SQL FOR BEGINNERS AND

MORE

~2 Books in 1~
The Complete and Easy Guide to
Learn SQL Programming Step by
Step (2020 Edition)

JOHNNY PAGE
 TABLE OF CONTENT
~Book 1~

Disclaimer
1 CHAPTER
Database Management System
Database query language
Transaction mechanism
What is the key characteristic of a database management
system?
Types of data management systems.
Benefits of Online Database Management
A collection of programs that allows you to store
A relational database management system in SAP
The importance of database management and IT management
services
Helps organise your data efficiently
Automation of data entry and database management.
What is the property and asset management system?
Web Content Management Systems Are Only Effective When
Processes Are Synchronized
Database management is not just for technology junkies
The challenge of managing databases
2 CHAPTER
What is SQL?
What is an RDBMS?
What can you do with SQL?
How to Compare SQL Server Databases
SQL Knowing Is Important To Almost Any Database
Are all database engines just same flavours?
Oracle
Causes of Damage to SQLite Database - Recovering SQLite
Database
 SQL Knowing Is Important
The importance of SQL course training
Select and create a database for your application.
3 CHAPTER
what software is needed to code SQL programs
Full SQL query tool for those working with databases
Innovative software for process development and
management.
The skills required in SQL Server jobs
Sybase ASE 15.5 - Need Speed
Do you need this SQL backup?
How to restore a SQL database quickly and without problems?
SQL Administrator: job description, database requirements
Microsoft SQL Server 2012 v. Oracle
Microsoft SQL Azure
SQL data recovery
New features of SQL Server
4 CHAPTER
How to create and administer databases
What is a DBA?
ROI of remote database management
Configuring the Maximo database
Advantages and disadvantages of the DBaaS database as a
service
Secure manage MySQL databases for webmasters
Do I need a server administration panel?
The role of MySQL in web development
Poker database
Is managing your site something for you?
5 CHAPTER
How to create, modify and control tables
Tips for using MS Access tables and queries
Tips and queries for improving the performance of the
database
 The virtual private database function
Bases of the database
SAP audit risks of custom SAP tables
6 CHAPTER
How to write SQL triggers, stored procedures, and functions
SQLPro SQL Editor
SQL stored procedures
Types of advanced SQL queries
SQL Function

~Book 2~

Disclaimer
CHAPTER ONE: SUMMARY ON THE BASICS OF SQL
SUMMARY ON THE BASICS OF SQL
What is SQL?
Where is next?
SQL commands:
CHAPTER TWO:
SQL SELECT
SQL SELECT statement
Alias field names
CHAPTER THREE:
SQL WHERE
What is the WHERE clause?
Find the lines using a simple equality
Find lines that fulfil two conditions
Find the lines using the comparison operator
Find lines that meet one of the two conditions
Find lines with a value between two values
In the list of advantages, find the lines that have a value
Find lines whose rate contain a string
We could use the WHERE clause.
CHAPTER FOUR:
 SQL joins using WHERE or ON
Filtered in the ON clause
Filtered in the WHERE clause
Refine your SQL skills
The syntax of the WHERE clause in SQL is as follows:
CHAPTER FIVE:
FROM in SQL
SQL clause: FROM
Example: a table listed in the FROM clause
Enter the following SQL statement:
Enter the following SQL statement:
Why start with the FROM clause?
FROM more than one table using JOIN
CHAPTER SIX:
AND in SQL
Update your customers
CHAPTER SEVEN:
OR in Sql
The syntax for the OR state in SQL is as follows:
CHAPTER EIGHT:
The difference between internal and external unions.
The cross joins
Some of the entrance tables are hidden.
The relationships
All columns are available after joining
UNION asked
UNION and UNION ALL
Viewpoints
Data combination with UNION
Union
Union all
How to use SQL Union with queries that have a WHERE
clause
SQL UNION ALL using where
 SQL UNION table by itself
SQL UNION with different column names
SQL UNION with internal union
SQL: Union against Union of all
How to utilise the SELECT INTO clause and SQL Union
How to use SQL Union with WHERE and ORDER BY queries.
How to use SQL Union and SQL Pivot
UNION deletes duplicate rows.
Example: different field names
Explore this example with the data.
Use simple UNION
Using SELECT INTO with UNION
Using the union of two SELECT statements with ORDER BY
Using the UNION of Three SELECT Statements to Show the
Effects of ALL and Parentheses
Using a simple union
Using two SELECT UNION statements with ORDER BY
Using two SELECT UNION statements with WHERE and
ORDER BY
Use the UNION of three SELECT statements to display the
effects of ALL and parentheses
SQL JOIN
See the following statements:
Unbalanced link conditions in database queries
CHAPTER NINE:
Difference between function and stored procedure
What is a stored procedure (SP)?
Why is a stored procedure useful?
Why do we need a stored procedure?
Why do not we need a stored procedure?
When is the registered process appropriate for us?
Stored procedure data
Comparing Functions and Procedures Stored in SQL Server
CHAPTER TEN:
SQL Encrypting
Always Encrypted
Transparent Data Encryption (TDE)
 ~BOOK 1~
" The Definitive and Simplified
Beginner's Guide to Mastering SQL
Programming Step by Step " (2020
Edition)
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 © COPYRIGHT 2019 BY JOHNNY PAGE
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1
CHAPTER
 Database Management System
With the new noise being raised in data management systems, you
might think it is a new invention but that’s not true at all. There are
simple electromagnetic databases that are even found in the first
electronic computers. It is difficult for a computer to operate without a
database infrastructure. In this article, I will introduce the history of
database management systems.
If you think about it, database management systems have been
around for thousands of years. However, in recent days, they have
registered this without a computer in the general accounting systems
used by banks more than 500 years ago.
However, when people talk about database management
systems, most of them refer to a single electronic character. It
organizes and stores electromagnetic information that can be called
series of commands.
Initially, database management systems were complicated
because the older computers had memory problems. In 1981, Bill
Gates said that 640K of memory should be enough for anyone. Say
ah!
In the 1960s, the oldest electromagnetic database store was
used by users who could afford it at an extremely high cost . While
current databases are used for research purposes, computers are
currently considered a research project.
It was only in the 1970s, when memory went up and component
prices began to drop, that the database management systems
changed. Then, various problems appeared concerning data
processing on computers. With all these problems that arose, a
solution was needed.
In 1980, all major hardware vendors began incorporating
database management systems into their computers for a systematic
solution.
 Initially, these database management systems were specific to
the computer and the user. IBM was one of the master in this
category, but many clones and competitors quickly entered the
market, all at different prices with diverse and alternative solutions.
With the advent of the 1990s, the database management
system became easily sustainable. The memory capacity began to
increase, as well as the creation and dissemination of information.
Here are some of the most sophisticated database management
systems obtainable in the market.
A "database management system", commonly referred to as
DBMS, is software designed to manage databases based on
different data models. The DBMS is a complex set of software that
controls the organisation, storage, administration, and retrieval of
data in a database.
The DBMS includes:
Modelling language
Data Structures
Database query language
Transaction mechanism
Modelling language: The modelling language used to define the
logical schema of each database hosted in a DBMS, which is based
on the DBMS data model. There are several models, but the most
used today is an ad hoc software built into SQL. Data Structures:
They are used to combat a large amount of data stored in permanent
storage devices. Database query language: Database query
language and report writer that allows users to interactively examine
a database, analyse its data, and update it reported to the privilege
of the user on the data. It also controls the surety of the database.
Transaction Mechanism: Ideally, it would ensure that ACID's
properties safeguard the integrity of data despite contemporary
approaches and user errors. It also hold the integrity of the data in
the database.
 Some advantages of the DBMS:
Improved strategic use of company data.
Reduce the complexity of the organisation's information systems
environment.
Redundancy and inconsistency of the reduced data.
Improved data integrity.
Independence of application data.
Enhanced security.
Reduce application development and maintenance costs.
Greater flexibility of information systems
Better access and availability of data and information.
Examples of DBMS:
Prophecy
DB2
Sybase Adaptive Server Enterprise
Informix
Microsoft Access
Microsoft SQL Server
Bird of Fire
MySQL
Now, with the arrival of the 90s, we are moving more and more
towards accurate database management systems. The goal is also
to have automated database management systems. Encodes
Technologies is one of the fastest-growing offshore software vendors
that offer valuable data management solutions, including data
modelling, OLAP analysis, ETL development, data migration, and
more. His experience in BI has helped companies achieve timely
and clean data distribution, reconciliation reports and quality
reporting with high performance. They also provide outsourcing and
offshore software development services.
Its use
Today, the availability of data is in so many ways essential to the
organisation. The accurate data is essential for the smooth running
of the business. For this reason, several database management
systems are available for a data maintenance organisation. Hence,
data is modified and stored in a high-security area so that it can be
easily referenced when necessary and kept away from those who
can sabotage the work of the organisation by misusing data.
In an active database management system, organisations can
create, edit, and edit data in a database. Here, the data can be
easily searched and classified according to the needs of the
company. They can also be linked into a database and produce data
for a team or an individual with different permutations and
combinations. For example, an organisation can obtain the names of
employees and their date of birth during one of the searches while in
others, they can search their names and information on their
insurance. Therefore, the availability of a well-functioning database
management system is essential for the organisation. These
systems can be used to manage different types of data in an
organisation, such as:
Employee Information
Customer information
Library Information
Accounting and Accounting
Security Information
Research report
Subscriptions and mailing lists
A database management system has many advantages over
the maintenance of physical records.
 Compressed Availability: These database management systems
are highly compressed information systems. They do not take up
much space and are available for editing. It's not just a simpler file
management.
Accuracy: Data from the database management system can be
transferred and edited periodically, thereby ensuring accuracy with
archive data.
Natural connectivity: Management system data is secure for
connections. They summarise and give you the form with the
required entries in seconds after linking different information online.
Many people in the organisation can easily access this information.
Easy to use: These systems are easy to use. They come with
their search and classification capabilities that allow users to develop
a new datasheet in minutes. You can easily access and manage this
data.
Limited Availability: Only those who wish can access the
information here. They come with password security, which is the
culmination of this management system. You can limit the visibility of
your data with protected passwords to avoid misuse.
Easy Training: Several companies offer different database
management systems. They follow their training, which helps the
organisation's employees learn how to use these systems effectively.
Companies like Jaspersoft offer online training to Jaspersoft
employees. This helps you know how they work so you can manage
your data.
What is the key characteristic of a database
management system?
The demand for a robust database management system is
growing every day. The fact is that information is growing and
spreading faster than ever and that makes sense. All old records
must be stored, while new records should be added and updated
daily. Even companies that did not make use of a database
management system five years ago also encounters trouble
controlling the most direct data about their customers.
All database management systems come to mind, which
involves using the data they have entered and storing them
effectively. Then, when you need to retrieve this information, you can
access it quickly without problems or headaches.
Also, you would want the function to access all your data in one
central location. What will all your data do if they are scattered
across different systems? For example, if accounting is on one
computer, inventory on another computer, and sales data on a third
computer, you will discover that you will not be able to make the
quick decisions needed in the business world.
Many other database management systems have other features
that allows them to perform complex statistics and data records so
that you can make the most accurate decision as quickly as possible
because time spent in business is synonymous with money.
In addition to these features, another useful feature of a
database management system is its ability to remain secure. This is
especially true for hospitals. Most hospitals have sensitive
information about their patients, which could cause problems if
accessed.
You would want to make sure that your database management
system is secure enough, otherwise, your data could be
compromised. Nobody wants their competitors to take a list of
customers, and hospitals and psychiatrists, among others, must
preserve the confidentiality of their customers' information.
Security can be applied to any existing application in the
database management system or configured on the system itself.
This will depend on the number of users accessing the order and the
number of applications running on that system.
 Types of data management systems.
Many types of database management systems are free for
individuals and organisations. A small volume management system
can be used for a single computer because it is cheap and easy to
manage. A larger company needs a more extensive and more
efficient management system. Therefore, you must select a
database management system for your own needs. There are
different types of database management systems, depending on the
complexity of the managed network.
Hierarchical database management system: This system can be
used on a personal computer or in a small company. Here, there is
an apparent relationship between children, between organised data
and their hierarchy. This is a pyramid-shaped data arrangement that
shows the connections of data. Data from the same group is
processed at one level, and it is easier to compare the data.
The structure of this system is simple. The parental record at the
top of the pyramid is called the root record. The child records the
branches of a single parental history as in the family tree. Each child
is also a parent of the information below.
A database management system of this type is easy to use, but
it is out of the question to work with more sophisticated networks.
Database Network System: It looks a lot like a hierarchical
database system with a very slight difference that this data system
looks like a snowflake instead of a tree branch. This system
connects different types of data on various networks. Here, the
father is the owner, and the child is called a member. Also, each
member can have more than one owner.
This type of system can be used in a mainframe system
requiring more complex data.
Relative Database: These databases do not follow a hierarchy
system. Here, different databases are related to interconnectivity.
This relationship is obtained in another database that can be used as
a network tool. This database can be used with minimal training.
This is also useful because you do not need to modify your existing
database to get any information.
Database by theme: This system is ideal for large organisations
that need pacing data in a variety of multimedia formats. With an
object-oriented database, you can decrypt data in tapes, graphics,
videos, text, graphics, and more. This is very important for a
company that needs data other than numbers. Hence, they come out
favoured.
The main disadvantage of this type of database is that it is
expensive. The long-term use of this system can be excellent for a
small business.
Although many data management solutions have advantages,
they offer the best database service for your business size. They
also provide online training programs to help you understand the
software. After a long training, the software can be used without
help.
Benefits of Online Database Management
In this information age, the management of online databases is
becoming more and more appropriate and efficient. Online
databases provide the ability to access valuable information from
anywhere in the world. This allows people to work together from
different and sometimes distant places. With respect to access to
information at the push of a button, many companies have reported
higher productivity and profits. Online database management has
allowed people to work from the office, home, field office and even
the hotel room. Workers can access reports and other data analysis
and prepare them at the click of a mouse, which could take hours or
days. Many professionals now carry laptops and blackberries to work
from anywhere in the world.
In most cases, a network server and a host are required for
networked database management systems. Many companies offer
this service for only $20 a month. These companies also provide
technical support and security features.
The security of online database management systems is often a
concern. Valuable information must be provided to prevent
confidential information from falling into your hands. Protection is
generally controlled by limiting access to the database management
system. This is usually done by requesting from the user to provide a
username and password to access the online database
management system. Additional security measures may include
audit records to track changes and those who introduced them.
Many online commercial databases have also chosen encryption as
an extra security feature. Current online database management
systems provide businesses with valuable information that is secure
at the click of a mouse.
A collection of programs that allows you to store
Database management systems are used to store and process
the information on computers for reasons of speed, accuracy,
efficiency, economy, and so on.
Previous computer applications stored information based on
existing priestly methods, in the same way as manual records. But
the computer processing speed allowed several sources to produce
valuable management information for the associated data. The idea
becomes visible from an integrated database as a central resource.
The data is saved and sent to a database near its starting point, and
they are recovered when necessary in the organisation. Hence, the
greatest motivation for introducing database management systems
into large organisations is still maintained. However, many conditions
are associated with this idea in practice. The idea is that data is
stored and entered only once, which reduces the risk of
inconsistencies and duplication of effort between different service
records.
The needs of the organisation needs to be adjusted and
modified from time to time, and the application programs are
changing literally. By allowing application developers to focus on
specific business fundamentals, database management systems
protect against changes in search capabilities and manage basic
storage as standard. In general, database management systems are
excellent software, a product for many people and a considerable
annual effort. Changes in any of these areas may not have an
impact elsewhere. You can probably offer more benefits to the
economy by finding a product because the cost of its development is
spent on many customers.
The points discussed above are probably more relevant for a
large organisation that uses database management systems as an
administrative function. The main benefit may be the convenience of
the database management system. The buyer of a small PC would
want to use all software in a package format, in such a way as to ask
for a minimum requirement. A strong centralised system cannot
address the same concerns for research and development
departments with special needs. When equating database
management systems, it is clear that some are designed by master
DP staff available to perform them, while others are designed for the
total scientist.
The adoption of a database management system entails
individual costs. Actual repayments generally differ for a small PC-
based system for an extensive Oracle multi-user system. In the first
case, the price will be a manual software, and in the second case,
the costs will include training, general documentation, periodic
updates; support etc.
The main value of a database management system associated
with the work required to implement and design a system for use.
But there is also a tendency for software costs to reflect hardware
operating costs.
A relational database management system in
SAP
 SAP, a business application, includes programs as well as data
used and designed by programs. Data is organized significantly in a
database, thereby making it easier for applications to access the
information they need to find something useful, such as running a
financial report or creating a database. Programs and data exist in
the same database for a SAP component or product such as ECC.
In general, each part has its database, a production system
environment consisting of SAP ECC, SAP Business Warehouse
(BW), and SAP Management Relationship Management (CRM),
composed of three production databases.
Structure of the database:
A database is an electronic archiving system that contains a
collection of information organised in such a way as to allow a
computer program to find the data it wants quickly. The database
includes tables, columns (called fields), and rows (called records or
data). The basic structure of the database is identical to that of a
Microsoft spreadsheet in which columns (fields) store lines by a row
of records (data). The difference between a database and a
spreadsheet is an assortment of related information that can be
gotten to rapidly. A database is intended to hold a lot of information
and a few database routinely does so.
A database structure is an alternative technical term that should
not worry you, but it is essential. The arrangements are activated
and very well defined in the ABAP/4 data dictionary and it contains
only temporary data. The database plays a vital role in any SAP
system because it includes all the data that the SAP component or
product uses correctly. There are many databases, which makes it
easier for the computer store to select the database vendors for
which it is known. Also, it is essential to keep in mind that not all
vendors and database versions are compatible with SAP. Instead,
the trend is to stay in the leading markets for a long period of time,
adding and removing support for specific vendors.
Primary key
 Database tables in a relational database management system
(RDBMS) are required to maintain a single field that distinguishes a
particular record from other contents in the database. This unique
field is called the primary key and it includes one or more areas that
make each database entry unique.
Foreign key
Use the primary key field of a table to associate it with another
meal. The common link field in the second table is usually not the
primary key in the second table, and it is called the foreign key.
Database Concepts:
The SAP system contains many types of constructs as well as
structures in the R/3 Data Dictionary (DDIC). Most of these buildings
are usually very technical.
Transparent tables:
SAP uses another concept called Open Tables, which are SAP
database tables that contain only data at run time. When the meal is
activated in the ABAP/4 data dictionary, a transparent table is
automatically created in the database. This open table contains the
same name as your database table provided in the ABAP/4
dictionary. Each of its fields contains the same names as their
database equivalents, although the order of the records may vary.
This unstable table order allows you to insert new fields into the table
without the need for conversion, and this allows faster access to data
at run time.
The importance of database management and IT
management services
The integrity of compromised data can be detrimental to a
business of any size. Also, database administration is an
increasingly complex task. However, there are many database tools
in the technology market considering the fact that the technology
market provides a lot of reliable data. The reliability of the data via
the processes is robust and a high budget is used to maintain a
database in companies. A considerable part of your budget helps to
keep the base properly. Information Technology Management is an
essential service in the technology market. They work hard to
manage and organise the data. IT management services can work
hard in the most efficient way, however, the database is a tool. It
contains information about customers, businesses, and products.
For many purposes, this information can be extracted from the
database. If the enterprise database contains confidential data, the
integrity problem arises. Access must be configured to allow only
system functions and some people can retrieve this information. The
reputation of your company would be regrettable if the data falls into
the wrong hands. Also, terrible things can happen in the process. IT
management services have the experience to monitor their
databases and decide to configure them for optimal reliability.
