Ud Notes

AR 6911 URBAN DESIGN
SUBJECT NOTES
IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

SIGMA COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE
1 AR 6911 URBAN DESIGN
TABLE OF CONTENT
S. No Content Page No
1 Unit I Introduction to Urban Design 03-16
2 Unit II Historic Urban Form 17-49
3 Unit III Theorising and Urban Space 50-63
4 Unit IV Issues of Urban Space 64-90
5 Unit V Best Practices in Urban Design 91-100
6 List of Figures &Key Words 101-103
8 Previous Year Anna University Question Papers 104-105
9 Important 2 marks & 16 marks 106-107
COURSE AND MARKS DESCRIPTION
AR 6911 URBAN DESIGN
Course description
In this semester students will learn about various vocabulary in urban design and related fields.
Students will learn about elements of urban design and it inter relation. Macro to micro scale linkages of
these elements. Various urban form and its evolution in different parts of the world. Urban design theories
of Jane Jacob, William Whyte, Kevin Lynch, Aldo Rossi & Gordon Cullen. They will explore about
various urban issues and solutions related to it. In the end chapter students will go through some case
studies in urban design and development.
Overall this subject will help the students to interrupt the settlements which they will doing in
their urban design studio.
Marks description
S. No Assessment Weightage (%)
1 Internal- I 20
3 External 80
Total 100
Internal-I
Assessment for this will be done through the Internal test, Mid-Term test, Class assignments and Model
exam conducted.
External
Through University examination conducted at the end of the semester.
Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

SYLLABUS
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO URBAN DESIG 8

Components of urban space and their interdependencies- outline of issues/ aspects of urban space and
articulation of need for urban design- scope and objectives of urban design as a discipline
UNIT II HISTORIC URBAN FORM 12

Western: morphology of early cities - Greek agora - Roman forum - Medieval towns-
Renaissance place making - ideal cities – Industrialization and city growth - the eighteenth-century city
builders Garnier’s industrial city - the American grid planning- anti urbanism and the picturesque- cite
industrielle- cite nuovo-radiant city.
Indian: evolution of urbanism in India- Temple towns - Mughal city form- medieval cities – colonial
urbanism- urban spaces in modernist cities: Chandigarh, Bhubaneshwar and Gandhi Nagar subsequent
directions – case studies.
UNIT III THEORISING AND READING URBAN SPACE 8

Ideas of Imageability and townscape: Cullen, Lynch- place and genius loci- collective memory historic
reading of the city and its artefacts: Rossi- social aspects of urban space: life on streets and between
buildings, gender and class, Jane Jacobs, William Whyte
UNIT IV ISSUES OF URBAN SPACE 20

Understanding and interpreting of urban problems/ issues- place-making and identity, morphology:
sprawl, generic form, incoherence, privatized public realm- effects/ role of real estate, transportation,
zoning, globalization - ideas of sustainability, heritage, conservation and renewal contemporary
approaches: idea of urban catalyst, transit metropolis, community participation – studio exercise involving
the above.
UNIT V BEST PRACTICE IN URBAN DESIGN 12

Contemporary case studies from developing and developed economies that offer design guidelines and
solutions to address various issues/ aspects of urban space – case studies.
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
OUTCOMES
The students understood the role of urban design as a discipline, and its role in understanding and
interpreting a city. Various reading methods were explored, to understand the historical as well as present
urban form. They also looked at addressing urban design issues in terms of awareness creation as well as
with possible ways to address them.
REQUIRED READING:
1. A.E.J. Morris, “History of Urban Form before the Industrial Revolution”, Prentice Hall, 1996
2. Edmund Bacon , “Design of Cities”, Penguin, 1976
3. Gordon Cullen, “The Concise Townscape”, The Architectural Press, 1978
4. Michelle Provoost et al., Dutchtown, NAI Publishers, Rotterdam, 1999
5. “Time Saver Standards for Urban Design”, Donald natson, McGraw Hill, 2003.
6. Kevin Lynch, “The Image of the City”, MIT Press, 1960.
7. Rithchie.A, “Sustainable Urban Design:AnEnvironmentalApproach”, Taylor & Francis, 2000.

UNIT I -INTRODUCTION TO URBAN DESIGN
Components of urban space and their interdependencies- outline of issues/ aspects of urban space
and articulation of need for urban design- scope and objectives of urban design as a discipline.
ORIGINS
❖ Town’ is a noun and ‘town design’ would be the art of designing a physical object. One of the
UK’s
❖ modernist architect-planner-landscape architects (Sir Frederick Gibberd) wrote a book on
Town Design
❖ A ‘City’ is a place where people, and buildings, behave in ‘civil’, ‘polite’ or ‘considerate’
manner to each other
❖ ‘Urban’ (from the Latin urbs, meaning city), is an adjective so that ‘urban design’ is the art of
making a place more ‘city-like’
❖ ‘Urban Design’ is more process than product
❖ Therefore, URBAN DESIGN is not = TOWN DESIGN
➢ Urban design is concerned with the arrangement, appearance and function of our suburbs, towns
and cities. It is both a process and an outcome of creating localities in which people live, engage
with each other, and engage with the physical place around them.
➢ Urban design involves many different disciplines including planning, development, architecture,
landscape architecture, engineering, economics, law and finance, among others.
➢ Urban design operates at many scales, from the macro scale of the urban structure (planning,
zoning, and transport and infrastructure networks) to the micro scale of street furniture and lighting.
➢ When fully integrated into policy and planning systems, urban design can be used to inform land
use planning, infrastructure, built form and even the socio-demographic mix of a place.
➢ Urban design can influence the economic success and socio-economic composition of a locality—
whether it encourages local businesses and entrepreneurship; whether it attracts people to live
there; whether the costs of housing and travel are affordable; and whether access to job
opportunities, facilities and services are equitable.
➢ Urban design determines the physical scale, space and ambience of a place and establishes the built
and natural forms within which individual buildings and infrastructure are sited. As such, it affects
the balance between natural ecosystems and built environments, and their sustainability outcomes.
➢ Urban design can influence health and the social and cultural impacts of a locality: how people
interact with each other, how they move around, and how they use a place.

➢ Although urban design is often delivered as a specific ‘project’, it is in fact a long-term process
that continues to evolve over time. It is this layering of building and infrastructure types, natural
ecosystems, communities and cultures that gives places their unique characteristics and identities.
➢ The approximate hierarchical relationship between the elements of urban design, followed by a
brief definition of each of the elements. The section below provides basic explanations for terms
that are commonly used for urban design in the Australian context.
ELEMENTS OF URBAN DESIGN
Figure 1 Elements of Urban Design
URBAN STRUCTURE
The overall framework of a region, town or precinct, showing relationships between zones of built
forms, land forms, natural environments, activities and open spaces. It encompasses broader systems
including transport and infrastructure networks.
These are like the nervous system of human body, which circulates blood and other nutrients. Urban
structure will decide the better connectivity in the city.

Figure 2 Urban Structure
URBAN GRAIN
The balance of open space to build form, and the nature and extent of subdividing an area into
smaller parcels or blocks. For example, a ‘fine urban grain’ might constitute a network of small or detailed
streetscapes. It takes into consideration the hierarchy of street types, the physical linkages and movement
between locations, and modes of transport.
Figure 3 Urban Grain

DENSITY + MIX
The intensity of development and the range of different uses (such as residential, commercial, institutional
or recreational uses).
Figure 4 Density + Mix
HEIGHT + MASSING
The scale of buildings in relation to height and floor area, and how they relate to surrounding land forms,
buildings and streets. It also incorporates building envelope, site coverage and solar orientation. Height
and massing create the sense of openness or enclosure, and affect the amenity of streets, spaces and other
buildings.
The design of public spaces such as streets, opens spaces and pathways, and includes landscaping,
microclimate, shading and planting.
The scale of buildings in relation to height and floor area, and how they relate to surrounding land forms,
buildings and streets. It also incorporates building envelope, site coverage and solar orientation. Height
and massing create the sense of openness or enclosure, and affect the amenity of streets, spaces and other
buildings.

Figure 5 Height + massing
FACADE + INTERFACE
The relationship of buildings to the site, street and neighbouring buildings (alignment, setbacks, boundary
treatment) and the architectural expression of their facades (projections, openings, patterns and materials).
Figure 6 Facade + Interface

DETAILS + MATERIALS
The close-up appearance of objects and surfaces and the selection of materials in terms of detail,
craftsmanship, texture, colour, durability, sustainability and treatment. It includes street furniture, paving,
lighting and signage. It contributes to human comfort, safety and enjoyment of the public domain.
Figure 7 Details + materials
Figure 8 Details + materials

PUBLIC REALM
Much of urban design is concerned with the design and management of publicly used space (also referred
to as the public realm or public domain) and the way this is experienced and used.
The public realm includes the natural and built environment used by the general public on a day-to-day
basis such as streets, plazas, parks, and public infrastructure. Some aspects of privately-owned space such
as the bulk and scale of buildings, or gardens that are visible from the public realm, can also contribute to
the overall result.
At times, there is a blurring of public and private realms, particularly where privately-owned space is
publicly used.
Figure 9 Public Realm
TOPOGRAPHY, LANDSCAPE AND ENVIRONMENT

The natural environment includes the topography of landforms, water courses, flora and fauna—whether
natural or introduced. It may be in the form of rivers and creeks, lakes, bush land, parks and recreational
facilities, streetscapes or private gardens, and is often referred to as ‘green infrastructure’
Figure 10 Topography + Landscape

SOCIAL + ECONOMIC FABRIC

The non-physical aspects of the urban form which include social factors (culture, participation, health and
well-being) as well as the productive capacity and economic prosperity of a community. It incorporates
aspects such as demographics and life stages, social interaction and support networks.
SCALE
The size, bulk and perception of a buildings and spaces. Bulk refers to the height, width and depth of a
building in relation to other surrounding buildings, the street, setbacks and surrounding open space. For
example, a large building set amongst other smaller buildings may seem ‘out of scale’.
URBAN FORM
The arrangement of a built-up area. This arrangement is made up of many components including how
close buildings and uses are together; what uses are located where; and how much of the natural
environment is a part of the built-up area.
BUILDINGS
Buildings are the most pronounced elements of urban design - they shape and articulate space by forming
the street walls of the city.
Well-designed buildings and groups of buildings work together to create a sense of place.
PUBLIC SPACE
Great public spaces are the living room of the city - the place where people come together to enjoy the
city and each other.
Public spaces make high quality life in the city possible - they form the stage and backdrop to the drama
of life. Public spaces range from grand central plazas and squares, to small, local neighbourhood parks.
STREETS
Streets are the connections between spaces and places, as well as being spaces themselves.
They are defined by their physical dimension and character as well as the size, scale, and character of the
buildings that line them.
Streets range from grand avenues such as the Champs-Elysees in Paris to small, intimate pedestrian streets.
The pattern of the street network is part of what defines a city and what makes each city unique.
TRANSPORT
Transport systems connect the parts of cities and help shape them, and enable movement throughout the
city. The balance of these various transport systems is what helps define the quality and character of cities,
and makes them either friendly or hostile to pedestrians.
The best cities are the ones that elevate the experience of the pedestrian while minimizing the dominance
of the private automobile.

The landscape helps define the character and beauty of a city and creates soft, contrasting spaces and
elements.
Green spaces in cities range from grand parks such as Central Park in New York City and the Washington
DC Mall, to small intimate pocket parks.
Figure 11 Social Mix
Figure 12 Buildings + Massing

Figure 13 Pic showing Urban elements influencing in shaping the city
The creative articulation of space is the most prominent aspect of urban design. The following artistic
principles are an integral part of creating form and spatial definition
• Order, Unity
• Balance, Proportion
• Scale, Hierarchy
• Symmetry, Rhythm
• Contrast, Context
• Detail, Texture
• Harmony, Beauty

What is Urban Design?

Urban design is the discipline through which planning and architecture can create or renew a sense
of local pride and identity. It has great potential for enhancing the visual image and quality of
neighbourhoods by providing a three-dimensional physical form to policies described in a comprehensive
plan. It focuses on design of the public realm, which is created by both public spaces and the buildings
that define them. Urban design views these spaces holistically and is concerned with bringing together the
different disciplines responsible for the components of cities into a unified vision. Compared to
comprehensive plans, urban design plans generally have a short time horizon and are typically area or
project specific.
Key elements of an urban design plan include the plan itself, the preparation of design guidelines
for buildings, the design of the public realm - the open space, streets, sidewalks, and plazas between and
around buildings and the public interest issues of buildings. These include massing, placement, sun,
shadow, and wind issues.
Urban design plans are prepared for various areas, including downtowns, waterfronts, campuses,
corridors, neighbourhoods, mixed-use developments, and special districts. Issues to be considered include
existing development, proposed development, utility infrastructure, streets framework, and sustainable
development principles.
Urban design plans require interdisciplinary collaboration among urban designers, architects,
landscape architects, planners, civil and environmental engineers, and market analysts.
The City of Baton Rouge, through the implementation of the Horizon Plan, has taken some bold steps to
preserve and enhance the appearance of the community through the adoption of sign, landscape, and
lighting ordinances. Additional elements addressed by urban design include parking and service areas,
transportation, building orientation, building materials, and fencing, which can increase property values.
The Objectives of Urban Design

A number of generic objectives can be identified in the writings on urban design. The built
environment should be efficient in the way it handles the variables described in Figure 1.6. It should be
designed to encourage economic growth. It should provide a sense of historic continuity to enhance
people’s self-images. It should help sustain the moral and social order of a society and should be designed
with a sense of justice for all to the extent that these are physical design concerns (see Harvey, 2003).
The broad goal of urban design is to provide opportunities, behavioural and aesthetic, for all the
citizens of and visitors to a city or one of its precincts. These opportunities have to be accessible. What,
however, should the opportunities be and how does one deal with accessibility? Who decides? The
marketplace? The public policy question is ‘How far should the public sector intervene in the marketplace
in providing opportunities for what range of people?’ and then ‘How accessible should the opportunities
be?’ ‘For whom?’ ‘People in wheelchairs?’
Secondarily, if one accepts Maslow’s model, there is a need for people to feel comfortable in
engaging in the activities they desire and that are regarded by society as acceptable. Comfort has both
physiological and psychological dimensions. The concern is with the nature of the microclimate and with
the provision of feelings of safety and security as people go about their lives. Safety and security are
related to feelings of control over one’s privacy levels and over the behaviour of others towards one. How
much privacy are we prepared to give up in order to feel safe because we are under public surveillance?

Safety concerns are also related to the segregation of pedestrians from vehicular traffic flows and the
construction quality of the environment around us.
One design concern is to enhance the ambience of links (streets, arcades and sidewalks) and places
(squares, parks and roofs). The ambience of places and links is related to the provision of a sense of
security as well as to feelings of self-worth and being part of a worthwhile society. Ambience is also
related to the aesthetic qualities of a place, its layout and illumination, the activities that are taking place
there, and to the people engaged in them.
The artificial world does not exist in a vacuum. It exists in terrestrial niches formed by the climate,
geology, and flora and fauna of a place. One of the objectives of urban design is certainly to ensure that
this niche is not destroyed. The concern is, or should be, with improving its quality so that it functions
better as a self-sustaining system that, in return, enriches human experiences.
Scope of Urban Design
Urban design has replaced the "civic design" which dealt primarily with city halls, museums, streets,
boulevards, parks and other open spaces since 1960s. However, there is not a consensus about the
definition and boundaries of urban design.
Urban Design is,
• The process of giving physical design direction to urban growth, conservation, and change
• The design of cities - 'a grand design'
• The interface between architecture, landscape and town planning
• The complex relationships between all the elements of built and unbuilt space (DoE, 1996)
• The architecture of public space
Some theoreticians rather not to describe urban design but to explain what it is not:
• It is not land use policy, sign controls, and street lighting districts.
• It is not strictly utopian or procedural.
• It is not necessarily a plan for downtown, however architectonic, nor a subdivision regulation.
Descriptions explained above suggest that there is no easy, single, agreed definition of urban design.
However, we can determine the general framework of urban design.
The basis for a framework defining urban design can be grouped under six main headings according
to The Institute for Urban Design (IUD)’s criteria:
1. Historic preservation and urban conservation
2. Design for pedestrians
3. Vitality and variety of use
4. The cultural environment

5. Environmental context
6. Architectural values
Goals and principles describing urban design can be grouped under eight major headings:
•Place,
• Density,
• Mixed and compatible uses,
• Pedestrianization and human scale,
• Human culture,
• Public realm,
• Built environment
• Natural environment
Role of Urban Design

Urban design is generally considered neither a profession nor a discipline. There is a trend to formulate
urban design as the interface between architecture and town planning, or the gap between them.
• For example, when Kevin Lynch saw urban design as a branch of architecture Michael Southworth on
the other hand thought urban design as a branch of urban planning.
"It is easier to talk about urban design than to write about it… In between (planning and architecture), but
belonging neither to one nor the other, lies the magic world of urban design. We can recognize it by its
absence. It is inferred, suggested, felt."
• Another commentator Jonathan Barnett also recognizes the crucial role of urban design between the
urban planning and architecture.
"What is the difference between an urban designer and urban planner, or between an urban
designer and an architect?
An urban planner was someone who was primarily concerned with the allocation of resources according
to projections of future need. Planners tend to regard land use as a distribution of resources problem,
parceling out land, for zoning purposes, without much knowledge of its three-dimensional characteristics,
or the nature of the building that may be placed on it in the future. The result is that most zoning
ordinances and official land use plans produce stereotyped and unimaginative buildings.
Architect, on the other hand, designs buildings. A good architect will do all he can to relate the building
he is designing to its surroundings, but he has no control over what happens off the property he has been
hired to considered.
There is a substantial middle ground between these professions, and each has some claim to it, but neither
fills it very well. Land use planning would clearly be improved if it involved someone who understands
three-dimensional design. On the other hand, someone is needed to design the city, not just the buildings.
Therefore, there was a need for someone who could be called an urban designer."

The Design Professions and Urban Design

All three of the major environmental design fields use the term ‘urban design’ to describe aspects
of their own work. Civil engineering has yet to do so even though infrastructure design is a key element
in urban design. To many people urban design and urban planning are the same thing but the products they
produce are very different (see Chapter 4). Often, however, urban planning is concerned primarily with
the distribution of land uses in relationship to transportation networks. It has focused on economic
development regardless of the physical design consequences. Yet, at its best city planning does consider
the third and fourth dimension of cities rather than allowing them to be by-products of other decisions.
Urban design as a separate design activity arose largely because city planning neglected the built
environment in its deliberations of urban futures.
The quality of the urban landscape is a major contributor to perceptions of the qualities of cities.
A city’s physical character is defined by the nature of its streets, squares and other open spaces in terms
of how they are shaped by enclosing elements (Goldfinger, 1942). The biological health of cities depends
on the interactions between the natural and the artificial. Few landscape architects since the era of Olmsted
have, however, engaged themselves in urban design. They have tended to shy away from dealing with
more than designing open spaces. They have been concerned only with select types of products (see
Chapter 5).
Architects, as architects, too have looked at urban design in terms of specific types of products:
buildings as objects rather than as space makers (see Chapter 6). The leadership in developing urban design
as a professional field has, nevertheless, come from architects with broader concerns. They have been
interested in the design of complexes of buildings, and what cities and neighbourhoods might be like.
Some of their ideas and conceptual schemes have been based on rationalist thought and others on empirical
observations about cities. Still other architects have, however, been highly pragmatic. They have been
concerned only with how to get projects initiated and carried through. Some of the projects reviewed here
may have been whimsical ego-trips but most, I would argue, have been based on a sense of idealism.
Part of the difficulty in defining the scope of urban design today is that each of the professions wants to
claim it as its own. Architectural societies give urban design awards to single buildings, landscape
architects to squares, and city planners to a wide variety of items. Urban design, however, involves all
these matters, not individually but in concert. It is a collaborative effort between public and private sectors,
between professions, and between practitioners and researchers. It deals with the four-dimensional
inhabited world.
Undoubtedly urban design cannot stand alone between these three main
professions. Urban design is an interdisciplinary concept and should be
considered with the other disciplines and professions such as Real Estate
Development, Economics, Civil Engineering, Law, Social Sciences and Natural
Sciences.

