sets and systems that require the user to toil over the tuning knob to find a usable frequency.
However, the system you will cover is the PRC–150. It does the work for us by using automatic link
establishment (ALE).

5–1. Automatic Link Establishment

One of the best features of HF communications is its medium to long-distance communications
characteristics. Successful HF transmission over long-distances depends upon the refraction of radio
waves by the layers of the ionosphere. Because of variations such as height and density of the
ionosphere layers and solar variations, users generally have to use more than one frequency to
maintain a communications circuit throughout the day. For initiating and sustaining HF radio
communications, an ALE system is used. ALE automatically selects the optimum HF communication
channel out of a list of preprogrammed channels and then executes a handshaking protocol to
automatically connect two or more HF radio systems in a communication link. In this section, we will
define the ALE process.

237. Automatic link establishment, what is it?

ALE is a means of automatically establishing an HF link between two or more stations with minimum
operator inputs. Remember that ALE is still HF communications and all the propagation rules still
apply. The reason this is easy to forget is that the system is automatically monitoring conditions and
using the best channel for current conditions. Two major differences between conventional HF
communications and ALE HF communications are:
 ALE lets you call one station in ALE net selectively without disturbing the rest of the net.
 The ALE system automatically chooses the best frequency (from a preprogrammed list) for a
call under the conditions at that time.
An operator of a conventional HF system trying to establish communications must consider many
factors in choosing an operating frequency. Of course the distant end station is considering the same
situation. This situation is complicated, taking years of experience to master.
After configuring the system with the operating parameters from network manager, all an ALE HF
operator needs to know is the distant end station’s call address (call sign). The ALE HF operator
simply types in the desired station’s address and the system will automatically establish a two-way
communication link. The calling station’s address is displayed at the called station end to indicate
who placed the call. Once established, the ALE link operates the same as a conventional HF link.
Before we go any further we need to define the different types of addresses and calling options.
5–2

Addresses
Most ALE addresses consist of three alphanumeric characters, even though addresses up to 15
characters long may be used. Let’s use the addresses in the table below for our example net.

Station  Self Address  Net Address 

Keesler  KEE  EST 
Pope  PPE  EST 
Travis  TRA  WST 
Fairchild  FRC  WST 
Table 1

Let’s look at some typical addresses associated with ALE systems—specifically, self addresses, net
addresses, other-station addresses and floating addresses.
Self address
Your station’s self address is user programmed into your system. Refer to table 1. TRA is a self
address for the ALE station at Travis AFB only. The self address for each station in the net becomes
an other-station address to other net members. The self address serves as the calling station identifier
when you place ALE calls (lets other stations know who is calling them).
Net address
In addition to a self address, each station can also be assigned a net address that it shares with other
members. For instance, let’s say we are part of a net consisting of many United States stations and the
address “EST” is the net address for all the stations that lie east of the Mississippi river. WST is the
net address for all the stations that lie west of the Mississippi river. Keesler AFB, Mississippi,
therefore, would have a self address of KEE, and be part of the net address EST. Operators at Keesler
would receive a call designated to address EST. This allows us to call all stations of a certain type in
our net simultaneously.
Other-station address
An other-station address is the self address of other stations in the net. Self addresses and other-
station addresses are normally preprogrammed into your ALE system. In the example net above, KEE
might be Keesler’s address. To Keesler, KEE is a self address. To the stations at Pope, Travis, and
Fairchild, KEE is an other-station address.
Floating address
If your station links with another station that is not preprogrammed into your other-station address
listing, that station’s address is stored as a floating address. A net address is never a floating address.
Consider the example net above with Keesler, Pope, Travis and Fairchild AFBs. If a mobile ALE
(vehicular, amphibious, airborne, etc.) station comes on the air with an address of AAA, its self
address is AAA. AAA would be a floating address to all the other members of the net.
Floating addresses are not user-programmable. The ALE system loads them automatically upon
receipt of a sounding or communications transmission from an address that is not already
programmed into the other-address table. Floating addresses, then, are simply other stations’ self
addresses that were not previously programmed. ALE systems measure and store LQA (link quality
analysis) data for floating addresses, just as they do for other individual addresses. The ALE system’s
automatic channel selection algorithms use this LQA data when placing a call to a floating address.
LQA will be explained later. When a system’s station memory reaches an overflow condition, newer
entries replace the oldest existing entries.
 5–3