Managed IT Services: Choosing the Right Database Model
Installing and selecting an enterprise database management
system requires careful planning and little work, however, the highest
reliability is worth every effort. The first part of this task determines
what type of data will be stored and how they will be stored. Also,
many database models are available in the technology market. This
type of template is used for a database management system. Data is
viewed and stored differently for each model. Some standard
database models include hierarchical, hash, and relational. Managed
IT can use a combination of these types of templates to improve
organisations. Many factors determine which model works best. That
is why a little thought is very useful. Also, the selected models affect
the software used and how the data is viewed by touching the model
chosen for it. If a model is installed, it will not change, and it is tough
to work with them. The task would require recreating the entire
database management system. You will get the right choice for the
first time by using managed IT services.
Information Technology Management: Database Application
and Data Cleanup
 Initial database management systems require much more than
just configuring and selecting a model and enriching it with data.
Also, the data can be stored in another way or a previous backup.
This information must be transferred to new database management
systems and cleaned up. Specialised knowledge and tools are
needed for the cleaning. Invalid or incomplete data must be removed
or corrected. Duplicate records must be addressed and noted. This
method can be time-consuming and needs to be put in place to keep
your business information reliable. An efficient database reduces IT
administration costs and it can be practically maintained. However, it
does not take long to support it. IT management will make your
database reliable, secure and efficient.
Helps organise your data efficiently
A system facilitating an interconnected collection process is
called database management. Special application programs help
you access these files and make the necessary changes. The
database administrator is responsible for maintaining all data and
are stored, modified and maintained. Multiple users can access the
database management system because of its functionality that
makes it accessible to various users. Therefore, it is crucial that
critical information is stored and hidden.
The best database management systems ensure that no data or
stored document is stored. Inconsistencies are also avoided. The
system does not allow any unwanted user to use a particular item or,
if necessary, apply the entire system. The best companies can
maintain excellent security of their policies used to manage the
database.
In addition to avoiding inconsistencies and redundancies, the
best systems offer other benefits. As you move forward, you will find
a list of benefits that companies achieve with their most efficient
systems.
There are rules established by users. These rules apply to
maintain the integrity of the data and this information is stored in a
spreadsheet format.
These systems also have a data dictionary. This dictionary is
centralised and stores all the information needed to help the user
manipulate data and stored data fields.
The databases of these systems are managed so that several
applications can use them. Users' rights to access data when they
have access to the data they intend to use are also taken into
account.
These systems also have an automated database backup pool.
As a result, it is easier to recover lost data (if any).
Several companies offer database management services. With
appropriate and efficient hardware and software configuration, they
provide genuinely professional and efficient services. In addition to
having trained professionals who are trained in fields such as
database security, simultaneity, data retrieval and integrity, and their
functions, an organisation can count on the services of such
management professionals. It will update all information responsibly
and keep it up-to-date. As a result, the company can be assured of
being well-organised, professionally managed with adequately
managed information. No matter how much data involved, they will
respond effectively to all requirements.
Automation of data entry and database
management.
Information is the basis of many businesses in today's economy.
Records and customer relationship management, data collection to
improve operations, and inventory and sales management are vital
features of many business plans using databases. These uses are
remarkable in many sectors, including medical care, financial
services, retail, manufacturing, banking and telecommunications.
Applications are widespread and industry-specific.
However, data entry can be expensive. Traditional methods
require people entering data and the database technicians capturing
and managing the data. Reducing the costs associated with
database administration allows companies to use customer
information without incurring high costs. Using technology solutions
to improve the efficiency of data entry and automate database
functions is a proven way to reduce these costs.
Data Automation
One of the highest costs of information technology is the labour
required to capture essential data. Dedicated data assistants have a
high rate of income per minute, but their hourly wages will increase
rapidly. Since computers can perform data operations much faster,
any data automation is an immediate benefit.
The main advantage of computer data entry solutions is that
non-technical personnel can become an active part of data entry and
database administration. Simple scripts and user interfaces can be
configured to allow users to perform advanced functions without
programming or computer literacy. Users can also create their scripts
via the capture function; the user acts and the computer remembers
the pressed keys to create a custom macro. In this way, users can
automate database operations without having to create a custom
program.
This first stage of data entry is often the bottleneck to use these
numbers. The services and functions of the database are useless
until the relevant data is collected and entered into the system. Once
the database is full, the next hurdle is the opportunity to find
technological solutions.
Database management
Data manipulation and analysis is the ultimate goal of the
extended data capture process. For example, performing only a few
operations on each of the ten thousand entries will quickly become
unreasonable and economically unfeasible. Database management
systems can automate operations, maintenance, migration, and data
conversions. Measuring reports and analytics becomes a process
that can be automatically enabled on-demand with the flexibility to
serve multiple departments and management functions. Managers,
executives, and employees in all positions within the organisation
can access critical metrics or customer profiles without the need for
extensive database training.
Comprehensive management programs will also check
incoming entries for accuracy and avoid duplication. In a sector such
as health, the incorrect order of patients can yield disastrous results.
It is essential to ensure the consistency and effectiveness of the
database. Information is as useful as it is accurate. Inaccurate data
is a big responsibility.
The significant savings generated by data automation will pay
off in no time. Every hour of work saved is added quickly to create a
solid return on investment. Being able to use complete data at low
cost makes a lot of commercial sense.
What is the property and asset management
system?
In the past, people kept records of all real estate and property
transactions in files and folders. Previously, paperwork was fraught
with things and required a large team of people to manage the
assets and assets of a large organisation. Of course, keeping
records of all the assets and assets of a relatively large organisation
requires a lot of paperwork.
Buying and selling a property are not the only two tasks related
to ownership and property management. There are other different
transactions, such as depreciation, market value calculation, asset
revaluation, asset transfer, and so on. Keeping all these paper
transactions was very difficult and a lot of effort was needed.
However, modern technology has largely solved this problem.
With the help of computers and software specially designed for asset
management, the management of capital and assets has become
very easy to document. This can be regarded as one of the main
benefits of a modern database management system.
 They can be used not only to track assets but also to record
many other items, such as records of patients' medical records in
hospitals, data from government organisations, hotel bookings,
careers, students at universities, etc. This software is sometimes
designed for multiple purposes and can store data from a large
number of objects in a single program. Sometimes they are
specifically designed to perform a single task.
Although, for some people, the initial cost of these systems may
seem prohibitive compared to the cost of paper and pencil. However,
the long-term results of these software solutions have pushed even
the oldest organisations to switch to computer systems and IT asset
management systems. So, what exactly are these systems?
These systems consist of specially designed software solutions
that manage an extensive database and edit or modify it as needed.
These systems are generally designed in a database management
software and are useful in finding the desired records and for
changing or adding more information quickly at very high speed.
This software is easy to use, and anyone with an insight and
little training can learn how to use it. Previously, they had a simple
interface with only a few options to enter data and view or modify as
needed. Today, this software has an advanced graphical user
interface and is much easier to use than before.
They also offer the ability to perform calculations and very
complex operations, such as depreciation based on the selected
user. Another excellent characteristic of this software is that they can
also be connected to another database on different computers via an
Internet or network connection. As a result, you can easily and
quickly access records located in a remote branch.
Web Content Management Systems Are Only
Effective When Processes Are Synchronized
1. early start
This creates a policy document that would serve as a guide for
an effective web content management strategy that would be clear
on content decision making and content allocation. Confusion at a
later stage can be avoided if conversations are initially documented.
2. Find a sponsor
Organisations need an influential person to mediate when there
are disagreements and to lead the way. The designated person must
be the project manager, and not just someone authorised to sign
checks.
3. WCM Board of Directors
In all departments, the team must hold meetings in advance and
often create workflows for the content to be approved and validated,
edited archived and deleted. Without a doubt, boards of directors are
vital because the group might well think about the basic rules of the
WCM. However, these groups are known to create workflows that
may seem flawless but may lead to complications. If the WCM
approval process is a long one, it is considered an obstacle.
4. Fresh content
The content must be new, so the presence on the web can be a
success. Without ownership of the content, the content will be
obsolete. Owners cannot be held responsible, although the criteria
for establishing clear rules on the frequency of navigation of the
material and the need to archive or delete obsolete information may
be missing.
The influx of new content regularly comes from business groups
and is very far away. To ensure a constant content flow, the original
material created can be linked to the publishing processes. For
example, a checkbox might be designed to indicate that new content
is ready to be published on the site.
5. Analysis of returns
Everything is excellent and useful for defining policies and
workflows. However, organisations must be able to quantify their
success. For starters, there are several indicators that determine if
your site's goals are met. In other words, the effectiveness of the
website will depend on the possibility that revenues, in addition to
what the business can generate without using the site, can be
caused by the website if sales offers are made via the website. Last
but not the least is if it improves customer service through the
website.
The traffic analysis tool could be used to analyse the comments
further. The skilful analysis would be beneficial for organisations, and
the data could tell content owners how to shape and update their
contents.
WCM advisors felt that all these pieces of the puzzle should
have been in place before the system was put in place. Even though
the Web sites "get started" quickly, the website can be integrated
later with WCM.
If the system or its absence is uncontrollable, the existence of
equipment and processes is even more essential. The methods
currently being implemented need to be reviewed to simplify and
improve existing methods for the better functioning of content
management.
 The latest trends in CMS
For example, WordPress and Drupal are free and open-source
software licensed under the general public license and are written
primarily in PHP. WordPress only supports MySQL database
management systems, while Drupal supports other database
management systems in addition to MySQL. Themes and templates
are used to visually display websites, as well as add-ons, modules,
or extensions for advanced features. Being an open-source
software, these are projects initiated by the community.
Database management is not just for technology
junkies
As data and technology become more complex, the need for
database management is stronger than ever, illustrating the diffusion
of various types of database management software to the
marketplace. Business owners know enough to invest a significant
portion of their budget in a database management system that
efficiently organises all relevant data.
Database management plays a vital role in a wide range of
industries and activities, including identity and access management.
From the CIA to the nearest 7-11, confidential information, whether it
is a secret government plan or a customer's credit card number, it is
always collected and stored. Sensitive information may be exposed
to unauthorized access if the security system fails due to an
inefficient database management system. However, if the data is
managed to limit access based on the identity of the user, then the
privacy of the information will not be compromised.
Database management is also crucial for managing relational
databases. The information can only be stored for registration
purposes, but most of the time, it is accessed to perform various
transactions and activities. In these cases, the relationships between
different types of information must be clearly defined before any
process. For example, some companies have the following format:
"If data A and B are true, process A is executed. Otherwise, process
B is executed." If the relationships between the different types of
data are not correctly configured, it's easy to see how the processes
involved in these data can go wrong. The data must not only be
stored properly, but highly interconnected.
Because of the importance of administering the database, only a
qualified database administrator should be responsible for managing
the database. Companies can pay a high price for people with the
necessary skills and knowledge. Those with a solid beginner in
computer science, computer science and software engineering will
find a useful career in database management. Formal training in
database management that is acquired through experience or study
will not fail to increase its value in the labour market.
However, database administration is not a domain reserved for
people with a purely technical preference. To begin, database
administrator skills must be professional, but you can still specialise
in database administration without leaving the original field. You do
not have to sacrifice your primary interests and passions to pursue a
rewarding career. Medicine, media, education, art, commerce, etc.
All these industries are connected by technology and information. Of
course, when there are information and technology, there will always
be database management.
 The challenge of managing databases
Many people outside the world of database management see
the concept as a whole and something that is relatively simple. Too
often, these great database engineers are viewed less more than job
seekers who are perceived to be intelligent and openly as a
challenge. However, these concepts are poorly designed, and few
people discover how difficult database management can be. Dozens
of things have proven difficult, from initial planning to day-to-day
management and the creation of the database. Almost every step
and every action are planned and recorded in details, and even
seemingly insignificant errors can lead to catastrophic results. Oh no,
database administration is not easy; those who spend hours building
and refining research algorithms or complex relationships deserve
huge respect and admiration than anyone else.
The sad reality is that the general population, even people
working in the computer fields, considers the database as another
spreadsheet. Although the basic principle is very similar, the
functionality varies greatly. Those who design, build and manage
databases think much more than any spreadsheet. With perhaps
millions of entries and complex relationships between database, it
can be quite confusing to work with them. Database management is
a work that directs resources against the intellect. Although most
database administration tasks can be forced with sufficient funds,
this is a total waste and is often not an option in a world where
resources are expensive and in high demand. The average database
administration staff can create and execute algorithms that reduce
the critical resources required and are a valuable skill.
The everyday functional world and even your private life are to
the detriment of those who dedicate their lives to database
management. Any service or enterprise that collects and stores data
relies heavily on useful databases. All the services you trust are
based on databases so that everything stays in order. A simple
mistake can lead to shutting down of the entire system or worse, all
your private data can be disclosed to all kinds of suspicious people.
For these reasons, many database administrators need to be aware
of their games and the basics of administration and security.
Businesses need a lot of commitment, and this commitment causes
considerable stress. The administration of databases is an urgent
matter, and while it is very demanding, those who do it rarely see the
gratitude for minimising these critical errors.
With a lack of appreciation and misconceptions about
database management, it is fantastic that they remain inactive at
their own pace. This is not the most exciting job, and those who are
trying to classify their career according to their merit may not
recognise it. However, let them know that those who plan to enter
the field secures a beneficial job and are savvy. It is not just as easy
as others.
2
CHAPTER
 What is SQL?
SQL is a structured query language. It is a declarative programming
language used to access and manipulate data in relational database
management systems (RDBMS). IBM developed SQL for its
mainframe platform in the 1970s. A few years later, SQL was
standardised by both the ANSI-SQL (American National Institute)
and the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO-SQL).
Report to ANSI, SQL is pronounced "es queue el", but many
software developers and databases with MS SQL Server experience
declare it "as a continuation".
What is an RDBMS?
A relational database management system is software used to
store and manage data in database objects called tables. A
relational database table is a data table structure organised in
columns and rows. Table columns, also known as table fields, have
just names and different attributes that define a column type, a
default value, indexes, and various other column characteristics. The
rows of a relational database table are the actual data entries.
The most popular SQL RDBMS
The most popular RDBMSs are Microsoft MS SQL Server,
Oracle Oracle Corp., IBM DB2, MySQL MySQL, and Microsoft MS
Access. Most commercial database vendors have build up their
proprietary SQL extension based on the ANSI-SQL standard. e.g,
the SQL version used by MS SQL Server is called Transact-SQL or
T-SQL, the Oracle version is called PL/SQL (abbreviated procedural
language/SQL), and MS Access uses Jet-SQL.
What can you do with SQL?
SQL queries are used to recorver data from database tables.
SQL queries purpose the SELECT SQL keyword, which is a piece of
the query language (DQL). If we have a table known as "Orders" and
want to select all entries with an order value greater than $100 per
order value, you can do so using the following SQL SELECT query:
 SELECT OrderID, ProductID, CustomerID, OrderDate, Value
Value
ORDERED
O IS THE ORDER> 200
ORDER Order;
The FROM SQL statement specifies the table (s) from which we
retrieve the data. The WHERE SQL clause conditions search criteria
(in this case, to extract only records with an order value greater than
$200). The ORDER BY clause determines that the returned data
should be sorted by the column of the value of the command. The
WHERE and ORDERING restrictions are optional.
-You can manipulate the data stored in relational database
tables by victimisation of the INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE SQL
keywords. These three SQL biddings are part of the DML.
- You can use a SQL statement alike to the following to insert
data into a table called "Commands":
Enter Orders (ProductID, CustomerID, OrderDate, Order Value)
VALUES (10, 144, '12 / 12/2007 ', 99.95);
- You can use the following statement to modify the data in the
table:
Update your account
SET OrderValue = 199.99
WHERE CustomerID = 10 I OrderDate = '12 / 12/2007 ';
- To delete data from a database table using a statement such
as:
DELETE orders
WHERE CustomerID = 10;
You can make, modify, or delete database objects (for example,
database objects, views, stored procedures, and so on) using the
CREATE, ALTER, and DROP SQL keywords. These three SQL
keywords are pieces of the data definition language. (DDL). For
example, you can use the following SQL statement to create a
"Orders" table:
CREATE ORDERS
(
INTENSITY ID (1, 1) PRIMARY KEY,
ProductID INT,
Client number,
Date DATE,
currency account value
)
You can manage the privileges of database objects using the
GRANT and REVOKE keywords, which are portion of the Data
Control Language (DCL). For example, to allow a user with the user
name "User1" to select data in the "Orders" table, you can use the
following SQL statement:
SHARE SELECTION IN USER CONTROLS 1
Why SQL
Today, every professional software requires at least a basic
understanding of how SQL works. If you are a beginner to SQL, you
will initially feel overwhelmed and confused, but you will discover
how reliable and elegant SQL is as you proceed with the process.
How to Compare SQL Server Databases
Almost all database administrators would like to be able to
compare structures and data between tables in the database or the
databases themselves. As a result, many have looked for ways to
simplify this process by merely having a stored procedure that
contains only two parameters. These two parameters are the names
of the first and second databases. They must have the ability to
compare structures and data, and they must tell you the differences.
SQL Server comparison tools perform this function. Now, you do not
have to do everything manually to parse, contrast, and document
databases on an SQL server.
Because database administrators are very busy, they can now
perform other actions and allow a specialised tool to do the work
when they want to compare SQL. The utilities that can be used today
gives you complete control over the databases. Even though the
databases belong to different servers, they can still be analysed and
compared effectively. The most seen part here is that the tools are
useful for checking the reliability and integrity of a database without
worrying about security issues. However, the data stored in the
database of your system will never be affected. An essential factor to
consider is the ability of the comparison and analysis tools. However,
it should not be designed to alter or alter data or structure.
On the other hand, there is another method you can apply.
Instead of relying on the tools you can get, you can write a stored
procedure or SP. Implementation is one of the most common
interpretations when comparing data and structures between two
databases. The fastest solution for some is to go through all the
tables and then compile SELECT to make the difference. Yet, some
flaws should not be ignored here. The first is that meals can and
cannot contain a unique key. Indeed, differences can be recognised
if the table has a unique key.
The second thing to know is that, before comparing the data,
you must first examine the structures. Otherwise, it's like comparing
without organising. Therefore, a bright and useful report on structural
differences needs to be established in advance. With all this, the
data type information, as well as the image cannot be used in a
predicate. You should also note that some columns are in tables that
store zero. Although set to ANST_NULS OFF, there is no chance of
becoming TRUE if you compare two zeros. Although you may be
able to compare two variables locally and get TRUE, comparing two
columns containing zero returns UNKNOWN with a stored
procedure. Therefore, you can solve these problems and easily
compare SQL servers.
SQL Knowing Is Important To Almost Any
Database
With the growing number of future technologies, you need to
keep abreast of the latest developments in the computer world. But it
is also essential to know the old basics and base your experience on
solid blocks of reliable knowledge. SQL Server training is an integral
part of your computer training if you are considering a career in
programming and information technology. Training in Microsoft SQL
Server is gaining massive popularity with SQL offering excellent
flexibility and reliable, certified language.
Several institutes and websites offer training courses on SQL
servers. The courses can be followed online, and one can benefit
from the Microsoft certification that it gives. SQL is a language
certified by ANSI and ISO. SQL-Structured Query Language is a
computer database language used to modify and retrieve data from
relational database management systems based on relational
algebra and calculus.
With regards to SQL, we have a lot of dynamic websites on the
internet because databases primarily manage the content of these
sites, and SQL allows for complex administration of the same. SQL
offers users great flexibility. Databases can be run at any time on
multiple computer networks. It is a standard for the query language,
which is now based on various database applications well
established on the Internet. SQL is applied in industry and academia,
and as such, SQL Server training courses are becoming more and
more popular. Also, SQL-based applications are quite accessible to
the average user.