UNIT II -HISTORIC URBAN FORM
Western: morphology of early cities - Greek agora - Roman forum - Medieval towns-
Renaissance place making - ideal cities – Industrialization and city growth - the eighteenth-century
city builders Garnier’s industrial city - the American grid planning- anti urbanism and the
picturesque- cite industrielle- cite nuovo-radiant city.
Indian: evolution of urbanism in India- Temple towns - Mughal city form- medieval cities – colonial
urbanism- urban spaces in modernist cities: Chandigarh, Bhubaneshwar and Gandhi Nagar
subsequent directions – case studies.
INTRODUCTION
The historic urban context includes notably the site’s topography, geomorphology, hydrology and natural
features, its built environment, both historic and contemporary, its infrastructures above and below ground;
its open spaces and gardens, its land use patterns and spatial organization; perceptions and visual
relationships; as well as all other elements of the urban structure. It also includes social and cultural
practices and values, economic processes and the intangible dimensions of heritage as related to diversity
and identity.
TOWN PLANNING:
Even if not ‘designed’ in advance, all towns have a plan. Let’s look at some historic examples and see
what influenced their ‘plans’.
➢ Catal Huyuk, 6,000 BCE
➢ Iron Age Hut, 600 BCE
➢ Greek-Roman Town, 79 CE
➢ Medieval City, c1300 CE
➢ Baroque City, c1750 CE
[BCE=Before Common Era CE=Common Era]
A CITY C6000BCE
The world’s oldest city is said to be Catal Huyuk (pronounced ‘chatal hooyook’) in Central Turkey. Access
to the dwellings was from roof level. Living here, you had to behave in a much more ‘civic’ manner than
living in a rough hut on a bare hill.
Figure 14 Catal huyuk

IRON AGE CAMP C 500BC

This is how people who did not live in ‘cities’ lived, all over Europe, until the Roman conquest. The only
‘Planning’ principle was a ring of defences, to make a Hill Fort.
Figure 15 Iron Age Camp
THE CITY IN 79 AD: POMPEII:

Pompeii was buried by Vesuvius and can represent most of the ‘planned’ cities in Europe
from 500 BC to 500 AD, as well as most of the colonial cities (e.g. in South America) from 1452-1700
AD). It was a walled city, designed to be able to defend itself.
Figure 16 City of Pompeii

PHOTOGRAPHS OF POMPEII:
The main features of Pompeii are exactly as
described by Vitruvius
➢ A grid of streets
➢ Pavements + stepping stones
➢ Water supply
➢ Drainage system
➢ Public buildings at important positions
Figure 17 Main Streets of Pompeii
➢ No windows
➢ Internal courts
Figure 18 Other places in Pompeii
The Medieval City (c1300):

The main consideration was defence, provided by a high wall and narrow streets. Nuremberg in 1516
(below, from Benevolo) the city was founded in 1040 AD.
Figure 19 Medieval City

Planning: origins:
• Now let us consider the word planning
• It comes from the activity of drawing a ‘plan’ in 2 dimensions on a flat surface
• Maps and Plans have a very important place in human history.
• They enable the organization of land, and travel, and the creation of empires.
• This type of ‘Planning’ produced the Baroque City
The Baroque City c 1750:
Baroque cities were dominated by stars of avenues, designed to glorify the autocrat and facilitate the
movement of soldiers and the firing of canon at revolting peasants.
Organising Principles: mostly single–objective
• Catal Huyuk, 6,000 BCE: Defence against nomadic herders
• Iron Age Hut, 600 BCE: Defence against other agriculturalists
• Greek-Roman Town, 79 CE: Defence against armies
• Medieval City, c1300 CE: Defence against knights
• Baroque City, c1750 CE: Defence against revolutionaries
• Industrial City, c1900: Defence against cholera
• 21st Century City, c2000: One could argue that the new organising principle will be Defence against
crime
Interim Conclusions
• City planning has been dominated by considerations of Engineering + Security
• When this fact was appreciated (e.g. by the Viennese architect Camillo Sitte The art of building
cities, 1889) it led to a campaign for architects to take responsibility for ‘Town Design’, ‘Civic Design’
and the ‘City Beautiful Movement’.
• Architects tended to see cities as ‘architecture writ large’, with buildings instead of rooms and
streets instead of corridors. It was a bit like arguing that a Beautiful Body is the main thing in life

WESTERN MORPHOLOGY
Introduction:
Urbanization in the last 200 years has strengthened links between culture, society, and the city
➢ “Urban explosion” has gone hand in hand with the industrial revolution
➢ Estimates demonstrate the world’s urban population more than doubled since 1950
➢ Urban population doubled again by 2000
➢ Over 50 percent of Earth’s population live in cities
Generalizations
❖ Urban growth comes from two sources
❖ Migration of people to the cities
➢ Higher natural population growth rates for recent migrants
➢ Because employment is unreliable, large families construct a more extensive family support
system
➢ Increases the chances of someone getting work
➢ Smaller families when a certain dimension of security is ensured
➢ Smaller families often occur when women enter the work force
World cities
❖ Cities over 5 million in population
❖ Over half of the world’s 20 largest cities are in the developing world
❖ Thirty years ago, the list of world cities was dominated by Western, industrialized cities
❖ Now the list is even more dominated by the developing world
The first cities

In seeking explanation for the origin of cities, we find a relationship between:
❖ Areas of early agriculture
❖ Permanent village settlement
❖ The development of new social forms
❖ Urban life
• Early people were nomadic hunters and gatherers who constantly moved
• As they became increasingly efficient in gathering resources, their campsites became semipermanent.
• As quantities of domesticated plants and animals increased settlement became more permanent
• The first cities appeared in the Middle East

❖ Developed about ten thousand years ago
❖ Farming villages modest in size, rarely with more than 200 people
❖ Probably organized on a kinship basis

• Jarmo, one of the earliest villages

❖ Located in present-day Iraq
❖ Had 25 permanent dwellings clustered near grain storage facilities
❖ Lacked plows, but cultivated local grains — wheat and barley
❖ Domestic dogs, goats, and sheep may have been used for meat
❖ Food supplies augmented by hunting and gathering
• In agricultural villages, all inhabitants were involved in some way in food procurement
• Cities were more remote, physically and psychologically, from everyday agricultural activities
❖ Food was supplied to the city
❖ Not all city dwellers were involved in actual farming
❖ Another class of city dweller supplied services — such as technical skills, and religious
interpretation
• Two elements were crucial to this social change

➢ Generation of agricultural surplus prerequisite for supporting no farmers
➢ Stratified social system
❖ Meaning the existence of distinct elite and lower classes
❖ Facilitates the collection, storage, and distribution of resources
❖ Well-defined channels of authority that exercise control over goods and people These
two set the stage for urbanization
Models for the rise of cities

Technical
The hydraulic civilization model, developed by Karl Wittfogel
• Large-scale irrigation systems as prime mover behind urbanization
• Higher crop yields resulted
• Food surplus supported development of a large nonfarming population
• Strong, centralized government, backed by an urban-based military
• Farmers who resisted new authority were denied water
The hydraulic civilization model, developed by Karl Wittfogel

• Power elite needed for organizational coordination to ensure continued operation of the irrigation
system
• Labor specialization developed
The hydraulic model cannot be applied to all urban hearths

• Urban civilization blossomed without irrigation in parts of Mesoamerica
• The question of how or why a culture might first develop irrigation
Religious
• Paul Wheatley suggests religion was the motivating factor behind urbanization

• Knowledge of meteorological and climatic conditions was considered to be within the domain of
religion
• Religious leaders decided when and how to plant crops
• Successful harvests led to more support for this priestly class
• Priestly class exercised political and social control that held the city together
• In this scenario, cities are religious spaces functioning as ceremonial centers
• First urban clusters and fortification seen as defenses against spiritual demons or souls of the dead
Multiple factors
• Distinction between economic, religious, and political functions were not always clear
• A king may have functioned as priest, healer, astronomer, and scribe
• In some ways secular and spiritual power was fused
• Attempting to isolate one trigger to urbanization is difficult, if not impossible
• It would be wiser to accept the role of multiple factors behind the changes leading to urban life
Figure 20 Pic showing various civilization of world
Urban hearth areas

Where the first cities appeared, for example:
• Mesopotamia
• The Nile Valley
• Pakistan’s Indus River Valley
• The Yellow River valley (or Huang Ho) in China
• Mesoamerica
Generally agreed first cities arose in Mesopotamia

• River valley of the Tigris and Euphrates in what is now Iraq
• Cities, small by current standards, covered one-half to two square miles
• Populations rarely exceeded 30,000

• Densities could reach 10,000 per square mile —comparable to today’s cities
Early cities, also called Cosmo magical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics
Great importance accorded the symbolic centre of the city, which was thought to be the centre of the
known world
• Often demarcated by a vertical structure of monumental scale representing the point on Earth
closest to the heavens
• This symbolic centre, or axis mundi, took different forms
• The ziggurat in Mesopotamia
• The palace or temple in China
• The pyramid in Egypt and Mesoamerica
• The Stupa in the Indus Valley
Cosmo magical City: Beijing, China
This is the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the most important ceremonial building in Beijing’s Forbidden
City. The hall is set upon an auspicious number of three tiers. From the Gate of Supreme Harmony, the
emperor would be carried on his palanquin above the “dragon pavement,” carved with his dragon and
other auspicious symbols such as waves, mountains and clouds.
Figure 21 Cosmo Magical City
The Forbidden City marked the inner sanctum of the Imperial city, a model of harmony and moral order
expressing the Will of Heaven.
Ritual and cosmic correctness was imbued in city form through divination and orientation; cardinal
axiality and concentricity; and, square configuration defined by walls and gates
In Mesopotamia, this area was known as the citadel and housed the elite who lived in relative luxury
• Streets were paved, drains and running water were provided
• Private sleeping quarters, bathtubs, and water closets were provided
• Privileges did not extend to the city as a whole

URBAN HEARTH AREAS- MESOPOTOMIA
Figure 22 Mesopotamia
The city was oriented toward the four cardinal directions

• Geometric form of city would reflect the order of the universe
• Walls around the city delimited the known and ordered world from the outside chaos
Attempt to shape the form of the city according to the form of the universe
• Thought essential to maintain harmony between human and spiritual worlds
• Example of Ankor Thom in Cambodia
Life in Mesopotamia’s early cities - from archaeological evidence

• Dense housing, located just outside the citadel, was one or two stories tall composed of clay brick, and
contained three or four rooms
• Narrow un surfaced streets had no drainage, and served as the community dump
• At Ur, excavations show that garbage levels rose so high, new entrances were cut into second stories
of the house
Just inside the city wall, huts of mud and reed housed the lower classes
• Early cities of the Nile were not walled, suggesting a regional power structure kept cities from warring
with each other
• In the Indus Valley, Mohenjo-Daro was laid out in a grid that consisted of 16 large blocks The most
important variations in living conditions occurred in Mesoamerica
• Cities were less dense and covered large areas
• Cities arose without benefit of the wheel, plow, metallurgy, and draft animals
• Domestication of maize compensated for technological shortcomings
• Maize yields several crops a year without irrigation in tropical climates

The diffusion of the city from hearth areas

The two hypotheses of how cities spread in prehistoric times:
❖ Cities evolved spontaneously as native peoples created new technologies and social institutions
❖ Preconditions for urban life are too specific for most cultures to invent without contact with other
urban areas
• People must have learned these traits through contact with city dwellers
• This scenario emphasized the diffusion of ideas and techniques
Diffusionists believe ideas and techniques from Mesopotamia were shared with people in the Nile and
the Indus River valley
❖ Archaeological evidence documents trade ties between the three regions

❖ Soapstone objects made in Tepe Yahyã, 500 miles east of Mesopotamia, have been found in ruins of
both Mesopotamia and Indus Valley cities
❖ Indus Valley writing and seals have been found in Mesopotamian urban sites
❖ An alternate view is that trading took place only after these cities were well established
Diffusion is responsible for the dispersal of the city in historical times

➢ City used as vehicle for imperial expansion
➢ Urban life is carried outward in waves of conquest as empires expand
➢ Initially, military controls newly won lands and sets up collection points for local resources
➢ As collection points lose some military atmosphere they begin to show the social diversity of
a city
➢ Native people are slowly assimilated into the settlement as workers and may eventually control
the city
➢ The process repeats itself as the empire pushes outward
Morphology Patterns seen in the city today are a composite of past and present cultures
Two concepts underlie our examination of urban landscapes
❖ Urban morphology — physical form of the city, which consists of street patterns, building sizes and
shapes, architecture, and density.
❖ Functional zonation — refers to the pattern of land uses within a city, or existence of areas with
differing functions.

GREEK CITY
Figure 23 Acropolis of Greek
The Greek city

❖ Western civilization and Western cities trace their roots to ancient Greece
❖ By 600 B.C., over five hundred towns and cities existed on the Greek mainland and surrounding
islands
❖ With expansion, cities spread throughout the Mediterranean — to the north shore of Africa, to
Spain, southern France, and Italy
❖ Cities rarely had more than 5,000 inhabitants
❖ Athens may have reached 300,000 in the fifth century B.C., including perhaps 100,000 slaves
The Greek city – Site and Culture

❖ Abundant and diverse resources.
❖ Fish, grain, grapes, olives, chestnuts, figs.
❖ Many isolated valleys and islands (natural barriers)
❖ Sea ≈ moat
❖ Isolation meant greater security, so power took a less aggressive form both externally and
internally.
❖ Alphabet derived from Phoenician consonant system, promoted democracy and public life.
❖ Decentralized political power.
❖ Ritual blended with competition to produce a fairly relaxing life.
❖ Tremendously creative society: drama, poetry, sculpture, painting, logic, mathematics, geometry.
Cities had two distinctive functional zones —the acropolis and the agora
The acropolis was similar in many ways to the citadel of Mesopotamian cities
❖ Had the temples of worship, storehouse of valuables, and seat of power
❖ Served as a place of retreat in time of siege

The agora was the province of the citizens

❖ A place for public meetings, education, social interaction, and judicial matters
❖ It was the civic center, the hub of democratic life for Greek men
❖ Later, after the classical period, it became the city’s major marketplace without losing its
atmosphere of a social club
Physical separation of religious from secular functions implies the religious domain was no longer the
only source of authority
❖ Temples were located on sacred sites chosen to please the gods

❖ Temples were also sited and designed to please the human eye and harmonize with the natural
landscape
Greek- Agora and Acropolis Agora

➢ Gathering place and market
➢ On the road from the harbor
➢ Bordered by temples, workshops, vendors’ stalls, statues
➢ Place for public event
Acropolis
➢ Elevated temple district
➢ Contained various temples
➢ Architectural “vocabulary” used well into the 20th c. for banks, courthouses, town halls,
➢ Periodic processions to Acropolis also celebrated the polis.
Figure 24 Greek City Planning

Tension created between the religious and secular created what many consider to be one of the greatest
achievements of Western architecture.
Earlier Greek cities probably grew spontaneously without formal guidelines
❖ Some think many ceremonial areas were designed to be seen according to prescribed lines of vision
❖ The human aesthetic was given a degree of authority not given in Cosmo magical cities
In later Greek cities a more formalized city design and plan are apparent— example of Miletus in Ioma
(present-day Turkey)
❖ Laid out in a rigid grid system imposing its geometry on the physical site conditions
❖ Layout indicates an abstracted and highly rational notion of urban life
❖ Seems to fit well with the functional needs of a colonial city
Grid system shows religious and aesthetic needs had taken a secondary role to pressing demands of
controlling an empire.
ROMAN CITY
Roman cities
• Romans adopted many urban traits from the Greeks and the Etruscans, whom the Romans had
conquered and absorbed in northern Italy
• As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas that had not previously experienced urbanization
France, Germany, England, interior Spain, the Alpine countries, and parts of eastern Europe
As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas that had not previously experienced urbanization
Most cities were established as military (castra) and trading outposts
❖ Focal points for collection of local agricultural products

❖ Supply centres for the military
❖ Service centres for long-distance trading network
In England, the trail of city building can be found by looking for the suffixes -caster and -Chester
indicating cities founded as Roman camps
Roman city landscapes
• Gridiron street pattern was used in later Greek cities — example of Pavia, Italy
• The forum — a zone combining elements of the Greek acropolis and agora
❖ Placed at the intersection of a city’s two major thoroughfares

❖ Temples of worship, administrative buildings, and warehouses
❖ Also, libraries, schools, and marketplaces serving the common people

Roman city landscapes

Clustered around the forum were the palaces of the power elite
❖ Sanitary, well heated in winter, and spacious
❖ Not until the twentieth century did such luxury again exist
Roman masses lived in shoddy apartment houses

❖ Often four or five stories high, called insular
❖ System of aqueducts and underground sewers did not extend to the poor
❖ Garbage of perhaps a million Romans was thrown into open pits
❖ Even in its best days, Rome’s population was always at the mercy of plagues
Rome’s most important legacy was the Roman method for choosing city sites
❖ Consistently chose sites with transportation in mind
❖ Empire held together by a complicated system of roads and highways
❖ In choosing a new site for settlement Romans first considered access while other cultures
placed emphasis on defensive locations
❖ Numerous old Roman town sites were re-founded centuries later — Paris, London, and Vienna
Figure 25 Networking in Roman City

Roman Cities- Forum

The Forum was their version of the Agora (this one is in Pompeii, a city preserved in volcanic ash of Mt.
Vesuvius from the 1st century BC)
Forum
• Bordered by everything important: temples, offices, jails, butcher shops
• Public processions and ceremonies took place there
• For a mainly pedestrian population, the surrounding colonnade was a very important urban design
feature
Roman Cities- Greek vs. Roman

❖ Romans not as playful or moderate as the Greeks
❖ Romans inclined toward violence, exploitation and gross excesses of consumption
❖ Romans greatest achievements often bear the mark of excess but also considerable engineering
skill
❖ Rome was basically supported by forced tribute & taxes
❖ Conquered Greek isles by 133 BC and cloned many of their urban design concepts
Temples built on the Greek model, with prominent colonnades
Agora was appropriated and became the Forum
The Roman Empire was in major decline by A.D. 400
❖ Cities and the highway system that linked them fell into disrepair
❖ The administrative structure collapsed
❖ Outposts were either actively destroyed or simply left to decay Within 200 years, many of the cities
had withered away

THE MEDIEVAL CITY
Medieval period lasted roughly from A.D. 1000 to 1500

❖ Time of renewed urban expansion in Europe
❖ Urban life spread north and east in Europe
❖ Germanic and Slavic people expanded their empires
❖ In only four centuries, 2,500 new German “cities” were founded
❖ Most cities of present-day Europe were founded during this period
Revival of local and long-distance trade resulted from a combination of factors

❖ Population increase
❖ Political stability and unification
❖ Agricultural expansion through new land reclamations
❖ New Agricultural technologies
Trading networks required protected markets and supply centres, functions that renewed life in cities,
Long-distance trading led to the development of a new class of people — the merchant class
MEDIEVAL TOWN
Hirsch horn is Neckar, Germany
This town reveals three important features of urban morphology: castle, wall, and cathedral. Hirsch horn
castle caps the summit of a fortified spur in the bend of the Neckar River, affording a clear view of the
river and forested valley.
Site factors have also limited expansion forcing people to build onto the walls. Half-
timbering is evident in a number of buildings.
The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols
The fortress
❖ Usually cities were clustered around a fortified place
❖ Reflected in place names — German -burg, French -Bourg, English
❖ -burgh all meaning a fortified castle
❖ The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally referred to a citizen of the medieval city
The charter
❖ Governmental decree from a regional power granting political autonomy to the town
❖ Freed the population from feudal restrictions
❖ Made the city responsible for its own defence and government
❖ Allowed cities to coin their own money
❖ These freedoms contributed to development of urban social, economic, and intellectual life.

The marketplace
❖ Symbolized role of economic activities in the city
❖ City depended on the countryside for food and produce was traded in the market
❖ Centre for long-distance trade linking city to city
The wall
❖ Symbol of the sharp distinction between country and city
❖ Within the wall most inhabitants were free; outside most were serfs
❖ People inside were able to move about with little restriction
❖ Goods entering the gates were inspected and taxed
❖ Non-residents were issued permits for entry, but often required to leave by sundown when the gates
were shut
❖ Suburbs called faubourgs sprang up, and in time demanded to be included into the city
❖ If the suburbs were allowed to be part of the city, the wall was extended to include them
❖ At one end stood the fairly tall town hail
❖ Meeting space for city’s political leaders
❖ Market hail for storage and display of finer goods.
The cathedral
❖ This become the religious place

❖ More or less it’s like Acropolis
❖ It has main administrative building, court hall etc.,
Problems created for contemporary urban life by medieval city morphology and landscape
❖ Streets were narrow, wandering lanes, rarely more than 15 feet wide
❖ Today, in 141 German cities, 77 percent of streets are too narrow for two- way traffic
Functional zonation of medieval cities differed from that of modern cities Example of coopers — people
who made and repaired wooden barrels
❖ Attended the same church, and belonged to the same guild

❖ Church and guildhall were in the small centre area of their district
❖ Surrounding the center were their houses and workshops
❖ Many worked in the first story of their home and lived above the shop
❖ Apprentices lived above the shop owner
More prestigious groups lived in occupational districts near the city centre. Those involved in noxious
activities lived closer to city walls

Some districts were defined by ethnicity

Jews were forced to live in their own district in most medieval cities
❖ In Frankfurt am Main, they lived on the Judengasse, a street formed from the dried-up moat that
had run along the old wall to the city
❖ This area was enclosed by walls with only one guarded gate
The area was not allowed to expand, leading by 1610 to a population of 3,000 people and one of the
densest districts in the city.
THE RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE PERIODS

Form and function of the city changed significantly during the Renaissance (1500 — 1600) and baroque
(1600-1800) periods
❖ Rising middle class slowly gave up their freedoms in pursuit of economic gain
❖ City size grew rapidly because bureaucracies of regional power structures came to dominate them
❖ Trade patterns expanded with the beginning of European imperial conquest
❖ City planning and military technology acted to remold and constrain the physical form of the city
A national capital city rose to prominence in most countries

❖ Provincial cities were subjected to its tastes
❖ Power was centralized in its precincts
❖ First office buildings were built to house a growing bureaucracy
❖ Most important, it was restructured to reflect the power of the central government and insure
control over urban masses
Height of baroque planning between 1600 and 1800

During the 1800s, Napoleon III carried out a building plan in Paris
❖ Cobblestone streets carefully paved to prevent loose ammunition for rioting Parisians
❖ Streets were straightened and widened, and cul-de-sacs broken down to give army space to
maneuver
❖ Thousands were displaced as apartment buildings were demolished

❖ Many ended up in congested working-class sections of east and north Paris
❖ The east and north sections are still crowded today
In these developments, we see the coming modern city

INDUSTRIALIZATION
Figure 26 Industrial City
Industrialization- Impacts
The start of industrialization in 18th century had its effects such as;
❖ Growing urban population
❖ Rising production & pace of life
❖ Reactions affecting both natural & built environment
❖ Inventions like elevators & automobiles change the shape &size of our cities
❖ Working class struggles, division of labor
❖ Change in lifestyles
❖ Emergence of new working
❖ Changes in family structure
❖ Problems arose because of concentration of working-class people in poorly built housing near the
factories and mills
❖ Transportation system had to develop
At the end of 19th century governments assumed more responsibility for improvement of the cities in
Europe.
❖ Germany encouraged cooperative housing.
❖ British law empowered state and local authorities to build houses • British law empowered state
and local authorities to build houses
❖ for rent to the working class
❖ In 1871 in USA, Boson Co-operative Co started a scheme of rental
❖ housing for workers with big plots, large rooms& less Plot coverage
❖ City planning was initiated in North America by using zoning
❖ Regulations – building to be allowed, height limits & prohibited land uses
❖ As cities started getting congested, people moved to suburbs for • As cities started getting
congested, people moved to suburbs for better opportunities & clean environment
❖ The invention of cars changed the character of suburbs
GARNIER’S INDUSTRIAL CITY

The general design of Garniers city shows a separation between living quarters and industry and also a
separate health centre outside the city. This is understandable as 'industry' in his case equals heavy industry
with its associated pollution.
The main patterns are grids. However the part with living quarters is kept narrow to minimize distances to
nature. This is also the reason why there is no explicit park within the city. In the centre of the town is a
large civic centre.
Tony Garnier ‘An industrial city'

❖ Tony Garnier (1869- 1948) was the son of Pierre Garnier the architect of the famous Paris Opera
house that
❖ Formed one of the focus points of the 19th century transformation of Paris.
❖ He shared the concern about social questions and the idea that the design of cities as a whole should
be approached rational and that industry had to be separated from living quarters. On the other
hand, he showed great sensibility to the symbolic meaning of buildings and the quality of urban
space, something the modernists lacked. He also considered the city to be a 'rhizome' where citizens
could circulate freely, whereas the modernists advocated strict hierarchical road networks and
separation of types of traffic. In hind sight Garnier was a 'standalone' case in urban design.
Figure 27 Housing- Industrial City
❖ The grid patterns are not 'stamped' all over the city. The design of the civic centre is based on a
disposition of buildings around a central axle. This shows elements of classic design. On the other
hand, all buildings are free standing and the open spaces are enormous. In the whole of the plan there
are few squares, let alone enclosed squares.
❖ The living quarters show an innovative new type of building block with free standing houses and 'urban
villas' (although using this word in this respect is an anachronism) on an 'island' between streets. This
type of building block had been taken up in recent urban design in the Netherlands.
❖ The result is that there are no enclosed streets. Trees form very much part of the design. Indicating the
more important streets and losely planted within the blocks.