The Automatic link establishment call

To initiate an ALE call, an operator selects the desired Other Station Address and initiates the call.
The ALE system reviews channel LQA values for the desired address (which represent near real-time
propagation conditions) and establishes a data handshake between the two stations on the best
available channel. Once the two-way link is established, received audio is restored and normal voice
or data communications can begin. If a link attempt is not successful on the first channel selected, or
if the channel is busy, alternative channels are selected automatically. The call is then repeated until a
link is established, all active channels have been tried at least once or the call attempt is aborted by
the operator. In our example, if Keesler wanted to communicate with Travis, it would use TRA as its
Other Station Address. If it wanted to communicate with all stations west of the Mississippi River it
would use WST.
HF ALE system can establish automatic links using any of these calling options:
 Individual call.
 All call.
 Any call.
 Net call.
 Group call.
Differences among these types of ALE calls consist primarily of how many stations are to be
contacted and how they’re expected to respond. These calling options try to call a number of ALE
stations with a single call on a single channel. It should be noted that propagation might not support
communications throughout the group because of differences in propagation conditions among their
locations.
Individual call
The individual call (station-to-station call) is the simplest form of an ALE call—intended to establish
a two-way communication link between two ALE stations on a single, automatically selected channel.
Although several other ALE calling options are supported by MIL-STD ALE, individual calls
represent the majority of ALE traffic. Individual Call lets you call one specific station and expect a
one-on-one handshake response, establishing a two-way communications path between two stations.
Station-to-station calling is done through a three-part data handshake between calling and receiving
stations—call, response, and acknowledgment.
All call
An all call lets you call all ALE stations monitoring with no response transmission expected from
them. The all call establishes a one-way communication path to many stations on one channel. All
stations that receive an all call stop scanning and listen for your message without tuning or keying
their transmitters on that channel. This call will even contact stations outside your regular net! A
practicable application of an all call might involve a situation where you want to broadcast an
emergency message to as many stations as possible. You do not expect or need a response from the
called stations. The all call address is permanently stored in your ALE system memory.
Any call
An any call lets you call all ALE stations and require a randomly timed response from every station
that hears the any call. It establishes several bidirectional communication paths simultaneously on one
channel. The any call doesn’t guarantee that the successfully linked stations can communicate with
each other on that channel. This is due to possible random response collisions.
Net call
A net call lets you call a predefined group of stations with a single shared net address and require
them to respond, one at a time, in a predefined order. A net call establishes several two-way
5–4

communication paths simultaneously on one channel. In our discussion net we talk about a net call
using the net address “EST” (table 1). It would set up links with KEE and PPE only. Configuring
ALE stations for net calls requires detailed coordination by the network manager for all net stations.
Group call
A group call lets you call a group of stations using a shared group name. When a group call is placed,
the ALE system sequentially transmits the self Addresses of each station in the group. Group stations
respond to the group call, one at a time, in reverse order from the calling sequence. A group call seeks
to establish several two-way communications paths simultaneously on one channel. It doesn’t
guarantee that the other stations can communicate with one another on that channel—only that each
station can communicate with the originating station. Unlike net calls, which require prior
coordination by a network manager, group calls let you contact a group of stations when you know
only the self address and scan list. Although group call parameters can be preprogrammed, group
calls are usually impromptu, requiring the capability to compile group call parameters. For this
reason, group calls are normally originated by ground stations that use remote terminals for system
operation rather than aircraft ALE HF controls.

238. Sounding and link quality analysis

While manual control of ALE is possible, it’s most effective (and most widely used) in the automatic
mode. During automatic operation, the ALE system continuously scans several channels (frequencies)
on the scan list at a rate of 2–5 per second. While it’s scanning, the system is searching for soundings
or calls from other stations on the net.
The term sounding refers to transmitting a signal on a particular frequency to determine that channel’s
usability. In other words, how clear is the signal? The term call refers to transmitting an address
code(s) in order to establish a communication link. It can be a signal to one particular station (for one-
on-one communication), to a specific group of stations or to the entire net. In other words, the term
“sounding” refers to testing frequencies (done continuously by ALE on many different channels in
succession). The term “call” refers to an actual initiation of communication on a particular channel
that (through sounding) is known to be usable. For example, if you’re an operator at site A and you
want to talk to the folks at site X, you initiate communications by placing a call to site X. Your
system knows which frequency will work best for your transmission to site X because site X has been
sounding to you (among others). Your ALE system knows which frequency had the clearest signal
from site X and automatically uses that frequency.
The process of sounding and determining channel clarity is termed LQA. Soundings are short-burst
transmissions of frequency shift keying (FSK) encoded data. They contain station identity
information for use by other stations to “rank” this channel among all channels on the scan list. If you
were at Keesler (call sign KEE), your ALE system would transmit “THIS IS KEE” for a certain
amount of time. This transmission repeats on every channel on the scan list to all stations on the net.
The stations that receive your sounding use their LQA circuits to analyze signal quality and assign it a
numerical value. This value correlates to your station address and the receive channel. All this
information is stored in the station’s memory for future use (when it wants to call you).
Through continual LQA, the system knows which channel is best for communications with each
station in a net. Imagine a four-station net made up of ALE stations Keesler (KEE), Pope (PPE),
Travis (TRA) and Fairchild (FRC) Air Force bases. By monitoring soundings from other net
members, KEE knows which channel is best for communications with each of the other members.
When KEE operators want to talk to TRA, they initiate a call. The ALE system looks to the LQA data
(derived from TRA soundings) stored in memory and automatically picks the clearest frequency for
use. As soon as that communication ends, TRA may need to call PPE and FRC. Based upon LQA
data, TRA’s ALE system automatically uses the best channel for these calls.
 5–5

There are various types of HF equipment that you will be required to maintain. In the next section, we
will discuss only one type of HF radio—the AN/PRC–150, the advanced HF/VHF tactical radio
system.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

237. ALE operation

1. What is automatic link establishment?

2. What are the two major differences between conventional HF and ALE HF communications?

3. How many alphanumeric characters are used in most ALE addresses?

4. Match the ALE addresses in column B with the description it is associated with in column A.
Items in column B may be used once.
Column A Column B

_____ (1) Addresses of other stations on the net. a. Self Address.

b. Net Address.
_____ (2) User programmed address into your system.
c. Other-station Address.
_____ (3) Addresses not preprogrammed into your listing. d. Floating Address.
_____ (4) Addresses those shares with other stations.