 Are all database engines just same flavours?
Today, databases can be handy even, even in small
organisations. Wheresoever you look, there is a database; mailing
lists, customer profiles, wedding planning, free phone calls all over
the country. Some are small and simple, while some are huge and
complex.
Each database is run in a database management system
(DBMS). If you work with computers long enough, remember the first
DBMS on your desktop. Most early DBMS on desktop computers
have long been rejected by the Microsoft (TM) approach, although
some such as Paradox ™, dBase (TM) and Alpha Five (TM) are still
available. For large databases, you probably know MySQL (TM),
IBM DB2 (TM), Oracle (TM), Microsoft SQL Server (TM).
In my consulting practice, I often meet people who think that
these are the only DBMS to consider and that everyone knows the
same differently. For over ten years, I've been helping them
overcome the mess so they can intelligently select DBMS before
creating a database. This short manual will give you a base and a
direction to follow suit. You may need help choosing the right DBMS,
but you can at least ask quick questions and get the answers you
need.
Database with low-cost desktops
Your dictionary may indicate that a spreadsheet can be qualified
as a database. In the world of computers, a spreadsheet does not
consider it as such. Through individual interfaces, you can use a
spreadsheet as a convenient and familiar way to display data in a
database. But only one person can open and edit the spreadsheet at
a time.
If the data is to be used by a group of people and they are in a
spreadsheet, someone will eventually be frustrated by the inability to
make further changes. It will make a private copy of the file but will
make changes and replace the group spreadsheet with its version
whenever the opportunity arises. This eliminates modifications made
by another person while the frustrated person was working on the
private version. In this way, valuable information will be lost.
If more people have to work with the information, then they do
not belong to a spreadsheet but the database. Even the cheapest
and least capable DBMS will allow everyone to see the data at the
same time. When a change is made, only this small piece of
information, the equivalent of a line in a spreadsheet, is "locked"
during a work period to prevent two people from making the same
changes at the same time. As soon as the difference is complete,
this "turn" is "unlocked" and is available to everyone for team
changes.
However, the saying "you get what you pay for" is often as
accurate in IT as anywhere else. Desktop DBMSs do enough to
achieve modest goals. You may be able to start with one of them. As
the database grows or your needs become more sophisticated,
expect to move to a more meaningful DBMS.
E.g., suppose you run a small business with five employees and
you have several hundred customers, your orders, the execution of
your order and your administrative procedures will be transparent.
The database in Microsoft Access can solve this problem without
any problem.
Let's say your business is growing and there is a need to
employ more hands. When you have hired 50 employees, you will
probably switch to another DBMS or use another one. Most low-cost
office DBMSs are designed to work with multiple concurrent users.
They fight as the number of users and the number of data increases.
You can save time by putting the database on a more powerful
computer. However, in the end, a dangerous database requires a
powerful engine, just as a race car requires a more substantial
engine than a passenger car.
MySQL as a step forward
 MySQL is the next popular step. It is often available for free in
website hosting services. It works on many types of UNIX as well as
Windows (TM). It runs many free or inexpensive (and sometimes
more expensive) web applications. It can handle more data and
more users with better and more customizable security than
conventional desktop engines.
You can do a lot with that, especially in handling a tremendous
amount of data and many more concurrent users than a desktop
database.
However, there is an adage about what you pay will bite you
again when you cross the next threshold. What you entered correctly
in the exact way is not the same for all databases. You may need
extra security or disaster because your information is confidential.
You may need faster performance. You may need to work on an
operating system other than UNIX or Windows. You may not be
satisfied with the tools available to help you use your database. Any
of these reasons is a good reason not to choose MySQL.
For most people, the best-known alternatives are DB2, SQL
Server, and Oracle. They are designed to support large and
sophisticated databases and workloads.
Microsoft SQL Server
SQL Server is often mistakenly called SQL. SQL stands for
Structured Query Language. It is a scripting language that can be
used to extract data and put it into a database. Each SQL-compliant
DBMS has its SQL dialect. SQL Server is a DBMS and its SQL
dialect is called Transact-SQL or T-SQL. The database
administration tool for SQL Server is very graphical and contains no
script.
As a product of Microsoft (TM), SQL Server Home is obtainable
in only Windows. Each version has been published with several
problems, ranging from small (office-oriented and developers) to
large and heavy businesses. The larger the text, the higher the
capacity and the price. This is often the next step in Microsoft's
approach because it runs on the same operating system and
because Access is as easy to use as the user interface and new
databases. By using Access to present the SQL Server data screens
to the user, the enterprise can migrate upwards without requalifying
the users of the database. Users always look the same in the small
Access database.
This is the correct solution for some databases but are different
for others as well. Some of my clients have large databases on
operating systems other than Windows or UNIX. In the future, some
would like to move their database to another operating system
without migrating simultaneously to a new database engine. Some
people find that T-SQL does not provide all the scripting features
required for applications to run in their databases. Each of these
reasons is an understandable reason for choosing Oracle.
Oracle
Oracle and SQL Server regularly compete for superior test
results. Everyone can be fast, manage large amounts of complex
data, and handle heavy workloads but Oracle runs on various
operating systems. If you want to be able to change the operating
system, this should be your preferred choice.
Oracle is uniquely integrated with the OpenVMS (TM) operating
system to provide the best possible performance on this platform. If
you can not tolerate frequent cranes due to security patches and
fading because of the very idea of a crash, then be aware that it is
common for OpenVMS to move between reboots for years. Also
know that OpenVMS can make multiple computers act as if they are
one computer, separated by up to 500 km, and providing excellent
protection against disasters. This configuration is certainly not
cheap, but it is easy to understand why some organisations need it.
A job that requires software compiled separately in SQL Server
can sometimes be done using simple scripts in Oracle. Oracle's SQL
dialect is called PL/SQL and it lacks T-SQL functionality.
 Causes of Damage to SQLite Database -
Recovering SQLite Database
Nowadays, SQLite is a popular relational database
management system that is overused. But unlike other database
management systems, it is not a client-server database engine. This
is integrated into the final program. SQLite is widely compatible with
various browsers, operating systems, integrated systems and many
other applications. If you want an open-source app and built-in
database for local client storage in the application software, you
must use SQLite.
Like other database programs, SQLite also creates a database
file. Since this is an open-source program, it does not use an
extended file extension. Sometimes corruption can cause severe
problems and expose SQLite data to high risk. We all know that
database files are severely corrupted because of their large size and
complex structure, but like any other file, an SQLite database file is
not immune to corruption. Many reasons cause crime, and you
should know them. If you know the most common causes of fraud,
you can take the necessary steps to avoid them.
Although the file blocking problem seems reasonable, it can
sometimes cause severe damage. SQLite uses a file locking system
for the database file, as well as an Early Write Record (WAL) file.
The primary function of a file locking system is to coordinate access
between concurrent processes. Sometimes, two threads or
processes can cause incompatible changes in the database file
without proper coordination.
The SQLite database is a standard file on disk. This means that
any procedure can easily open it and overwrite it with unwanted
characters or make adverse changes. Any incorrect thread or
process can easily effect changes, and even the SQLite library
cannot help you in this situation.
A malfunction of the disk drive or flash memory may damage the
SQLite database. This could change the contents of the file and
cause damage.
SQLite has a series of built-in protections that work against
database corruption. But at times, many of these protections are
disabled because of the configuration options. This will damage the
files in the SQLite database.
Almost all programs contain internal errors. The SQLite
database program includes minor mistakes that can cause
corruption.
The corruption makes the SQLite database inaccessible. In this
situation, you have three options:
Valid database backup.
A manual trick to repair an SQLite database.
Professional SQLite database recovery solution.
If you have a good backup, you can quickly restore the SQLite
database. But if you have no substitute, try manually repairing the
SQLite database. If you are using an SQLite database browser, you
must follow these simple steps:
Step 1: Launch DBite Search for SQLite on your system. Click
the Execute SQL tab to run the Database Verification command.
Step 2: Enter this command: PRAGMA checks the integrity and
checks the play button.
Note: Because the database is corrupt, you will receive an error
message.
Step 3: Next, you should now try to export the database to an
SQL file. Click the File tab at top> Export> Database File to SQL.
Step 4: In the SQL Export dialogue box, select the objects to
export. You can set other options.
Step 5: You can start the process by clicking OK. Wait until the
end of the process.
 Step 6: You can then re-import the database into SQLite. Click
the Top File tab> Import> Database from an SQL file.
You can now check your database. And if the corruption
persists, you must use a professional recovery solution. Many
software vendors on the market offer recovery solutions with a free
trial/demo. The demo/essay is usually used for free evaluation
purposes. If you use a demo/trial, you can see what you could
recover from a damaged database file before paying for the
software.
The SQLite database restores software that can repair the
SQLite database and restore the contents of the SQLite database
into a new database file. You can quickly regain database objects
such as tables, indexes, views, and triggers. Supports database files
are created with SQLite2 and SQLite3 versions. The software saves
all recovered data in a new database file in SQLite format and MDB
format. Any technical or non-technical user may use this software
easily without stress. Before you buy the software, you must
download its demo version for a free evaluation.
SQL Knowing Is Important
The most common structured query or SQL language is a
special-purpose programming language used to interact with
databases. This works by analysing and understanding databases
consisting of data fields in tables.
SQL had its roots in the early 1970s when IBM engineers
Donald Chamberlin and Raymond Boyce designed the initial release
to manipulate and retrieve the data safe in the society database
system. The two initiates of SQL called their new language
SEQUEL, and they were later forced to change it because of brand
problems. SQL has since become the official standard of the
American Institute for Standardization (ANSI) and the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).
# 1) Data search
 Learning SQL will allow you to extract data more efficiently. With
basic queries, you can identify specific information at certain time
intervals, view update events, track table activity, and more. This
should only be the reason to take the initiative and learn the SQL
language.
# 2) Highly requested SQL developers
You ought not to have any trouble finding a job as an SQL
programmer. According to the job site of really.com, there is more
SQL programming work (in 2016) than some other type of
programming language, including Java, JavaScript, C +, Python, C
++ and PHP.
# 3) data manipulation
SQL is particularly useful when handling data. This is because it
allows you to see accurate data and how it works. Above all, you will
find it easier to test and manipulate the data. Also, the data stored in
SQL is dynamic, which means that it can be modified and
manipulated at any time using basic queries.
# 4) Combine data from multiple roots
Combining data from two or more origin can be a long and
arduous task. But this makes the SQL process easy since it supports
simple combinations of these fields or complete databases.
# 5) Manage large data groups
Are you still looking for a convenient way to manage large
datasets? Traditional spreadsheets can be used to manage small
and medium-sized databases, but you will need another way to
handle large records as well. Fortunately, this is where SQL stands
out; whether 1,000 records or 100 million, SQL is perfectly equipped
to manage a repository of almost all sizes.
# 6) Servers and databases
If you plan to manage servers or create a server, the SQL
programming language will undoubtedly be useful. Many servers
also use databases such as MySQL or SQL Server to store data. By
familiarising yourself with SQL and your queries, you can easily
navigate through a complex network of data sets.
The importance of SQL course training
Microsoft SQL Server is a product prodeced by Microsoft. It is a
database management system used for relational data purposes. Its
main function is to store and download the data required by any
other software. The application can be run on the same workstation
or another computer over the Internet or any other network.
Microsoft has many editions of SQL Server. They are designed
for a variety of perfomance and workloads, ranging from small
computer applications to large applications with many users. The
versions work from 2005 to 2016. It is important to be certified in
Microsoft SQL Servers so as to provide these database
management services in a professional manner.
Many courses offer structured interrogation training. Students
receive training on how to update, delete, and retrieve information
using this special programming language. During the training,
trainees learn how to request and retrieve information from various
relational database management systems, including Microsoft SQL,
Oracle, Sybase, Ingres, Microsoft Access, and IBM DB2 servers.
Training courses use simple commands to communicate with
other relational databases. The structured query language allows
users to sort, retrieve, filter, and group data. Students are also
allowed to calculate and consolidate data stored in different
database tables. Also, they can use the knowledge of other
database applications established on the Internet.
The structured query language can be learned online from
Microsoft SQL Server. Once they have successfully completed their
training, they receive a certification allowing them to use the
acquired knowledge professionally. Today, strong demand for
efficient data management companies has created a relatively strong
demand for certified people.
 Some other programs and institutions offer these courses. Many
offer these courses online, which is convenient for students who
wish to study and take exams. The materials are also available
online. Students can study for free or use a virtual tutorial program
created by the course. Virtual instructors are also used to help
students learn in virtual classrooms. They can communicate with the
instructor in real time and ask any questions they may have.
Select and create a database for your application.
The first thing about creating a database is choosing the
appropriate database platform. Today, some conventional and useful
database management systems (DBMS) are used, such as Microsoft
SQL Server, Oracle, MySQL, IBM IMS and DB2, among others. The
most critical thing to see when choosing a database is the
configuration required for the application. If the form needs to be built
on Microsoft technologies such as .NET or ASP.NET, then it is best
to use a Microsoft SQL server so as to get the best performance. On
the other hand, if the need is to manage a large number of simple
mathematical transactions, IBM IMS is a viable solution. However, as
the current trend, most applications in the J2EE architecture use the
Oracle database to improve performance.
Once the correct database is selected, the next step is to create
the database. The procedure for creating a database differs
depending on the DBMS used. However, when creating a database,
it should be noted that it must comply with ANSI SQL standards.
When creating the database and its underlying schema, several
customizable options are available, which can be crucial for the
application. Therefore, it is essential to know the documentation of
the DBMS used in your application. This would help to understand
the advanced settings that could help meet the requirements of the
application. The database administrator (DBA) should be responsible
for selecting the correct configuration and settings when creating the
database, which may affect the performance of the user.
 The database can be configured with the command "CREATE
DATABASE (database name)". It is recommended to ensure that the
SQL syntax is written in upper case, while the variable components
are written in lowercase. This increases the readability of the
statements and can easily be transmitted in the future. However,
even if the case is not followed correctly, the SQL statement would
give the same result.
Once the database is created, it is necessary to add tables for
which the relationships between the tables must be scheduled. In
most complex applications, incorrect planning when creating the
database poses significant problems. Once the database is
complete, the upper layers of the form can be built on it. The base is
the most critical component of all the ways and must be selected and
created with caution.
3
CHAPTER
 what software is needed to code SQL programs
Full SQL query tool for those working with
databases
It is an essential query tool for anyone working or developing
databases regularly, and the SQL Query tool allows users to create
SQL queries via a simple and innovative interface easily. You also do
not need in-depth knowledge of SQL syntax, although there is also a
comprehensive list of advanced features that offer maximum
versatility and power for complex query processing. Ideal for
everyone from beginners to professionals, FlySpeed SQL, is
designed to save you time and effort while providing you with the
powerful tools you need to work with your data in the most
productive way possible.
With extensive support for multiple databases and desktop
servers, FlySpeed SQL Query also gives you great versatility. It
supports all available database servers, including Oracle,
PostgreSQL, MS SQL, MySQL, Firebird, Interbase and MS Access.
Several lesser-known database servers are also supported and it
also recommends specific SQL forms for all supported databases.
Using this software, accessing data and creating SQL queries is
easier than ever. The efficiency and ease of use at the forefront of
the thinking behind this application are all presented in a convenient
graphical user interface. It gives you the quickest and fastest access
to your data in the database objects on the servers. The SQL
generator is also visually based. However, this will also allow you to
create complicated queries easily.
The program includes an SQL editor that allows you to highlight
the syntax and finish the code quickly. Fast data recovery is also
supported, and data can be easily sorted and reduced. Unicode is
also compatible with all those who regularly work in other languages.
The standard version comes with some of these progress features.
Data may also be exported from your database to standard
document formats such as text, Excel, HTML or PDF. Data can be
sent in a few mouse clicks, thereby making it a very efficient way to
make your data more accessible for printing, viewing or editing.
This software will make your life easier because it will allow you
to export and print data with the least inconvenience. Performing
these tasks manually is difficult, and impossible in some cases.
There is virtually no other way to perform the functions you can play
with this program.
Innovative software for process development and
management.
Reliable, state-of-the-art software tools are essential for
companies seeking to achieve and maintain market leadership. To
increase their productivity and overall efficiency, a growing number of
companies today need the help of large software packages to
develop processes that support widely used programming languages
such as PL / SQL, PL / pgSQL and XML. In response to the strong
demand for competitive database management and monitoring
software, database design, code generators and formats, a wide
range of companies and process management solutions strive for
seamless developing software products. It entails new, innovative,
modern, state-of-the-art countries that can effectively meet the
needs and demands of today's businesses.
Today, the efficiency of process development can be
significantly enhanced by code generation and automation. As a
result, code generation software products are highly sought after as
they greatly facilitate and speed up the entire process. The most
common code generators work in the system to generate code and
use an integrated development environment (IDE) to work in XML -
Extensible Markup Language.
One of the most popular and respected code generation
software products is the Alchemist Code Generator. It isa program
that relies on XML to maintain all of its processes, using a well-
structured IDE to work with XML. XML Alchemist - IDE is a useful
and reliable tool that captures a complete set of features that work
with different XML technologies, including SQL/XML databases,
code creation, and XML mapping maps. Alchemist XML: IDE
software is also suitable for developers interested in rapid application
development but unfamiliar with XML technologies, developers who
want to build their cartridges from a particular relational database
and enthusiastic developers. In the early growth of the applications
from the develpoers, their tours implemented several software
development projects. Alchemist XML - IDE supports operating
systems such as Windows NT4, 2000, 2003, XP and Vista.
DreamCoder for PostgreSQL Database, a complete and reliable
PostgreSQL administrator, is a powerful and efficient tool for server
administration and development. Like MySQL Manager, a robust
MySQL database development and management tool, DreamCoder:
PostgreSQL Manager provides users with a similar set of features,
suitable for PostgreSQL databases. Indeed, the MySQL Manager
editions offers full support for PostgreSQL databases.
DreamCoder: PostgreSQL Manager is compatible with almost
all versions of PostgreSQL and offers many new and innovative
features to users. DreamCoder-PostgreSQL Manager also offers
experienced users a complete set of powerful tools. Also,
DreamCoder - PostgreSQL Manager takes advantage of an
advanced, modern and highly intuitive graphical user interface with a
well-defined and straightforward wizard system. The latest versions
of DreamCoder - PostgreSQL Manager also makes use of Enhanced
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) for PostgreSQL
databases.
DreamCoder for PostgreSQL is now considered the most
efficient IDE for PostgreSQL databases. With a very complete and
straightforward graphical user interface, DreamCoder for
PostgreSQL helps developers significantly reduce overall
development time. DreamCoder for PostgreSQL offers a wide variety
of useful features, allowing users to create and execute queries
quickly, create and execute scripts, create and execute database
objects, monitor databases, to compile PL/pgSQL codes or to import
and export data.
In addition to these features, DreamCoder for PostgreSQL
provides users with useful visual tools to increase productivity, such
as SQL Editor, PL/pgSQL Editor, Parameter Manager, SQL Format,
Query Builder, and more. DreamCoder for PostgreSQL runs on
Windows NT4, 2000, 2003, XP and Vista. DreamCoder for
PostgreSQL, along with other software products, is a very reliable
and powerful tool for developers and database administrators
(DBAs). Thanks to the advantages it offers to different categories of
users, Dreamgoder for PostgreSQL is now considered the best
software product in its sector.
The skills required in SQL Server jobs
Experienced professionals in SQL Server jobs would be the first
to invite new graduates to enter the tight labour market. Finally, SQL
servers are the backbone of the database technology for UK SMEs.