❖ Garnier has a lot of drawings showing public space in living quarters, indicating that he cared about
everyday living conditions. For the civic centre he only shows the buildings. This suggests that he did
not consider the design of public space around public buildings to be a very important matter.
Station
Pavilion type architecture in a large space. The design is very futuristic for its time and the style looks as
if it foreshadows the architecture of the 1950's, especially the awning. München’s main station has an
awning from the 1950's that reminds of Garnier’s design.
Figure 28 Station-Industrial City
AMERICAN GRID PLANNING:
The grid has been used continuously throughout the world as a development pattern since
Hippodamus first used it at Piraeus, Greece in the 5th century BC. A lot happened over the next 2,000
years after that, but in 1682 William Penn used the grid as the physical foundation for Philadelphia. With
that, the grid began its new life in the new America. Penn’s instructions for laying out his orthogonal plan
were simple:
Be sure to settle the figure of the town so as that the streets hereafter may be uniform down to the
water from the country bounds…This may be ordered when I come, only let the houses built be in a line,
or upon a line, as much as may be…
Penn’s use of the grid may have been influenced by Richard Newcourt’s plan for London following
the fire of 1666. However, Penn may have utilized the grid for its indexical qualities. The grid by its very
nature has no built-in hierarchy. What better way to promote the Quaker value of equality than to build it
into the very foundation of your new town. Philadelphia was the first city to use the indexical system of
numbers for north-south streets and tree names for east-west streets. Because of this coordinate system,
the intersection at 12th/Walnut has no more or less social or political meaning than that at 18th/Cherry.
Every plot of land is essentially equal to every other.

Figure 29 American Grid Iron Planning
Over 100 years after Philadelphia, Thomas Jefferson executed the purchase of the Louisiana Territory.
Following the acquisition of such a vast territory came the challenges of subdividing, selling, and
occupying it. It was impossible to survey the entire area ahead of time so Jefferson devised a system that
would make platting and selling achievable from a distance. Jefferson answered with the grid in the Land
Ordinance of 1785. The Ordinance divided the entire western territory into townships, sections, quarter-
sections, and so on. A system of Euclidean geometry made this possible. Having never stepped foot on
their property, someone could point to a map, make a purchase, and start their wagon westward knowing
precisely where they were going. Today, a cross-country flight will easily show the physical
ramifications of Jefferson’s decision to subdivide our territory upon the grid. The vast majority of
America’s western land is so arranged in logical lattice-work.
Following the precedent of Philadelphia, the grid has been used extensively in a number of American
cities in every one of our now 50 states. Each of these cities, with their own purposes and reasonings,
adopted the grid as their foundation with varying outcomes. In Chicago, the grid was used as a vehicle to
maximize both the speed of development and financial speculation. In San Francisco, the grid flatly
ignored topography and created a city of dramatic hills and valleys. In Paragonah, Utah, the grid was
executed to promote the doctrine of Mormonism. But perhaps most famous of all-American grids is that
found in Manhattan. In 1811, the Commissioners adopted a master street plan that would come to define
the city of New York centuries later. One of the greatest understatements of the 19th century was made
by one of the commissioners at the time:
It is improbable that (for centuries to come) the grounds north of Harlem Flat will be covered with
houses.As we know now Manhattan did grow and it grew well beyond all expectations within only a
single century. The grid was there to accommodate that growth.
In the 1920s, the roles of both the federal government and the States in the development of towns and
cities were refined and codified. Amongst all of the legal changes, two documents stand out: the Standard
City Planning Enabling Act (SCPEA) and the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act (SSZEA). The
SSZEA specifies the creation, adoption, and use of a zoning map. The SCPEA, on the other hand, specifies
the components of a municipal master plan which is made up of a zoning map and a master street plan.
Unfortunately, over the last 80 years judicial interpretation over what constitutes a “master plan” has
allowed the zoning map to replace the master street plan. Without a master street plan the grid is essentially
impossible to execute. Thus, our American grid’s recent history has been a stagnant one. Finally, today,
we find ourselves in a situation where our cities develop piece-meal on a lot-by-lot basis. Because a zoning
ordinance only regulates private property and does not–and legally cannot–provide for the public
framework of cities, development is rendered essentially unplanned, unwalkable, and unsustainable. A
reemergence of the American grid is warranted in order to restore much needed order to the places we
call home.

ANTIURBANISM:
Anti-urbanism is a discourse of fear of the city, produced and reproduced via a variety of negative
representations of urban places, and drawing its power from deeply entrenched pro urban and pro-rural
sentiment. Industrialisation was the force which triggered anti-urban representations, as the rampant,
unchecked urbanization that characterised the industrial city was widely perceived to be a profound moral
upheaval, an unwelcome disruption to traditional values, and the intensification of urban malaise. Whilst
anti-urbanism is a widespread discourse, it is particularly advanced in the United States, partly because of
the influence of major intellectual figures who all treated the city with suspicion. This article uses the art
of Edward
Hopper to explain the power of the anti-urbanism discourse, and its implications. It concludes by offering
some comments on recent accusations that writers such as Mike Davis are reproducing anti-urban
discourse in their popular work on contemporary urbanization.
Anti-urbanism is best defined as a discourse of fear of the city, and something fuelled by the impact
of images of urban dystopia we see in a variety of media, cinematic, literary, artistic, photographic – and
in the case of the Qashqai, corporate – representations of urban places. It is a discourse that has been
around for a long time, in conjunction with the emergence of the industrial city, and often constructed in
relation to the ‘good city’ of the ancient Greeks, and especially the perceived virtues of rural life. Anti-
urbanism is particularly advanced in the United States in a variety of guises, from the celebration of rural
small-town kinship and community to the fact that Los Angeles has been completely destroyed 138 times
in various motion pictures from 1909 to 1999! Critical analyses of anti-urbanism are vital if the material
consequences of widespread urban fears are to be exposed and challenged. As cultural geographers have
argued for a long time now, if we leave powerful representations unquestioned, then supposedly fixed
‘evidence’ about how a society is organized can very easily become treated as overwhelming evidence of
how it ‘should’, or ‘must’ be organized.

EVOLUTION OF URBANISM IN INDIA
Evolution of urbanism in India – Temple towns – Mughal city form – Medieval cities – colonial urbanism
– urban spaces in modernist cities: Chandigarh, Bhuvaneshwar and Gandhi Nagar subsequent directions.
INTRODUCTION:
The development of Indian architectural has been influenced by its long history, extremely varied
geographical and environmental conditions across the country. The consequent cultural diversity is
exemplified in the form of the towns and cities which have involved over time across the country.
The first phase of urbanization in the Indus valley is associated with the Harappa civilization dating back
to 2350Bc. The two cities of Mohanjodaro and Harappa represent the climax of urban development. This
great urban civilization came to end at about 1500 B.C, possibly as a result of Aryan invasion.
The second phase of urbanization in India began around 600 BC. This period saw the formation of early
historical cities and also the growth of cities in number and size especially during the Mauryan and post
– Mauryan eras.
Stone Age - before 3300 BCE

Indus valley - 3300 – 1700 BCE
civilization
Vedic civilization - 2000 – 600 BCE
Iron Age - 1200 – 1 BCE
Maurya empire - 321 – 184 BCE
Chola Empire - 300 BCE – 1279BCE
Satavahana Empire - 230 BCE -220 CE
Middle Kingdoms - 1CE – 1279 CE
Gupta Empire - 280 – 550 CE
Chalukya Empire - 543 – 753 CE
Pala Empire - 750 – 1174 CE
Islamic Sultanates - 1206 – 1596
Mughal Empire - 1526- 1858
Sikh Empire - 1733 – 1849
British India - 1858 – 1947
Modern States - Since 1947
The temple towns of Madurai and Srirangam in South India, re presents a cosmic vision of hierarchically
layered reality; the plan is formed by concentric geometries around defined centers.
In contrast a more organic pattern can be found in the weaver’s town of Chander in Central India. This
town, first established in the 15th century A.D., has a plan defined by the natural topography and a social
order representative of the broad divisions of caste in medieval Indian society.
In the early part of the 18th century A.D. resulted in the development of the city of Jaipur in Rajasthan,
west-central India. The plan for the city is based on a nine square mandalass adapted to take advantages
of the natural features of the site.

The Mughal period stands out as a second-high watermark of urbanization in India (the first occurring
during the Mauryan period), when many of India’s cities were established. The early part of British rule
saw a decline in the level of Indian urbanization. During the latter half of British rule, Indian cities
regained some of their last importance; further, the British added several new towns and cities, in addition
generating newer urban forms in the existing cities.
BUILDING TOPOLOGY
Indus Architecture can be grouped into
• Private houses
• Housing complexes
• Public buildings
PUBLIC BUILDINGS
• Markets / public meeting – held in large open areas
• Great public bating places
• Granaries / Great halls

CITY PLANNING
The Manasara and Mayamata discuss the following stages in town planning:
• Examination of soil
• Selection on site
• Determination of directions
• Division of ground to squares
• The offerings
• Planning the storey’s
• Construction of Buildings
• Construction of Gateways
• Construction of Temples
• Construction of royal places
The planning comprised of:
• Grama – Village Planning
• Griha – House planning
• Nagara – Town planning
• Durga – Planning of Forts
• Prasada – Planning of big Buildings
Mandalas have certain points known as marmas which are vital and viler- able energy spots on
which nothing should be built. They are determined by certain proportional relationships of the
squares and the diagonals.
Important components of Vedic Village planning

• Surrounding wall and moat for protection
• Four main entry gates in the middle of each side.
• Large street around the village and two major thoroughfares connecting the gateways
• Temple / Hall at the centre
• Small streets divide village into smaller blocks.
• Tanks and ponds suitable location Gardens and parks at suitable places.
Eight types of Villages

• Dandaka
• Sarvatobhadra
• Nandya Vartha
• Padmaka
• Swasthika
• Prasthara
• Karmuka
• Chaturmuka

Classification of Towns:
• Nagara – District Headquarters
• Rajasthani – Royal Capital
• Pathare – Commercial town
• Druga – Small Industrial town
• Kheta – Town – local industries
• Kharveta - Big Industrial town
• Senamukha – Suburban military town
• Skandavara – Military town
• Athaneya – Headquarters – fortified town
• Dronamukha – Market town
• Kotamakoraka – Hill/Forest Settlement
Vedic Village – Characteristic Features:

Grama : Little collection of huts was protected by fence or palisade. (Timber). The fence was made of
upright posts of bamboo with horizontal members threaded into holes in posts.
At the entrance, gate ways was projected – consisted of two wooden posts with horizontal bamboo bars
raised high enough for cattle to pass. From these bamboo gateways – tranana, characteristic Buddhist
archway was derived.
The Vedic village had certain distinct characteristic that influenced subsequent architectural production –
the barrel vaulted roof, the palisade railing.
Chardis – House with a thatched roof. Harmyam – a house of brick and stone
Gotra – a multi – dwelling complex with sheds for animals
• Groups of small villages banded together and small ‘cities’ began to take shape.
• In general, the cities of the Vedic period were rectangular in plan and divided into four quarters by
two main thoroughfares interesting at right angles, each leading to a city gate.
• One of these quarters contained the citadel and another housed the residential area.
• A third quarter was reserved for the merchants and the last for tradesmen who could display their
wares.
Only residential and occupational structures were built during Vedic period. Temples and religious
structures – not erected, as Aryans did not believe in idol worship.
Palaces dwelling for king and other noble men:

• Square plan of 162 ft. side on 6ft. grid.
• Had 16 feet high champers.
• Width of brick masonry = 1-1/16 of the span of the room.
• Pillars – 14 inches wide at the base and 10 inches at the capital.
Ministers, royal priests, astrologers and physicians Square planned structure of 60 feet side.

GUPTA PARIOD – GROWTH OF TEMPLE TOWNS

• The decline or urban centers began during the Gupta period (fifth century CE) and continued in north
India as the larger empires disintegrated into unstable dynastic regimes.
• In south India between 800 and 1300 CE urbanization received strong stimulus where the rise of cities
was connected with the rise and decline of dynasties.
• The remarkable feature of the period was the rise of prahamanical Hinduism.
• This was reflected in the morphology of the cities where the focal point of the city was the temple.
• The concentric squares of streets were arranged around the temple.
• The inner squares were occupied by the upper castes while the lower castes lived in the periphery of
the city.
• The streets leading out of the four gates of the temple were the places of commercial activity.
• They also linked the inner city to the periphery and the hinterland beyond.
THE TEMPLE TOWNS OF MADURAI AND SRIRANGAM

In India, traditional cities are developed around a historic core where the core area is called walled city or
inner city. The typical plan of the inner city puts the temple or mosque at the centre, the markets
immediately adjacent usually, the palace seldom at the centre and is usually on the outskirts. Bordering
the Public Areas are the residential Districts.
In the south Indian cities like Madurai, Trichy, Srirangam, Thanjavur, Chidambaram, Kumbakonam the
temple dominates the plan at the centre. The scared monuments were constructed to dominate the
surrounding area providing a focal point for the town or city.
Figure 30 Temple town of Sri rangam & Madurai

THE TEMPLE TOWN OF MADURAI

Madurai known as ATHENS THE EAST, city of junctions, city of jasmines, city that never sleeps.
Madurai third major economic, industrial, commercial, transportation hub for the southern Tamilnadu.
Figure 31 View of Meenakshi Temple, Madurai
HISTORY OF MADURAI
Madurai was the seat of the Pandean kingdom around 600 BCE. The city remained under control of cholas
until 13th century. Madurai was under the Delhi sultanate till 1378. Madurai was taken over by the Nayaks
from the Vijayanagar in 1559 and stayed under Nayaks till 1736. In 1801 the EAST INDAI COMPANY
took control of Madurai. In 1837 the city expanded to accommodate the growing population by
demolishing the fortifications around the temple.
TRADITIONAL PLANNING STRATEGIES

The old city of Madurai is considered to be designed according to Rajdhani plan and has fivefold
concentric rectangle with Meenakshi Temple at the centre (Focal Point).
The city was a well-planned one with bazaars and many broad streets with mansions on both sides.
Figure 32 Traditional Plan of Madurai

THE TEMPLE OF MADURAI – SETTLEMENT PATTERN

The settlement pattern of Madurai is planned according to the ancient systems of town planning which is
based on caste and occupational hierarchies.
Figure 33 Settlement Pattern and Land use of Madurai

URBANIZATION DURING THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
MEDIEVAL TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA

Medieval period in India is marked by the end of Rajput period. Mohammed Ghori defeated Prithviraj
Chauhan left the Indian territories in the charge of his deputy, Qutubudin (reign 1206 – 1210), who had
started life as a slave. Khijis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis followed and this period is known as the
sultanate. When the power of the Sultans declined, that outlying provinces once again became important
and the process of Hindu Islamic synthesis continued almost without any interruption.
Mughal Indian Cities:

These cities had their own kind of morphology because this morphology was influenced by both internal
and external factors. These cities are to a great extent influenced by various kinds of trade, internal and
external.
Different kinds of mughal cities:
• Capital cities – Agra, Delhi, Lucknow, Lahore, Fatehpur Sikri
• Provincial Head quarters – Cities in Bengal, Ahmadabad in Gujarat.
• Port towns – Surat, Hoogly, Cambay.
• Market towns – developed into bigger cities like Borhanpur in the Deccan.
MUGHAL CITIES
Mughal Indian Cities:
• The provincial cities gradually grew as in case of Burhanpur. Apart from the provincial cities, which
are the provincial Capitals or headquarters there are the other cities and towns that sometimes become
very important because of their trade connection or strategic connection or any other factors. Surat
was one of those because of its port; Cambay too.
• Market towns / kasba – These grow simply because of the neighboring regional situations. These are
the towns where the villages combine to have some kind of a trading centre and they grow because of
particular economic, social or religious reasons.
• Religious towns – Example Gaya, Ajmer (incase of the Muslims), Mathura Vribdavan (in case of the
Vaishnavites. There were different kinds of cities and in Mughal India no city is similar to another
except in certain broad features.
• Small Cities along the road sometime coming up or declining depending of the trade, commerce
including political casualties.
• In Mughal India unlike that of the Sultanate India, a land is attached to the city itself whether it is a
port town, whether it is a market town or whether it is a capital town.
• So therefore, there is the question of the growth of the suburban. So therefore, for the growth of the
morphology, one would have to see the internal as well as the external factors.

Elements Influencing the Mughal Cities

Morphology of a medieval Mughal city is influenced by two particular elements;
• Fort – almost like a city itself – the palace, the market, the mosque, the residential area not only of
the class but also of the troops, the dafter – khana (the office) and others.
• It is not the center of the activities of the city itself but of the political life of the empire. This in turn
influences the events in the city.
• River – Most of the Indian cities, if not all are located on the bank of the river. The fort is almost
always located at the bank of the river. So the entire bank is almost managed by the emperor and the
nobility.
Chowk and Street

• The city actually starts from the fort in the sense that in front of the fort invariably there is one
maidan, which is called chowk, generally a square or eight – cornered with two or three straight roads
outside.
• On both sides of the street the shops are lined in such a way that it becomes almost a market.
• There is another movement inside the city, a kind of a winding small road, also covered with shops,
maybe on one side, called Mohallas in Persian.
• So there is a static position of the city – the chowk, the street – and this static position has conflict
with the movement inside.
• It is moving city with political movement, sometimes, social movement, sometimes festivals but a
movement is always there.
• In this morphology in which we find one of the straight, broad avenue and the others cutting across
at different angles, smaller winding lanes going through city there is no class distinction in residential
areas.
Mughal Capital Cities

The first Mughal capital city was established in Delhi in 1526. It was shifted to Agra and then Akbar built
an entirely new city at fatehpur Sikri. Later, under Shahjahan the capital returned to Delhi when
Shahjahanabad was built. It was a planned city with a wide central avenue leading to the Red fort.
Certain basic elements that was common to these cities

• The location of the king or lord either on a high ground on one side of the city or on the river bank.
• The second major element was the mosque – Jama Masjid – the cultural focal point for the Muslim
residents of the city.
• Every city of this period had a central market place situated at the main chowk or crossroad of the
city.
• Another element, though not universal, was the outer wall constructed for the purpose of defence.
The cities, with the exception of Shahjahanabad were unplanned with overlapping residential, commercial
and industrial land uses.