5. What happens if a link attempt is not successful on the first channel selected, or if the channel is
busy?

6. What is an individual call?

7. Differentiate between a group call and a net call?

238. Sounding and link quality analysis

1. Define the term “sounding.”

2. State the purpose of link quality analysis.

3. What does sounding contain?

5–6

5–2. AN/PRC–150 Manpack Radio

Radio technicians and operators have maintained and operated a variety of HF equipment over the
years. RF Transmission Systems technicians continue to maintain HF equipment like the AN/PRC–
150. This lesson discusses the AN/PRC-150 (fig.5-1).

Figure 5–1. AN/PRC–150(C)

239. Equipment description

The AN/PRC–150(C) is an advanced HF radio which operates from 1.6 MHz to 29.9999 MHz using
sky wave (USB, LSB, CW, AME) modulations with selectable low (1.0 watt), medium (5.0 watts),
and high (20.0 watts) output power. The AN/PRC–150(C) also operates from 20.0000 MHz to
59.9999 MHz in FM with maximum power of 10.0 watts. Communications can take place with
manpack, mobile and fixed-site radio configurations.
The AN/PRC 150 can use two each of the following:
 BB–390 Ni-MH rechargeable.
 BB–590 Ni-Cd recharageable.
 BB–490/U lead acid rechargeable.
 BB–2590 Li-ION rechargeable.
 BA/BB–5590/U Li-SO2 non-rechargeable.
NOTE: Use of batteries other than those listed above may result in equipment malfunction.
Equipment features
The National Security Agency (NSA)-certified AN/PRC–150(C) provides U.S. Type 1 voice and data
encryption compatible with ANDVT/KY–99, ANDVT/KY–100, VINSON (KY–57 and KY–58) and
KG–84C cryptographic devices, eliminating the need for external encryption. An integral Citadel®
encryption mode offers secure communication interoperability with coalition and Partnership for
Peace forces. The ANDVT/KY–100 is a lightweight, self-contained secure voice and data terminal
that provides secure half-duplex, digital data, analog data and remote-keying capabilities for
transmission over radio circuits or wireline media for joint interoperability between service
components and NATO allies.
All functions are controlled from the front panel and keypad display unit (KDU), or via a remote
control device. The liquid crystal display (LCD) on the KDU provides system status information and
reflects data entry to simplify unit operation and programming.
High speed data rates, up to 9600 bps (HF), and selectable ARQ modes reduce on-the-air
transmission time and enhance secure data transmission for improved communications reliability and
throughput. The combined digital voice and serial tone data modem can operate over poor
communication channels.
 5–7

The AN/PRC–150’s 3G radio mode provides a subset of the capabilities and protocols defined by the
NATO standard STANAG 4538, Technical Standards for an Automatic Radio Control System for HF
Communication Links. Second- and third-generation ALE provides faster and more reliable linking
and increased data link throughput, even in degraded channel conditions. The ALE phone call
features allow the radio to call and link to an “HF Ground Station” capable of patching voice calls to
a Public Service Telephone Network (PSTN) landline or similar communications network. The “HF
Ground Station” contacted must support the HF Ground Routing Protocol as specified in ACP193.
Also, the radio has an internal tuning to match variety of whip, dipole and long-wire antennas
automatically.
The AN/PRC–150 supports enhanced ECCM. It uses a common transmission security technique
called frequency hopping. The advanced frequency hopping provides advanced antijam protection for
communications.
To further reduce the probability of being discovered, the low probability of intercept/detection
(LPI/D) protocol hides and minimizes on-air transmission time. The AN/PRC–150’s LPI/D does this
by providing quick message transfers at low power levels. This minimizes the on-air transmission
time. Unlike frequency hopping, LPI/D slowly changes frequency throughout a transmission.
Although LPI/D will provide protection against some types of jamming, it is not intended to replace
frequency hopping as an anti-jam waveform.
The AN/PRC–150 provides an external global positioning system (GPS) precision lightweight GPS
receiver interface for automatic time-of-day (TOD) synchronization.
Antenna
The antenna and external system units are connected to the radio via front panel connectors. The
ANTENNA connector J7 provides a 50-ohm antenna port for either a BNC connector or a whip
antenna.
Several types of antennas may be connected to the AN/PRC–150 radio. When choosing antenna
lengths, take into account factors such as internal coupler enabled/disabled and HF propagation.
The OE–505 manpack whip antenna kit provided with the radio is 3.1 meters long and consists of six
collapsible sections. When the antenna is fully extended, it is operational over the entire 1.6 MHz to
59.9999 MHz frequency range. It has a removable antenna base with a spring-loaded binding post
adapter for the attachment.
Power amplifier
The AN/PRC–150 along with an RF–5834H-PA power amplifier can increase power to a 400-watt
capability. It operates in applications where medium-range communications are required.
Applications include mobile, vehicular or base station installations for general purpose HF single-
sideband voice and data communications. The power amplifier’s broadband design requires no tuning
or adjustment. The power output is adjusted at the transceiver front panel or remote control. Built-in
self-test features permit technicians to check the transceiver and associated power amplifier
performance down to the module level. Any faults are indicated on the front panel display of the
transceiver. When used with the RF382A-series antenna coupler, the output of the power amplifier is
automatically matched to the specified antenna and requires no special procedures.