With this technology, companies could not track sales, inventory, or
customer contact information. The need for SQL server experts
means that new graduates enter a field under pressure.
However, SQL Server jobs do not necessarily have to scare new
graduates into other fields. On the contrary, when a graduate
manages to integrate the IT department with his highly specialised
skills, the work becomes much more pleasant and less stressful. The
only stress left to these professionals becomes a colleague in
computer science and new graduates, who compete for better
wages and greater responsibility.
SQL Server tasks require a set of specific skills to ensure the
success of professionals. Attention to detail is one of the essential
capabilities for most IT professionals, especially those in SQL
Server. Those working with these database servers should focus on
codes, programs, and speakers that can damage the entire server.
Also, they should focus on the day-to-day issues that can arise from
the misuse of servers by office workers.
 With special attention to detail, SQL Server professionals should
be curious about this technology. Database professionals, like other
IT professionals, must work daily on their specific project. However,
the company may need additional hands for an IT project, such as
installing new computers or updating software within a particular
service. The curiosity for SQL Server professionals can generate
more desktop connections and greater exposure to managers, who
can be supportive of this help during the assessment.
SQL Server professionals must be fully engaged in their work.
Graduate IT professionals and young professionals who do not think
they can work in databases every day for years should look
elsewhere. The curiosity and attention to detail mentioned above
were motivated by the commitment to do the best job possible in
SQL Server jobs. To succeed in the long-term SQL server market, a
professional needs to develop new ways to focus on the task at
hand. Only genuinely dedicated SQL Server employees can
continue this effort throughout their careers.
Sybase ASE 15.5 - Need Speed
The motto "Bigger, better, faster" has always been the driving
force behind the evolution of database technology. The latest version
of Sybase ASE 15.5 is no exclusion.
Sybase ASE 15.5 introduces some new features and improved
features expected in previous versions of Sybase, while the most
exciting new feature is the Memory Database (IMDB).
Improved performance with new databases and sustainability
Another exciting new feature is the Relaxed Durability Database
(RDDB). The best use of this database is when you need more
persistence than in IMDB ASE memory. This database is disk-based
and is not limited by the size of the mind.
To fully understand Sybase IMDB customisation, you need to
understand the impact of the new levels of sustainability that can be
defined for each database individually. These levels of durability
allow for new IMDB databases and relaxed durability. With these
new options, performance gains far outweigh the databases in
memory. It also provides memory-based performance improvements
to disk-related databases.
Improved read/write situation
When you experience performance issues, you always ask, "Do
you want to improve reading or writing performance?" There is a big
difference between them.
Traditional relational database systems must follow a simple rule
when processing transactions: ACID (atomic, coherence, isolation
and durability). In short, each purchase must wait for the disk
subsystem to confirm writing to the disk. Over the years, Sybase has
developed highly sophisticated cache management procedures and
archived I/O management features to reduce this apparent
performance bottleneck.
Read/Write, ACID and tempdb
Even tempdb is not immune to the ACID request. The
substitution of tempdb for IMDB does not produce the same results.
Therefore, it is essential to understand how ACID prevents write
performance improvements. You can only download writing capacity
to a certain extent while adhering to ACID.
The value of the IMDB solution
In-memory databases (IMDBs) omit this disk write requirement,
and that is what speeds things up. Designed for high-volume
transaction systems, such as e-commerce baskets, IMDB is
unbeatable when writing transaction data. This differs significantly
from the caching of traditional database engine data. Data caching
improves read performance but does not improve write performance.
Technology Run the entire database in memory, including
transaction logs, avoid hardware architecture constraints and take
full advantage of the best hardware transfer of any hardware
configuration, CPU and physical RAM. IMDB removes the weakest
links in the chain with regards to the performance and me/O of
physical disks.
In addition to running all that is in memory, people waiting to
write a receipt in any transaction processing were deleted.
Sybase introduced three new levels of database sustainability.
These sustainability levels indicate the database's ability to maintain
its status after shutdown:
full
This is a standard level of sustainability that reflects the ACID
recovery model. The database value is unless another level of
durability is selected when creating the database.
NO_RECOVERY
It does exactly what it says. There will be no recovery and
mostly, there will be no data; DDL will not be registered either. This
applies during a collision or a regular stop.
To limit the loss of DDL data and data, a BDMI can be created
from a model database. This database can contain everything IMDB
needs: DDL, stored procedures, triggers and data. This will create a
pure IMDB at each startup.
at_shutdown
This reflects the so-called database on softened sustainability.
This will not protect data and DDL from system locks or enemy
closures, but it will preserve all data and DDL during regular
shutdowns.
With version ASE 15.5, IMDB cannot have durability without
refund, which limits its use. We hope that the at_shutdown option will
be available soon. Due to the relaxed strength of the integrated
database, more applications can take advantage of this technology.
The benefits of ne_recovery
As an enjoying side effect, you can use no_recovery with a
standard disk-related database, and you will get the same effect as
IMDB. Why should I recomend this option? Sometimes the cost of
moving a 200 GB database to IMDB does not exceed the
performance achieved. Or, you may nor be able to afford the high
cost of converting 200GB of cheap disk space into expensive RAM
modules. Although this is the fastest, it is not always possible to
spend this money. That's why applying no_recovery durability is the
best option. You will continue to benefit from significantly improved
write performance while saving money by using your existing disk / I
/ O subsystem.
Apps that use the most IMDB
E-commerce applications, especially shopping carts, are
excellent examples of IMDB implementations. Baskets are
traditionally very intensive applications that create a lot of
controversy in traditional databases. The nightmarish scenario for all
e-commerce applications does not meet the demand for additional
traffic on a site that spills out of the application server. The database
consumes more session blocking time due to the expectation of
inputs/outputs. The result is always the same; loss of income. With
IMDB, you can leave all these worries behind you.
Web applications that dynamically compose content based on
user profiles, such as portfolios or historical sales records. Whenever
you have a database as a bottleneck for quickly assembling
hardware and providing customised data for thousands of concurrent
sessions, IMDB will reduce this bottleneck to a small extent.
Reducing the search for data during page changes is the key to
performance. The IMDB can respond to the data service of its data
warehouse in a client Web application.
Concentrator and aggregate is an aggregated database that can
replicate the process of loading the source to missing ACID
compliance in the IMDB. In the event of a catastrophic loser, the
original data must be available. A good example would be any form
of application used, in which data from multiple sources is collected
in real-time, added and sent to thousands or even millions of
consumers.
 The large volume of reading; name of the cache related to
IMDB. Cache tuning is beneficial for intensive reading applications.
Still, recent performance tests have shown that the BDMI improves
the playback performance by a factor of 2 compared to a named
cache configured with the same data. This is mainly related to the
reduction of BDIM overhead. If you currently have a fully cached
reference database in the nominal cache, converting this database
to IMDB is very simple. Just print and load the reference database
into IMDB to prepare the data. Typically, small reference databases
and search repositories are currently stored in the named cache
environment for performance reasons, as ideal candidates for IMDB
stations. You can prevent data from being updated with dump and
load from a traditional database and for convenience, use the
baseline as a template when creating the IMDB.
Mixed-Use Transactions: With the introduction of the IMDB and
the BDDR, Sybase also ensured that these new database
sustainability features were fully integrated. A transaction can create
the three types of databases, namely complete databases ACID,
RDDB and IMDB. This means that software can take full advantage
of fast IMDB memory for reference data and temporary storage.
RDDB is always quicker but more persistent and secure with a
complete standard ACID database and never leaves any transaction.
Producers can save time and effort by not reinventing the
temporary persistent data management wheel shared between
application modules. These data repositories are commonly used in
shared memory structures and interprocess communication.
Previously, tempdb was not fast enough, even though most tempdb
files could be stored in memory by placing them in the /tmp file
system on UNIX and forcing the system administrator to check that
/tmp was mainly in the account. Even in this construction, tempdb
must be ACID compliant and requires a lot of processing power.
IMDB does not have to worry about these overheads. Records are
processed as quickly as possible.
 There should be no need to worry about storage leaks or
memory overflows. Provide temporary, permanent data to the IMDB
engine.
Applications for which the IMDB is not a good option, although
the IMDB contributes significantly to the overall architecture of the
database. In some cases, it is not a good option.
Applications in which sustainability is not strictly enforced and
where the simple synchronisation approach of the IMDB does not
match the needs of the enterprise.
Relaxed persistent databases are more suitable for these
applications if some transactions may be lost in the event of a severe
system failure.
Applications that must guarantee the permanent storage of data.
In simple terms, airline ticketing systems, trade, financial
transactions of all types, and other data-sensitive applications all
depend on ACID's robust use for transaction confirmation. This is
particularly real in the case of a catastrophic system lock scenario in
which confirmed transactions must be reasserted and unverified
transactions restored to their original state.
The data containers do not match at all. The data tanks and the
IMDB are at opposite ends of the database architecture and do not
mix well.
Sybase ASE 15.5 IMDB by competitors
Sybase still manages to analyse the market, analyse the
competition and learn from its experiences. However, there are not
many IMDB systems available. Times Ten, now part of Oracle, is one
of the oldest IMDB systems. Although Times Ten is referred to as
IMDB, the underlying architecture is more closely aligned with
Sybase's new RDDB ASE 15.5 feature, a database with relaxed
durability. Adding at_shutdown strength to IMDB, combined with the
multiple generation capabilities of transactional databases, would
move IMDB from Sybase ASE to Times Ten.
 MS SQL Server does not offer the IMDB engine at all. This is
likely to change in the future. SQL Server 2008 provides a variant of
a relaxed resiliency database with new database recovery models;
massive, simple, and complete.
The SQL Server database bulk recovery option is similar to the
Sybase ASE 15.5 at_shutdown option, and the database recovery
model is aligned with Sybase's level of durability. The full recovery
capabilities of SQL Server go beyond the level of sustainability
offered by Sybase. This is not a 1: 1 comparison, but it briefly
explains how the systems compare.
Sybase IMDB has some crucial advantages in which you can
apply standard commands for ejecting and loading the database.
You can delete an existing ASE database and load it into IMDB. Only
Sybase offers these features.
IMDB is a controversial new frontier of database architecture
and responds to the ever-present demand for "speed". It is
unrealiastic to say to what extent this technology will be widely
adapted to architects and software developers. For decades, the
database has always been a safe place to store due to the strict
ACID compliance requirement. Accepting IMDB also means taking
permanent, temporary data from the database that will be lost during
a catastrophic event or system shutdown. To successfully manage
IMDB in combination with traditional databases, new processes for
database management need to be implemented.
Do you need this SQL backup?
Surprisingly, some people wonder about the value of SQL
backup. They think that their firewall makes their system so secure
that nothing can happen, but it's rarely the case here. The reasons
why data is destroyed or lost are very diverse, and if you do not have
a backup that is ready to use all the data, you may have big
problems.
When you stop thinking about all the information on your server,
you will be surprised at how quickly it will affect the progress of your
business in the event of a loss. Imagine losing not only all the
information of your customers but also the files of your employees,
their accounts, their accounting information and even their tax
information. It is possible that you lose your work if you do not have
reliable SQL backups at any time.
The world's best firewall will not stop your company's employees
from doing stupid things on your server, nor will it prevent floods,
impacts, hurricanes, fires or earthquakes from eliminating them. In
addition to these threats, you must also deal with those malicious
activities inside and outside the organisation. No firewall can protect
it from everything.
The decent news is that you can now purchase an extremely
affordable SQL backup program that will automatically back up all
your employee information, customer data, accounting information
and even user preferences. So, if something happens, they can
easily restart while keeping all your data. The whole system. Of
course, this type of software only works if you install it and launch it
correctly, but it is easy for most people with even a little computer
experience. You do not have to be a space scientist to install
backups and back up your business.
How to restore a SQL database quickly and
without problems?
MS SQL is an application created by Microsoft that is widely
used for efficient data management in many organisations around
the world. It has become a unique need for all users. The SQL or
Structured Query Language helps users search for databases and
collect data from databases already created. On this MS SQL server,
files are saved in .mdf format.
With regular SQL operation, data management is unparalleled in
simplicity, but real problems arise for users when problems occur in
that SQL server. If you're bothered by the stress of corrupting a
useless SQL database and an unwanted obstacle to your business,
it's time to get a SQL Server database recovery tool and think
immediately: How do I quickly restore an SQL database without any
difficulty? Only reliable SQL database recovery software can provide
the ideal relief to eliminate the fear of losing data and ensuring
complete satisfaction.
Why does it corrupt SQL?
The causes of SQL Server corruption are the reasons why SQL
recovery is required. The crime is sudden and can happen
unexpectedly for several reasons, such as:
Hard drive problem.
Accidental failure and strange system shutdown.
Virus or Trojan.
Software or hardware failure.
Invalid string in the multi-client database with deletion of log
file or database user in "suspicious" mode.
There is no free disk space when SQL Server is running.
While the MS SQL database is running, the disk controllers
attempt to access the file or copy it.
These are other abrupt and unexpected reasons that lead to
SQL corruption. It is inacceptable to go back in time and prevent
such events from happening. The only option with the user is to
determine how to recover SQL if you used SQL 2005 and how to
improve SQL 2000 if you are using SQL Server 2000.
Occurrence errors in the time of corruption
At the time of SQL corruption, the user may receive one of the
following errors:
The index '% ls' to '% ls' in database '% ls' may be
corrupted due to changes in the qualification of the
expression in this release. Free and recreate the index.
The * .mdf file is lost and needs to be recover
The server cannot find the requested database table
 or page header = (0: 0)
The table is corrupted: Object ID 0, index ID 0, Page ID (1:
623).
The process could not start 'sp_replcmds' on the server.
Internal error. The reading value of the column is too small.
Run DBCC CHECKDB and check for corruption
In the table of changes that worked .frm is locked
There was a database conflict 'base_name', table
'tensor_name', column 'list_list_name'. The declaration has
been revoked
Corruption of indexes, stored procedures, triggers, and the
database integrity table that should be included. The MYI
file is not updated.
Do you know how to recover SQL without any problem quickly?
The first and most important thing for the user to do is whether
or not an external SQL database recovery tool is needed.
Professional help is required in the form of the SQL Server Recovery
Tool if the user receives any of the above errors. This is recovery is
only possible using external software in this scenario. SQL SysTools
Recovery Software can quickly repair SQL Server 2005 and 2000
database files without any problem.
Recovery is fast because successful SQL recovery does not
require technical expertise or advanced systems and software
knowledge. Just a few easy steps, and go for it! Healing is natural
because the process is fluid, and no complications will occur during
the SQL repair process. Also, the software is compatible with all
versions of Windows, such as ME / NT / 2000 / XP / 2003 and Vista.
SysTools is a technically superior group that does not require
any mention because it is a recognised and well-received data
recovery company. It has generated and has continued to produce
many software tools for the different types of data problems faced by
users around the world. One of these programs is a SQL recovery
software that helps to recover the contents of the SQL database.
SQL Administrator: job description, database
requirements
Database technologies have come mainly from the IT budget of
most organisations. Dominantly, SQL databases have become a
fundamental part of the data infrastructure for most organisations.
The resulting changes have increased the demand for experienced
SQL management professionals in Web data, MsSQL and various
software technologies ranging from SQL 2000 to 2005.
The SQL Server administrator is working to develop secure SQL
databases for various organisations and to ensure the free flow of
data to authorised users. A fundamental part of the job is developing
an appropriate firewall to ensure that security rights are well
established, so as to prevent unauthorised access to data inside and
outside the organisation. The ability to troubleshoot database
problems is a particularly important skill because DBA administrators
encounter new issues every day. Although most administrators
spend most of the day developing and updating existing
technologies, they should also be able to continually test and fix any
issues encountered in the database to avoid any possible problem.
Because large organisations need fast access to data,
administrators regularly update systems and create software and
hardware update plans to improve performance.
Although there are no specific requirements for graduation, most
DBA professionals have associates, bachelor's or master's degrees
focused on information systems and computer software engineering.
More importantly, the skills needed to analyse the growth of web
data properly is a broad set of quantitative talent that allow you to
learn new emerging technologies on an ongoing basis. To this end,
SQL database administrators must strive to become Microsoft-
certified IT professionals, who provide existing technology
certifications and training opportunities for future software updates
and options. MS SQL is an essential component of SQL software
with open source MySQL solutions. Most large companies use a full
set of Microsoft solutions ranging from software to hardware. The
Microsoft SQL training course will, therefore, cover the business
needs of most database administrators.
Microsoft SQL Server 2012 v. Oracle
SQL 2012 and Oracle are social database the board
frameworks (RDBMS) intended to store, sort out, and speak to a lot
of information in tables. Clients ought to think about their
association's needs, existing programming framework and specific
knowledge when gauging the two stages. In addition to managing
Big Data, SQL 2012 and Oracle offer comparable features, though
overcoming Microsoft's business intelligence software can make it a
more attractive option for many users.
Oracle triumph over past SQL manifestations was commonly
founded on the previous capacity to dissect and store Big Data.
Microsoft's reaction was to coordinate Hadoop into SQL 2012,
thereby enabling SQL to view and reliably present tremendous
measures of free datasets. Nonetheless, it ought to be borne at the
top of the priority list that Hadoop won't be accessible for SQL 2012
until mid-2012. It is not yet clear whether this combination will meet
client desires for Big Data investigation. At the time, Oracle had just
propelled its Big Data gadget with Hadoop and Clouder; Users who
have a quick need to investigate considerable unstructured datasets
on a vast number of arranged PCs might not have any desire to
hang tight for Hadoop reconciliation in SQL 2012.
A direct issue to consider is the issue of the user's operating
system. SQL 2012 only works on PCs running Server 2008,
Windows 7, or Vista. Oracle systems are more compatible; They
include Linux, Windows, Unix, OS / 390, Mac OSX and OpenVMS.
This broad but flexible approach can also represent a more complex
installation process than the limited focus of SQL 2012.
The high utilisation of these instruments makes discovering
bolster online generally simple, just as the uniqueness of the working
framework. Oracle Enterprise Edition (Oracle XE) offers equivalent
usefulness, even though if an organisation or client has only
authorised a large portion of Microsoft's BI programming, it can hold
up at the expense of gaining another permit.
Notwithstanding the cost, clients ought to consider the sort and
degree of conceivable use when picking between the two stages.
SQL 2012 requires "percenter" permit expenses. Oracle is offering a
free form of Oracle XE with specific warnings. These confinements
incorporate a breaking point of 4 GB in putting away information, the
farthest end of 1 GB in the utilisation of Random Access Memory
and a free version won't be utilised more than in the Central
Processing Unit, regardless of whether the host gadget contains
more. The authorised variant of Oracle XE additionally puts together
its expenses concerning a for every centre structure.
Clients ought to think about their working framework, spending
plan, existing BI foundation and critical information necessities
before focusing on SQL 2012 or Oracle. From a usefulness
viewpoint, most clients will discover them suitable for their business
knowledge needs if Microsoft effectively coordinates Hadoop into
SQL 2012.
Microsoft SQL Azure
The new Microsoft SQL technology was released on January 1,
2010. It may be better to say that Microsoft's latest technology has
just hit the market. Azure Services is Microsoft's most important step
in the cloud. It functions as a complete cloud platform with
computers, storage and integration of individual systems into an
integrated network that can balance load processing or resource
sharing.
What is SQL Azure?
The most important thing for this review is the relationship
between Azure and SQL. Microsoft called this service SQL Server
Data Services, then SQL Services before switching it recently to
SQL Azure. The name change is an alternative step in the same
direction in which the SQL server was already routed with cloud
computing.
SQL Azure provides "cloud" data storage similar to Amazon S3
and many Google applications. One of the good things around SQL
Azure is that it can be configured for relational queries on data
stored in the cloud, whether structured, semi-structured or not
structured. In addition to referencing data, users can also search,
analyse, and synchronise SQL data stored by Azure.