Fatehpur Sikri – Akpar

• Notable achievement of the Mughals. 26 miles west of agra.
• A great complex of residential, official and religious buildings
• Rectangular area of 2 miles and 1 mile braod. Habitation lasted only for one generation.
• Departed from the conventional idea of building isolated structures linked together by streets, due
to the limited space.
• City with no streets, but an arrangement of broad terraces and stately courtyard around which are
grouped pavilions and palaces.
FATEHPUR SIKRI – Design Guidelines

• First and foremost, the interior function of an individual building determined. Its overall function,
determined its location in the layout plan.
• Service areas, such as the waterworks, guard’s quarters were located on the outskirts.
• The king and Queens, residences, located at the heart, astride the top of the ridge.
• Public areas- like the courts, the Diwan –I – Am and the Jami masjid formed a ring around the king
and queen’s residences.
• Orientation – All important structures located along the cardinal axis. Secular buildings were
installed along the north – south axis. The Jami Masjid was symmetrically erected as required around the
east – west axis.
• The aesthetics of a building were left to the craftsmen employed in a particular structure. Overall
visual was ensured through use of building material for floors, walls, roofs, lintels, beams etc.,
Figure 34 Fatehpur sikri palace plan

UNIT III THEORISING AND READING URBAN SPACE

Ideas of Imageability and townscape: Cullen, Lynch- place and genius loci- collective memory
historic reading of the city and its artefacts: Rossi- social aspects of urban space: life on streets and
between buildings, gender and class, Jane Jacobs, William Whyte
GORDON CULLEN
TOWNSCAPE
Gordon Cullen (1914-1944) studied architecture at the Royal Polytechnic Institution, but never qualified
as an architect. He started his career working as a draughtsman in various architectural practices. He then
returned to Britain and joined the Architectural Review as Assistant Editor in
1946. He later became writer on planning policy and contributed numerous editorials and case studies in
urban and rural planning.
His major contribution to the field of urban design is his 1961
Townscape.
"Townscape" is the art of giving visual coherence and organization to the jumble of buildings, streets and
spaces that make up the urban environment.
This book deals with the “art of relationship” between the various components of the urban landscape.
The purpose of this art is “to take all the elements that go to create the built environment: buildings, trees,
nature, water, traffic, advertisements, and so on, and to weave them in such a way that drama is released”.
Cullen's approach to urban design is therefore primarily visual, but it is also based on the physical
relationship between movement and the environment: “the scenery of towns is often revealed in a series
of jerks or revelations.”
Most interesting of all are several groups of pictures (of Oxford, Ipswich, and Westminster) showing the
changing view as a person walks along a street, under an archway, through a group of buildings. These
sequences, representing what Cullen calls ‘serial vision’, show how the townscape unfolds as one walks,
and how new buildings and vistas appear in a series of revelations.
Cullen's book is a fine example of the importance of using specific vocabulary when describing the built
environment:
Serial Vision
Serial Vision is to walk from one end of the plan to another, at a uniform pace, will provide a sequence of
revelations which are suggested in the serial drawing’s opposite, reading from left to right.
This method of representation can be used as a tool for surveying, analysing and designing.
A serial vision is a series of sketches that represent the changes and contrasts in the character of the built
environment that one experiences when moving around the city.
The sketches should be shown along with a map identifying the ‘journey' and the viewpoints from which
the sketches are drawn.

In Cullen's own words, “the even progress of travel is illuminated by a series of sudden contrasts and so
an impact is made on the eye, bringing the plan to life”.
Place description is in a world of black and white the roads are for movement and the buildings for social
and business purposes.
There is, for instance, a typical emotional reaction to being below the general ground level and there is
another resulting from being above it. There is a reaction to being hemmed in as in a tunnel and another
to the wideness of the square. If, therefore, we design our towns from the point of view of the moving
person (pedestrian or car-borne) it is easy to see how the whole city becomes a plastic experience, a journey
through pressures and vacuums, a sequence of exposures and enclosures, of constraint and relief. Content
concerned with the intrinsic quality of the various subdivisions of the environment, and start with the great
landscape categories of metropolis, town, park, industrial, and wild nature.
In this last category we turn to an examination of the fabric of towns: color, texture, scale, style, character,
personality and uniqueness. Accepting the fact that most towns are of old foundation, their fabric will
show evidence of differing periods in its architectural styles and also in the various accidents of layout.
Many towns do so display this mixture of styles, materials and scales. Yet there exists at the back of our
minds a feeling that could we only start again we would get rid of this hotchpotch and make all new and
fine and perfect. We would create an orderly scene with straight roads and with buildings that conformed
in height and style. Given a free hand that is what we might do . . . create symmetry, balance, perfection
and conformity. After all, that is the popular conception of the purpose of town planning.

Focal Point: Focal point is the idea of the town as a place of assembly, of social intercourse, of meeting,
was taken for granted throughout the whole of human civilization up to the twentieth century.
Closure may be differentiated from Enclosure, by contrasting ‘travel’ with ‘arrival’. Closure is the cutting
up of the linear town system (streets, passages, etc.) into visually digestible and coherent amounts whilst
retaining the sense of progression. Enclosure on the other hand provides a complete private world which
is inward looking, static and self-sufficient.
Street Lighting Here we are concerned with the impact of a modern public lighting installation on towns
and not, primarily, with the design of fittings. Naturally it is impossible to disassociate the two since, as
in all townscape, we are concerned with two aspects: first, intrinsic design and second, the relationship or
putting together of things designed.
Outdoor Publicity One contribution to modern townscape, startlingly conspicuous everywhere you look,
but almost entirely ignored by the town planner, is street outdoor publicity. This is the most characteristic,
and, potentially, the most valuable, contribution of the twentieth century to urban scenery. At night it has
created a new landscape of a kind never before seen in history.
Here and There the practical result of so articulating the town into identifiable parts is that no sooner do
we create a HERE than we have to admit a THERE, and it is precisely in the manipulation of these two
spatial concepts that a large part of urban drama arises.
An example in India: the approach from the Central Vista to the Rashtrapathi Bhawan in New Delhi. There
is an open- ended courtyard composed of the two Secretariat buildings and, at the end, the
Rashtrapathi Bhawan. All this is raised above normal ground level and the approach is by a ramp. At the
top of the ramp and in front of the axis building is a tall screen of railings. This is the setting. Travelling
through it from the Central Vista we see the two Secretariats in full, but the Rashtrapathi Bhawan is
partially hidden by the ramp; only its upper part is visible. This effect of truncation serves to isolate and
make remote. The building is withheld. We are here and it is there. As we climb the ramp the
Rashtrapathi Bhawan is gradually revealed, the mystery culminates in fulfillment as it becomes
immediate to us, standing on the same floor. But at this point the railing, the wrought iron screen, is
inserted; which again creates a form of Here and There by means of the screened vista.

Concerning Optics
Let us suppose that we are walking through a town; here is a straight road off which is a courtyard, at the
far side of which another street leads out and bends slightly before reaching a monument. Not very unusual.
We take this path and our first view is that of the street. Upon turning into the courtyard, the new view is
revealed instantaneously at the point of turning and this view remains with us whilst we walk across the
courtyard. Leaving the courtyard, we enter the further street. Again, a new view is suddenly revealed
although we are traveling at a uniform speed. Finally, as the road bends the monument swings into view.
The significance of all this is that although the pedestrian walks through the town at a uniform speed, the
scenery of towns is often revealed in a series of jerks or revelations. This we call serial vision.
Examine what this means. Our original aim is to manipulate the elements of the town so that an impact on
the emotions is achieved. A long straight road has little impact because the initial view is soon digested
and becomes monotonous. The human mind reacts to a contrast to the difference between things, and when
two pictures (the street and the courtyard) are in mind at the same time, a vivid contrast is felt and the
town becomes visible in a deeper sense. It becomes alive through the drama of juxtaposition. Unless this
happens, the town will slip past us featureless and inert.
There is a further observation to be made concerning serial vision. Although from a scientific or
commercial point of view the town may be a unity, from our optical viewpoint we have split it into two
elements; the existing view and the emerging view. In the normal way this is an accidental chain of events
and whatever significance may arise out of the linking of views will be fortuitous. Suppose however, that
we take over this linking as a branch of the art of relationship; then we are finding a tool with which human
imagination can begin to mold the city into a coherent drama. The process of manipulation has begun to
turn the blind facts into a taut emotional situation
Concerning Place
This second point is concerned with our reactions to the position of our body in its environment. This is
as simple as it appears to be. It means for instance, that when you go into a room you utter to yourself the
unspoken words, “I am outside IT, I am entering IT, I am in the middle of IT”. At this level of
consciousness, we are dealing with a range of experience stemming from the major impacts of exposure
and enclosure (which if taken to their morbid extremes result in the symptoms of agoraphobia and
claustrophobia). Place a man on the edge of a 500 ft. (152 m) cliff and he will have a very lively sense of
position, put him at the end of a deep cave and he will react to the fact of enclosure.
Since it is an instinctive and continuous habit of the body to relate itself to the environment, this sense of
position cannot be ignored; it becomes a factor in the design of the environment (just as an additional
source of light must be reckoned with by a photographer, however annoying it may be). I would go further
and say that it should be exploited.
In a town we do not normally have such a dramatic situation to manipulate but the principle still holds
good. There is for instance a typical emotional reaction to being below the general ground level and there
is another resulting from being above it. There is a reaction to being hemmed in as in a tunnel and another
to the wideness of the square. If therefore, we design our towns from the point of view of the moving
person (pedestrian or car – borne) it is easy to see how the whole city becomes a plastic experience, a
journey through pressures and vacuums a sequence of exposures, of constraint and relief.

Concerning Content
Accepting the fact that most towns are of old foundation, their fabric will show evidence of differing
periods in its architectural styles and also in the various accidents of layout. Many towns display this
mixture of styles materials and scales.
Yet there exists at the back of our minds a feeling that could we only start again we would get rid of this
hotchpotch and make all new and fine and perfect. We would create an orderly scene with straight roads
and with buildings that conformed in height and style. Given a free hand that is what we might do… create
symmetry, balance, perfection and conformity. After all, that is the popular conception of the purpose of
town planning.
But what in this conformity? Let us approach it by a simile. Let us suppose a party in private house, where
are gathered together half a dozen people who are strangers to each other. The early part of the evening is
passed in polite conversation on general subjects such as the weather and the current news. Cigarettes are
passed and lights offered punctiliously. In fact, it is all an exhibition of manners, of how one ought to
behave. It is also very boring. This in conformity. However, later on the ice begins to break out of the
straightjacket of orthodox manners and conformity and real human beings begin to emerge. It is found
that Miss X’s sharp but good natured with is just the right foil to major Y’s somewhat simple exuberance.
And so on. Its beings to be fun. Conformity gives way to the agreement to differ within a recognized of
behaviour.

KEVIN LYNCH
Keywords:
Analysis method, districts, edges, image, landmark, nodes, paths, planning, urban design, way
finding.
The city image and its elements

There seems to be a public image of any given city which is the overlap of many individual images. Or
perhaps there is a series of public images, each held by some significant number of citizens. Such group
images are necessary if an individual is to operate successfully within his environment and to cooperate
with his fellows. Each individual picture is unique, with some content that is rarely or never
communicated, yet it approximates the public image, which in different environments is more or less
compelling more or less embracing.
This analysis limits itself to the effects of physical, perceptible objects. There are other influences of image
ability, such as the social meaning of an area, its function its history, or even its name. These will be
glossed over, since the objective here is to uncover the role of form itself. It is taken for granted that in
actual design form should be used to reinforce meaning and not to negate it.
The contents of the city images, which are preferable to physical forms, can conveniently be classified
into five types of elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. Indeed, these elements may be
of more general application, since they seem to reappear in many types of environmental images. These
elements may be defined as follows:
1. Paths
Paths are the channels along which the observer customarily, occasionally or potentially moves. They may
be streets; walkways transit lines, canals, railroads. For many people, these are the predominant elements
in their image. People observe the city while moving through it, and along these paths the other
environmental elements are arranged and related.
2. Edges
Edges are the linear elements not used or considered as paths by the observer. They are the boundaries
between two phases, linear breaks in continuity: shores, railroad cuts, edges of development walls. They
are lateral references rather than coordinate axes. Such edges may be barriers, more or less penetrable,
which close one region off from another; or they may be seams, lines along which two regions are related
and joined together. These edge elements, although probably not as dominant as paths are for many people
important organizing features, particularly in the role of the holding together generalized areas, as in the
outline of a city by water or wall.
3. Districts
Districts are the medium to large sections of the city, conceived of as having two dimensional extents,
which the observer mentally enters “inside of” and which are recognizable as having some common,
identifying character. Always identifiable from the inside, they are also used for exterior reference if
visible from the outside. Most people structure their city to some extent in this way, with individual
differences as to heather paths or districts are the dominant elements. It seems to depend not only upon
the individual but also upon the given city.

4. Nodes
Nodes are points, the strategic spots in a city into which an observer can enter and which are the intensive
foci to and from which he is travelling. They may be primarily junction’s places of a break in
transportation, a crossing or convergence of paths, moments of shift from one structure to another. Or the
nodes may be simply concentrations, which gain their importance from being the condensation of some
use of physical character, as a street corner hangout or an enclosed square. Some of these concentration
nodes are the focus and epitome of a district, over which their influence radiates and of which they stand
as a symbol. They may be called cores; many nodes of course, partake of the nature of both junctions and
concentrations. The concept of node is related to the concept of path, since junctions are typically the
convergence of paths, events on the journey. It is similarly related to the concept of district, since cores
are typically the intensive foci of districts, their polarizing center. In any event some nodal points are to
be found in almost every image, and in certain cases they may be the dominant feature.
5. Landmarks
Landmarks are another type of point reference, but in this case the observer does not enter within them,
they are external. They are usually a rather simply defined physical object: building, sign, store or
mountain. Their use involves the singling out of one element from a host of possibilities. Some landmarks
are distant typically seen from many angles and distances, over the tops of smaller elements, and used as
radial references. They may be within the city or at such a distance that for all practical purposes they
symbolize a constant direction. Such are isolated towers; golden domes great hills. Even a mobile point
like the sun, whose motion is sufficiently show and regular may be employed. Other landmarks are
primarily local, being visible only in restricted localities and from certain approaches, these are the
innumerable signs, store fronts, trees, door knob and other urban detail, which fill in the image of most
observers. They are frequently used clues of identity and even of structure and seem to be increasingly
relied upon, as a journey becomes more and more familiar.
The image of a given physical reality may occasionally shift its type with different circumstances of
viewing. Thus, an expressway may be a path for the driver, an edge for the pedestrian. Or a central area
may be a district when a city is organized on a medium scale and a node when the entire metropolitan area
is considered. But the categories seem to have stability for a given observer when he is operating at a given
level.
None of the element types isolated above exist in isolation in the real ace. Districts are structured with
nodes, defined by edges, penetrated by paths and sprinkled with landmarks. Elements regularly overlap
and piece one another. If this analysis begins with the differentiation of the data into categories, it must
end with their reintegration into the whole image. Our studies have furnished much information about the
visual character of the element types. This will be discussed below. Only to a lesser extent, unfortunately
did the work make revelations about the interrelations between elements, or about image levels, image
qualities or the development of the image.

The method as the basis for design
Perhaps the best way of summarizing the method to recommend a technique of image analysis developed
as the basis of a plan for the future visual form of any given city.
The procedure might begin with two studies. The first would be a generalized field reconnaissance by
two or three trained observers, systematically covering the city both on foot and by vehicle, by night and
day and supplementing this coverage by several “problem” trips as described above. This culminates in a
field analysis map and brief report, which would deal with strengths and weakness and with general pattern
as well as parts.
A parallel step would be the mass interview of a large sample, balanced to match the general population
characteristics. This group which could be interviewed simultaneously or in several parts, would be asked
to do four things.
1. Draw a quick sketch map of the area in question, showing the most interesting and important features
and giving a stranger enough knowledge to move about without too much difficulty.
2. Make a similar sketch of the route and events along one or two imaginary trips, trips chosen to
expose the length and breadth of the area.
3. Make a written list of the parts of the city felt to be most distinctive the examiner explaining the
meaning of parts and distinctive.
4. Put down brief written answers to a few questions of the type “where is _ located?”
Figure 35 Mental Map of New Jersey City

JANE JACOBS
Key Words:
City block, diversity, density, neighbourhood, pedestrian, streets urban scale.
LIFE ON STREETS AND BETWEEN BUILDINGS
With reference to the book – The Death and Life of Great American Cities by Jane Jacobs The Death and
Life of Great American Cities is a 1961 book by writer and activist Jane Jacobs. The book is a critique of
1950s urban planning policy, which it holds responsible for the decline of many city neighborhoods in the
United States. Jacobs frames the sidewalk as a central mechanism in maintaining the order of the city.
To her, the sidewalk is the stage for an "intricate ballet in which the individual dancers and ensembles
all have distinctive parts which miraculously reinforce each other and compose an orderly whole."
Jacobs posits cities as fundamentally different from towns and suburbs principally because they are
full of strangers “because of the sheer number of people in small geographical compass." A central
challenge of the city, therefore, is to make its inhabitants feel safe, secure, and socially integrated
in the midst of an overwhelming volume of rotating strangers. The healthy sidewalk is a critical
mechanism for achieving these ends, given its role in preventing crime and facilitating contact with
others.
Safety
The healthy city sidewalk does not rely on constant police surveillance to keep it safe, but on an "intricate,
almost unconscious, network of voluntary controls and standards among the people themselves, and
enforced by the people themselves." Noting that a well-used street is apt to be relatively safe from crime,
while a deserted street is apt to be unsafe, Jacobs suggests that a dense volume of human users deters most
violent crimes, or at least ensures a critical mass of first responders t o mitigate disorderly incidents. The
more bustling a street, the more interesting it is for strangers to walk along or watch from inside. In other
words, healthy sidewalks transform the city's high volume of strangers from a liability to an asset. They
form the first line of defense for administering order on the sidewalk, supplemented by police authority
when the situation demands it. Jacobs draws a parallel between empty streets and the deserted corridors,
elevators, and stairwells in high-rise public housing projects. They are open to the public but shielded from
public view, and thus "lack the checks and inhibitions exerted by eye-policed city streets.
Jacobs recommends a substantial quantity of stores, bars, restaurants, and other public places
“sprinkled along the s idewalks" as a means to this end. She argues that if city planners persist in ignoring
sidewalk life, residents will resort to three coping mechanisms as the streets turn deserted and unsafe:
• Move out of the neighborhood, allowing the danger to persist for those too poor to move anywhere
else,
• Retreat to the automobile, interacting with the city only as a motorist and never on foot,
• Cultivate a sense of neighborhood “Turf", cordoning off upscale developments from unsavory
surroundings using cyclone fences and patrolmen.

Contact
Sidewalk life permits a range of casual public interactions, from asking for directions and getting advice
from the grocer, to nodding hello to passersby and admiring a new dog. "Most of it is ostensibly trivial but
the sum is not trivial at all." The sum is "a web of public respect and trust," the essence of which is that it
"implies no private commitments" and protects precious privacy. In other words, city dwellers know that
they can engage in sidewalk life without fear of "entangling relationships" or over sharing the details of
one's personal life. Jacobs contrasts this to areas with no sidewalk life, including low-density suburbia,
where residents must either expose a more significant portion of their private lives to a small number of
intimate contacts or else settle for a lack of contact altogether. In order to sustain the former, residents
must become exceedingly deliberate in choosing their neighbors and their associations. Arrangements of
this sort, Jacobs argues, can work well "for self-selected upper-middle-class people," but fails to work for
anyone else.
Assimilating Children
Sidewalks are great places for children to play under the general supervision of parents and other natural
proprietors of the street. More importantly, sidewalks are where children learn the "first fundamental of
successful city life: People must take a modicum of public responsibility for each other even if they have
no ties to each other." Over countless minor interactions, children absorb the fact that the sidewalk's natural
proprietors are invested in their safety and well-being, even lacking ties of kinship, close friendship, or
formal responsibility.
Jacobs states that sidewalks of thirty to thirty-five feet in width are ideal, capable of accommodating any
demands for general play, trees to shade the activity, pedestrian circulation, adult public life, and even
loitering. However, she admits that such width is a luxury in the era of the automobile, and finds solace
that twenty-foot sidewalks - precluding rope jumping but still capable of lively mixed use - can still be
found. Even if it lacks proper width, a sidewalk can be a compelling place for children to congregate and
develop if the location is convenient and the streets are interesting.

WILLIAM HOLLY WHYTE
Biography:
Born : October 1, 1917, West Chester, Pennsylvania.
Died : January 12, 1999, New York City.
Nationality : American.
Education : Princeton University.
Occupation : Sociologist, Urbanist, Writer, and People watcher.
Notable works : The Organization Man, The Social Life of small Urban space.
Quotes:
“The streets is the river of life of the city, the place where we come together, the pathway to the center”.
Perspectives:
1. The social life of public place:
Whyte wrote that the social life in the public spaces contributes fundamentally to the quantity of life of
individuals and society as a whole.
2. Bottom – up place design:

Whyte advocated for a new way of designing public spaces one that was bottom – up, not top – down.
Using his approach design should start with a through understanding of the way people use space and the
way they would like to use spaces.
3. The Power Of Observation:

By observing and by talking to people. Whyte believed we can learn a great deal about what people want
in public spaces and can put this knowledge to work in creating places that shape livable communities.
Project Methodology:
• Observation.
• Analyzing the films.
• Gender.
• Charting how people used the space.
• Cheching against hypothesis, previously set.
• Creating circulation pattern from dawn to dusk.
• Taking notes during different times during the day.
• Filming.
• Couples or in groups.
• Interviewing people.
Elements in his design:

• Sun.
• Trees.
• Water.
• Food.
• Most of all seats.

Design criteria:
• Movable chairs (benches are less desirable).
• Seating area should be approximately 10% of the total open space.
• Protection from sun, wind and noise (use trees and water).
• Availability of food (snacks bars, vendors, tables and chairs).
• Related to the street, near the action.
• Triangulation : presence of people or things that include strangers to talk with each other.
Design criteria for indoor spaces:

• Seating.
• Food.
• Retail stores.
• Public toilets.
• Presence.
Examples:
• Aspire Park
• Katara cultural village.