240. Simplified functional description

The following paragraphs provide a simplified description of how the AN/PRC–150 functions. The
following table describes the functions of the modules within the AN/PRC-150.
5–8

Reference  Assembly/Subassembly  Function 

Designation  Name 
A1  Chassis Assembly  Protects A2 Lower Chassis Assembly and A3 Upper 
Chassis Assembly. Receives Direct Current (DC) 
power from A4 Rear Panel Assembly, and distributes 
DC power to the other RT assemblies. Provides a 
mounting structure for the front panel interface 
connectors and A5 KDU 
A2  Lower Chassis Assembly  Processes voice and data signals. Supervises control 
functions for the entire radio. Also contains the 
encryption (crypto) assembly. 
A3  Upper Chassis Assembly  Contains the analog RF sections of the radio: 
receiver, exciter, filters, power amplifier, and tuning 
circuits. 
A4  Rear Panel Assembly  Contains the RT’s power supply assembly. Also 
provides the interface connectors to the batteries. 
A5  KDU  Contains the keyboard and the LCD that make up the 
radio’s Man‐Machine Interface (MMI). 

Simplified transmit functional level description

In figure 5–2, clear voice audio enters the radio at J1 AUDIO connector, or clear data enters the radio
at J3 DATA connector. The signal goes to A2A4 INFOSEC Printed Wiring Board (PWB) Assembly,
where Analog-to-Digital (A/D) conversion takes place. If the radio is operating in encryption mode,
the signal is sent to and encrypted by A2A5 Crypto Assembly before returning to A2A4 INFOSEC
PWB Assembly. The signal then enters A2A1 Signal Processing and Control Module (SPCM) or
SPCM/Modem PWB Assembly, where modulation and Digital-to-Analog (D/A) conversion take
place.
The signal is then passed to A3A1 High Frequency (HF)/Very High Frequency (VHF) Receiver
Exciter Synthesizer (RES) PWB Assembly where filtering, up-conversion to RF, and amplification
takes place. The signal then enters A3A2 HF Power Amplifier (PA) PWB Assembly, which contains
the Final PA Assembly. The signal is amplified before being sent to A3A5 Antenna Coupler
Assembly. The signal then passes through an impedance matching circuit in A3A5 Antenna Coupler
Assembly before being radiated by the antenna connected to J7 HF ANTENNA connector.
Audio, external PA control, ethernet, keyline and other signals pass between J6 Front Panel Ancillary
Interface Connector (AIC), J9 Rear Panel AIC connector and A2A1 SPCM or SPCM/Modem PWB
Assembly.
Simplified receive functional level description
In figure 5–2, the RF signal from J7 HF ANTENNA connector passes through the impedance
matching circuits in A3A5 Antenna Coupler Assembly, then through one of the harmonic filters in
A3A2 HF PA PWB Assembly. The signal then passes to the A3A1 HF/VHF RES PWB Assembly
where filtering, down conversion and amplification take place. The signal then enters A2A1 SPCM or
SPCM/Modem PWB Assembly where A/D conversion and demodulation take place. The signal then
passes through A2A4 INFOSEC PWB Assembly for DA conversion. If the radio is operating in
encryption mode, the signal is sent to and decrypted by A2A5 Crypto Assembly before returning to
 5–9

A2A4 INFOSEC Assembly. A received audio signal then exits the radio via J1 AUDIO connector, or
a digital data signal exits the radio via J3 DATA connector.
Global positioning systems (GPS) time-of-day (TOD) data from an external GPS unit is passed to
A2A1 SPCM or SPCM/Modem PWB Assembly. Audio, external PA control, ethernet, keyline and
other signals pass between J6 Front Panel AIC, J9 Rear Panel AIC and A2A1 SPCM or
SPCM/Modem PWB Assembly.
Simplified encryption initialization functional level description
In figure 5–2, key data passes from the fill device to A2A4 INFOSEC PWB Assembly as a digital
signal, via J18 FILL connector. The key data is then passed to A2A5 Crypto Assembly.

Figure 5–2. Simplified functional block diagram.

HF communications is just one of the many types of radio communications that you will see in your
career. In the next volume, we will continue on and describe wideband and satellite communications
systems.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

239. Equipment description

1. Describe an AN/PRC–150 Manpack radio?

2. Where are all functions of the radio controlled from?

3. What does the ALE phone call features allow?

5–10

4. What common transmission technique does the AN/PRC–150 uses?

5. What type of antenna comes with AN/PRC–150 radio?

6. What is required to operate in medium-range communications along with the AN/PRC–150?

240. Simplified functional description

1. Match the assembly/subassembly in column B with the description it is associated with in column
A. Items in column B may be used once.
Column A Column B

_____ (1) Contains the receiver and exciter. a. Chassis.

b. Lower Chassis.
_____ (2) Radio’s man-machine interface.
c. Upper Chassis.
_____ (3) Distributes DC power to other assemblies. d. Rear Panel.
_____ (4) Supervises control functions. e. Keypad Display Unit.
_____ (5) Contains the power supply.