Once your information is transferred to SQL Azure, applications
can upload data directly to cloud data over the Internet. This works
for the local cloud or cloud-based applications (such as applications
running on the computer portion of Microsoft Azure services).
Security and synchronisation must be perfect between local SQL
servers and SQL Azure databases. Microsoft also guarantees a high
tolerance for errors by maintaining multiple copies of your
information.
Why use SQL Azure?
Microsoft says that the main benefit of SQL Azure is reduced
maintenance. This service eliminates your need to store and
manage SQL databases locally. Theoretically, administrators should
not install database software or worry about adjusting, correcting,
and managing their server systems. There is also no hardware
configuration required for servers, disaster recovery, or high
availability. Maintenance and physical management are not
necessary as this will help companies save on staff costs. If you
have a headache when managing your database servers, this could
be a great option.
Another benefit is the scalability of light. If you need to increase
or decrease the storage of your database, Microsoft will do the
same. This is one of the differences among SQL Azure and other
hosting services; data storage is spread across multiple nodes and
pays when using storage. SQL Azure can work in addition to existing
database hardware. If you expect a sudden increase in data
requirements or even want to prepare for unexpected events, Azure
may be available in difficult times. Still, you can return to your local
storage or other storage when the need becomes irrelevant.
Another benefit of scalability is that it provides a viable but cost-
effective service for the needs of small and medium-sized
businesses in the database.
Microsoft also expects Azure services to allow third-party
software authors who want to offer their software as a service
(SaaS). Azure services can meet all the computing needs that this
model requires, but SQL Azure would, of course, meet the needs of
the database for this software. This could even simplify data security
because Microsoft is responsible for its storage. Business
applications created in Azure IT Services can use SQL Azure in the
same way.
As with any cloud computing, the ultimate benefit is that
information is available to all programme or queries as long as they
are affiliated to the Internet. However, one of the practical benefits of
moving SQL databases to the cloud is that it integrates data (such as
databases across multiple departments in a large enterprise) and
better integrates information. This should allow more complex
queries in covering various database tables.
In summary, the simple advantage is the economy of scale; the
cost of running Microsoft in SQL must be less than the total cost of
hardware, software and maintenance (TCO).
Everything is in the details.
Now it matters. As the programming model changes, most
things remain unchanged, although some details may vary. The main
difference is that fully relational data has replaced the ACE and the
entity programming model. To access the data, T-SQL remains code,
although developers must make some changes to operate on a fully
relational database. Most data access infrastructures, such as
ADO.NET Data Services, can still be used with minimal changes.
The data is transmitted via an XML format. The query language is T-
SQL, and the spreadsheet data is an Internet access protocol.
 How is SQL Azure different from SQL Server? Azure runs on
SQL Server. However, SQL Azure also adds new relational data
features to the cloud. The most crucial difference, as noted above, is
that it is easy to use, gives comfort and accessibility everywhere.
CTP is available for free on the Microsoft website but arrives quickly.
Some items will no longer be available for free at the end of January.
Microsoft has made significant changes to the software in recent
months, and there are differences in each version of the product.
And what about prices? Microsoft offers 1 GB of space in a
relational database for $ 9.99 per month, up to 10 GB for $ 99.99 per
month and data rates of 10 and 15 cents per BG. There are also
some options whereby you can pay without monthly obligations or
costs, or you can get better rates if you agree to 6 months at the
base rate.
No wonder the new Azure services represent Microsoft's
commitment to the future of cloud computing. SQL Azure is an
essential part of this innovation and provides excellent support for
Web 2.0 applications. The most important benefit is probably for
SMEs or independent software writers who need economical storage
and computing. If Microsoft's sense of future computing is correct
(and it probably is), entering the market first is a good strategy. It
remains to be seen whether SQL Azure will succeed in continuing to
be the best available SQL database technology in the cloud.
 SQL data recovery
The data protection systems built into SQL Server cannot
adequately meet the data recovery requirements of these systems.
Even in the presence of other data backup systems, hard disk
failures, power outages, and other unintentional failures can lead to
the corruption of master data files and the backup of database files.
SQL
Meanwhile, the work of the database supervisor becomes
crucial. You must ensure that the database is up and running as
quickly as possible. He knows that an organisation cannot handle
data loss due to a crash of the database. This is even more
important when the data affects the endpoint of the business or its
relationship with customers.
Most database supervisors know that even small damage to
master data files can wreak havoc. DBMSs have sufficient
safeguards to protect critical company data stored in the database.
However, it is still possible to corrupt the backup and transaction
records. Savvy supervisors always consider the role of commercial
software available for data recovery.
Such software is readily available in the markets as
customizable packages. It offers advice to data recovery companies.
Some companies also provide them as software or services. Free
software is usually published on the company's website. Web
software is useful for organisations with large databases that operate
in dispersed environments.
By using such software, you can retrieve information from the
following items.
Damaged RAID hard drives (redundant arrangement of
independent disks)
Corrupted or deleted indexes
 Partially damaged table data
Broken external keys or locked databases
All editions of SQL Server
The time required to retrieve the data varies from one to four
days. It depends on the amount of corrupted data and the blocking of
the database. As a result, this software recovery tool provides
adequate protection against power outages, database failures, and
unintentional operations.
New features of SQL Server
Microsoft SQL Server 2018 plans to release March 7, 2018,
introducing new features. One of the most critical changes to
Microsoft's database management software will be the release of
three separate editions. The simplest version is called, very
conveniently, the Standard Edition. This is useful for the most basic
analytical tasks. The next feature-rich version is the Business
Intelligence Edition, which features all the features of the standard
with some additional BI features. The Enterprise version, which
includes all the tools of the first two, but also impressive features for
large-scale applications, will be the most powerful of the three. The
other major part of the changes involves deleting the version of SQL
Server 2013 Data Center. Most of its features are listed in the
Premium Enterprise Edition. Similarly, Microsoft will change the
licensing structure from one processor to another.
As data visualisation is becoming increasingly critical to the
success of BI solutions, Microsoft has improved its game with a new
feature called Power View. By replacing the report generator, Power
View provides an interactive reporting environment open to data
exploration and visualisation. This is an improvement over existing
business intelligence tools, thereby enhancing self-service reporting
capabilities. The novelty of SQL 2018 is also a feature that brings the
features available from Excel PowerPivot to Business Intelligence
Development Studio: Analysis Services Table. This feature will have
the same options as in PowerPivot, as well as additional features
such as partitioning, incremental updates, and role-based security.
Before the release of the original software in March, developers
have at this stage the opportunity to have new features for testing
and training. In the training kit, available on Microsoft.com, Microsoft
offers preconfigured presentations for instructors and individuals to
explore new features, many of which go beyond the concise list
written above. Also, there are practical labs to increase the number
of presentations and demonstrate new features as well. Labs include
HTML or Word scripts, as well as dependency checks to ensure that
your servers and your data environment are equipped with the
appropriate SQL 2018 work software. Videos are available to explain
new features and describes how to use them to work well with
transcripts that allow users to learn and teach team members. Try
the demonstration and instructional materials so that when the real
copy finally arrives on the market, you and your team will be at the
forefront. You will be ready to dig and offer first-class solutions to
large and small buyers.
4
CHAPTER
 How to create and administer databases
What is a DBA?
Most business applications are designed to be used and stored in
relational databases. For these commercial applications to work
effectively, it is necessary to monitor the components of the database
on which they depend to function effectively.
Large organisations often have database administrator (DBA)
teams dedicated to managing the environmental aspects of their
databases, while small businesses can share DBA resources in
different areas. The DBA can wear several hats in an organisation;
generally maintains knowledge of operating system requirements
and collaborates efficiently with data architects and application
developers.
Their responsibilities almost always include disaster recovery,
performance analysis and tuning, data dictionary maintenance,
database design, and at times network administration tasks, such as
troubleshooting. of the system. However, the primary responsibility of
the DBA is to ensure the availability and continuous optimisation of
the storage infrastructure.
Why assign a DBA function?
Even in the most dynamic development environments, the DBA
spends a lot of time on the resources needed to perform low-level
administrative tasks. While these routine tasks are essential to
supporting your organisation, they are rarely associated with the
company's critical revenue-generating skills.
In times of economic difficulty, internal database administration
can be problematic for several reasons, including reduced IT budget,
staff turnover, departures or other goals for staff reduction (and the
costs of associated training. Ships).
One of the main reasons why many companies rely on
outsourcing the database administrator function is that they want to
maintain or improve their competitive advantage. One solution is to
use managed services, including remote DBA providers.
As companies adjust their belts, they are increasingly turning to
their IT departments to optimise and automate their processes,
including database administration. However, database environments
are large and extensive. They contain data that is collected from all
possible angles of each enterprise, and in some cases, the database
administrators that manage these databases are published.
Companies, IT managers, and CIOs see this as a risk: "I dismiss my
database administrator, but someone still has to manage this
infrastructure that contains large amounts of confidential, proprietary,
and critical information with a profitable risk. Minimum for the
organisation. "
 ROI of remote database management
To reduce costs and optimise IT operations, organisations are
turning to remote database management solutions. Active and
established DBA service providers help businesses increase
productivity and lower the cost of enterprise computing customers,
thereby enabling them to compete in today's demanding business
environment, maintain institutional integrity and reduce the
vulnerability of the system.
A remote DBA program can offer a significant return on
investment, which includes:
Fixed cost: Remote DBA services are not only cheaper than
their DBAs, they are typically delivered at a contract price, allowing
for more detailed and efficient financial planning of future IT
spending.
Increased Team Productivity: Professional IT employees who
would otherwise be used to internally manage databases can be
redirected to strategic projects and generate revenue.
Accelerated troubleshooting: Remote DBA solutions focus
entirely on administrative support, 24x7. This minimises response
time for troubleshooting, user requests, and performance issues.
Increased Availability 24/7: While many companies are looking
to reduce costs by outsourcing overseas development and
management tasks, the differences in time zones and workdays can
create gaps in coverage. Being curious about the response time and
needing an internal staff to work outside of working hours, the
remote DBA on Earth eliminates these problems.
Using the latest monitoring tools: Outsourcing an external
database administrator eliminates the costs that a company would
have to spend on expensive internal monitoring tools.
 Monitoring and auditing of database management work: Full
accounting of work performed, including case tracking and analysis,
is a valuable information management tool that can provide a more
detailed breakdown of the costs of doing business.
DBA Tutoring: Business DBAs provide valuable advice to IT
managers who are adopting new technologies or who have only
lower levels of DBA in the business.
Another pair of eyes: IT managers who do not have a staff
budget can use a remote DBA to add a level of support at a fraction
of the cost.
Cost savings
As the access to capital becomes increasingly scarce,
businesses of all sizes are turning to the remote database
management experience to focus their resources on core skills. The
industry's highest standard is for remote database administrator
users to find that the typical cost savings are at least 40% and up to
60%, compared to the use of the database. This is a concern for
Internal database administrators.
Extra ROI
Provide a response time of only fifteen minutes, subject to the
contractual warranty of individual suppliers.
Transfer IT talent and capital resources from database
administration to strategic initiatives.
Take advantage of best practices in database management and
service experience.
Quickly absorb new database platforms during mergers and
acquisitions.
Reduce staff turnover.
Eliminate night shifts, weekends and holidays.
Increase best practices in security, law enforcement and
governance.
 Eliminate the time and expense of continuing education.
The increase in mileage of the company's financial resources is
now a major concern for all IT managers. Using remote DBA
professionals is the most open, sustainable, and cost-effective way
to improve database coverage and efficiency, while still providing
peace of mind with proactive 24-hour support. and 7d/7.
Configuring the Maximo database
ADD
1) Link a field to a domain (predefined lists).
2) Definition of the zones by conditional expressions (to
modify the attributes according to the state or the state of
the object).
3) Describe domain coding (to make it soft!)
4) Copy values from other documents (i.e. receive the
benefits of invoices).
Add attributes to the database configuration.
The database configuration allows you to modify the database
directly from Maxim. The app includes the following features:
1) Create and modify existing Maximo objects that can be
assigned to database tables.
2) Manage the attributes of these objects that can be
assigned to the database attributes.
3) Manage the databases.
4) Manage relationships with other Maximo objects.
Changes to this application can have adverse effects on the
system and must be tested in a test environment before being
replicated inactive order.
The following steps describes how to add an attribute to an
existing object:
 1) From the Go To menu, select System Configuration>
Platform Configuration> Database Configuration.
2) In the list, find a tab and select the object to which you
want to add the attribute. Object names are always
assigned to existing objects in the database.
3) Select the Attributes tab.
4) Click the New Line button.
5) Add the following information:
At Attributes: internal name to use for the new field.
b. Description: used to describe the use of the user field and it
will appear on the contextual help screen
vs Type: the type of field that it can contain:
Yes ALN - alphanumeric
ii) UPPER - uppercase
iii) JORN - Boost Yes/No value
iv. DATE - Date value
v. DATETIME: date and time value
VI. INT - Integer
d. Length: the length of the field
e. Required: Can users leave the field empty?
f. Title: a description of the field that will be used on the screen
Mr Rücker domain: a link to an existing list of values from which
the user can select
h. Default value: the value added to a field when creating a new
instance, in which the user can modify later
6) Save the recording
 Once registration is complete, Maximo knows that a new field
will be waiting for configuration. However, this change will not be
assigned to the database until the database configuration routine is
complete.
Enter administrative mode
To run the configuration routine directly from the Maximo
application, the system must be modified administratively. The
method of administration means that only specified users will be able
to access the system, mainly those who are part of the
Administrators group and are disconnected from all other users
without having all the remote connections (so they only allow the link
via the server).
When activating the administrator mode, all users of the system
will be disconnected and should be used with caution.
The administrative mode also suspends all startup tasks and
listeners.
The administrative mode can be activated from the database
configuration application. To enable this:
1) Click the Database List tab of the Database Configuration
application.
2) From the Select Action menu, select Manage
Administration Mode.
3) Click Enable Administrator Mode. Depending on the
confirmation of your system, you may be required to enter
a password and reason.
4) Press the Update Status button from time to time. When
the system is in administrator mode, you will receive a
message indicating it.
The system must be set to Administrator mode with the user
accessing the policy in Administrator mode. Otherwise, the user will
disconnect.
 Configure the database
When the system is configured correctly in Administrator mode,
the next step is to set the database. The database configuration
routine affects changes made to the Maximo Configuration Database
application.
Warning: Before continuing with this step, it is advisable to back
up the database. This can be used to reset if there are problems with
the database configuration.
This can be done at:
1) Click the Database List tab of the Database Configuration
application.
2) Make sure the "have a current backup?" box is confirmed.
3) Click the Start button configuration of the database.
Depending on your PC configuration, you may be required
to enter your password and reason.
4) Press the Update Status button from time to time. This will
look for the current state of the process and display it on
the screen. At the point when the activity is finished, you
will get a message showing that the task has been
completed.
Add a credit to the application.
Now, the ascribe has been added to the database but isn't yet
accessible for client cooperation. For clients to utilize the new field, it
must be added to the proper application. This should be possible by
means of the Designer application in Maxim. You can do this by
following these means:
1) From the Go To menu, select Pc Configuration> Platform
Configuration> Software Designer.
2) On the List tab, find and select the program you want to
edit.
 3) This will take you to a workspace tab that will display a
WYSIWYG copy of the application that you can modify by
selecting it from the toolbar menu.
The functions flowing from left to right are:
i. Control Palette: Used to add new controls to the
application, including text boxes, sections, and tables.
ii. Management properties: Used to modify the features of
the currently active management.
4) Open the control panel by clicking the first button in the
circle above.
5) Drag the text box to the location of the application where
you want to add the newly created field.
6) After being added to the correct location, use the
Management Properties dialogue box to define the details
of the new field.
7) From the dialogue, the most critical areas are:
I. Label: The value displayed next to the field, if no default value
is used.
i. Attributes: Quality name created in the database
application.
ii. Search: Assign each search to an area (use
DATELOOKUP for the date fields and the list of values
for the regions associated with Maximo domains).
iii. Input Method: Specifies whether the field is read-only or
required
8) Once finished, save the application and test it directly in
Maximo.
Caution: An application must be modified when no user is using
it. If you use the form, the user can disconnect from the system
without notice, which will result to a loss of activity.
 Before modifying the application, return to the form. You can do
this through the App Designer application by doing the following:
1) At the Go To menu, select System Configuration> Platform
Configuration> Software Designer.
2) In the List tab, find and select the application for which you
want to back up.
3) On the Workspace tab, click on Export Application
Definition.
Advantages and disadvantages of the DBaaS
database as a service
DBaaS allows you to try multiple solutions and buying only the
licenses and hardware you need to succeed.
Today, almost all businesses focus on data if the data concerns
internal applications and systems or other services offered.
Data management is the key to success.
Before listing the advantages and disadvantages of DBaaS, we
need to explore some of the decisions that companies need to make.
These include several fast data management decisions that can
configure them on a route that, if incorrect, will be difficult and costly
to fix. These decisions are:
• What type of database to use, SQL or NoSQL?
• What are the queries and data storage requirements?
Transactional? Big data?
• Which database system to use? Some SQL options can be
Oracle, MySQL, MSSQL and Sybase. Some non-SQL
options may be MongoDB or Cassandra.
• Do we have DBA (database administrator) skills, or do we
need to find a job?
• What type of server or resource is required? What are my
requirements for power, server, disk, processing, network
 and I/O?
• How can I maintain, support, manage and own a database
framework?
• What is my cost of ownership?
First, let's explore the type of database used, SQL or NoSQL.
Traditional SQL database types occupy an essential place in
companies and represent the pillar of business choice. But as
companies starts creating applications that guide their decisions
based on an extensive database analysis of a large amount of near-
incomprehensible data, they turn to NoSQL solutions such as
MongoDB or Cassandra.
The NoSQL architecture is an excellent choice for Big Data
solutions, while transaction-based integrated security, such as
Oracle, makes it an even better option for banking or similar
solutions.
When it comes to choosing a particular system, companies tend
to stick to what they know. In other words, if they already have the
talent of Oracle and Oracle, when managers ask users of the
database system to use in Project X, they should not be surprised to
choose Oracle.
Aligning a particular database system with a set of business
requirements is a difficult task that must always be viewed in a new
light. It should not be based solely on the talents already employed
or on what companies feel comfortable with.
Let's say that if the job is chosen correctly, then it's okay. If they
make the wrong choice, they lose a lot of resources, which also
means losing money. Enter DBaaS.
DBaaS is distinguished by the fact that it allows companies to
test a little water before investing a lot.
DBaaS acts as a stepping stone to full ownership, a cost-
effective solution that will help you discover your needs before
investing big.
DBaaS has advantages and disadvantages.
First, you must distinguish between "hosting database system"
and DBaaS.
Many cloud solutions "host" the database system, but do not
provide the configuration, adaptation, consulting, and talent support
necessary to use these systems.
True DBaaS provides the system and the talent to help you use
the database so as to determine how to store, query, and analyse
your data. The value of DBaaS goes well beyond hosting.
DBaaS business data includes:
· No license for equipment or software.
· Flexibility: There are several options for testing your
applications and choosing the right platform for your business needs.
· Reduced staffing requirements. The DBaaS provider manages
installation, configuration and in many cases, the development as
well.
· Housing outside, protection against malfunctions or local
disasters. Many companies think of their systems with excess
energy in mind, but in reality, they rarely achieve these goals.
Service Level Agreements with overcharge protection, extension
and support. The DBaaS provider intends to focus on protecting your
information.
However, DBaaS includes:
· Limited access to the servers in question. This can give the
impression of not having control over the system.