ALDO ROSSI
INTRODUCTION
• He was an Italian architect and designer
• Theory, drawing, architecture and product design.
• He was the first Italian to receive the Pritzker Prize for architecture in 1990.
• In 1955 he had started writing for, and from 1959 was one of the editors of, the architectural
magazine Casabella-Continuità.
• In 1966 Rossi published his seminal publication The Architecture of the City, which quickly
established him as a leading international theoretician.
THEORIES AND PHYLOSOPHY

• Repetition and Fixation
• Urban artefacts- Studied and valued
• Memory through monuments
• Collective memory and genius loci
GENIUS LOCI
1. It highlights the uniqueness of each and every place that cannot reproduce the same sense or the
expression in another place. With these discussions “Genius Loci” one of the oldest mythologies exists in
Late Roman emerged gradually in urban design.
2. It creates orientation and identity to the place.
• Orientation facilitates the person to identify where he is and keep himself safe in the context.
• Identification is needed to receive character and the spirit of belongingness to the place over the time
when the place evolves.
• He tries to see Genius Loci in terms of the strong connection between the time and the space.
COLLECTIVE MEMORY
One can say that the city itself is the collective memory of its people and like memory is associated with
objects and places. The city is the LOCUS of the collective memory.
• The Architecture, landscape and the artifacts become part of the memory.
• Memory becomes the guiding thread of the entire complex urban structure and is this respect
architecture of urban artefacts in distinguished art and later it is an element that exists for itself alone.

IMPORTANT WORK
Teatro del Mondo -Venice Italy
• Built earthily on the edge of the water, it is a light floating octagon theatre.
• Its structure expresses the solid certainty of inert matter, against the fluid, watery agitation of life
around.
• Determined to survive in memory the way its masonry withstands time, and it hides its timeless
monumentality behind a casual conjunction of schematic pieces bordering on the picturesque in the
coloristic cube of the seaside tavern.
• The mineral impassivity of its geometry is what freezes its forms in a still landscape.
• The idea was to recall the floating theatres which were so characteristic of Venice and its carnivals in
the 18th century
• He often employed archetypal forms in an attempt to re-establish a connection with the collective
memory of the urban environment.
• The form includes a conical dome, and a composition of basic geometry, often seen in all his designs.
• Volumes - cube, cylinder, and prism and their elemental identities as towers, columns, ... out of his
theoretical base came designs that seem always to be a part of the city fabric, rather than an intrusion.

UNIT IV ISSUES OF URBAN SPACE

Understanding and interpreting of urban problems/ issues- place-making and identity, morphology:
sprawl, generic form, incoherence, privatized public realm- effects/ role of real estate,
transportation, zoning, globalization - ideas of sustainability, heritage, conservation and renewal
contemporary approaches: idea of urban catalyst, transit metropolis, community participation –
studio exercise involving the above.
PLACE MAKING
The presented data is derived from a net study on the various works under taken by Project for Public
Spaces (PPS) and Metropolitan Planning Council (MPC) located in Chicago.
Place Making is a people-cantered approach to the planning, design and management of public spaces.
But simply, it involves looking at, listening to, and asking questions of the people who live, work and play
in a particular space, to discover needs and aspirations. This information is then used to create a common
vision for that place. The vision can evolve quickly into an implementation strategy, beginning with small-
scale, do-able improvements that can immediately bring benefits to public spaces and the people who use
them.
Figure 36 Place making
Place Making can be used to improve all of the spaces that comprise the gathering places within
a community—its streets, sidewalks, parks, buildings, and other public spaces—so they invite
greater interaction between people and foster healthier, more social, and economically viable
communities.
But Place Making is not just the act of building or fixing up a space; it is a process that fosters the
creation of vital public destinations—the kind of places where people feel a strong stake in their
communities and commitment to making things better. Place Making capitalizes on a local
community’s assets, inspiration and potential, creating good public spaces that promote people’s
health, happiness, and economic well- being. As a PPS survey of its members suggests, this
process is essential even sacred to people who care about the places in their lives.

11 Principles of Place Making
1. The community is the expert.

People who use a public space regularly provide the most valuable perspective and insights into how the
area functions. They also can help identify issues that are important to consider in improving the space.
Uncovering and incorporating their ideas and talents is essential to creating a successful and vital
community place.
2. You are creating a place, not a design.

Design is an important component of creating a place, but not the only factor. Providing access and
creating active uses, economic opportunities, and programming are often more important than design.
3. You can't do it alone.

A good public space requires partners who contribute innovative ideas, financial or political support, and
help plan activities. Partners also can also broaden the impact of a civic space by coordinating schedules
for programming and improvement projects.
4. They'll always say, "It can't be done."

Every community has naysayers. When an idea stretches beyond the reach of an organization or its
jurisdiction and an official says, "It can't be done," it usually means: "We've never done things that way
before." Keep pushing. Identify leaders in the community who share your vision and build support. Talk
to your alderman and get him or her engaged.
5. You can see a lot just by observing.

People will often go to extraordinary lengths to adapt a place to suit their needs. A raised curb can be used
as a place to sit, sort mail, and even—believe it or not—cook clams. Observing a space allows you to learn
how the space is used.
6. Develop a vision.
A vision for a public space addresses its character, activities, uses, and meaning in the community. This
vision should be defined by the people who live or work in or near the space.
7. Form supports function.

Too often, people think about how they will use a space only after it is built. Keeping in mind active uses
when designing or rehabilitating a space can lower costs by discouraging unnecessary and expensive
landscaping and monuments, as well as potentially eliminating the need to retrofit a poorly used public
space.
8. Triangulate.
The concept of triangulation relates to locating elements next to each other in a way that fosters activity.
For example, a bench, trash receptacle, and coffee kiosk placed near a bus stop create synergy because
they are more convenient for waiting bus passengers and pedestrians than if they were isolated from each
other.
9. Start with the petunias.

Simple, short-term actions such as planting flowers can be a way of testing ideas and encouraging people
their ideas matter. These actions provide flexibility to expand the space by experimenting, evaluating and
incorporating results into the next steps and long-range planning.

10. Money is not the issue.

A lack of money is often used as an excuse for doing nothing. Funds for pure public space improvements
often are scarce, so it is important to remember the value of the public space itself to potential partners
and search for creative solutions. The location, level of activity, and visibility of public spaces—combined
with a willingness to work closely with local partners—can elicit resources from those involved to activate
and enhance these spaces.
11. You are never finished.

About 80 percent of the success of any public space can be attributed to its management. This is because
the use of good places changes daily, weekly and seasonally, which makes management critical. Given
the certainty of change and fluid nature of the use of a place at different times, the challenge is to develop
the ability to respond effectively. A good management structure will provide that flexibility
Figure 37 Place Making Principles
More than just creating better urban design of public spaces, Place Making facilitates creative patterns of
activities and connections (cultural, economic, social, and ecological) that define a place and support its
ongoing evolution. PPS wants to show planners, designers, and engineers how to move beyond their habit
of looking at communities through the narrow lens of single-minded goals or rigid professional disciplines.
“We have to turn everything upside down, to get it right side up. From a top-down approach, to a
community-led approach that focuses on places. So that people can create good places for themselves by
discovering their own abilities or identities. “And hopefully get a sense of ownership.

What makes a place great?

Great public spaces are where celebrations are held, social and economic exchanges take place, friends
run into each other, and cultures mix. They are the “front porches” of our public institutions—libraries,
field houses, neighbourhood schools—where we interact with each other and government. When the
spaces work well, they serve as a stage for our public lives.
What makes some spaces succeed while others fail? In part, it is having a variety of things to do in one
spot. When the space becomes more than the sum of its parts, it becomes a place. For example, an area in
a park that has a fountain, playground, somewhere for parents to sit in the shade, and a place to get
something to drink or eat will attract people to stay there for more than a few minutes and return. If the
park had a library across the street, with an outdoor area that had storytelling hours for kids and exhibits
on local history, people would come to both the library and park again and again. Easy access to a bus
stop or bike trail and proximity to residential areas are additional components that cumulatively add up to
a very successful place.
Four key qualities of a successful place
Access and linkages

Access concerns how well a place is connected to its surroundings both visually and physically. A
successful public space is visible, easy to get to and around. Physical elements can affect access (a
continuous row of shops along a street is more interesting and generally safer to walk by than a blank wall
or empty lot), as can perceptions (the ability to see a public space from a distance). Accessible public
places have a high turnover in parking and, ideally, convenient public transit.
Comfort and image

Comfort and image are key to whether a place will be used. Perceptions about safety and cleanliness, the
context of adjacent buildings, and a place's character or charm are often foremost in people's minds—as
are more tangible issues such as having a comfortable place to sit. The importance of people having the
choice to sit where they want is generally underestimated.
Uses and activities

Activities that occur in a place—friendly social interactions, free public concerts, community art shows,
and more—are its basic building blocks: they are the reasons why people come in the first place and why
they return. Activities also make a place special or unique, which, in turn, may help generate community
pride.
Sociability
This is a difficult but unmistakable quality for a place to achieve. When people see friends, meet and greet
their neighbours, and feel comfortable interacting with strangers, they tend to feel a stronger sense of place
or attachment to their community—and to the place that fosters these types of social activities.

URBAN IDENTITY
The essence of urban identity, firstly, it is important to respond to a question like; the essence for whom?
The observations of an inhabitant, the pleasures of a tourist, the standpoint of a politician or the vision of
a planner, about the essence of urban space and its identity can be so variable. Since the reasons are
countless, practices and perceptions are different, so as the meanings for people distinguishes. The
experiences, emotions, memory, imagination, present situation, and intention can be so variable so a
person can see a place in several distinct ways.
Relph deals with the viewpoint of the communities on place identity that for different groups and
communities of interest and knowledge, places have different identities. A particular city can present a
different identity to those living in its slums, its ghettos, its suburbs; and to planners, and citizen s action
groups.
According to Güvenç, urban identity issue should be defined as the perceived impression of people about
urban pattern. As he points out, the one that has the identity is not the urban space but the people who live
within. In that sense, it is important to emphasize the relationship and affectionateness between people
and urban space. The inhabitants in a town, their lifestyles, perceptions, relations with urban space and
with each other, the balances, and harmony between people and their built environment are important by
the means of their interaction with urban space.
One of the patterns that Alexander defines as, identifiable neighbourhood points out the needs of people
belonging to an identifiable spatial unit, as he states, people want to be able to identify the part of the city
where they live as distinct from all others.
According to Lynch, it is also a support for the sense of belonging to some place-attached group, as well
as a way of marking behavioural territory.
While dealing with the meaning of place, Schulz points out the psychic function of the concept that It
depends on identification, and implies a sense of belonging. It therefore constitutes the basis for dwelling.
We ought to repeat that man s most fundamental need is to experience his existence as.
Lynch deals with a concept of physical legibility in urban space, which is something crucial for a beautiful
city and a clear image that gives people a sense of emotional security, allows better orientation, and
establishes the harmonious relationship between the one and the physical environment. He expresses the
environmental image as the outcome of this two-way process between the observer and his environment.
That is why, Lynch evaluates the city as, ... not a thing in itself, but the city being perceived by its
inhabitants.
While examining the essence of place, Relph also points out the powerful relationship between community
and place, as each reinforces the identity of one another. Identity is a basic feature of our experience of
places, which both influences and influenced by those experiences. According to him, in identifying the
places, the identity of the person or a group is as important as the identity of that place. While questioning
the condition of experiencing a place from outside or inside, he uses the terms insaneness and outsideness.

FORMATION OF URBAN IDENTITY
Through the formation of an urban identity, the reflections of historical, natural, socio-cultural, and spatial
involvements on urban space constitute an idea about a place throughout the time. The house we born, the
street we participate in time, the neighborhood and the city that we have given meanings with our
understanding and experiences, contains most of the images and reflections about history, culture and
identity as well. The distinctive spatial evidences of cities, which stay alive throughout the time, turn out
to be the survivors and significant signs of that urban identity. In a sense, a unique urban character matures
and develops layer by layer in long periods, interrelated with the lifestyle of the inhabitants, their cultural
identity, traditions, language, and religion. Therefore, in examining the formation of the issue, the
historical, socio-cultural and functional dimensions of urban identity are also going to be stated, however,
the emphasis is about to deal with the morphological dimension of the urban identity in particular. In that
sense, through the analysis about the formation of urban identity, the approaches on the morphological
and perceptional dimensions of urban space will essentially be taken into consideration. Lynch s
evaluation about the elements of urban design also gives clues about the raw materials of urban identity.
Spaces, the visible activities in the city, network of spatial sequences, communications, textures, and
surfaces of urban scene, environmental bases; plants as fundamental landscape materials and man- made
details in urban space are the elements and materials of urban design.
As a conclusion, the sustainability of urban identity should be seen as the priority of the town. As if, the
development of tourism and expansion of second housing can be restricted in the town and in the whole
peninsula, and investments are directed to the environmental protection, urban quality and conservation
of the historical, architectural and spatial values and meanings, then the earnings of those savings will turn
to be a memorable and unique urban environment in mind in the long term.
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN IDENTITY
What makes a city or a place different in our mind? In which circumstances do we talk about the identity
of a city? What are the characteristics of a city with identity? By answering these questions, the aspects,
which contribute to urban identity, are going to be emphasized.
In analyzing the environmental image, Lynch considers three components, which are identity,
structure, and meaning. He describes identity, which is something identified as a distinctive object
from other things, as a separable entity, not equivalent with something else but in a sense of
individual and unique. In defining the structure and meaning, Lynch points out the spatial relation
of the object with the observer as well as its practical or emotional meaning for the observer. He also
evaluates identity issue as one of the criteria of urban design as well and defines the characteristics
of a place with, clear 13 perceptual identity, recognizable, memorable, and vivid character, which
engages of attention and differentiates from other locations.

URBAN SPRAWL
What is Urban Sprawl?

The outspread of the urban center towards a less populated zoned, although this zone won’t be a greater
place to live forever, as what is a suburb today, soon will be an urban neighborhood.
Causes of Urban Sprawl/Pros:

The causes will mainly include:
• Lower Land Rates: Lower cost land and houses in the outer suburbs of the cities.
Improved Infrastructure: There is increased spending on certain types of infrastructures, including roads
and electricity. This is something that hasn’t always been available, and there are still some areas that
don’t have these luxuries.
• Rise in Standard of Living: There are also increases in standards of living and average family
incomes, which mean that people have the ability to pay more to travel and commute longer distances.
• Lack of Urban Planning: People love to find areas that are less trafficked and more calm, which
leads them to sprawl out to other sections of the town. Unprecedented development, cutting of trees, loss
of green cover, long traffic jams, poor infrastructure force people to move out to new areas.
• Rise in Population Growth: Another factor that contributes towards urban sprawl is rise in population
growth. As number of people in a city grows beyond capacity, the local communities continue to spread
farther from city centers.
• Consumer Preferences: People in high income groups have stronger preferences towards larger
homes, more bedrooms, bigger balconies and bigger lawns. This also causes urban sprawl as this option
is not available in crowded cities.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Pollution increases in these areas, which has serious environmental impacts.
• Bad air quality can cause respiratory problems.
• The lack of exercise, as there aren’t walk ways and bike ways available, therefore obesity increases.
• Cars and motorbikes dependency, as these are the only way to move around, causing again a rise in
obesity and an increase in health issues.
• Worse health care.
INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
The classical view: Agrarian crisis accelerates urban growth – leads to exodus from villages. Overall
mobility of migrants stagnates.
2001: Share of total migrants in the country has increased slightly from 27% to 29% during the 90s but
this is less than 31% in 1961.
The total urban population is still as big as 287.56 million which is almost equal to the total population of
the United States.
Big cities have not been able to absorb labour and investments within the formal sector of economy leading
to problem of slums and informal economy. 21% of urban population lives in slums. Nearly 40-50 per
cent of people live in slums of Mumbai.
Urban planning has tried density control through physical planning but failed to check in- migration or
address the issue of basic services.

Social and environmental impacts of these trends are severe as there is also high level of inequity in the
provision of basic services in cities. Poor are pushed to periphery.
If cities grow big, its scale and density also makes waste treatment, recycling facilities, and public transport
more efficient. But they also exceed their ecological limits. But efficiency gains are limited in Indian cities
due to poor urban governance.
The issue is not about growth but about distribution, equity and urban governance.
Air pollution and mobility crisis: Cities are being built for a small group of car owners, disregarding the
mobility needs of the majority of urban population. Pollution and congestion costs high.
Solid waste and hazardous waste: 120,000 tons of garbage every day in Indian cities. But very limited
disposal, re-use and recycling capacities. Waste to energy remains a non-starter. Colonization of land for
waste disposal is leading to conflicts.
Water and waste water: Per capita water supply ranges from 9 lpcd to 584 lpcd across urban India. Only
72 cities have partial sewerage facilities and 17 have some primary treatment facilities.
Energy crisis: Wide gap in demand and supply, wastage. One third of India consumes 87% of nation’s
electricity, hence energy inefficient. But heavily built cities like Tokyo and New York use less energy per
capita than rural residents.
Land constraints: Urban sprawl and inefficiencies.
Approaches to Managing New Growth
Land Acquisition Method

In this method, the public planning authorities/development agencies acquire large areas of land from
agricultural landholders (farmers) under the land Acquisition Act of 1894. Compensation paid to farmers
is based on prevailing agricultural land prices. To minimize opposition to acquisition farmers are paid
prices marginally higher than agricultural land prices. Then a master plan of the area is prepared, laying
out the roads, plots for social amenities, and plots for sale. Roads and infrastructure are then built, using
government funds. Serviced plots are then sold for urban uses at market rates, which are most often much
higher than the rate at which land is acquired.
Advantages of LA method:
Adequate amounts of land for urban uses can be rapidly generated. To expedite acquisition, some states
allow private developers to assemble land. In many cases, developers use extralegal means (non- formal
offers) to secure farmers' consent. The benefit of appreciation of land value on its being converted to urban
use accrues to the development authority.

Disadvantages of LA method
In this method, farmers are essentially thrown off their land. Unable to wisely invest the money received
as compensation for their land and deprived of a means of livelihood, they have to join the pool of urban
labor. This process adds to familiar urban problems: Growth of slums, increase in crime rates, and
increased informal-sector economic activity. The development process is slow. Any person who needs
land for urban use has to approach the urban development authority. The development authority ends up
becoming a bottleneck for development. Development agencies using the method of bulk land acquisition
end up being powerful large-scale land developers, controlling vast urban resources. This is likely to breed
corruption and is antithetical to the emerging paradigm, where government plays a facilitator’s role.
Land Pooling and Readjustment Method (Town Planning Schemes)
• In this method, the public planning agency or development authority temporarily brings together a
group of landowners for the purpose of planning, under the state- level town or urban planning act.
As there is no acquisition or transfer of ownership involved, there is no case for paying compensation.
• A master plan of the area is prepared, laying out the roads and plots for social amenities. The
remaining land is reconstituted into final plots for the original owners. The size of the final plot is in
proportion to the size of the original plot, and its location is as close as possible to the original plot.
• A betterment charge based on the cost of the infrastructure proposed to be laid is levied on the
landowners. Infrastructure is then provided utilizing these funds.
Advantages:
All the land, except whatever is needed for infrastructure development and social amenities,
Remains with the original owner. The development agency plays a limited role in ensuring planned urban
growth. The increment in land value resulting from the development accrues to the original owner
whenever the land is sold and developed for urban use. Thus, the benefit of development goes to the
original owner instead of the development agency. The original owner is not displaced in the process of
land development and continues to enjoy access to the land resource. Thus, the negative impact of the
process of urbanization on farmers (original owners) is minimized.
Disadvantages
Time consuming, – land pooling or readjustment schemes is unduly complicated and cumbersome.
Betterment charges are levied at the time of Plan passing. – . Due to the inordinate delays in finalizing
schemes, the betterment charges levied on finalization of the scheme do not meet the cost of the
infrastructure provided.
This method has only been successfully used in Gujarat as of today.

GENERIC FORM
INTRODUCTION
Generic form is the relationship between architectural form, political theory, and urban history by
generic we mean what is common within the general condition of the city. By common we mean
how to transform the latent generic condition of the city into a collective sphere, beyond the idea
of it being simply a public and private space.
GENERIC ARCHITECTURE
The term generic refers to an undifferentiated common quality which is prior to the individual. Thus
the category of generic is strongly linked with the category of labor. In architecture a fundamental
manifestation of this condition is the concept of typical plan. A typical plan is a spatial scheme that
is designed to maximize production in its interior. Yet the concept of typical plan can also be
generalized as the very architectural paradigm of modernity.
In order to govern the uncertainties and the unforeseeable development implicit in the process of
production, the spatial frame in which production occurs have to be reduce to the least formal
complexity. Thus, standardization is not, as many assume, only a matter of mass production.
Standardization of (architectural) space is the response to the uncertainty and precocity implicit in any
form of production.
The result of this condition was radical and intelligible in modernity. Think of the factory space
with its reduced spatial aesthetic, or the austere architecture of social housing. In the last forty years
the growing ethos of up-rootedness implicit in the even more generic nature of contemporary labor
has been countered with an architecture made of redundant differences.
These redundant differences can be assumed as the ideological and symbolic mask to the ethos of
the generic implicit in the nature of contemporary labor. To unmask such condition and to define a
contemporary generic architecture as the manifestation of a common sphere will be the main task of
the unit.
Over the years architectural form will be addressed precisely in terms of its ability to construct and
represent the idea of common space. Because of this, the unit will insist on issues of architectural
form, composition, syntax and materiality. It is our conviction that only by engaging with form in its
deepest, most elemental condition is it possible to trace architecture’s political motivation
CHALLENGE
The creation of a clustering of ill defined, simplistically nondescript towers juxtaposed with bold
architectural gestures, that would, according to the Any time’s, “a centre of urban experimentation as well
as one of the world’s fastest growing metropolises.”