2. Where are the impedance matching circuits located?

3. Where does the received audio signal digital data signal exits?

Answers to Self-Test Questions

237
1. ALE is a means of automatically establishing an HF link between two or more stations with minimum
operator inputs.
2. (1) ALE lets you call one station in an ALE net selectively without disturbing the rest of the net.
(2) The ALE system automatically chooses the best frequency (from a preprogrammed list) for a call under
the conditions at that time.
3. Three alphanumeric characters; however, it can take up to 15 characters.
4. (1) c.
(2) a.
(3) d.
(4) b.
5. Alternative channels are selected automatically.
6. The individual call (station-to-station call) is intended to establish a two-way communication link between
two ALE stations on a single, automatically selected channel.
7. Unlike net calls, which require prior coordination by a network manager, group calls let you contact a
group of stations when you know only the self address and scan list.
 5–11

238
1. The process of transmitting a signal on a frequency used by other stations to determine that channel’s
usability.
2. To determine a particular frequency’s signal quality.
3. They contain station identity information for use by other stations to “rank” this channel among all channels
on the scan list.
239
1. The AN/PRC–150(C) is an advanced High Frequency (HF) radio which operates from 1.6 MHz to 29.9999
MHz using sky wave (USB, LSB, CW, AME) modulations with selectable low (1.0 watt), medium (5.0
watts), and high (20.0 watts) output power. The AN/PRC–150(C) also operates from 20.0000 MHz to
59.9999 MHz in FM with maximum power of 10.0 watts. Communications can take place with manpack,
mobile, and fixed-site radio configurations.
2. From the front panel and keypad display unit, or via a remote control device.
3. It allows the radio to call and link to an “HF Ground Station” capable of patching voice calls to a Public
Service Telephone Network (PSTN) landline or similar communications network.
4. Frequency hopping.
5. The OE–505 manpack whip antenna kit provided with the radio is 3.1 meters long and consists of six
collapsible sections.
6. The AN/PRC–150 along with an RF–5834H-PA power amplifier can increase power to a 400-watt
capability. It operates in applications where medium-range communications are required.
240
1. (1) c.
(2) e.
(3) a.
(4) b.
(5) d.
2. In the antenna coupler assembly.
3. A received audio signal then exits the radio via J1 AUDIO connector, or a digital data signal exits the radio
via J3 DATA connector.

Do the unit review exercises before going to the next unit.

5–12

Unit Review Exercises

Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle
the corresponding letter. When you have completed all unit review exercises, transfer your answers to
the Field-Scoring Answer Sheet.
Do not return your answer sheet to the Air Force Career Development Academy (AFCDA).
95. (237) In high frequency communications, your station’s self address is the address
a. the user programmed into your system.
b. it shares with other members.
c. of an unprogrammed station.
d. of other stations in the net.
96. (237) What are the three part data handshake between calling and receiving stations?
a. Call, response, and acknowledgement.
b. Call, request, and acknowledgement.
c. Sound, handshake, and response.
d. Sound, call, and response.
97. (238) Transmitting a signal on a particular frequency in order to determine that channel’s
usability is referred to as
a. call.
b. sounding.
c. networking.
d. handshaking.
98. (239) What is the maximum power of the AN/PRC–150 in FM mode?
a. 5 watts.
b. 10 watts.
c. 15 watts.
d. 20 watts.
99. (240) What assembly on the AN/PRC–150 contains the keyboard and the liquid crystal display
(LCD) that makes up the radio’s man-machine interface?
a. Chassis assembly.
b. Rear panel assembly.
c. Keyboard display unit.
d. Upper chassis assembly.
100. (240) Where do the modulation and digital-to-analog conversion take place in the AN/PRC–
150?
a. Signal processing and control module.
b. INFOSEC printed wiring board.
c. Antenna coupler assembly.
d. Crypto assembly.
Glossary of Terms, Abbreviations, and Acronyms
Terms
amplification—Involves amplifying the low-frequency intelligence to the level for reproduction.
amplitude modulation (AM)—The process of combining audio frequency and RF signals so that the
amplitude of the radio frequency waves varies at an audio frequency rate.

annunciator—Under an intrusion detection system, it is a display that discloses the layout and alerts
security forces if an alarm has been detected.

antenna—A transducer that converts radio frequency energy as current oscillations or vice-versa.

antenna bandwidth—The frequency range within which the antenna performance meets specifications.

antenna coupler (antenna tuner)—A matching device inserted between a transmitter and its antenna to
make a transmitter "think" it is connected to a low-SWR antenna.

audio frequency—Frequencies ordinarily heard by the average person. It is considered to be in the range
of 15 Hz and 20,000 Hz.

automatic link establishment—In high-frequency radio, the capability of a station to make contact, or
initiate a circuit, between itself and another specified radio station, without human intervention
and usually under processor control. It includes automatic scanning, selective calling, sounding,
and transmit channel selection using link quality analysis data.

balun—Used to match the impedance of a coaxial cable to an antenna.