· Very little knowledge about protecting your data from
cybersecurity threats. This can be dangerous in securing confidential
data.
 So, how do you decide? Is there a transition from one to the
other? Yes, almost always but following a few guidelines to start,
DBaaS can be used correctly.
Those who wish to use DBaaS must adhere to the following
guidelines:
1. Participate in all development using DBaaS. This is your
chance to try different architectures and features.
2. If you do not have complete information about how your
DBaaS providers protect, manage, and protect your data,
it's a good idea to consult with database architects to help
you locate confidential details internally. Keep in mind that
these are not usually big data. When we use data-sensitive
terms, we mean precisely that. Information such as SSN,
account details, finances, personal information, etc. Does
this mean that you cannot use DBaaS for this? No, this
means that you must first find a DBaaS provider that
shows you everything, ranging from how you enter your
encrypted data into your system to the storage, access,
and so on.
3. If you are insure of the nature of your databases, first use
DBaaS. This allows you to test SQL or NoSQL. This will
enable you to explore Oracle's encryption capabilities
against MySQL. Think of DBaaS as buying a car. You
check sedans, trucks and SUVs and check different
manufacturers and features. Then, you can choose to rent
or buy.
4. Always control and evaluate the cost of ownership. As your
system grows, operating expenses may seem logical to
drop DBaaS and build an internal network. However, at this
point, you should have already decided what you need.
With DBaaS, the goal is to try multiple solutions and buy only
the licenses and hardware you need to succeed. Then, you can hire
the right talent to manage your system.
 Secure manage MySQL databases for
webmasters
As the number of small business websites, memberships, and
Internet marketing continues to increase, the popularity of open-
source websites and eCommerce content management systems is
also growing. There is a wide selection of these free platforms
among which popular options such as WordPress, Drupal, Joomla,
Magento and osCommerce are built. All they have in common is the
type of database system used. Currently, MySQL is one of the most
popular database platforms. It offers excellent reliability and
versatility today when a website or content management platform is
supported.
With the popularity of MySQL, hackers are also focusing more
on this database platform widely used as a target for attack and
exploitation. Website owners and administrators rely on MySQL to
secure store site content, user accounts and passwords, as well as
bank with credit card data for customers. Access to this type of
information is a goal sought by many hackers. Depending on how
MySQL is managed, it may be a more direct goal than you imagined.
One of the most common mistakes made by webmasters is the
use of database management tools, such as phpMyAdmin, that can
leave the database open for unauthorised access. phpMyAdmin is
free software written in PHP and designed to manage MySQL
administration remotely. There are known security issues with
phpMyAdmin, and of course, they can lead to unauthorised access
or loss of all content in the site database.
When you're looking for a way to remotely control and monitor
your site's MySQL database, Oracle (MySQL Owners) is the perfect,
free-to-use, secure and easy-to-learn work tool. MySQL Workbench
offers a wide range of administration and diagnostic tools to maintain
your MySQL server instance. MySQL Workbench runs on Windows,
Linux and OS X and provides secure GUI-based access to MySQL
administration.
 MySQL Workbench requires the MySQL server to be accessible
remotely before you can connect and manage MySQL databases.
Nevertheless, most reputable hosting providers offer this feature as
part of their hosting package. After configuring remote access, you
can use MySQL Workbench to modify remote access settings and
credentials to ensure that only secure and authorised connections
are made to your MySQL database.
Administering the MySQL database is a vital part of the overall
maintenance of your web pages. If you are unfamiliar with the tasks
required to use and manage MySQL, then it is recommended that
you use an accredited technical expert to help you manage and
administer the database.
Do I need a server administration panel?
It is essential to have a control panel for administering the
server in which your website is located. The group used to distribute
the web hosting servers is designed so that you can easily manage a
dedicated server or a virtual server in a much simpler way, thanks to
mainly direct and clickable interfaces. Also, cPanel is easy to
configure because it can be set automatically. Applications can also
be managed and customised to adapt to the needs of most users. In
the user interface, you can use FTP, database server, webmail and
other applications. Also, in the Control Panel, you will find a web
browser interface that will allow you to configure multiple accounts
and manage all aspects of the server. You do not need to be a
computer expert either to carry out this task.
You can also manage mailboxes, domains, and view reports,
statistics, and domain names from the server.
You must have cPanel to manage the server because in most
cases, you will find that the servers have a complex operating
system. Beside, if you are using Windows Server 2003, you will find
an easy-to-use control panel that you should use to manage all
server applications by using the point-and-click interface on the
integrated control panel.
 However, sometimes, the challenge is finding the right cPanel. It
is best to acquire a card that has already been tested and certified
as 100% compatible with a dedicated server or virtual private sector.
The role of MySQL in web development
In the generation of Web 2.0, the Web has become interactive.
Social media is a scary word these days. Social networking sites
around the world record the highest volume of traffic 24 hours a day,
seven days a week. Multiple social networks and other top traffic
sites, such as Flickr, Facebook, Wikipedia, Google, Nokia and
YouTube, use MySQL to store data and save user data. They are
also used closely with PHP.
 MySQL platforms and interfaces
MySQL code works in C and C ++. The SQL parser works in
yacc and sql_lex.cc. The MySQL server and the official libraries are
usually based on ANSI C / ANSI C ++.
MySQL can run on many system platforms such as AIX, BSDi,
FreeBSD, HP-UX, i5 / OS, Linux, OpenBSD, OpenSolaris, Solaris,
eComStation, OS / 2 Warp, QNX, IRIX, SunOS, Symbian, SCO
UnixWare. Healthy, NetBSD, Novell NetWare, Mac OS X, Tru64
SCO OpenServer and Microsoft Windows.
MySQL databases have access to all major programming
languages with specific APIs for each word, including libraries. For
other programming languages, an ODBC interface called MyODBC
allows the interface to communicate with a MySQL database such as
ASP or ColdFusion. The URL-based HTSQL method is also
distributed with the MySQL adapter, which allows direct interaction
with the MySQL database from any Web client via structured URLs.
Hands and graphic fronts
MySQL is an RDBMS. As a result, it usually does not contain
graphical tools to manage MySQL databases. Users can use built-in
command-line tools or download third-party MySQL interfaces that
develop software and applications used to manipulate MySQL
databases, create database structures, and use data records.
MySQL AB has created the latest version of the official MySQL
Workbench. It's a free integrated environment. It allows users to
manage MySQL databases graphically and it visually design the
database structure. MySQL Workbench will enable users to control
the following:
Database Design and Modeling
Replacing the MySQL Query Browser for SQL Development
Replace the MySQL administrator for the administration of the
database.
 Two editions of MySQL Workbench are available. The popular
edition consists of a free, open version of the community that can be
downloaded from the MySQL website. The second being a standard,
patented edition that extends and enhances all features of the
community version.
Use
MySQL can be compiled and installed manually from the source
code. To avoid this tedious process, it is most often installed from a
binary package unless unique customisations are required. MySQL
has progressively evolved to support large-scale database requests
from scratch. It is commonly used in single-server and mid-range
configurations. MySQL application has been put to used and are
functional because of its relatively simple and easy-to-use
application.
Poker database
Database poker is an integral part of the game system;
supervising and managing the daily work of poker is essential.
Consider the poker database as a permanent standard repository of
dynamic data, such as game records, cash transactions, and so on.
And static, such as user profile, game properties, etc., is widely used
by almost all subsystems. The game system uses the Oracle
database.
The poker database has the following outstanding features:
The system is designed to maintain the integrity,
performance, standardisation and ease of maintenance
of data in a flexible, scalable and manageable manner.
Each primary table in the system has a corresponding
record table that tracks the changes in the master data.
Indexes are carefully selected to improve search
performance without incurring high insertion costs.
The poker database is accessible from applications
that use what our developers call the Java Database
 Connectivity (JDBC) Java Connection Set.
Applications visualise/manipulate data using stored
procedures to maintain access to clean and consistent
data in all form modules, centralising all business logic
in the poker database.
The Poker database contains more than 300 tables
and more than 600 stored procedures.
Here are some critical tables in the Poker database:
T_USER: This is the main table containing the user's profile
information, such as account name, security, first and last name,
email address, address and password. It contains other relevant
information about the user, such as the associated ID,
recommendation, time of last access, etc.
T_GAME_LIVE: Records information about each game played
on the site, such as game number, table type, table name, time, total
rake, and so on.
T_PLAYER: Records game information, such as bets, wins,
chances on contributions, etc. Each game of each user.
T_INVESTIGATION: This is the leading spreadsheet designed
to report the findings of a poker research team user and their
activities on the site, which helps to control fraud and conspiracy.
T_Wallet_Transaction: This table records all real money
transactions of the user, such as purchases, redemptions, bonuses,
etc.
T_BONUS_RULE: This primary table lists the different
promotional bonus systems configured in the order.
T_TOURNAMENT: Record the details of each tournament
played on the site, such as the weather, the type of sport, the name
of the table, etc.
A poker database is an essential component of a gaming
system. A dedicated team is needed first to design the poker
database, and then manage and maintain it 24 hours a day, seven
days a week. It provides simple information to all groups, from
transaction management to customer service, and to fraud control. If
the game system has a spine, then know that it is a poker database.
Is managing your site something for you?
If you're someone who likes understanding different aspects of
your business, you've probably thought a lot about managing your
website. While it may be interesting to have complete control over all
the details of your site, it is also crucial to not forget some critical
points before getting into the thick of things.
If the idea of hosting your website is an effort of love for you,
then your primary motivation for wanting to take over the
management of yourself is probably the desire to shape the look of
the website that refer to your visual aesthetic. There is certainly
nothing wrong with that, but we must not forget that there are other
less tasty aspects of web hosting that may take up a lot of your time.
There is database administration, implementation and recovery of
backups, disk server maintenance, troubleshooting, network
optimisation, all these tasks are certainly not as glamorous as it may
seem. Still, they are always necessary to ensure the proper
functioning of your website.
Of course, you can always hire someone to do the dirty work for
you while indulging in the most creative activities. But this raises a
whole new question and that it cost. Cost is always an essential
element in any business venture, but if you're starting to use web
hosting, this problem becomes even more critical. Like everything
else, you have to pay if you want the right things and the fact is that
hiring a fully qualified and highly skilled staff will be expensive. You
cannot trust the critical aspects of the web hosting service to a less
qualified person. You will have to be willing to pay the price if you
want to hire people who know what they are doing.
One thing to keep in mind is that many disciplines that at first
glance seemed technically discouraging are not so difficult once you
understand the basics. This may be the case with web hosting, and
some classes may be all you need to get started. You can have a
unique ability and pure pleasure that will make the time you spend
worthwhile.
On the other hand, after learning some basic concepts and
realising that it is not for you, the knowledge gained will be useful
when you decide to appeal to other people. You can then use what
you have learned to evaluate your abilities and performance once
they start working for you. In both cases, you will use the time and
money spent as well as the knowledge gained in the course of work.
5
CHAPTER
 How to create, modify and control tables
MySQL 5.0 is an exceptional version of MySQL, a series of relational
database management systems. It offers several advanced and
improved features compared to its previous versions. One of the
most critical changes in MySQL 5.0 is the error handling system. The
application runs successfully, even if the InnoDB storage device has
not been initialised. However, this makes InnoDB tables inaccessible
and unusable. This prevents you from identifying table corruption
unless you try to access a corrupted table. The breaking of the
InnoDB table results in critical data loss and requires the correction
of MySQL recovery.
Changes in error handling in MySQL are not very useful. You
may not want a valuable part of your MySQL database to be
inaccessible. Improving the user experience doesn’t entail much. A
newer version introduces a pretty helpful feature, which is STRICT.
This makes error handling fairly rigorous, which is usually expected
by business users. Instead of converting zero values to zero and
cutting the string lengths, you can customise MySQL to complete
this type of declaration.
If you're talking about comparing files and storage systems,
MySQL 5.0 provides a way to determine the file system required to
run the process. If disabled, the command cannot be used anymore.
This avoids problems that may occur on a partially functional
computer. Generally, you must shut down your system to run MySQL
and access the database.
When InnoDB storage devices do not work, you can not identify
problems and damage in the array until you have entered the
MySQL server error log. Sometimes you may find an error message
below when the InnoDB storage engine cannot be initialised:
"Error: incorrect information AND file:"
The error indicates that the .frm file is damaged and that MySQL
cannot access it. You need to recover the MySQL database to
access your valuable data from the damaged tables.
However, you should try to restore the damaged table from a
database backup. However, if there is no valid and updated backup,
third-party MySQL repair applications becomes a monitoring
necessity.
They repair the MySQL database quickly, easily, and securely,
and have an interactive graphical user interface and a read-only
character. These tools use advanced data analysis algorithms to
ensure complete recovery.
Stellar Phoenix Data Recovery for MySQL is an advanced and
reliable utility that completely restores the database. The software
works well with MySQL 5.x and 4.x. Returns tables, restrictions, data
types, and other database objects from InnoDB and MyISAM disk
machines.
 Tips for using MS Access tables and queries
Having a standard name for each company makes your
information more consistent and useful because you can order and
search for it.
Some people use a spreadsheet for this. The spreadsheet is
identical to a flat database. There are no separate tables in the flat
database; instead there is only one table. If you have fifty records
with the same company name, each business name appears fifty
times on the spreadsheet. When users type in a spreadsheet, they
can access AGC, sometimes AGC Company, sometimes AGC Corp
and American Gadget Company. They will have a disaster in their
hands and will not be able to order or find records accurately.
You can correct spreadsheets by examining the period and
changing the name of the variant to the name you want to use, but
you will still be late in this reactive approach. I can assure that it will
not last more than two weeks if I do not do it.
The relationship between data, storage and presentation is very
flexible in a spreadsheet and in a database. You can store
information in a database and access it through queries, forms, or
reports in a different order. You can show at any time exactly what
you want to teach, in whole or in part. What you see is not related to
how your data is stored.
When you view the spreadsheet, you tend to see the entire line
in its order and all that is displayed. Yes, you can get some fields,
but then you have to reopen them. Sort the information by selecting
and applying the command. If someone selects only the first half of
each line and orders them, indicate precisely what is displayed on
the screen when there is off-screen information, and their data will
be shuffled.
If you do not use the form, it's easy to get lost in a long row of
spreadsheets and get the wrong cell up or down where you would
want it to be Even if you use the form in a spreadsheet, you will see
all the fields and, in turn, it will be saved in the spreadsheet.
When using a database, the system can adequately sort it in the
background and control which fields it displays and in what order.
Tips for formatting tables and database queries
board:
Begin by separating recurring data into separate lookup tables.
If you have a contact database and want to sign up for a running
business, use the company search table.
The other candidates for the contact database are the search
tables for companies, counties, states, and states.
The status lookup table is attractive because you can set it up
with the full status name and write it in the appropriate field along
with the proper post office abbreviation, then choose the one to
display. For example, you will not end up with Mass., MA,
Massachusetts and Massachusetts.
Assign a prefix to the table.
For example, use tblContacts and tblCompanyLookup.
This tells you to look at the table later when you need to get or
save data when programming or selecting a source for the form
drop-down list.
Use the search suffix for relational tables, such as lookup tables.
If the main table is for your contact information, call it
tblContacts.
If you have a corporate search spreadsheet, call it
tblCompanyLookup.
This helps to identify the use of a table, main meal, or
subordinate meal.
Always have a primary key that is an automatically generated
number and a type of access number.
 Set the original key to the root name of the table name followed
by the ID or IDX for the index.
Use CompanyID or CompanyIDX, for example, for
tblCompanyLookup (the company name is root).
Later, you will get to know that it refers to the primary index field.
Always check the lookup table for its index number.
You can then edit the text until the index number that finds it
changes.
All your text will change to a new value the next time you access
it.
If you use the name of the text for indexing, you must change
the name of each one, and it will be like a spreadsheet.
Use the default values if most entries are a likely expected
value.
If you have a country field; it is usually written in this format EE.
UU., Create a country search table and set it by default.
If you have a status field, and this will usually be your country,
create a state search table and set your country as the default field.
Use the notes if you have a lot of information in one area. The
comment box is a good example.
If you wish (no), you can prefix field names with their data types,
such as txtTelephoneNumber for the text field or
boolHasTelephoneNumber for the Yes/No or Boolean field.
Avoid saying that database reservations, such as a name, will
be the name of CompanyName or even txtName.
Add separate fields for data that can have multiple possible
entries.
Phone numbers are good examples of multiple entries: Use
VoiceNumber1, VoiceNumber2, FaxNumber, mobile phone number,
and so on.
 If you wish, you can imagine having another spreadsheet
referring to a recurring lookup table.
For example, phone numbers may have a separate lookup
table.
Each entry could have:
Primary index
The numeric field to associate this entry with the index of the
company.
Phone number
It is an extension if there is one
Description (voice, fax, mobile, etc.).
You will need a subform to display all of your company's phone
numbers. Subforms are not part of this article.
It gets complicated. In addition to using the subform, you must
also define the relationships between the tables. But for now, it is
best you keep things simple.
Requests:
Always create a question that matches each table.
Name each query using a prefix.
For example, use qryContacts and qryCompanyLookup.
Most queries first use the symbol for all fields *, but you can only
use specific areas if you wish.
Assign a sort order to one of the fields.
If you are using *, drag the field where you want to sort from the
list of domains to the query network and select the sort order.
It is not necessary to check the box of this field because it can
be displayed with *.
Assign unique query names to define as an expression.
 For example, you may want to have fields for the first name, last
name and possibly an initial of the middle name, title or suffix.
You can add a query field named Full Name as the full name:
[First Name] & "" & [Name].
You can add a field called LNFirst as LNFirst: [Name] & "," &
[FirstName].
The name of the expression is followed by two periods, followed
by a text that uses the field names in parentheses and possibly
operators, such as an operator and a text string.
& "" & add a space between [Firstname] and [Lastname].
& "," & add a comma and a space after [Name] and before [First
Name].
You can imagine and test a field that has value using the
expression, but let's be unaffected for now.
Make sure your query works as expected and that the terms
work as you wish.
Defining good tables is a fundamental step in creating a useful
database. You can come back and add fields later, but in the
beginning, it is best to get the correct areas.
As an example of correct fields, it is usually best to separate the
data into separate areas and use the expression query to compile
them in a useful way. An example is that the different fields are
names and the query expression combines them as the previous
name and the last space comma.
There is no penalty for naming a field descriptively, and if you
do, you will have a much easier time understanding its design in six
months when you have to go back and fix something.
Tips and queries for improving the performance
of the database
 Planning a database application requires considerable planning.
Several factors can negatively impact job performance if best
practices are not followed.
In a test environment, they may look perfectly good with only a
few thousand rows in the database. However, when an application is
activated and the database begins to grow, misconceptions about
the design can be detected very quickly.
When designing a database and creating a reference code,
there are simple design considerations and best practices to ensure
that the system grows as it evolves.
The following five tips are not in a particular order.
1 / Draw tables with the appropriate indexes
The absence of appropriate indexes can lead to a massive drop
in performance. As tables become more meaningful, the optimiser
must parse the data to find the rows that are required based on the
WHERE clause of the query. Imagine using a directory without an
index to find out where your local plumber's site was. It will be slower
locating where it is without a page telling you that it is on page 302 or
in your 500-page directory. The query optimiser encounters the
same problem if the indexes are not entered.
2 / Do not use SELECT * FROM
It's easy to write a CHOICE * FROM. Writing queries in this way
is faster than writing the required fields in a table. Well, you want
what you sow. If you take the time to compile this SQL statement
correctly, a return on investment will improve response times.
Indeed, the SQL query deletes less data than if all the columns are
included. If you only need three columns and not the ten that make
up your table, then select them.