INCOHERENCE
INTRODUCTION
The Integration Paths of the Barrios of Caracas is a two years research project supported by the German
Research Foundation (DFG) and conducted at the Department of Spatial Planning in Developing
Countries. It deals with the evaluation of upgrading policies implemented in informal settlements in
Caracas as a means to integrate them into the urban fabric of the city.
Major elements are infrastructure development and organized participation of the communities in the
planning and implementation process. The project started in November 2004 and will finish at the end of
2006.
THE BARRIOS OF CARRACAS
The city of Caracas, Venezuela, has one third of its inhabitants living in informal settlements, known as
barrios. These are precarious settlements developed outside the framework of urban regulation and
growing continuously on invaded and non-urbanized land on hazardous sites.
Built by the inhabitants themselves these settlements have gone through a consolidation process which
assures their permanence in the urban landscape. The inhabitants of the barrio, being spatially segregated
and socially excluded from the surrounding formal city, must not only struggle with the lack of access to
urban basic services and infrastructure, but also with insecure property rights, ambiguous citizenship,
unemployment, high crime rates, and powerlessness in the urban decision-making process.
This situation poses spatial integration and socioeconomic inclusion of the barrios as major challenges to
urban planning and politics. Urban governance must ensure justice and equal access to the benefits offered
by urban development to all urban dwellers, especially to those who have been deprived of their basic
human rights since decades.
Strategic Territorial Agendas for "Small and Middle-Sized Towns" Urban Systems
STATUSThe STATUS project is tackling the problem of incoherent urban and regional development in
South Eastern European and neighbouring countries by jointly developing an approach that can help cities
and regions in making integrated and sustainable urban agendas and place-based strategies by participatory
planning tools.
It aims to enrich the pool of development, regeneration and management tools in urban settlements
systems of the SEE program area. Cities in the XXI century face the challenge of being competitive and
maintaining a reasonable state of welfare at the same time.
Many cities in SEE area have a significant urban development deficit in terms of integrated strategies,
capacity and urban implementation tools. STATUS aims at reducing the widening development gap of
SEE cities in terms of quality of life and capability, compared to West European ones. STATUS prepares
the partner cities to design good strategies and policies in order to pursue more balanced territorial
development and ensuring global competitiveness.

The scale of urban networks and clusters of cities in the STATUS territorial partnership ranges from the
urban/ peri-urban (metropolitan areas, systems of urban settlements) to the sub-regional and regional level.
The STATUS project will collaborate in a true transnational setting to assist SEE cities authorities to
develop Strategic Territorial/Urban Agendas (ST/UA), as a tool for sustainable and integrated
development in line with 21st century standards.
It aims, by applying a participatory planning process, to implement, together with local actors, Urban
Centers (UCs) as places in where to shape cities strategic visions. This will result in shared local
development scenarios. Results, practices and emerging city networks (local and inter-communal) will be
archived and promoted in the SEE Web Platform (SEE-WP) which will constitute the memory of
implemented plans and policies, as well as the virtual platform through which to develop innovative and
smart solutions for the SEE cities of the future.
The developed outputs of the project (strategic urban agendas and urban centers) will assist the
participating cities in using cohesion funds in a more efficient manner and provide input for future
(cohesion funded) projects.
PUBLIC REALM
Public realm is defined as any publicly owned streets, pathways, right of ways, parks, publicly accessible
open spaces and any public and civic building and facilities. The quality of our public realm is vital if we
are to be successful in creating environments that people want to live and work in.
What is public realm?
Public realm is defined as any publicly owned streets, pathways, right of ways, parks, publicly accessible
open spaces and any public and civic building and facilities.
The quality of our public realm is vital if we are to be successful in creating environments that people
want to live and work in.
The public realm includes all exterior places, linkages and built form elements that are physically and/or
visually accessible regardless of ownership. These elements can include, but are not limited to, streets,
pedestrian ways, bikeways, bridges, plazas, nodes, squares, transportation hubs, gateways, parks,
waterfronts, natural features, view corridors, landmarks and building interfaces.
The public realm is organized into four categories: parks, streetscapes, coastal areas and public places.
Definitions for these categories are as follows:
• Parks - Public open spaces within a community for recreational use. Parks may include natural areas
such as mountain ridges and wide systems.
• Streetscapes - The visual elements of a street including the road, sidewalk, street furniture, trees and
open spaces that combine to form the street’s character.
• Coastal Areas - All land areas along the water’s edge.
• Public Places - All open areas within a community visible to the public or for public gathering Or
assembly.

Public realm includes all the spaces between buildings that can be freely accessed; it encompasses all
outdoor areas including roads, parks, squares, pedestrian routes and cycle ways. Outdoor space should
stimulate the senses, yet remain human in scale. The condition and quality of our streets and spaces have
a major impact on our quality of life, it is therefore important to understand how design and quality
development can help to create successful places.
The City of Edinburgh Council recognized the importance of design in creating successful places in its
Public Realm Strategy for Fountainbridge1. The aim of this strategy document was to focus on the public
realm aspects of Fountain Bridge (previously a brewery) and to provide future developers with an
understanding of the planning authority’s aspirations and vision for the site.
The strategy built on the requirements of the pre-existing Development Brief for Fountain bridge, which
established the principle of redevelopment of the site to a mix of uses. The strategy therefore provided:
• Confidence in a consistent level of quality over the entire development.

• A structure for a range of parameters, including for example the use of materials, while it’s also
allowing for flexibility in the development.
• Guidance for the determination of future detailed or reserved matters applications at the various
phases of redevelopment.
Figure 38 Elements of High-Quality Public Realm

TRANSPORTATION
INTRODUCTION:
Transport or transportation is t h e m o v e m e n t o f p e o p l e , a n i m a l s a n d goods from o n e
Location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field
can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade
between persons, which is essential for the development of civilizations.
Passenger t r a n s p o r t m a y b e public, where o p e r a t o r s p r o v i d e s c h e d u l e d s e r v i c e s,

Or private. Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for
large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization,
but most types cause air pollution and use large amounts of land. While it is heavily subsidized by
governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow and restrain urban sprawl.
Transportation helps shape an area’s economic health and quality of life. Not only does the transportation
System provide for the mobility of people and goods, it also influences patterns of growth and economic
activity by providing access to land. The performance of the system affects public policy concerns like air
quality, environmental resource consumption, social equity, land use, urban growth, economic
development, safety, and security.
Transportation planning recognizes the critical links between transportation and other societal goals. The
planning process is more than merely listing highway and transit capital projects. It requires developing
strategies for operating, managing, maintaining, and financing the area’s transportation system in such a
way as to advance the area’s long-term goals.
Urbanization has been one of the dominant contemporary processes as a growing share of the global
population lives in cities. Considering this trend, urban transportation issues are of foremost importance
to support the passengers and freight mobility requirements of large urban agglomerations.
• Transportation in urban areas is highly complex because of the modes involved, the multitude of
origins and destinations, and the amount and variety of traffic. Traditionally, the focus of urban
transportation has been on passengers as cities were viewed as locations of utmost human interactions
with intricate traffic patterns linked to commuting, commercial transactions and leisure/cultural activities.
However, cities are also locations of production, consumption and distribution, activities linked to
movements of freight. Conceptually, the urban transport system is intricately linked with urban form and
spatial structure. Urban transit is an important dimension of mobility, notably in high density areas.
• Transportation planning is a cooperative process designed to foster involvement by all users of the
system, such as the business community, community groups, environmental organizations, the traveling
public, freight operators, and the general public, through a proactive public participation process
conducted by the Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), state Department of Transportation (state
DOT), and transit operators.

LAND USE AND TRANSPORTATION:
Transportation’s purpose is moving people and goods from one place to another, but transportation
systems also affect community character, the natural and human environment, and economic development
patterns.
A transportation system can improve the economy, shape development patterns, and influence quality of
life and the natural environment. Land use and transportation are symbiotic: development density and
location influence regional travel patterns, and, in turn, the degree of access provided by the transportation
system can influence land use and development trends.
Urban or community design can facilitate alternative travel modes. For example, a connected System of
streets with higher residential densities and a mix of land uses can facilitate travel by foot, bicycle, and
public transportation, in addition to automobile. Conversely, dispersed land development patterns may
facilitate vehicular travel and reduce the viability of other travel modes.
SUSTAINABILITY AND TRANSPORTATION
The concept of sustainability is accommodating the needs of the present population without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
As applied to the Transportation sector, planning for sustainability can incorporate a variety of strategies
to Conserve natural resources (including use of clean fuels), encourage modes other than single occupant
vehicles, and promote travel reduction strategies.
Current trends in transportation contribute to unsustainable conditions, including greenhouse gas

emissions, energy insecurity, congestion, and ecological impacts. Although widespread uncertainty exists
about how to address the goal of a sustainable transportation system, transportation officials and
stakeholders are now recognizing that their decisions have long-term implications and impacts and are
working on how to prepare metropolitan and state-wide transportation plans and programs accordingly.
Attaining a sustainable transportation system will require action by the public sector, private companies,
and individual citizens.
1. TRAFFIC CONGESTION:
Absence of efficiency in the provision and operation of transportation:
Examples: congestions on public transport means during morning and evening rush hours; motorized
traffic congestions in the central built-up areas.
URBAN TRANSPORT PROBLEMS:

• In terms of population size, traffic congestions are found in limited locations in many cities
of less than 3 million in population. Along with demographic growth, congestions become increasingly
extensive. In cities of more than 10 million, chronic congestions are usually found over the entire city area.
• In terms of economic development, congestions of the cities in the early phase of development are
attributable to then shortage and the inadequacy of basic transport infrastructure, such as underdeveloped
arterials, presence of missing links in the network and absence of properly paved road surfaces.
• At the same time, some problems are found in most of the cities under study, regardless of their
respective population size and development phase. They concern road traffic management: namely,
inappropriate posting or absence of traffic signals and absence of left- or right-turn lanes.

2. INCONVENIENCE:
Inadequate accessibility and poor usability:
Examples: bad access to transfer stations; station buildings full of bumps and barriers; low service levels.
URBAN TRANSPORT PROBLEMS

Along with the growth of urban economy, the urbanized area expands outward and commuters have to
travel ever-extending distance on every weekday. The development of necessary road infrastructure falls
behind the pace of such urban sprawl. Urban public transport during the early development phase is mainly
provided by bus services, but bus lines are often inadequately laid down to meet the needs of users and/or
the bus fleet is insufficient relative to the demand. Meanwhile, the issue of transfer between different
transport modes is yet to emerge because the available means of travel are very limited in the cities in the
early development phase. During the middle and the late phase of economic development, however, many
cities come to offer BRT and/or railway transit services and the inadequacy of transfer between them
jeopardizes the convenience of public transport to city dwellers. In addition, as urban population grows,
the existing capacities of bus terminals and inter-modal facilities fail to handle a massive flow of
passengers.
TRANSPORTATION PLANNING PROCESSES:
Urban transportation planning is the process that leads to decisions on transportation policies and
programs. In this process, planners develop information about the impacts of implementing alternative
courses of action involving transportation services, such as new highways, introduction of new modes of
public transport etc., or parking restrictions. The fundamental objective of transportation is to provide
efficient and safe levels of mobility required to support a wide spectrum of human needs for a
heterogeneous variety of societal groups. Because these needs, goals, and objectives are continuously
changing, transportation planning is also an ever-evolving process. The important steps of the
transportation planning process are as given below:
Step 1: Forecasting target year population and economic growth for the subject metropolitan area.
Step 2: allocation of land use and socio – economic projections individual analysis zones according to
land availability, local zoning and related public policies.
Step 3: specification of alternative transportation plans partly based on the result of Step 1 and Step 2.
Step 4: calculation of the capital and maintenance costs of each alternative plan.
Step 5: application of calibrated demand – forecasting models to predict target year equilibrium flows
expected to use each alternative, given the land use and socio – economic projection and the characteristics
of the transportation alternatives.
Step 6: conversion of equilibrium flows to direct user benefits, such as savings in travel time and travel
cost attributable to the proposed plan.
Step 7: comparative evaluation and selection of the best of the alternatives analysed based on estimated
costs.

GLOBALISATION
What is Globalization?
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments
of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information
technology. Globalization is the free movement of exchange of culture, tradition, trade, investments and
services world over.
It has long back emerged as an international phenomenon which dissolves the standard understanding of
state boundaries and demographically has transformed nations by no bounds. The presence of work in the
multi-national corporations and livelihood opportunities in the urban centers makes the skilled and the
semi-skilled workers to migrate to the cities, thus creating a web of urbanized dwellings as a consequence
of the stream of globalization and convergence.
INTRODUCTION
Growth in population during the period of rapid industrialization and globalization in the 20th century was
accompanied by increased urbanization on a global basis. Although many critics blame globalization for
a decline of the middle class in industrialized countries, the middle class has been growing rapidly in
developing countries. This has led to increasing disparities in wealth between urban and rural areas. As a
result, mass movements in the countryside at times have expressed objections to globalizing processes.
For example, in 2002, in India, 70% of the population lived in rural areas and depended directly on natural
resources for their livelihood. By 2011, the majority of the world's population lived in industrialized urban
areas featuring nearby factories and business offices rather than in traditional rural areas where agricultural
activities predominate. Certain cities began to emerge as global cities generally considered to be important
centers of global economic activities.
URBANIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION
Urbanization is such a phenomenon which has enabled intellectuals and policy makers to think more in
terms of its modes and conductions. It has created a holistic circumference of a homogenized life style. It
has led to temporal empowerment and shifted the basis of livelihood from the agrarian mode to the
industrial one.
In the words of Kiran Karnik, “Today more than half the world lives in urban areas and in India we are
close to the one third marks already and growing rapidly,” Urbanization and globalization are modern-day
facts of life. Today’s cities must compete with one another to attract capital. To do so, many local
authorities offer attractive financial incentives in addition to essential practical ones, such as well-
functioning infrastructure and urban services, communications systems, efficient transport, sufficient
housing and access to educational and recreational facilities.
But in the new “urban archipelago” of competitive cities linked by today’s globalized economy, the riches
are passed from one wealthy hand to another. The poor have been left behind.

COMPETITION BETWEEN CITIES AND REGIONS
The competition between cities has already begun in earnest. Cities have become salesmen for themselves.
The realization that regional economies are no longer linked through the production process to other
regions in the same nation-state has acted as a spur for cities to establish their own relations with
international capital and to lobby independently for European Union financial aid. By offering their
regions as cheap labour stations, they are capable of tapping into the rich vein of foreign direct investment
from around the world.
This intensifies inter-regional and international competition to attract capital. The battle for investment
and jobs engages the city in a ruthless war against its rivals, where the weapons are booster crusades, tax
breaks and incentives for international finance. This must be paid for through cuts in social services and
attacks on social conditions and living standards. A war of each city economy against every other—and
by extension every city against its working-class population—entails a relentless upbeat marketing of the
city's image. The workforce is always skilled and responsive, and investment is always inward.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALISATION ON CITIES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
In most developing countries cities globalization impact will vary greatly in extent and intensity over time,
spatially, within and between cultures and social class. Due to the weak financial base and technology,
developing countries will be at a disadvantage position in a world of globalised trading of industrial
products. Though this may vary within and among regions in developing countries.
Some towns and villages in the country have become so prosperous that only the wealthy can reside there.
Working class people in rural areas can no longer afford to live in the place of their birth because the price
of property has shot up due to the influx of wealthy commuters who work in the financial centre. Farm
cottages are being turned into holiday lets, forcing residents with less collateral to move away in search of
a tenancy.
Wealthy investors, often seeking a second home in the country, are buying up whole farms, because those
with less acreage have already been taken. They rent the surrounding land to working farmers who cannot
afford to buy the property themselves. There is a relentless growth of private sector provision for those
who can afford it, while those who cannot are left with decaying and neglected public services.
It has made so many changes in our lives that reversing it is not possible at all. The solution lies in
developing effective mechanisms that can check the extent to which it can impact the environment. It is
important that we put in some efforts to maintain harmony with the environment. The survival of human
race on this planet is dependent on the environment to such a large extent that we cannot afford to ignore
the consequences of our own actions.

CONSERVATION AND RENEWAL
INTRODUCTION
Urban conservation is an important part of modern heritage policies. For at least half a century, historic
cities have acquired an incomparable status in modern culture and in modern life; a status defined by the
quality of the architectural and physical environment, by the persistence of the sense of place, and by the
concentration of the historic and artistic events that form the basis for the identity of a people. Last but not
least, they have become the icons of global cultural tourism and coveted places for the enjoyment of a
different lifestyle and for cultural experiences for millions of people.
As the economic and social role of the historic city changes with time, as its own uses and functions are
less and less decided by its own inhabitants, but rather by global forces such as the tourism or real estate
industries, the meaning of urban conservation changes and needs to be reassessed.
Urban renewal is a program of land redevelopment in areas of moderate to high density urban land use.
The process has had a major impact on many urban landscapes, and has played an important role in the
history and demographics of cities around the world. Urban renewal involves the relocation of businesses,
the demolition of structures, the relocation of people, and the use of eminent domain (government purchase
of property for public purpose) as a legal instrument to take private property for city-initiated development
projects. This process is also carried out in rural areas, referred to as village renewal, though it may not be
exactly the same in practice.
WHY CONSERVATION?
The majority of India’s architectural heritage and sites are unprotected. They constitute a unique
civilization legacy. This unprotected heritage embodies values of enduring consequence to contemporary
Indian society. Conserving the ‘living’ heritage, therefore, offers the potential ways of conserving a
building. The living heritage also has symbiotic relationships with the natural environments within which
it originally evolved.
Our time is witness to the biggest human migration in history: urban areas now shelter more than half of
humanity. Urban areas are increasingly important as engines of growth and as centers of innovation and
creativity; they provide opportunities for employment and education and respond to people’s evolving
needs and aspirations. Rapid and uncontrolled urbanization, however, can result in a drastic deterioration
of urban environmental quality.
Urban heritage, including its tangible and intangible components, constitutes a key resource in enhancing
the livability of urban areas and sustaining productivity, in a changing global environment. The tangible
heritage includes historic buildings of all periods. Intangible cultural heritage, transmitted from generation
to generation, is constantly recreated by communities and groups, and provides them with a sense of
identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity.
The result is that cities have been exposed to new pressures, among which the following:
• Rapid urbanization threatening the sense of place and identity of communities
• Uncontrolled, poorly conceived or badly implemented urban development
• Intensity and speed of changes, including global warming
.
WHAT IS RENEWAL?
The purpose of urban renewal is to improve specific areas of a city that are poorly developed or
underdeveloped. These areas can have old deteriorated buildings and bad streets and utilities or the areas
can lack streets and utilities altogether.
Urban renewal provides the following tools:

• It allows for special powers to buy and assemble sites for development or redevelopment, if that is
desired.
• It allows for special flexibility in working with private parties to complete development projects.
For a municipality to use urban renewal it must establish an urban renewal agency and it must adopt an
urban renewal plan
IMPORTANCE
Urban Renewal growing importance:
• Urban areas are becoming larger and older, so more and more renewal of urban fabric has to take
place.
• The constant expansion of urban areas into agricultural hinterland, while large quantities of urban
land and buildings are abandoned and left dilapidated.
POLICIES
• Slum Clearance - Demolition of tumble-down dwellings located in a slum (an area of sub-standard,
overcrowded housing occupied by the poor immigrants).
• Redevelopment - The demolition of an existing building and its replacement by a new building
•
• Rehabilitation - The repair and improvement of existing structurally sound property. Housing
Improvement - Improvements of dwellings by provision of essential basic amenities. Conservation -
To retain unchanged. Also meant as ‘Preservation’
• Environmental Improvements - Main emphasis is to improve environmental conditions
• Economic Renewal - Improvement of economic conditions of dwellers

URBAN CATALYST
INTRODUCTION
By definition a catalyst is a substance or vehicle that accelerates a reaction. In urban design, a catalyst
may be conceptualized as a project that will stimulate future development. Urban catalysts are new
redevelopment strategies comprised of a series of projects that drive and guide urban development.
Redevelopment efforts in the past, such as urban renewal and large-scale redevelopment projects, have
often jeopardized the vitality of downtowns.
The difference between the catalyst and these redevelopment strategies is that catalytic redevelopment is
a holistic approach, not a clean-slate approach, to revitalizing the urban fabric. Many cities have
considered urban catalysts as a means for revitalization. Among the most noted catalytic projects are sports
stadiums and arenas: however not all catalytic projects have to be designed at such a grand scale, nor do
all cities possess a threshold of support to successfully sustain such developments.
There are important differences between the term “catalytic” and the concept of the urban catalyst. The
urban catalyst concept, developed by Wayne Attoe (1977), has a value beyond any metaphorical phrase
such as “heart of the city”, a term that is often used to describe some catalytic projects. Many thinks of
catalysts as super developments and this may be valid in some cases where there is strong financial backing
and a solid public support.
However, it is more accurate to describe an urban catalyst as a smaller element or a group of elements, a
building and the space around it, for example— which will jump- start positive social and economic
redevelopment activity. An urban catalyst has a greater purpose than to merely provide a destination or
improve the appearance of an area. An urban catalyst should be an element that is shaped by the context
in which it is placed, and should in turn shape that context, with the purpose of reviving the urban fabric.
For an urban catalyst to be successful, the catalyst must not be a stand-alone element, but rather an element
within a framework that guides future development (Sternberg, 2002).
Sternberg (2002) identifies five ways in which catalysts can encourage surrounding developments.
1. Creating pedestrian traffic is the most important way that a project can encourage development. This
occurs when a catalyst acts as a primary destination that draws people to an area, creating demand for
secondary and periodic uses that fuel adjacent developments. This strategy can successfully provide a
variety of uses that will extend the life of a development.
2. Secondly, the development needs to be properly designed and linked to its surroundings visually and
physically.
3. Third, a development attracting pedestrian traffic can serve as an amenity even if the pedestrians do
not enter it.
4. A development’s character integrated with its ability to complement a streetscape helps create an
amenity that spurs development. A development can also influence a one’s perception of an area if it
survives in an area previously noted as derelict.
5. Lastly is the relevance of the project relative to its location—for example, an art theatre in a district
known for its artisans.