beamwidth—The angular distance between the points on two opposite sides of the peak direction where
the radiation intensity drops to the half of the peak intensity.

bi-directional antenna—An antenna that radiates stronger signals in two favored directions while
reducing the signal in other directions.

capacitive loss—Electromagnetic energy that is converted to heat energy which is dissipated and
considered as loss in transmission line.

closed circuit television (CCTV)—A collection of cameras, recorders, monitors that integrates into IDS.
CCTV is an effective means of deterrence to potential intruders.

communication system—A group of related components designed to transfer information from one point
to another.

conductivity—A measure of the ability of a medium to conduct electric current, or the efficiency with
which a current is passed.

counterpoise—A grounding grid that is established where the earth grounding cannot satisfy electrical
requirements for circuit completion.

critical angle—The highest angle at which a radio signal waves into the ionosphere and returns back to
earth.

critical frequency—The highest frequency at which a vertical signal is returned to earth.

cutoff frequency—The highest frequency that passes down the line.

decryption—The process of unscrambling the encrypted information so that it is intelligible.
detection—The action of separating the low-frequency intelligence from the high-frequency carrier.
diffraction—Change in the direction and intensity of radio waves after passing by an obstacle.
direct path—The ground (radio) wave component that travels directly from the transmitting antenna to
the receiving antenna.
direct waves—Radio waves that travel through the air in a straight line (line-of-sight or LOS) from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna.
electronic attack (EA)—A component of electronic warfare that involves the use of electromagnetic,
directed energy, or anti-radiation weapons to attack personnel, facilities, or equipment with the
intent of degrading, neutralizing, or destroying enemy combat capability.
electronic protection (EP)—A component of electronic warfare that includes the actions taken to protect
personnel, facilities, and equipment from any electronic warfare employment that may degrade,
neutralize, or destroy friendly combat capability.
electronic support (ES)—A component of electronic warfare that responds to taskings to search for,
intercept, identify, and locate sources of intentional and unintentional radiated electromagnetic
energy for the purpose of threat recognition.
electronic warfare (EW)—Any military action involving the use of the electromagnetic spectrum to
include directed energy to control the spectrum or to attack an enemy.
encryption—The process of scrambling information so it is unintelligible to anyone but the intended
recipient.
enhanced position location reporting system (EPLRS)—A secure, jam resistant, computer controlled
communications network that distributes near real-time tactical information (data, position
location and reporting), generally integrated into radio sets, and coordinated by a network control
station. It enhances command and control of tactical units by providing the location of friendly
units.
entry control facility (ECF)—Part of the area boundary subsystem that is used in controlling entry into
and exit from restricted areas.
fidelity—A receiver’s ability to reproduce the input signals accurately.
free space loss—The decrease in field strength caused by the spread of radio wave energy over larger and
larger spheres as the distance from the source is increased.

frequency—The number of complete cycles per unit of time for a periodic phenomenon.

frequency accuracy—Refers to its ability to maintain a constant output carrier frequency.

frequency modulation (FM)—FM is a process in which the frequency of the carrier wave is made to
vary.

frequency of optimum transmission (FOT)—The highest effective frequency in HF communications

that is predicted to be usable for a specified path and time for 90 percent of the days of the month.

frequency-shift keying (FSK)—Is a digital mode of transmission commonly used in radio teletype
applications. In FSK the carrier is present all the time. In a keyed condition, the carrier frequency
changes by a predetermined amount called the mark frequency. The unkeyed state is called a
space.

fundamental frequency—The lowest frequency at which an antenna resonates.

gain—A measure of directivity properties and the efficiency of the antenna. It is defined as the ratio of
the radiation intensity in the peak intensity direction to the intensity that would be obtained if the
power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically.

global information grid (GIG)—A net-centric system that is a globally interconnected, end-to-end set of
information capabilities for collecting, processing, storing, disseminating, and managing information on
demand to war fighters, policy makers, and support personnel.

ground reflected path—Ground (radio) wave component that reaches the receiving antenna after being
reflected from the ground or sea.

ground waves—Radio waves that travel close to the earth.

HAVE QUICK (HQ)—Refers to a program name for the production and fielding of UHF radios that are
capable of rapidly and simultaneously changing frequencies during communications.

impedance—The opposition to alternating current.

incident wave—The voltage and current waves that are in phase as they move from source to load in a
transmission line.

induction field—The portion of the electromagnetic field that immediately surrounds the antenna and
collapses completely when the antenna voltage and current reverse.

induction loss—Occurs when expanding lines of flux about the transmission line's conductor induce a
voltage and current into nearby conductors.

ionization—The production of ions in the atmosphere by the loss of an electron from a molecule,
typically, for example, by cosmic rays or cosmic radiation.

isotropic antenna—A hypothetical idealized device that does not exist in reality. It is usually taken as a
reference when measuring directivity of actual realizable antennas.

joint tactical information distribution system—Provides jam-resistant digital data and voice
communication for command and control, navigation, relative positioning, and identification. It
uses is a time division multiple access communication system operating at L-band frequencies.

joint tactical radio system (JTRS)—A family of software-programmable tactical radios that provides
war fighters with voice, data and video communications, as well as interoperability across the
joint battlespace.