3 / Ensure that stored procedures are used
The use of stored procedures has many advantages. One of the
benefits is that the optimiser can use a cached execution plan. Ad-
hoc SQL execution requires more time and resources because the
optimiser needs to develop the best execution plan to run the query.
 4 / Do not use pointers
There is time to use pointers, however, they should usually be
avoided if they are not needed. The optmiser works best when it
comes to datasets. It's not very good to do things very quickly using
the step-by-step method.
5 / Make sure you have a maintenance plan
You can create maintenance plans in SQL Server to help you
refresh indexes and update statistics. In MySQL, this can be done
using the OPTIMIZE TABLE commands as part of the batch process.
Ensuring that maintenance plans are implemented helps to control
fragmentation of the index. Updated statistics help to ensure that the
optimiser can use the best query plan.
The virtual private database function
Oracle Enterprise Database11g has a virtual private database
function that provides security functions to your database. A virtual
private database or VPD is appropriate in situations where
associated database roles and standard object privileges cannot
guarantee the security requirements of the application. You can
define simple or complex virtual private database rules, depending
on the level of security you need to bring to the database.
You can create a secure virtual private database to protect it
from unauthorised access. A virtual private database is used in an
environment where multiple users access the same database, and
only certain information must be available for each group. The best
way to secure your virtual private database is to implement security
features when it is created or designed. The security level is high
because you get a database instead of controlling it with another
program.
The best way is to associate security policies with views and
database tables. It is designed to enforce a security policy, whether
you access the data directly or indirectly. Also, you can define
security policies for a set of statements, which avoids developing
individual security policies for all accounts. It is also possible to apply
multiple systems to a group of views, synonyms, or tables.
The new feature, known as Column Mask, is also used with a
virtual private database that solves the disadvantages of column
validity. The main security issue for the virtual private database in the
column was that it restricted lines containing data for sensitive
columns. But when masking columns, the data of all these lines are
displayed where the delicate columns have a value of zero. This
way, additional information is available to authorised users, and only
confidential information is hidden.
A virtual private database can be secured by providing security
at the column or row level by combining the VPD function and the
context of the application. Protecting such standards is called Fine
Granular Access Control or FGAC, where you can also secure the
row or column separately. Whenever a user executes a DML or DDL
query, Oracle Database dynamically modifies it before searching or
manipulating the data. However, the user does not know the security
procedures followed because they are transparent to the users.
Whenever the authorised data are consulted, only the approved
information is displayed. Also, you do not have to change the code of
your app every time you want to change the security rules. Change
the virtual private database policy to grant or deny access to a
portion of the database. Regardless of how you use a source to
connect to the database, whether you use an application, SQL, or a
Web interface, the security of your application can never be infected.
 Bases of the database
The basics of the database must be prepared for all
professionals and computer users. Database should be actualised to
meet the client’s requirement.
Slang comes to you.
Mention everything about the terms of the database.
[1] Entity and entity relations:
people:
An entity is a place, an object or something for which we can
collect information.
Just like a student is an entity, we can collect information such
as name, phone number and address. Here, the name, phone and
address are attributes of the 'student' entity.
Relational diagram:
Also called the E-R diagram. An E-R chart is a graphical
representation of a subject, its attribute, and the relationship
between objects.
[2] Data and database:
data:
The data is an information unit.
For example, if the employee's name is "John", "John" is a fact.
Your phone number is that
'+9109880959786' is a fact. The attribute value of any entity can
be said as data.
Therefore, the data are known facts that can be recorded and
have an implicit meaning. For example, name, phone number,
address, etc.
 The data is plural and "Date" is the only form of data.
information:
When a dataset is collected significantly and a report is
generated.
It's like taking the example of an employee of Ivan. The name is
"John", the phone number is
"+9109880959786", the code is "DBA". So, if we analyse them
together, we will get this information
'John' is an employee with a phone number '+9109880959786'
and is marked as
"DBA".
Then, when a set of data is collected, information is generated.
Although this information is not intended for the computer, it is
only for the network.
Database:
A database is a set of linked data.
A database is a logically consistent collection of data with
inherent meaning. Random selection of data cannot be considered
as a database. Just like a telephone log is a database, but if stored
randomly, it can not be registered as a database.
The database can be generated manually or by computer. The
library catalogue is also a database.
[3] Database Management System (DBMS):
A database management system is a set of programs and tools
for users to create and manage a database.
The DBMS is also a general purpose software that facilitates the
process of defining, building and manipulating databases for various
applications.
Features of the database management system:
 (1) Self-description.
(2) Isolation of the program and abstraction of the data.
(3) Supports multiple views of the database.
[4] Benefits of the DBMS:
1- Reduction control:
Provisions in all database models can prevent redundant data
storage.
2- Security for unauthorised access:
This is a feature in the database that no one can modify or store
in the database without an appropriate login. Security cannot be
achieved with a direct (sequential) approach.
3- Make sure that the database objects are permanently stored:
The database can be used as permanent storage of software
objects, databases, and database structures. This means that a
complicated programming language object could be stored in a
database. This allows greater flexibility and compatibility of the
database in programming languages.
4- Allow conclusions and actions with the rules:
The inference is a method of defining a deduction rule to
retrieve new data from a stored database. This database is called a
deductible database. In other words, there must be some methods to
provide information by logically implementing a stored database.
6- Allow multiple user interfaces:
The DBMS can ensure the simultaneous performance of
different parts of the database. In this approach, the DBMS also
resolves dead ends and other anomalies.
5- Backup and restore:
Database management systems have the appropriate
mechanism to back up your entire database and recover it in the
event of a disaster. There are disaster recovery methods in all
DBMSs.
[5] Model data:
A data model is a set of conceptual tools for describing data,
their relationships, semantics, and consistency constraints. There
are the following data models:
(1) Hierarchical model
(2) Network model
(3) Relational model
(4) Relational object model
Describing all this would be out of context. You should know that
the relational model is known for all of this. A more recent
implementation of the DBMS follows an object-oriented model like
Oracle, Sybase and SQL Server.
[6] Logical and physical independence of data:
Data independence is the quality of the DBMS that allows you to
modify the database so that changing one level does not affect the
other level. For example, a change in physical memory (internal
standard) does not affect the structure of the database (conceptual
level).
(1) Independence of logical data:
Ability to modify the logical structure without changing the
external and internal database schemas.
(2) Independence of physical data:
Ability to modify the physical schema without any modification of
the conceptual schema of the database.
[7] Languages of the database:
The following database languages are available:
[1] DDL (data definition language)
 [2] DML (data management language)
[3] DCL (data control language)
[1] DDL (data definition language)
This is the language used to create the database structure and
associated schema. This language deals with the definition of the
complete architecture of the database.
DDL is used to define and handle all objects in a database. For
example, to create databases and to create security objects
representing the complete database.
[2] DML (data management language)
Insertion, update, elimination and selection activities are related
to the database manipulation language.
DML is used to select, insert, update, and delete data on objects
defined by DDL.
[3] DCL (database management language)
The database control language refers to the management of
consistency, access permissions, and other database controls.
It is important that you know other languages. They are -
VDL (see definition language): Provision of resources to display
the conceptual schema of a database for an external layer of three-
level schemas.
Storage Definition Language (SDL): Provides a way to change
or modify an internal database schema.
[8] Relational database:
The relational database framework is based on the concept of
implementing a database with mathematical set theory. In this
model, a collection of tables is called a set theory relationship. A
data matrix view contains rows and columns in which the rows
represent a set of attributes of an individual entity and the columns
represent an attribute of an object.
 The model is also called a relational database model if it follows
a set of rules defined by Dr E. F. Codd. There are 12 rules of Dr.
Coda In all likelihood, only Oracle should take care of it. Sybase
offers the best performance, which is a lot easier to configure for
Oracle.
SQL:
SQL is a structured query language. It's an excuse like
"following", but "Ess-Que-El" is good too.
It was initially called Dr E. F. Codd, who referee to it as
Structured English Consultation.
Language (S E Que L) in extension.
SQL is based on a relational model. Almost all database
implementations in the world are in a relational model; Sybase, SQL
Server, Oracle, and
DB2 is a well-known implementation of the relational model. But
these also remain in the relational object model category.
Microsoft Access does not have to be a relational model. Some
types of relational databases use this. But this can not be
considered purely relational database.
SAP audit risks of custom SAP tables
The SAP system includes several tables. All data entered in the
SAP system is stored in tables in the associated database. In the
SAP application, you can view the data through tabular transactions.
When a user has unrestricted tables of transaction views, he can see
all the data in SAP tables. This is a significant risk of a SAP audit
because confidential information may be exposed. For example, if a
SAP customer is competent, he or she can access the HR table and
retrieve all company compensation information or obtain price
information for all products manufactured by the company. This type
of security breach could be used to blackmail the company, or the
data could be sold to competitors.
 SAP audit with SAP groups
SAP has grouped the tables by authorisation group. For
example, if the tables belong to the HRD functional area, they are
grouped by HRPA authorisation group. The SAP security team can
use this table classification with authorisation groups to limit the role
to a specific SAP table. It is recommended that you assign all
custom tables created by the client to the authorisation group.
Securing the table in an SAP role
Roles can be limited to viewing or maintaining a specific table
with the S_TABU_DIS authorisation object. This object controls what
can be done with the data in the table. This object has two fields;
one is a permission group and the other is an activity. This group is
an attribute of a schedule assigned based on the data type in the
table. However, no navigation transactions in the tables should be
given to users. These transactions will provide users with open
access. It is recommended that you create a custom transaction and
associate the table with a custom transaction.
Assign authorisation to a custom table
If a client has many custom tables that are not assigned to a
group, they should be attached to the appropriate authorisation
groups. Once you have the list of tables, the SAP audit team will
consult the functional and development teams to identify the group to
which this table belongs. These authorisation groups may be an
existing or creating a new authorisation group. SAP Audit Best
Practice involves blocking an SAP table with a custom transaction to
ensure that the user who receives the custom transaction can view
or manage only that particular table.
6
CHAPTER
 How to write SQL triggers, stored procedures,
and functions
Disks are stored procedures that are triggered when data is changed
in an underlying table. They can evaluate the data added to a table
for validation purposes or make changes based on the value of that
data. You can also use them to run a separate stored procedure or
to cancel a changed data or a completed transaction.
In earlier versions of SQL Server, deactivation operations were
used to maintain referential integrity. In the current versions,
restrictions and foreign keys are used to perform most of these
tasks. However, deactivators are still used to perform more complex
functions than those available for the latest built-in tools, such as
complex column constraints, evaluation of tables in other databases,
complicated defaults or cascading routines involving multiple
changes in multiple tables.
Triggers are created in Corporate Manager or Query Analyzer
via the Object Browser. There are also trigger templates in Query
Analyzer (Edit | Insert trigger). Disabled ones can be created with the
following syntax:
CREATE TRIGGER trigger-name
ON {table | see
[WITH REGISTRATION]
{
{{FOR | AFTER | INSTEAD OF} {[INSERT] [,] [ADJUST]}
[WITH APPENDIX]
[NOT FOR REPLICATION]
Eat
UPDATE (column)
[{Y | O} UPDATE (column)]
[... not]
U | IF (COLUMNS_UPDATED () {bitwise_operator}
updated_bitmask)
{Operator_Comparator} column_bitmask [... n]
}]
sql_statement [... n]
}
}
There are two different triggers: AFTER and INSTEAD OF.
Once the deactivators are AFTER; the triggers are activated after the
data modification, insertion, deletion or update. If the information is
inadequate as defined in the trigger, the change can be returned to
its state before the data was changed. After the TRIGGER
activators, they cannot be displayed and cannot be used in more
than one table. Also, you cannot refer to the text and image columns
after the trigger. Give to take.
Trigger Follow TRIGGERS can be nested at 32 deep levels and
can be named recursively, always at 32 degrees.
Instead of the INSTEAD OF triggers, perform the validation
before the change. However, instead of INSTEAD OF, the triggers
can be used in plain sight. Do not allow recursion, and you can only
have one grid INSTEAD OF per table. And you cannot use a network
INSTEAD OF with a waterfall.
SQLPro SQL Editor
SqlPro is a simple editor for six accessible databases (Access,
SQL Server, Oracle, PostgreSQL, MySQL and SqlLite). It uses a
three-panel interface to allow you to navigate the data. On the left, a
tree follows all the databases that you have connected and their
objects that carry data (the passwords are stored in an encrypted
configuration file). Above is a panel for writing SQL and below is a
grid to show the results. You can run a single statement or script
from multiple accounts and see what happens on the network. The
associated log tab is used to track messages in the database. The
system displays only the last returned result. The previous result
sets are overwritten.
The functions here include SQL colour coding (albeit a bit
standard and a bit noisy), objects slipped into the SQL panel to
prevent you from writing your name and SQL recovery for things
such as ‘stored procedures and disabled by’. The database sent and
a unique creation of SELECT and INSERT statements can be
otbained. You can save SQL files and print result sets.
SQL stored procedures
In simple terms, "the procedures used are a set of already
written SQL statements that are stored in the database". If you rerun
the same request, it would be logical to include it in the procedure.
Also, you can store all the logic in the database and use a
simple command to call the stored process. Later, if you decide to
migrate from ASP to Java, J2EE will change the application layer, as
will most of the business logic of the database.
They start with the stored procedures.
Basic conditions to start:
1. A database management system (Ex: SQL Server 2005)
2. A database integrated into the database management
system. (Example: Demo database)
3. A query parser built into SQL Server 2005. No problem!
Write down your first stored procedure.
Then, we would start our countdown, creativity, all that matters!
1. Open SQL Server 2005
2. Right-click -> Create Database.
3. Enter the new database name (dsp_users).
 4. Expand dsp_users now, right-click the tables, and create a
new table with the name of the table as follows:
dbo.emp_users with the column names below:
Join me nvarchar (50)
Upass Nvarchar (50)
Vessel address (50)
you help
Uid you
5 Expand Now Programmability -> Right-click History
Procedures and select New History Procedure.
Now, here, the top section is useful for comments on the stored
procedure, a changelog and other relevant information. Although it's
not mandatory, but it's just a good programming habit.
======================= === =======
- Author: Tauseef
- Create the date: 9/3/09
- Description: Stored procedure to display results
========================= === =====
Now, just below, you will create your procedure. Start with the
word CREATE PROCEDURE written as follows:
CREATION PROCEDURE usp_display
/*
We will put the variables here if they are.
*/
Eat
/*
This is where the current SQL statements will be written below.
 */
To start
- SET NOCOUNT ON added to avoid additional result sets
- interferes with SELECT statements.
ESTABLISHED ACCOUNT
- Insert the declarations for the procedure here
SELECT * from emp_users
End
Here, the name of the procedure is usp_display. Usp defines
"stored procedure by the user". The above method displays all
records in the emp_users table.
Now in the menu tab (Click Query-> Run), it says "The
command has been successfully executed". Therefore, you have
created your first stored procedure.
How to execute the stored procedure created?
It's simple! Open a new query and type the following
usp_display command that we ordered and execute. The records in
the emp_users table will be displayed.
Types of advanced SQL queries
Database programming using SQL (structured query structure)
is essential for creating dynamic websites. Database servers are
becoming more powerful, involved in computing rather than just
passive data. This means that the database servers themselves
have performed some of the compatibility functions. This has been
possible through the use of advanced types of SQL queries. Let's
talk about the types of advanced SQL queries.
1. SQL problems when using the "For group" closure
Let's see a table that stores the names, marks and themes of
the students. Writing a simple question to retrieve the corresponding
names and trademarks is no trick at all. However, if the requirement
is to display student names associated with average scores in all
subjects, a simple SQL query will not suffice. One solution is to
recover healthy data and perform the required tasks at the enterprise
level. If you do not know it yet, it is the management layer where the
server code resides (code written in languages such as PHP, J2EE,
Dot Net). But if you know how to write questions with the "Group by"
clause, you can create the compositions in the database layer.
2. SQL disables
Server programming languages, such as PHP, J2EE, etc., refer
to the request. However, it may happen that a particular question
must be asked based on the result of a previous question. These
types of automated functions that use SQL triggers are useful in
highly competitive (busy) applications.
3. SQL stored procedures
Optimising the number of lines of code is essential in improving
productivity and reducing transfer time. One of the factors that
influence the number of lines of code is the size of SQL queries.
Stored procedures can significantly reduce the number of lines of
code required by SQL queries. These are modular functions that can
be called from anywhere with specific parameters. With stored
procedures, the code becomes modular and reusable.
4. Added SQL functions
The added functions help programmers perform operations on a
series of data in a column. They can work simultaneously in multiple
files. 'Media ()' is an example of the aggregate function. This function
when applied to a series of columns would give a calculated average
of all the values. In the absence of such functionality, the
management layer programmer will calculate the percentage as
follows. 1) In the first part, the programmer must count the number of
columns to use. 2) In the second part, the programmer must delete
the null values of the selected columns. 3) Finally, you must
calculate the average using mathematical formulas.
SQL Function
 All critical implementations of SQL databases, such as Microsoft
SQL, Oracle and MySQL, provide a comprehensive set of features,
as well as the ease for users to create their goals. The content of this
lesson applies to all SQL systems.
SQL functions: what is it?
SQL functions are simply subroutines that are typically used and
reused in all SQL database applications to process or manipulate
data. All SQL database systems have DDL (Data Definition
Language) and DML (Data Manipulation Language) tools to support
the creation and maintenance of databases.
DDL is responsible for functions related to database creation,
modification and maintenance, while DML is responsible for the
tasks associated with data manipulation, which essentially means
that DML is the programming interface for the database. The
database, Of data, Data DML, like other programming languages,
consists of instructions for processing or calculating data in the
database. DML also supports functions called SQL functions. SQL
functions are small programs that can have zero or more input
parameters but can return only one value.
SQL classification and scope
There are several ways to classify SQL functions. The simplest
is to break it down into user-defined features. Built-in functions are
standard functions already provided by the SQL database system.
Most of these functions are clearly defined in the ANSI (National
Institute of America) SQL standards. These integrated functions can
be divided into global functions of scalar functions. In the meantime,
user-defined functions are functions created by the user for a
specific purpose. User-defined functions can return a single value or
set of values.
The use of features has several advantages. The most common
ones are listed here:
Service must be written once and can be reused multiple times.
This helps to save time and effort and is compatible with modular
programming.
 Its features improve the function and efficiency of the database.
SQL functions are cached before use.
The logic of complex programming can be divided into several
smaller and simpler functions, which makes it easier to know and
maintain.
 ~BOOK 2~
“SQL from Beginner to
Intermediate. The Latest Guide to
Mastering SQL (2020 Edition)”
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 © Copyright 2019 by Johnny Page
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 CHAPTER ONE
SUMMARY ON THE BASICS OF SQL

What is SQL?
Structured Query Language (SQL) is a specific programming
language for querying databases. Most small databases and
industrial databases are accessible using SQL statements. SQL is
the ANSI and ISO standard. However, many database products that
support SQL do so with proprietary standard language extensions.
Web applications can use user-supplied inputs to create custom
SQL statements for dynamic Web requests.
What is SQL injection?
An SQL injection is a technique that exploits a security
vulnerability that occurs in a web application database layer.
Weakness is present when the user input is poorly filtered because
of literal escape strings embedded in SQL statements or if the user
input is not typed and therefore starts unexpectedly. It is an example
of a more general vulnerability class that can occur whenever a
programming or scripting language is integrated with another.
"SQL injection" is a subset of uncontrolled/uninfected user input
vulnerabilities ("buffer overflows" are different subgroups). The idea
is to convert the application so as to execute the unscheduled SQL
code. If the form naively creates SQL strings when you move and
then runs them, then it's easy to create real surprises.