MARKET FACTORS
A project is vulnerable to external and internal risk at all stages. In the private sector, viability is measured
in terms of the balance between risk and reward. A major barrier for urban developments is that they may
not pay off, at least on the time scale that is set by investors. In the public sector, viability is normally
considered in terms of broader objective of achieving and maintaining a healthy economy, and value for
public money.
For an urban catalyst to be successful economically there needs to be a strong partnership between the
public and private business sectors. This partnership will allow strategic planning of elements that will
draw the most economic gain, allowing the development to be shaped by both the public and private
sectors. The local economy, fuelled by local business, should be considered in the makeup of catalytic
developments. It is important that catalysts economically stimulate the areas in which they are developed.
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS
These factors include:
1. Morphological-focuses on the layout and form of streets and the pattern of urban blocks. The
morphological dimension of public space deals with the configurationof urban form and space. One can
derive some principles that can ensure contextual compatibility with the existing fabric. For a development
to fit contextually there needs to be an understanding of how the site and the adjacent area evolved.
2. Social- introduces key issues concerning the relationship between space and society.It is difficult to
visualize space without social content and equally difficult to visualize society without a spatial
component. This connection is best conceived as a two-way process where people create and modify
spaces while simultaneously being influenced by space. Streets, squares, and other public spaces should
be designed in a manner to capitalize on flow of movement between catalytic developments, by providing
spaces that are meant as movement corridors as well as spaces that are meant to hold users and allow more
interaction.
3. Functional- supports urban design as a design process; because design criteria must be met
simultaneously to insure the design responds to its context.The functional dimension of urban spaces deals
with how places work and how urban designers can make spaces better. Catalysts need to respond to the
basic needs people seek to satisfy in urban space: comfort, relaxation, passive and active engagement, and
discovery. By responding to these needs a catalyst can offer a variety of uses and have a higher possibility
to generate activity.
4. Perceptual- address responses to how people observe, understand, and add meaning to the urban
environment.The perceptual dimension of urban design, deals with one’s awareness and appreciation of
place. A catalyst needs to be able to be perceived by its users. Catalysts should have enough image ability
that the project will become engrained in one’s cognitive map of the city, district, and neighbourhood.
Catalytic developments should be legible enough so that people perceive what the project means not only
to them, but to the context as well. This center will be beneficial to people in different ways, this difference
can become the seed of interaction later on.

5. Visual- pertains to the visual experience of the urban environment. Urban catalysts need to provide
movement cues for users by providing sequences of spaces for people to navigate through. This sequence
should allow people the chance to reflect on what they have experienced as well as speculate on what is
coming up in the sequence.
6. Temporal-Catalysts should be timeless; therefore, they should be able to accommodate change

while keeping their importance. The urban environment is dynamic; thus, designers need to understand
and respond to urban changes: economic, social, and cultural forces. The principle of time is very
important in the life of any design. Urban catalysts should provide a mixture of uses and activities that
will extend the life of a project into different times of the day as well as seasons. This will provide a richer
environment for users, and will foster repeat users of the development.
TRANSIT METROPOLIS
What is a Transit Metropolis?

A Transit metropolis is an urbanized region with high-quality public transportation services and settlement
patterns that are conducive to riding public transit. While Transit villages and Transit-oriented
developments (TODs) focus on creating compact, mixed-use neighborhoods around rail stations, transit
metropolises represent a regional constellation of TODs that benefit from having both trip origins and
destinations oriented to public transport stations.
• Transit metropolis is a region where a ‘workable fit’ exists between transit services and urban form
• Perhaps compact mixed use development well suited to rail
• Perhaps flexible bus services well suited to dispersed development
• Viewed as a paradigm for sustainable regional development
Types of Transit Metropolises

• Adaptive Cities-transit oriented cities that have invested in rail systems to guide urban growth and
achieve larger societal objectives
Such as preserving open space, producing affordable housing in rail served communities
All feature compact mixed use suburban communities and new towns concentrated around rail nodes
Examples: Stockholm, Tokyo, Singapore and Copenhagen
• Adaptive Transit-places that have accepted spread out low density patterns of growth
Seek to appropriately adapt transit services and new technologies to these environments
Karlsruhe (dual track systems); Adelaide (track guided buses) and Mexico City (small vehicle
entrepreneurial services)
Strong Core Cities-integrating transit and urban development within a more confined central city context
• Provide integrated tram services around mixed traffic tram and light rail system
• Trams designed into streetscapes and coexist with pedestrian and bicycle traffic
• Examples: Zurich and Melbourne

Hybrid: adaptive cities and adaptive transit

• Create workable balance between concentrating development along main line transit corridors and
adapting transit to serve their spread-out suburbs and exurbs
• Munich-heavy rail trunk line services, light rail and conventional bus services have strengthened
central city while also serving suburban growth axes
Forming the Transit Metropolis: Complementary Demand Side Approaches

Transportation Demand Management- aims to make more efficient use of transport resources already in
place by shifting demand (to carpools) or eliminate trips (telecommuting); inefficient parking space - more
efficient management; parking availability dissuades use of public transit
• Restraints on Automobile Use- ‘traffic calming’ –local streets belong to residents- barriers, etc
• Banning traffic from downtown areas
URBAN STRUCTURE, PATTERN AND FORM

• Location & natural setting
• Topography and landscape
• Transportation network
• Historical, planning development context
• Land use & density standards
• Built environment & public realm
• Environmental sustainability
• Decision making - policy & strategy
DEVELOPMENT PATTERN
• The road and rail network forms basis for the development of urban pattern and structure
• Trends of past city growth determine direction of high, medium and low-density development
• Very difficult to reverse major development trends unless with strong and deliberate govt. initiatives

PUBLIC/COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
The development of the city as support of human activities has resulted in a complex live laboratory in
permanent evolution. The same city which according to Lewis Mumford “…is also a conscious work of
art, and it holds within its communal framework many simpler and more personal forms of art."
The continuous growth process of cities, with its uninterrupted demands of natural resources consumption,
is related to serious environmental and social problems. By the end of the 20th century, this growing
process reached warning signs, regarding the effects resulting from uncontrolled urban expansion without
concern of appropriate infrastructure and facilities location. This alert also emerged as a result of the
globalization of urban planning process, in which interventions at different levels, supported by public and
private partnerships, were increasingly neglecting local and environmental specificities as well as
overlooking the population needs and its cultural identity.
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Public participation is the involvement of people in the creation and management of their built And natural
environments. Its strength is that it cuts across tradition professional boundaries and cultures. The activity
of community participation is based on the principle that the built and nature Environment work better if
citizens are active and involved in its creation and management Instead of being treated as passive
consumers.
THE MAIN PURPOSES OF PARTICIPATION ARE

• To citizens planning and design decision making processes and as a result, make it more likely they
will work within established systems when seeking solutions to problems.
• To provide citizens with a voice in planning and decision making in order to improve plans. Decisions,
service delivery, and overall quality of the environment.
• To promote a Sense Of community by bringing together people who Share goals.
• Participation should be active and directed, those who become involved should experience a sense of
achievement.
• Traditional planning procedures should be re-examined to ensure that participation achieves more
than a Simple affirmation of the designers or planners’ intentions.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PARTICIPATION:

• The planning system is meant to reflect the general wishes of the local community and there is a need
on the local authority to consult widely during the formulation Of a Local Plan in the operation of the
development.
• The fact that the Council is made up of elected members ensures a certain level of representation, but
wider public consultation is required.
• When a planning application is submitted the local authority publishes details in the newspaper and,
in some circumstances. A notice is displayed adjacent to the site. In cases of special sensitivity,
individual households in an affected area might be asked for their opinions or there may be a Small
public exhibition.
• However in most cases, if members of the public wish to find out what is proposed they have to Visit
the planning department, request the material that has been submitted and examine it on the premises.
They can then write to the planning committee if they have any objections.

• No matter what the scale of proposal, development control can be thought of as a process of
negotiation: at its simplest, between the applicant and the local authority, with only rudimentary
involvement by the public. In the most complex cases it involves a process of 'trading off' between
parties, and high-profile public debate.
• Not Of the authorities, or the public’s interest in a proposal will be in its Visual form: they will also
wish to consider its functional content its impact on the environment (on traffic in particular) on the
economy.
• However, we are Concerned here with the visual modelling of proposals and the Ways in which the
traditional method of depositing plans and physical models is being replaced by digital methods which
have the potential to be developed as interactive tools for use in the negotiation process.
DETERMINATION OF GOALS AND OBJECTIVES:

• The planning that accompanies the design of any participation program should first include a
determination of participation goals and objectives.
• Participation goals differ from time to time and from issue to issue.
• Participation is likely to be perceived differently depending on the type of issue, people involved and
political setting in which it takes place.
• If differences in expectations and perception are not identified at the outset, and realistic goals are not
made clear, the expectations of those involved in the participation program will likely not be met, and
people will become disenchanted.
PLANNING FOR PARTICIPATION:

• Once planners have identified the overall goals and objectives for the participation process, planning
for participation requires the following steps;
• Identify the individuals or groups that should be involved in the participation actively being planned.
• Decide where in the process the participants should be involved, from development to implementation
to evaluation.
• Articulate the participation objectives in relation to a" participants who will be involved.
• Identify and match alternative participation methods to objectives in terms of the resources available.
• Select an appropriate method to be used to achieve specific Objectives.
• Implement chosen participation activities.
• Evaluate the implemented methods to See to what extent they achieved the desired goats and
objectives.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPATION
• Although any given participation process does not automatically ensure Success, it can be claimed
that the process will minimize failure. Four essential characteristics of participation can be identified;
• Participation is inherently good.
• It is a source of wisdom and information about local conditions, needs and attitudes, and therefore
improves the effectiveness of decision making.
• It is a means of defending the interests of groups of people and of individuals, and a tool for studying
their needs, which are often ignored and dominated by large organizations, institutions, and their
bureaucracies.
• With the goal of achieving agreement about what the future should bring.

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN PLANNING AND URBAN

DEVELOPMENT
Contemporary planning theories acknowledge the value of community participation in the development
processes of our built environment, suggesting that community involvement has the potential to achieve a
more sustainable outcome. Research in this field indicates that citizen participation can generate trust,
credibility and commitment regarding the implementation of policies.
This paper investigates tools to measure the effectiveness of public participation and their influence on
urban development processes. Based on a literature review, a framework of indicators was developed,
which has been used to analyse the community participation process in the development of the ‘Greater
Christchurch Urban Development Strategy’, a collaborative initiative to develop a growth strategy for the
Christchurch region in New Zealand. Results from this case study suggest that there is a relationship
between the various indicators and the main findings can be summarized as follows:
(i) Most sectors of the community appear to have an interest in their built environment and urban
planning processes, provided that their involvement is encouraged by stimulating information and
expertise is provided to support their contributions.
(ii) Although no conclusions on the motivation of the various participants in the process were reached,
the professionals involved appear to have a strong interest in networking and the sharing of expertise
.
(iii) A commonality in the views of the public was observed, with a focus on the ‘big picture’ rather than
self-interests.
(iv) Collaborative planning was experienced as an effective technique for consensus building between
professionals.
(v) The quality of resources and allocation of time appear to be influential in a community participation
process.
(vi) Indications were given that process and product outcomes should not be evaluated separately.
Keywords: community participation, collaborative planning, urban development, public consultation.

UNIT V BEST PRACTICE IN URBAN DESIGN

Contemporary case studies from developing and developed economies that offer design guidelines
and solutions to address various issues/ aspects of urban space – case studies.
URBAN CASE STUDY 1
Case study - Curitiba

Curitiba, a city in southern Brazil, has approximately 3 million residents (including in the metropolitan
area). The implementation of the Curitiba Master Plan began during the first administration of Mayor
Jaime Lerner in the early 1970s. The plan relied on the physical integration of a public transport system,
land-use legislation and a hierarchized road network. The urban growth structure is characterized by a
linear expansion across five “structural geographical sectors” which are served by “express buses”. It links
the city center with the periphery and other neighbor municipalities, with priority given to public transport.
HISTORY
In 1943, the Agache Plan was made by a French urbanist by the name of Alfred Agache. Since Curitiba
started growing more rapidly than anticipated, first zoning acts were passed in 1953 while the first mass
transit was planned in 1955. By the 1960s, the Agache Plan was barely in use and already required changes.
In 1965, there was a competition for someone to make the new master plan. Planner-Architect Jorge
Wilheim’s firm won the competition and the main thing that was different about his plans compared to
Agache was having “radiating axes” from the center of Curitiba (Figure 1), he inserted public transit and
had “mixed land-use” principles. Mixed land-use meaning housing integrated into the transit corridors.
The axes left the center of the city, as if to force growth in those particular directions because that is where
the transit would be placed. As you get further from these main axes roads, the housing gets less dense.
The plan was ultimately approved in 1966. [1] [2]
Along with the axes, zones were made in order for different types of structures to be built. Among the
zones, residential zones were put by public transit and there were certain areas that were similar to historic
districts established in order to get restoration done on important historical buildings. They are called
“special preservation units” and when those units are sold all earned money is only used on saving
buildings. There is also the Central Zone and Structural Sectors for commercial areas. There are actually
50 specific zone types in Curitiba as of the year 2000. One area that was not part of the Wilheim plan to
get developers interested in developing was in the southwest part of the city. This might not seem
controversial, but the fact that it had preferred topography and was not located by any of the water supply
watersheds meant the new residents were more than likely affluent. The southwest part of the city became
the priority while the rest of the city, especially the poorer southeast area with squatted homes became
subject to environmental injustices.
Curitiba is one of the most reputable cities in terms of sustainability achievements which can becategorized
into six integrated subjects: integrated urban planning, effective public transport system, local
environmental consciousness, pedestrian and public priority in the city, social justice concentration and
local waste management system (Mills, 2006).
Context
Historical spatial and governance foundation In the 1950s Curitiba was the modest 150,000 person capitol
of the Brazilian military-state of Paraná. Curitiba was the processing and distribution center for the
surrounding agricultural industry. At its peak during the 1960s, the state of Paraná produced 1/3 of the
world’s coffee (Scwartz, Hugh). After a series of frosts between 1952 and 1975 sent the industry into a
downward spiral, workers began turning to Curitiba in search of employment.

During this time Curitiba “was characterized by a shortage of electricity, telephones, and paved streets.
Only a third of the families living in Curitiba had access to sewers. And traffic was beginning to become
more of a problem in the downtown area.” In response to the influx of people, the mayor of Curitiba
initiated a Master Plan design competition for the growing capital city. The winning team consisted of
young idealistic planners and architects lead by Jaime Lerner.
Integrated urban planning

Since Curitiba was declared as the capital of Parana in 1854, the city has gone through several major urban
planning projects to manage uncontrolled sprawl. In 1940s, Alfred Agache, cofounder of the French
Society
The plan emphasized a star of boulevards, with most of the public services in downtown, an industrial
district and sanitation infrastructures (Rabinovitch and Leitman, 1996). In 1964, Jaime Lerner led a team
from the Universidad Federal do Parana for urban planning of Curitiba with a number of man objectives
including strict controls on urban sprawl, a reduction of traffic in the downtown area, preservation of
Curitiba's historical sector, and building a convenient and affordable public transport system based on
express buses (Moore, 2007). This plan was adopted in 1968 Instead of a few large-scale planning
proscriptions; hundreds of small-scale practical solutions were established to enhance urban qualities.
In 2010 the city was awarded with the "Globe Sustainable City Award'. Integrated urban planning
(political, social, environmental, economic, cultural and technical) and implementation of goals by
utilizing practical design solutions are key points in this achievement. Curitiba's Master Plan has integrated
urban development with transportation and land use planning. It limited the city area growth, whilst have
encouraged commercial activities along five transport axes radiating out from the city center (Rabinovitch,
1992).
Figure 39 Typical Road System- case study 1

The city center was partly closed to vehicular traffic and pedestrian streets were recreated. Mixed land use
based on high density residential buildings is allowed alongside to transport axes. The density limitation
of an area is directly based on its availability to public transportation. Linear development along the
"arteries" road cause a considerable decrease in downtown movement need as well as providing new
opportunities for commercial and light industries to be located near fast transport thoroughfares. A new
industrial city was built in the west side of the city near the sea shore where includes low-income public
houses as well (Smith and Raemaekers, 1998).
Effective transport system

The development of Curitiba is twisted with its public transport system which is based on buses. Bus
transport system was selected because of its extremely low costs of installation and operation in addition
to its fast and easy construction process. From 1974 to 1982, within eight years, the bus transport system
was expanded from two express bus lanes to five express axes in addition to inter-district bus lines. The
bus system consists of three types of buses for different functions, distinguished by different colors (red
for express, green for inter-district and yellow for conventional buses). In 1980s, the RIT (RedeIntegrada
de Transporte: Integrated Transport Network) was created, allowing transit between any points in the city
by paying just one fare (Moore, 2007). The long express buses are split into three sections and stop at
designated elevated tubes with disabled access. People pay for tickets at the bus stop so the urban travels
become easier, faster and cheaper. The system is used by 85% of Curitiba's population (Smith and
Raemaekers, 1998). It becomes the source of inspiration for many other cities around the world to use
their local potentials for transportation instead of costly and time consuming large scale systems.
The population has doubled since 1974, yet car traffic has declined by 30%. The system reduces the
fuelconsumption and air pollution as well as environmental costs of urban mobility. Roads are categorized
in four hierarchical types: structural (main axes), priority (traffic roads), collector (commercial streets)
and connector (industrial connection to axes) (Rabinovitch, 1992). They have a hierarchy regarding to
public transport accessibility and land use legislation. Urban terminals are built at the end of each express
bus lane with social services and smaller terminals which are located every 1400 meters. The innovative
and local public transport system is considered as the pioneer of urban development in Curitiba (Goldman
and Gorham, 2006).
Figure 40 Transport network- case study 1

Local environmental consciousness and citizens’ participation
In the early 1970s, when Brazil was welcoming mass industry, Curitiba accepted only non-polluting
industries. It also has constructed an industrial district containing a considerable amount of green space
that was called "Golf Course". Builders get tax breaks if their projects include green space (Rabinovitch
and Leitman, 1996). Curitiba is referred as the ecological capital of Brazil, with a network of 28 parks and
tree planted areas (in 1970, there was less than 1 square meter of green space per person, but in 2010 there
were 5 square meters. Citizen’s participation has a great role in this greenery development movement
Brendan. They have planted .5 million trees along city streets) it is a highlighted example of citizens
participation in urban environmental sustainability achievement. There is even a local environmental
legislation to control industries, which are desired to be located in the industrial city, to serve
environmental quality. In order to achieve the goal of having 52 square meters of green space per
inhabitant in 2010, the city has paid careful attention to preserving and improving its green areas. This
greenery strategy implementation is closely related to legislations, long term environmental vision and
citizen’s participation (Goldman and Gorham, 2006).
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
With the Iguazu River originating in Curitiba and due to the large population growth of Curitiba within
the latter part of the 20th century, there have been some unforeseen environmental issues to deal with. One
of the issues was Curitiba’s built environment growing into areas where they can easily be flooded by the
river After trying to canal the various parts of the river system by canalling both underground and in the
open, the city realized that they were not really solving the problem of flooding, but just moving the water
around the city. As a matter of fact, after dredging parts of the river, the depth only changed by 40cm. It
was decided by a group of planners that something else needed to be done to handle the flooding issue.
By working around a federal funding problem that said flood control money can only be used for
infrastructure for containing flood waters, they used that money to take care of the areas beside the river
by making them “protected wooded areas” and no longer permitted any type of building.
By the 1970s, Curitiba had 2 parks that sat beside rivers that totaled 2,000,000 square meters of open
space. In 1982, Curitiba had opened their largest river park, Iguazu Park, which had 8,000,000 square
meters. After Iguazu Park was established, Passauna Park was made to protect the Passauna River from
contamination and it is 43,000,000 square meters of wooded space.
POLICIES AND EDUCATION

Curitiba has progressive policies dealing with waste and recycling Strict environmental standards in the
city keep all hazardous waste, as well as construction and demolition debris out of the lone landfill. Since
1989, Curitiba has taught its schoolchildren about environmentalism and sustainability. They teach
conservation, recycling, and a range of other issues regarding the environment. At Christmas time, the
children are given gifts of toys made from recycled plastic after having brought in plastic to be recycled
during the school year. There are 9 bus terminals scattered around the city that serve as trash collection
sites, which assists in keeping the number of garbage collection trucks low.
Fast food type restaurants utilize real plates and real silverware, instead of disposable type containers. The
integration of these programs into the planning of the city has kept Curitiba's image polished as a
sustainable and forward-thinking city.