lowest usable frequency (LUF)—The lowest frequency that arrives at the distant receiver (with adequate
signal strength) on 90 percent of the undisturbed days of the month.

magneton splitting—The splitting of radio within the ionosphere waves into two refracted waves that
travel different paths with different time delays.

maximum usable frequency (MUF)—The highest frequency that allows reliable long-range high
frequency radio communications between two points by ionospheric refraction.

modulation—The process of varying some characteristic of a periodic wave with an external signal.

multipath fading—Signal attenuation and distortion due to multipath propagation.

needlines—Virtual circuits to set up communications between EPLRS radio sets. It uses a common set of
time and frequency resources shared among two or more radio sets to exchange data.

network time reference (NTR)—Act as the single time source for time synchronization of all units
entering the TADIL J network.

nonresonant—A transmission line having no reflected waves.

omni-directional antenna—An antenna that radiates energy equally well in all directions.

over-the-air-rekeying (OTAR)—Common name for the method of changing the encryption keys in a
two-way radio system over the radio channel.

phase-shift keying (PSK)—Similar to FSK, the phase of the frequency is shifted.

polarization—The orientation of the electric field lines in the electromagnetic field radiated or received
by the antenna.

pulse modulation—Pulse modulation is accomplished by varying the characteristics of a series of pulses.

This can be done by varying the amplitude, duration, frequency, or position of the pulses.

reciprocity—The various properties of an antenna’s such as gain, feedpoint impedance, radiation pattern)
are the same, whether the antenna is transmitting or receiving.

radiation field—The portion of the electromagnetic field that detaches from the antenna and travels
through space.

radiation loss—Occurs when the expanding lines of flux leaves the transmission lines conductor and fail
to return.

radio frequency—Refers to alternating current. It has the characteristics such that, if the current is input
to an antenna, an electromagnetic field is generated suitable for radio communications. These
frequencies cover a significant portion of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, extending from
10,000 hertz to over 300 thousands gigahertz.

radio waves—Radio waves are electromagnetic waves occurring on the radio frequency portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

receiver—Equipment that receives an electromagnetic wave, amplifies it, and demodulates it to extract
the original intelligence.

reception—Involves having the transmitted electromagnetic wave pass through the receive antenna in
such a manner as to induce a voltage in the antenna.

recombination—A combining of electrons in a gas that results in the neutralization of ions.

reflection—The angle at which RF is will equal the angle at which it approached the surface, in much the
same way that light is reflected by a mirror.

refraction—The bending of radio waves or light waves as they travel at an angle from one medium to
another medium with a different density.

refractive index—The ratio of radio wave velocity in free space to the velocity in a specified medium.

reproduction—The action of converting the electrical signals to sound waves that can be interpreted by
the ear as speech, music, and so forth.
resistive loss (I2R loss)—Power loss due to conductor resistance in transmission lines.

resonant—A transmission line that has reflected waves due to the differences in impedance between the
line and load.

selection—Involves being able to select a particular station’s frequency from all transmitted signals that
happen to be induced in the receiver’s antenna at a given time.
selective fading—A radio propagation anomaly caused by partial cancellation of a radio signal by itself
the signal arrives at the receiver by two different paths, and at least one of the paths is changing
(lengthening or shortening).
selectivity—The receiver's ability to select and reproduce a desired signal, among several closely spaced
stations.
sensitivity—The ability of a receiver to reproduce the signal of a very weak station.
single sideband (SSB)—Consists of only one sideband; the carrier has been suppressed and the other
sideband has been eliminated.

situation awareness data link—Integrates US Air Force close air support aircraft with the
digitized battlefield via the US Army’s Enhanced Position Location Reporting System. It provides
secure, jam-resistant and contention-free fighter-to-fighter, air-to-ground and ground-to-air data
communications, facilitating position and status reporting for situation awareness.

skin-effect loss—The tendencies of high-frequency currents to flow near the outer surface of the
conductor.

skip distance—The distance from the transmitter to the point at which the refracted sky-wave first
returns to earth.

skip zone—the area between the most distant point reached by the ground waves of a particular signal
and the point at which the ionospheric wave first returns to the earth.

sky waves—Radio waves that travel upward and are redirected by atmospheric properties back to earth.

standard refraction—Best-case scenario when predicting refraction in an idealized atmosphere.

sunspot—Relatively cool dark spots appearing periodically in groups on the surface of the sun that are
associated with strong magnetic fields.

surface path—The ground wave component that is affected mainly by the conductivity and dielectric
constant of the earth.

tactical digital information links (TADIL)—Approved, standardized communications links for use in
transmitting digital information.

time division multiple access (TDMA)—A channel access method for shared medium networks. It
allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into different time
slots.

transceiver—A combination of a transmitter and a receiver built as a single unit and sharing common
tuned circuits.

transmission line—A conductor or series of conductors used to carry energy from a source to a load.

transmitter—Equipment used for generating, amplifying, and transmitting RF carrier.

transverse electric—A mode of propagation in which the electric field is at a right angle to the direction
of propagation.

transverse magnetic—A mode of propagation in which the magnetic field is at right angle to the
direction of propagation.

trunking—An electronically controlled sharing of a relatively small number of radio

communications channels among a relatively large number of users.
unidirectional (directional) antenna—Antenna having a preference for a particular direction and
radiating (receiving) a signal more efficiently in (from) this direction than in other directions.

voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)—It is the ratio of maximum to minimum voltage in a standing
wave pattern. It is a measure of impedance mismatch between the transmission line and its load.

virtual height—The point of the ionosphere from which a radio wave appears to have been refracted.

wavelength—The distance in space occupied.