URBAN CASE STUDY 2
Detroit
Early stage of Detroit
• Detroit is the largest city in the state of Michigan and was settled in 1701. Its one of the oldest cities
in the Midwest.
• It experienced a disastrous fire in 1805 which nearly destroyed the city. After the fire, Judge laid out
a plan for Detroit, according to the ides of L’Enfant.
• The main thoroughfares radiated outward from the centre of the city like spokes in a wheel, with
Jefferson Avenue running to the Detroit River, Woodward Avenue running Perpendicular.
Figure 41 Plan of Detroit
Industrialization
• Detroit's industrial boom in the later 19th century created a great stream of immigrants into Detroit.
• The first automobile factory in Detroit was opened in 1889. Soon the development of the automobile
industry started to boom which led to rising demands for labor, which were filled by huge numbers of
newcomers from Europe and the American South.
• Between 1900 and 1913, the city's population almost doubled. The landscape of the city also changed
dramatically.
• The Baroque city had become an industrial one, polluted, lacking order and congested.
• On Daniel Burnham’s recommendation Detroit City Plan and Improvement Commission appointed
Edward Bennett as the chief architect for Detroit’s City Beautiful Plan which is known as the 1915
Preliminary Plan of Detroit
• Some of the proposals in the Bennett’s plan for Detroit can be seen as an addition to the Woodward
Plan like the provision of additional diagonals running out from the city center to accommodate the
southeasterly and southwesterly traffic in the city. One diagonal that he proposed extended from the
Michigan Central station to the new Center of Arts and Letters. Another diagonal extended from the center
of Arts and Letters to Belle Isle Bridge.
• Bennett wanted that the traffic, instead of passing through the center of the city to be diverted to
thoroughfares on either side of Woodward Avenue so that it could reach its destination in the eastern or
the western section of the city.
Preliminary Plan of Detroit
• Bennett was also asked to develop a "broad scheme" for the arts center. Bennett set the library and
museum on axis to either side of Woodward Avenue, and surrounded them with nine secondary
structures housing schools of art and music as well as historical, horticultural, orchestral, and various
learned societies.
• The center's nine peripheral buildings framed the library and museum and created an enclave of
classical structures.
• Bennett also proposed height restrictions for adjacent buildings, thus protecting the center from being
overshadowed by other buildings.
• The most ambitious proposal of the plan was making of the entire Detroit River, from the head of
Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie, one great park.
• Bennett’s idea was to develop all of the islands in the river in a park-like fashion. Other city beautiful
components which Bennett proposed in the plan included a 200 acre forest park, the development of
the river front at the foot of the Woodward Avenue, development of a plaza in front of the Michigan
Central Depot and an avenue 200 feet wide leading from Michigan Avenue down to the Michigan
Central station
• The decades from 1920s to 1940s were Detroit’s glory days. The city saw extraordinary industrial
growth during World War II due to the production of artillery supplies for the Allied forces.
• The city added tremendous population in these years reaching a population of almost 1.85 million
(only in the city itself) in 1950 (History of Detroit, online web page).
• Around the same time Detroit’s City Plan Commission published the first comprehensive plan for the
city.
The plan had five major goals

➢the designation of the most appropriate locations for homes, industry, commerce and other major
types of urban land use
➢the provision of schools, recreational areas, and other public service facilities adequate to the needs
of all neighbourhoods and communities;
➢the development of traffic ways and transportation facilities to interconnect and serve the needs of
all parts of the city;
➢the establishment of a pattern of neighbourhoods and communities to protect good residential areas,
and to rebuild areas which were blighted and out-worn;
➢and development of a Civic Centre, a Cultural Centre and Detroit's natural heritage in the riverfront.

• After reaching a population peak in 1950, in the following years Detroit’s population started to
decrease dramatically. Consolidation of the automobile industry and the construction of the freeway
were the main cause for the population decrease.
• To stabilize the population the plan provides extensive goals for revitalizing the neighbourhoods. The
major physical development goals of the plan included conservation of the city's physical resources,
stopping the demolition of old structures, and special incentives for rehabilitating existing structures;
promotion of optimal reuse of vacant land; combat against neighborhood and commercial blight;
removal of blighted structures; and relocation of families into other neighbourhoods with better social
and physical conditions.
• The plan called the Central Business District (downtown) Detroit’s “gateway" and proposed
numerous goals to enhance its image. These goals included promoting downtown Detroit as a
“walking city” through the creation of a superior pedestrian environment and linking major activity
centers by pedestrian pathways, establishing a variety of downtown neighborhoods each with its own
unique character and by providing “people-oriented" landscaped open space in carefully planned
locations. The plan also had a major goal of historic preservation and encouraged restoration,
rehabilitation, and reuse of older building facades to reflect the original architectural character
• After years of decline, transforming Detroit into a resilient city might appear as an insurmountable
challenge. Hesitating between despair and enthusiasm, Detroiters try to build a better future. Shrinking
the city and developing urban farming have received significant media attention, but there are many
more solutions being tried out in order to reflate the city’s battered economy.
• Detroit, once one of the most productive industrial cities, put not only the US, but the majority of the
world on wheels. But the post-industrial era and decline of the auto industry, followed by the exodus
of the middle-class to the suburbs, has left a dilapidated centre and a sprawling urban area of de-
industrialized fabric and junk spaces.
• The Detroit Strategic Framework Plan is a comprehensive, action-oriented roadmap for decision-
making to improve the quality of life and business in Detroit.
• The project identifies productive efficiencies by establishing links between social, economic, and
ecological systems. These integrated solutions suggest new forms of urban living, new modes of
production in the city, and newly productive green infrastructures for the city at large.
➢ Besides urban agriculture, Detroit is exploring further potential sources of green growth. Developing
new technologies is one of the retained solutions for closing Detroit's "green gap". The North
American International auto show now puts a great emphasis on hybrid and electric cars, and once
again, non-profit organizations such as Warm Training Detroit try their best to promote clean
technologies.

Figure 42 Conceptual Zoning-Detroit

Figure 43 Activity Map= Detroit
Top Ten Indicators of a Good Urban Design
1. A Space Becomes a Place– the concept of place making is absolutely essential in creating good
urban design. To go from being just any physical location to a place people feel connected to takes design
that considers human scale, culture, and the needs of that specific community as far as use, location,
design, and scale.
2. Built on the Past– every city has a history, and a great urban design will incorporate that into new
plans. Building on the existing not only saves materials, but helps to create a richer experience rather than
a completely new settlement with no character of its own.
3. Connected to the Landscape– it is incredibly important to consider the local ecology of a site before
designing it- local watersheds, plant life, and potential impacts the development will have on the land are
all vital in creating a good design.
4. Expect the Unexpected– a good design has definition and character, but doesn’t eliminate the
possibility of changes in use or additions to the design in later years.
5. Mix and Match– multiple uses in a small area keep “eyes on the street”, as Jane Jacobs would say,
keeping streets safer as people use them for different things throughout the day. Mixed-use designs also
bring in a wider variety of people, keep places interesting, and continue to thrive even if some uses
slowdown in the coming years.

6. Cohesion, Not Uniformity– what many Americans love about old European cities are all the stone
in old London or whitewashed plaster in Greece- but when we’ve tried to copy that in our suburbs, they
just look monotonous. A careful but not demanding palette and material list keeps a design looking
cohesive but not over designed and dull.
7. Economically Viable– though its a boring concept, its important to consider the budget you can
work with in creating a design. If you create something too extravagant, the entire plan won’t be built,
which could really backfire upon the entire design and the livability of the new development.
8. Equitable and Inclusive– designing for one socioeconomic class, whether in housing or retail, will
create more socioeconomic disparity than already exists, a boring street life, and an area that outsiders
don’t feel welcome in. A good design includes people of all walks of life.
9. Environmentally Conscious– using sustainable materials, considering the weather patterns, and
building with green technology are all important factors in design, especially when considering the many
problems with climate change and energy usage of today.
10. Focus on the People, Not the Car– for too many years, planners and designers focused on the
highway and the car, placing it in importance above the individual person. Wide sidewalks, vegetated
medians, street trees, and bulb-outs are all ways of making the pedestrian feel comfortable and slow cars
down. If you want your design to have decent street life, be financially stable, and connect to people of all
kinds, you need to put the pedestrian first.

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1 ELEMENTS OF URBAN DESIGN ............... 4 FIGURE 25 NETWORKING IN ROMAN CITY ........... 30
FIGURE 2 URBAN STRUCTURE .................................. 5 FIGURE 26 INDUSTRIAL CITY ................................... 35
FIGURE 3 URBAN GRAIN ............................................. 5 FIGURE 27 HOUSING- INDUSTRIAL CITY ............... 36
FIGURE 4 DENSITY + MIX ........................................... 6 FIGURE 28 STATION-INDUSTRIAL CITY................. 37
FIGURE 5 HEIGHT + MASSING ................................... 7 FIGURE 29 AMERICAN GRID IRON PLANNING ..... 38
FIGURE 6 FACADE + INTERFACE .............................. 7 FIGURE 30 TEMPLE TOWN OF SRI RANGAM &
FIGURE 7 DETAILS + MATERIALS ............................. 8 MADURAI ............................................................. 44
FIGURE 8 DETAILS + MATERIALS ............................. 8 FIGURE 31 VIEW OF MEENAKSHI TEMPLE,
FIGURE 9 PUBLIC REALM ........................................... 9 MADURAI ............................................................. 45
FIGURE 10 TOPOGRAPHY + LANDSCAPE ................ 9 FIGURE 32 TRADITIONAL PLAN OF MADURAI ..... 45
FIGURE 11 SOCIAL MIX ............................................. 11 FIGURE 33 SETTLEMENT PATTERN AND LAND
FIGURE 12 BUILDINGS + MASSING ......................... 11 USE OF MADURAI ............................................... 46
FIGURE 13 PIC SHOWING URBAN ELEMENTS FIGURE 34 FATEHPUR SIKRI PALACE PLAN .......... 49
INFLUENCING IN SHAPING THE CITY ........... 12 FIGURE 35 MENTAL MAP OF NEW JERSEY CITY .. 57
FIGURE 14 CATAL HUYUK........................................ 17 FIGURE 36 PLACE MAKING ....................................... 64
FIGURE 15 IRON AGE CAMP ..................................... 18 FIGURE 37 PLACE MAKING PRINCIPLES ................ 66
FIGURE 16 CITY OF POMPEII .................................... 18 FIGURE 38 ELEMENTS OF HIGH-QUALITY PUBLIC
FIGURE 17 MAIN STREETS OF POMPEII ................. 19 REALM .................................................................. 76
FIGURE 18 OTHER PLACES IN POMPEII ................. 19 FIGURE 39 TYPICAL ROAD SYSTEM- CASE STUDY
FIGURE 19 MEDIEVAL CITY ..................................... 19 1 .............................................................................. 92
FIGURE 20 PIC SHOWING VARIOUS CIVILIZATION FIGURE 40 TRANSPORT NETWORK- CASE STUDY 1
OF WORLD ........................................................... 23 ................................................................................ 93
FIGURE 21 COSMO MAGICAL CITY ........................ 24 FIGURE 41 PLAN OF DETROIT ................................... 95
FIGURE 22 MESOPOTAMIA ....................................... 25 FIGURE 42 CONCEPTUAL ZONING-DETROIT ........ 98
FIGURE 23 ACROPOLIS OF GREEK .......................... 27 FIGURE 43 ACTIVITY MAP= DETROIT..................... 99
FIGURE 24 GREEK CITY PLANNING........................ 28
Key words
UNIT I 17. Urban sprawl
1. Urban 18. Incoherence
2. Urban grain 19. Heritage
3. Urban structure 20. Leap frog
4. Scale 21. Urban planner
5. Materials 22. Town planning
6. Façade 23. Architect
7. Interface 24. Articulation
8. Height 25. Public Vs private
9. Massing
10. Public realm UNIT II
11. Topography 1. Morphology
12. Urban form 2. Agora
13. Social 3. Acropolis
14. Density 4. Forum
15. Mix use 5. Medieval
16. Population 6. Place making

7. Ideal city 23. Landmark

8. American grid planning 24. Node
9. Anti-urbanism 25. Edge
10. Picturesque
11. Industrialisation UNIT IV
12. Industrial city 1. Place making
13. Temple towns 2. Identity
14. Mughal towns 3. Morphology
15. Chandiigarh 4. Sprawl
16. Bhubaneshwar 5. Generic form
17. Gandhi nagar 6. Incoherence
18. Evolution 7. Public realm
19. Settlement pattern 8. Real estate
20. City nuovo 9. Transportation
21. Radient city 10. Zoning
22. Urban concepts 11. Globalisation
23. Evolution theory 12. Heritage
24. City growth 13. Conservation
25. Western Vs Indian Context 14. Renewal
15. Urban catalyst
UNIT III 16. Transit metropolis
1. Kevin lynch 17. Adaptive city
2. Jane Jacobs 18. Adaptive city
3. Gordon Cullen 19. Hybrid transit
4. Aldo Rossi 20. Community participation
5. Whillam H whyte 21. Policies
6. Imageability 22. Guidelines
7. Townscape 23. Sustainable city
8. Concerning optics 24. Growth
9. Concerning content 25. Land
10. Concerning places
11. Serial vision UNIT V
12. Here and there 1. Sustainability
13. Short blocks 2. New concepts
14. Mixed use 3. Issues
15. High density 4. Strategies
16. Artefacts 5. Smart grid
17. Public spaces 6. Services
18. Place making 7. Renewable energy
19. Life on streets 8. Land
20. Gender 9. Transportation
21. Path 10. Planning
22. District 11. Polices
12. Schemes 19. Developing

13. Rules 20. Developed
14. Development control 21. India
15. Economy 22. Singapore
16. GDP 23. Nepal
17. Catalyst 24. Sri lanka
18. CBD 25. Melbourne

Anna university Question Paper I
PART A (10 X 2 = 20)
1. Name At least six urban spaces essential for the city?

2. Write notes on Urban design as a discipline.
3. Mention the characteristics of medieval town.
4. Name four temple towns of India
5. Write four titles on urban design books.
6. State the social relevance of an urban spaces.
7. Explain ‘Urban Sprawl’
8. What is transit metropolis?
9. Name one case study each, that you have undertaken to evaluate national and international scenario of
urban design.
10. Name at least six urban design issues which are common in Indian cities.
PART B (16 X 5 = 80)
11.(a). Discuss the need and scope of urban design as a discipline in India.
(Or)
(b) State the objectives of urban design and general characteristics of urban spaces.
12. (a) Impact of industrialisation over the growth of cities

(Or)
(b). with the suitable example explain the characteristics of urban spaces in modern cities of India
13. (a). Illustrate through sketches the concept of ‘serial vision’ as one of the key elements of urban design.
(Or)
(b) Describe how ‘pedestrian behaviour ‘and ‘street’ change the dynamics of urban design.
14. (a). Explain the role of (i) Transportation (ii) zoning (iii) real estate in urban design.
(Or)
(b). Community participation is an important factor in urban renewal program. Explain with example.
15. (a). Through your case study of a developed country, Explain the role of Urban design Guidelines in
implementing the programme
(Or)
(b) State the issue and recommendations you had suggested for an urban space that you had undertaken
as case study for the course.

Anna University Question Paper II
PART A (10 X 2 = 20)
1. Outline the aspects of Urban spaces

2. Differentiate Urban Design and Architecture
3. Mention the characteristics of medieval town.
4. Name four temple towns of India
5. What you mean by Townscape
6. Explain Serial Vision
7. Explain ‘Urban Sprawl’
8. What is transit metropolis?
9. Explain Generic form
10. Name at least six urban design issues which are common in Indian cities.
PART B (16 X 5 = 80)
11.(a). Explain the Components of urban space and their inter dependencies.
(Or)
(b) State the objectives of urban design and general characteristics of urban spaces.
12. (a) Impact of industrialisation over the growth of cities

(Or)
(b). What are urban issues and suggest least two solution with examples
13. (a). Illustrate through sketches the concept of ‘serial vision’ as one of the key elements of urban design.
(Or)
(b) Describe the principles of Aldo Rossi with one example.
14. (a). Explain the role of (i) Transportation (ii) zoning (iii) real estate in urban design.
(Or)
(b). Explain place-making and identity with example
15. (a). Explain idea of urban catalyst, transit-metro polis with example.
(Or)
(b) State the issue and recommendations you had suggested for an urban space that you had undertaken
as case study for the course.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS UNIT WISE.

2 Marks
Unit 1 20. Write Note on colonial urbanism in India
1. Explain components of urban space. 21. Explain with example urban spaces in
2. Explain components of urban space and modernist cities of india.
their interdependencies. 22. Write Note on Chandigarh
3. Outline the issues of Urban spaces 23. Write Note on Bhuvaneshwar
4. Outline the aspects of Urban spaces 24. Write Note on Gandhi Nagar
5. Differentiate Urban Design and
Architecture Unit 3
6. Differentiate urban design and urban 1. Explain Imageability
planning. 2. What you mean by Townscape
7. Explain articulation of need for urban 3. Explain Serial Vision
design. 4. Write short note on the image of the city
8. What is the scope and objectives of urban 5. Explain Edge of the city
design as a discipline? 6. Explain node.
9. Explain the elements of urban design. 7. Explain any urban analysis method
10. Name At least six urban spaces essential for 8. Explain Focal point
the city? 9. Explain land mark in urban design
10. Note on social aspects of urban space
Unit 2
1. Name any four early cities and its Unit 4
morphology 1. What is place making?
2. Explain Greek Agora 2. Explain place-making and identity
3. Explain Roman forum 3. What is urban morphology?
4. Name four medieval towns. 4. What is urban sprawl?
5. Name any four medieval towns in India 5. Explain Generic form
6. What you mean by place making? 6. Explain incoherence
7. What is Ideal city? 7. Short note on privatized public realm
8. Explain the impact of industrialization on 8. What are the effect of real estate on urban
city growth. development?
9. Explain Garnier’s industrial city. 9. What are the ideas of sustainability in urban
10. Explain the American grid planning. design?
11. Write a note on anti-urbanism. 10. Explain importance of transportation in
12. Explain picturesque. urban design.
13. Write a note on cite industrielle.
14. Write a note citte nuovo. Unit 5
15. Write a note radiant city. 1. What is conservation?
16. Explain evolution of urbanism in India. 2. Explain contemporary in urban design
17. Name four temple cities in India. 3. Explain idea of urban catalyst.
18. Explain Mughal city form. 4. What is transit metropolis?
19. Name four medieval cities in India. 5. What is the importance of community

participation in urban design? 17. Explain the Components of urban space

6. Name any four examples for best urban and their interdependencies.
design 18. Outline the issues and aspects of urban
7. Name Any two case studies from space.
developing and developed economies 19. Explain Mughal city form.
8. Explain various issues/ aspects of urban 20. Explain with example urban spaces in
space with case study. modernist cities of india
21. Illustrate through sketches the concept of
16 Marks Question ‘serial vision’ as one of the key elements of urban
1. What is need for urban design? design.
2. Explain the scope and objectives of urban 22. Explain land mark in urban design with
design as a discipline. example
3. Explain the Components of urban space 23. Describe how ‘pedestrian behaviour ‘and
and their inter dependencies. ‘street’ change the dynamics of urban design.
4. Outline the issues and aspects of urban 24. Explain image of the city
space 25. Explain the role of (i) Transportation (ii)
5. Discuss the need and scope of urban design zoning (iii) real estate in urban design.
as a discipline in India 26. Community participation is an important
6. State the objectives of urban design and factor in urban renewal program. Explain with
general characteristics of urban spaces example.
7. Explain in details, the elements of urban 27. Explain place-making and identity with
design and their inter-dependencies. example
8. State the issue and recommendations you 28. Write note on urban morphology
had suggested for an urban space that you had 29. Through your case study of a developed
undertaken as case study for the course country, Explain the role of Urban design
9. Explain in detail place-making and identity Guidelines in implementing the programme
with examples 30. State the issue and recommendations you
10. What are urban issues and suggest least two had suggested for an urban space that you had
solution with examples undertaken as case study for the course.
11. Explain image of the city 31. Explain idea of urban catalyst with
12. Short notes on “social aspects of urban example.
space 32. What is transit metropolis? Give examples
13. Impact of industrialization over the growth
of cities
14. With the suitable example explain the
characteristics of urban spaces in modern cities
of India
15. Illustrate through sketches the concept of
‘serial vision’ as one of the key elements of urban
design.
16. Describe how ‘pedestrian behaviour ‘and
‘street’ change the dynamics of urban design.

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AR 6911 URBAN DESIGN

IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

COURSE AND MARKS DESCRIPTION

AR 6911 URBAN DESIGN

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO URBAN DESIG 8

UNIT II HISTORIC URBAN FORM 12

UNIT III THEORISING AND READING URBAN SPACE 8

UNIT IV ISSUES OF URBAN SPACE 20

UNIT V BEST PRACTICE IN URBAN DESIGN 12

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

UNIT I -INTRODUCTION TO URBAN DESIGN

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

ELEMENTS OF URBAN DESIGN

Figure 1 Elements of Urban Design

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

Figure 2 Urban Structure

Figure 3 Urban Grain

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

Figure 4 Density + Mix

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

Figure 5 Height + massing

Figure 6 Facade + Interface

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

Figure 7 Details + materials

Figure 8 Details + materials

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

Figure 9 Public Realm

TOPOGRAPHY, LANDSCAPE AND ENVIRONMENT

Figure 10 Topography + Landscape

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

SOCIAL + ECONOMIC FABRIC

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

Figure 11 Social Mix

Figure 12 Buildings + Massing

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

Figure 13 Pic showing Urban elements influencing in shaping the city

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

What is Urban Design?

The Objectives of Urban Design

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

Scope of Urban Design

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

Role of Urban Design

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

The Design Professions and Urban Design

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

UNIT II -HISTORIC URBAN FORM

Figure 14 Catal huyuk

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

IRON AGE CAMP C 500BC

Figure 15 Iron Age Camp

THE CITY IN 79 AD: POMPEII:

Figure 16 City of Pompeii

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

Figure 18 Other places in Pompeii

The Medieval City (c1300):

Figure 19 Medieval City

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B

The first cities

• The first cities appeared in the Middle East

Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B