Abbreviations and Acronyms
AC alternating current
A/D analog-to-digital
AECS advanced entry control system
AES advanced encryption standard
AF audio frequency
AIC ancillary interface connector
AJ anti-jam
ALE automatic link establishment
AM amplitude modulation
AME amplitude modulation equivalent
ARQ automatic request
ATC air traffic control
BIT built-in test
C2 command and control
C3 command, control and communications
C4I command, control, communications, computers and intelligence
CCI controlled cryptographic item
CCTV closed circuit television
CEMF counter-electromagnetic force
CIK cryptographic ignition key
COMSEC communications security
COTS commercial-off-the-shelf
CPS cycles per second
CSC central security control
CVSD continuously variable slope detector
CW continuous wave
D/A digital-to-analog
dB decibels
DC direct current
DCA discrete controlled areas
DE directed energy
DES data encryption standard
DOD Department of Defense
DPL distribution panel
DSCS Defense Satellite Communications System
DTD data transfer device
DTMF dual tone multi-frequency
E electric
EA electronic attack
ECF entry control facility
ECCM electronic counter-counter measure
EHF extremely high frequency
EIA Electric Institute of America
ELF extremely low frequency
EM electromagnetic
EMS enrollment master station
ENM enhanced position location reporting system (EPLRS) network manager
ENS enterprise network services
EOB electronic order of battle
EOS enrollment operator station
EP electronic protection
EPLRS enhanced position location reporting system
ES electronic warfare support
EW electronic warfare
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FH frequency hopping
FM frequency modulation
FO fiber optic
FOT frequency of optimum transmission
FPTS forward propagation by tropospheric scatter
FSK frequency shift keying
FSPL free space path loss
GHz gigahertz
GIG global information grid
GMF ground mobile forces
GPS global positioning satellite
H magnetic
HF high frequency
HQ HAVE QUICK
Hz hertz
ICOM integrated COMSEC
ICW interrupted continuous wave
IDP intrusion detection panel
IDS intrusion detection system
IF intermediate frequency
IMC International Morse Code
I/O input/output
IP internet protocols
IPIDS infrared pulsed intrusion detection system
IR infrared
I2R loss copper loss
ISB independent sideband
ISR intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
ITU International Telecommunications Union
JAN-TE joint airborne network-tactical edge
JTIDS joint tactical distribution system
JTRS joint tactical radio system
JU joint tactical information distribution system (JTIDS) unit
KDU keypad display unit
kHz kilohertz
kW kilowatt
LCD liquid crystal display
LED light-emitting diode
LF low frequency
LMR land mobile radio
LO local oscillator
LOS line-of-sight
LPA log-periodic antenna
LPI/D low probability of intercept/detection
LSB lower sideband
LQA link quality analysis
LUF lowest usable frequency
MANET mobile ad-hoc network
MBITR multi-band inter/intra team radio
Mbps million bits per second
MF medium frequency
MFS microwave fence system
MHz megahertz
MSEC message security
MSCF master surveillance control facility
MUF maximum usable frequency
MUOS mobile user objective system
MWOD multiple word-of-day
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NB narrowband
NCS network control station
NPG network participation group
NSA National Security Agency
NTR network time reference
NVIS near vertical incidence sky wave
OTAR over-the-air-rekeying
OTH over-the-horizon
PA power amplifier
PCP portal control panel
PIN personal identification number
PLL phase-locked loop
PM phase modulation
PMI prevention maintenance inspection
PSK phase-shift keying
RES receiver exciter synthesizer
RF radio frequency
RS radio set
RT receiver/transmitter
SADL situation awareness data link
SATCOM satellite communications
SF security forces
SHF super high frequency
SID solar ionospheric disturbances
SIGINT signal intelligence
SINCGARS single channel ground and airborne radio system
SLF super low frequency
SPCM signal processing and control module
SRW soldier-radio waveform
SSB single sideband
STE secure terminal equipment
STU secure telephone unit
SWOD single word-of-day
SWR standing wave ratio
TACAMO take-charge-and-move-out
TACSAT tactical satellite
TADIL tactical digital information links
TD time delay
TE transverse electric
TM transverse magnetic
TDMA time division multiple access
THz terahertz
TOD time-of-day
TRANSEC transmission security
TSEC transmission security
TRI-TAC tri-service tactical
UHF ultra-high frequency
ULF ultra-low frequency
UPS uninterruptible power supply
USB upper sideband
VCXO voltage controlled crystal oscillator
VHF very high frequency
VLF very low frequency
VSWR voltage standing wave ratio
W watt
WB wideband
WNW wideband networking waveform
WOD word-of-day
WPM words per minute
XMT transmit
Zₒ characteristic impedance
W watts
µW microwatt
Student Notes
AFSC 3D153
3D153 02 1205
Edit Code 02