Many of a company's web servers are compromised only by
SQL injection, including by big names that I would not want to
mention here, and you can effortlessly search them on the Internet.
What is a blind SQL injection?
This type of attack is called a blind SQL injection attack because
the attacker cannot exploit detailed error messages from the server
or other sources of application information. Getting the correct SQL
syntax is usually the most complex part of the hidden SQL injection
process and it can take a lot of trial and error. But by adding more
status to the SQL statement and access the results of the Web
application, the attacker will eventually determine if the application is
vulnerable to SQL injection.
A blind SQL injection is a particular case that affects the security
of web developers or website owners. Although, I may think that
everything on the server is strictly protected, but a blind SQL
injection attack will quietly play the truth or the consequences on the
Web server. This type of attack, despite taking a lot of time, is the
major one that provides the most reliable security hole. This is
because not only does an attacker receive access, but it also
provides him with a considerable amount of knowledge about the
database and can potentially access the server's file system. This
type of attack is automatic and requires the right amount of
configuration in order to succeed. But once you do, it does not take
much effort to repeat it.
 What is an SQL injection error message?
Web applications often use SQL queries with client-supplied
entries in the WHERE clause to retrieve data from the database.
When a Web application executes such requests without checking or
analysing the information provided by the user to ensure that they
are not harmful, SQL injection attacks can occur. When sending
unexpected data, an attacker can generate and send SQL queries to
a Web application database. The SQL injection vulnerability test is
performed by sending application data that produces an invalid SQL
query. If the server returns an error message, then this information
can be used to attempt uncontrolled access to the database. This is
the footing of one of the most successful SQL injection attacks.
Hiding the error messages does not stop the SQL injection
attack. What usually happens is that the attacker will use the
knowledge gained from the failure of this attack to change tactics.
What they are for is a blind injection of SQL.
Why SQL injection?
When a Web application fails to sanitise the user-supplied entry
successfully, the attacker can change the construction of the SQL
helper statements. When an attacker modifies an SQL statement,
the process will run with the same permissions as the component
that executed the command. (For example, database server, web
application server, web server, etc.). The effect of this attack may
allow attackers to gain complete control of the base
When only port 80 is open, your most reliable vulnerability
scanner cannot return anything useful, and you ought to know that
the administrator always repairs your server, this is the point at which
a malicious hacker would become a hacker of the network. An SQL
injection is a case of hacking that requires nothing more than port 80
and can work even if the administrator is satisfied. It attacks a web
application (such as ASP, JSP, PHP, CGI, etc.) instead of a Web
server or services running in the operating system.
 SQL injection types:
There are four primary categories of SQL injection attacks in the
database layer of a Web application.
1. SQL manipulation: Manipulation is the procedure of modifying
SQL statements by using various operations such as UNION.
Another way to implement SQL injection using the SQL manipulation
method is to change the location of the SQL statement clause to
produce different results.
2. Code insertion: Code insertion is the process of inserting new
SQL statements or database commands into a vulnerable SQL
statement. One of the code injection attacks is to add the SQL
Server EXECUTE command to a sensitive SQL statement. This type
of attack is only possible if multiple SQL statements are supported
per database query.
3. Function Call Injection: The function call injection is the
process of inserting multiple database function calls into a vulnerable
SQL statement. These function calls can request the operating
system or manipulate data in a database.
4. Buffer overflow: The injection of a calling function causes
buffer overflows. Fixes are available for most commercial and open
source databases. This type of attack is possible when the server is
not being repaired.
SQL injections prevention techniques:
Mitigating the vulnerability to SQL injection would be one of two,
i.e. you use stored procedures with called statements or annotations
prepared with dynamic SQL commands. Whichever method is
adopted; data verification is very essential.
A. Checking the entry.
Data recovery is key. The best way to recover data is to use a
collective denial, a regular expression. Write specific filters. Use
numbers, numbers, and letters as much as possible. If you need to
include punctuation, convert it to HTML encoding. Then, "convert" or
"become"> "For example, if a user enters an email address, allow
only @, -, And _ with numbers and letters that will only be used after
being sent, and then convert to your HTML replacements.
B. Use the prepared statement.
Prepared declarations must be used when stored procedures
cannot be used for any reason, and dynamic SQL commands must
be used.
Use the prepared statement to send pre-assembled SQL
statements with one or more parameters. The reserved parameters
in the prepared declaration are represented by parameters. and they
are also called link variables. The prepared statement is usually
immune to SQL injection attacks because the database will only use
the value of the link variable and will not interpret the contents of the
variable in any way. PL / SQL and JDBC provide prepared
instructions. Prepared statements should be widely used for safety
and performance reasons. vs Use minimum privileges.
Verify that the application user has specific minimum rights on
the database server. If the user of the application in the database
uses ROOT / SA / dbadmin / dbo in the database; then it should be
reconsidered if the user of the application needs such a large
amount of privilege or can reduce it. Do not allow the application
that’s been used to access the stored procedures of the system also
allow access to those created by the user. d. Stored procedures.
To protect an application against SQL injection, developers
should never allow clients to change the syntax of their SQL
statements. The best protection is to isolate the SQL Web
application completely. All SQL statements required by the
application must be stored in stored procedures and stored on the
database server. The application must execute stored procedures
using a secured interface such as callable statement of JDBC or
Command Object of ADO.
SQL is a language that allows you to work with a database. With
SQL, you can insert records, update records, and delete files. You
can also make new database objects, such as databases and tables.
And you can delete them as well.
The most advanced features includes creating stored
procedures (independent scripts), views (pre-prepared queries), and
setting permissions for database objects (such as tables, stored
procedures, and images).
Although SQL is the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) standard, there are many different versions of SQL. Various
database providers have their language variants.
According to the ANSI standard, they must at least support
essential commands such as DELETE, INSERT, UPDATE, WHERE,
etc. Also, you will find that many service providers have language
extensions features that are only compatible with their database
system.
Also, Transact-SQL is an extension of the ANSI standard and
provides additional functionality.
Use SQL.
To execute SQL queries in this guide, you will need a database
management system such as MySQL, Oracle, Microsoft Access,
SQL Server, and so on.
If you are unfamiliar with database management systems, check
out my Microsoft Access tutorial, my SQL Server tutorial, and my
MySQL tutorial.
If you need to create a site with a database containing content,
you will usually need the following knowledge:
Server-side scripting language (i.e. ColdFusion, PHP, ASP /
.NET).
Database query language (for example, SQL).
Tabular mark-up language and client-side style sheets (for
example, HTML / CSS).
 Although you may be very involved in SQL, you can also
accomplish a lot with a few SQL statements. When using SQL in a
location, you will often find or select a record, insert a record, update
a record, or delete a record. Fortunately, SQL has commands to
perform each of these actions.
We start by learning that SQL stands for Structured Query
Language and is the ANSI standard. We then determine the basic
SQL syntax, before switching to the SELECT command, which is
probably the most used statement.
We learned that there are several keywords and aggregation
functions that can be included in SQL statements, such as WHERE,
TIP, DISTINCT, and so on. It's all part of DML (Data Management
Language).
Then, by covering the INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE
statements, we learned that there are different commands in the
database which can be hired to perform administration tasks. For
example, there are commands to create database objects (CREATE
DATABASE, CREATE TABLE, etc.) and controls to modify (or
modify) database objects (ALTER DATABASE, ALTER TABLE,
etc...). These commands are part of DDL (Data Definition
Language).
Where is next?
If you want to learn SQL programming, you must download the
database administration system (if you have not already done so)
and execute SQL statements. You must also read the database
documentation to see the controls, functions, or features of the
property. For example, does your database have an automatic
programmer? Can a database server connect to a database on
another server? How to back up my database system?
Check out my SQL Server Guide to learn how to work with
databases on SQL Server. Most tasks on SQL Server can be done
using the GUI or using SQL scripts. This is a great chance to test
your knowledge of SQL.
 What is SQL? SQL means "Structured Query Language" and
can be articulated as "SQL" or "Suite." SQL is defined as a query
language used to access and modify information in one or more
tables and rows of databases.
SQL database design
IBM developed SQL for the first time in 1970. Also, it is the ANSI
/ ISO standard. It has become the standard universal language used
by most relational database management systems (RDBMS). Many
of the RDBMS systems are Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, Sybase,
and so on.
Most of them provided deployment extensions, improving their
RDBMS system and making it a powerful tool. All of these RDBMS
systems use the popular SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT,
WHERE SQL commands in a similar format.
SQL database table
The SQL database is built from multiple tables. In a company,
SQL tables would be used to divide and simplify different business
areas: a customer table, one for suppliers, employees, and so on.
SQL database table columns
Each SQL table is composed of several columns, called fields,
and is executed at the top of the table. The columns or SQL fields
have their contents (object /data/information) defined in the types of
characters; as text, date, numeric, integer, length, to list a few.
SQL database table rows
Each line of the SQL table that references the record is in the
left column of the table. The SQL record line will contain a data string
containing the data corresponding to each column field at the top.
Therefore, in the "customer table," each "customer record" would
consist of a line with information for the customer identification
number, customer name, address, phone, email, etc.
SQL Commands: Some SQL Encoding Instructions?
 Some of the SQL commands used in SQL code programming
are a SELECT statement, UPDATE statement, INSERT INTO
account, DELETE comment, WHERE clause, ORDER BY clause,
SQL GROUP BY clause, subquery clauses, unions, views, GROUP
functions, indexes, etc.
 My SQL database
SQL is a non-procedural English language that processes data
in sets of records, instead of one record at a time. Several SQL
functions are:
Saving data.
Modify the data.
Recover data.
Change the information.
Delete data.
Create tables and other database objects.
Delete data.
SQL commands:
SQL commands are instructions encoded in SQL statements
that are used to communicate with the database in order to perform
specific tasks, operations, functions, and queries with data.
SQL commands can be used not only to search the database,
but also to perform other functions such as creating tables, adding
data to tables, or modifying data, creating data table, and setting
permissions for users. SQL commands are grouped into four main
categories, depending on their functionality:
Data Definition Language (DDL): These SQL commands are
used to create, modify, and delete the structure of database objects.
The controls are CREATE, ALTER, DROP, RENAME and
TRUNCATE.
Data manipulation language (DML): These SQL commands are
used to store, retrieve, modify and delete data.
These data manipulation language commands are SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
 Transaction Control Language (TCL): These SQL commands
are used to manage changes that are affecting the data. These
commands are COMMIT, ROLLBACK and SAVEPOINT.
Data Control Language (DCL): These SQL commands are used
to secure database objects. These commands are GRANT and
REVOKE.
CHAPTER TWO
 SQL SELECT
SQL SELECT statement
The most commonly used SQL command is the SELECT entry. The
SQL SELECT statement is used to find or retrieve data from the
table in a database. The query can extract information from specific
columns or all columns of a table. To make a basic SQL SELECT
articulation, you should determine the name of the column (s) and
the name of the table. The complete query is called the SQL
SELECT statement.
Databases store the data for later retrieval. Ever wondered how
this is accomplished? The SELECT SQL command does the job.
That's it; get the data from the tables in the database. This is
part of the computer language that is responsible for consulting the
database.
Syntax SQL SELECT
This is the most used SQL command, and its general syntax is
as follows:
SELECTION [DISTINCT | ALL] {* | [fieldExpression [AS
newName]} FROM table_name [alias] [condition WHERE]
[table_name GROUP BY] [condition HAVING] ORDER BY
name_zone (s).
RIGHT HERE
SELECT is an SQL keyword that allows a database to know
how to recover data.
[CLASS | ALL] are optional keywords that can be used to adjust
the results returned by the SQL SELECT statement. If nothing is
specified, ALL is considered the default value.
{* | [fieldExpression [AS newName]} leastways one part must be
nominative, "*" all fields of the specified table name are selected, the
field expression performs calculations on specified fields, such as
adding numbers or merging two sets of fields into one.
FROM table_name is required and must contain at least one
table. A comma must separate multiple tables or associated with the
keyword JOIN.
OR the requirement is optional, and it can be used to specify
criteria in the result set returned by the query.
GROUP BY is used to collect records with the same field
values.
The HAVING condition is used to specify criteria when you use
the GROUP BY keyword.
ORDER BY is used to determine the sort order of results.
The asterisk is used to select all columns in the table. An
example of a simple SELECT statement is similar to the one shown
below.
SELECTION * FROM `members`;
The previous statement selects all fields in the member table.
The semicolon ends with a comment. This is optional, but it is
considered as a good practice to finalise your accounts this way.
Syntax of the SQL SELECT statement:
CHOOSE THE LIST OF COLUMNS FROM THE NAME OF
THE TABLE
[WHERE clause]
[GROUP BY clause]
[HAVING clause]
[ORDER BY PROVISION];
Table_name is the figure of the table from which the data is
extracted.
 Column list contains one or more columns from which data is
retrieved.
The code in parentheses is optional.
Data database details table;
FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME gets the subsets.
100 Rahul Sharma 10 Cricket Science.
101 Anjali Bhagwat 12 Mathematics Football.
102 Stephen Fleming 09 Cricket Science.
103Shekar Gowda 18 Badminton Math.
104 Priya Chandra 15 The shah economy.
NOTE: These database tables are used here to explain SQL
commands better. Tables can have other columns and different data.
For example, consider the student details table. To select the
name of all students, the query will be:
CHOOSE the name of student details;
SELECTION instructions: syntax.
NOTE: SQL commands are case-sensitive. The previous
SELECT statement can also be written as
"Select the name of student details;"
You can also download data from multiple columns. For
example, choose the name of each student.
CHOOSE first and last name, DE student details;
You can also use clauses such as WHERE, GROUP BY,
HAVING, ORDER BY with a SELECT statement. We will discuss
these commands in the following chapters.
NOTE: Only SELECT and FROM comments are required in the
SQL SELECT command other clauses such as WHERE, PO
ORDER, PO GROUP, MUST be optional.
 How to use aspect in the SQL SELECT statement?
Expressions combine many arithmetic operators and can be
used in the SELECT, WHERE and ORDER BY clauses of SELECT
SQL statements.
Here we explain how to use expressions in an SQL SELECT
statement. When using the terms of the WHERE clause and PO
ORDER, they will be described in their sections.
Operators are measured in a specific order of precedence when
multiple arithmetic operators are used in an expression. The
qualification order is in parentheses, division, multiplication, addition
and subtraction. The scope is carried out from left to right.
SELECTION Sample report?
If we wanted to display the first and last name of the employee
together, an SQL selection statement would be presented.
SELECT surname and first name + '' + name of the worker;
Departure:
name_name + '' + name
-------------------------------------------------
Rahul Sharma
Anjali Bhagwat
Stephen Fleming
Shekar Gowda
Priya Chandra
You can also add aliases as follows.
CHOOSE first name + '' + last name AS employee name;
Departure:
nom_emp
-------------------------------------------------
Rahul Sharma
Anjali Bhagwat
Stephen Fleming
Shekar Gowda
Priya Chandra
 Alias field names
The previous example returned the union code as the field call
for our results. Imagine we want to use a more descriptive field call
in our result set. To do this, we would use the column alias name.
Here is the basic syntax for the column alias name.
SELECT `column_name | value | expression `[AS]` alias_name`;
RIGHT HERE
"SELECT` column name | value | expression" "Is an ordinary
SELECT entry that can be a column name, a value, or a phrase."
"[AS]" is an optional keyword preceding the alias name that
indicates the expression, value, or name of the field that will be
returned.
"alias_name`" is the name of the alias we want to return in the
result as the field name.
Main query with a more meaningful column name.
CHOOSE Concat (`title`, '(', 'director', ')') AS 'Concat',
'year_released` FROM` movies`;
Get a list of members that shows the year of birth.
Suppose we wanted to get a list of all members showing the
number of members, the full names, and the year of birth. We can
use the LEFT string purpose to retrieve the year of delivery from the
date of delivery. The script below helps us do that.
CHOOSE `member_number`, ` full name ', LEFT (`date_life`, 4)
AS` year_from` FROM members;
RIGHT HERE.
"LEFT (` date_of_birth`, 4) "The LEFT string function accepts a
birth date as a parameter and returns only four characters to the left.
 "AS` year_of_birth`" is the name of the alias column that will
appear in our results. Note that the AS keyword is optional, you can
skip it, and the query will continue to work.
SQL using MySQL Workbench.
Now, we will use the MySQL desktop to generate a script that
will show all the field names in our category table.
1. Right-click on the category table. Click on "Select lines - limit
of 1000."
2. MySQL Workbench will automatically create an SQL query
and paste it into the editor.
3. The result of the inquiry will be shown.
Why use the SELECT SQL command with MySQL Workbench?
You may be wondering now why the SQL SELECT command
allows you to write data from a database when you can use a tool
such as the MySQL desktop to get the same results without knowing
the SQL language. Of course, this is possible, but learning how to
use the SELECT command gives you more flexibility and control
over SQL SELECT statements.
The MySQL desktop is in the QBE category of the "Query for
example" tool. The intention is to help generate faster SQL
statements in order to increase user productivity.
Learning the SQL SELECT command can allow you to create
complex queries that are not easily generated using a query tool
such as MySQL Workbench.
To improve productivity, you can generate a code using a
MySQL desktop and customise it to your needs. This can only
happen if you know how SQL statements work!
The SQL SELECT keyword is used to enter data from a
database and it is the most used command.
The purest form has the syntax "SELECT * FROM table Name;"
 Expressions can also be used in the selection command.
Example "SELECT PRICE AND SALES PRICE."
The SQL SELECT command may have other optional
parameters such as WHERE, PO GROUP, HAVING, PO ORDER.
They will be discussed later.
The MySQL panel can help you develop SQL statements,
execute, and generate results in the same window.
The SELECT statement is probably the most used in SQL. Just
find the data from the database
SELECTION * OF INDIVIDUAL;
This SQL SELECT statement attempts to retrieve all columns
from a table called Individual.
How do we know that you are trying to select all the columns?
Since you use an asterisk (*). This is a quick way to choose all
columns: it's much easier than writing the names of all columns
(especially if there are many columns).
Of course, this SQL SELECT statement assumes that there is a
table named Individual. If it did not exist, an error would be created.
You can choose from several tables. To do this, separate each
table with a comma. You must also evaluate references to columns
by putting the name of the table in front, separated by a dot.
SQL statement.
We will select both the individual table and the occupied table.
We will classify prefixed column names with the name of their table
and their period.
SELECTION * individual, profession.
WHERE Individual. First Name = 'Homer'
I Individual. IndividualId = Occupation. IndividualId;
Show fewer columns.
 If you do not need to display all the columns, you can only select
the columns that interest you. This is functional programming
practise and the more columns you have to restore your program,
the more it will affect your performance.
To display only the columns that interest you, replace the
asterisk (*) with a comma-separated list of column names.
SQL statement.
CHOOSE IndividualId, last name, username.
From the individual.
WHERE First Name = 'Homer';
Select is the most used statement in SQL. The SQL SELECT
statement retrieves data from a database. We can bring the whole
table or according to certain specific rules. The returned data is
stored in the results table. This result table is also called the result
set.
With SELECT statements in the SELECT clause, we specify the
columns that we want to display in the query result and, optionally,
the column headings we want to see above the results table.
The selection clause is the first clause and it is one of the last
provisions of the select statement evaluated by the database server.
The reason is that before determining what to include in the final
result set, we need to know all the possible columns that can be
included in the last result set.
Basic syntax:
SELECTION of columns1, column2 of OF file name.
column1, column2: field names of the table.
table_name: where do we want to go.
This query will return all rows in the table with column1,
column2.
To retrieve a complete table or all fields from a table:
 SELECTION * FROM table_name;
Query to extract the ROLL_NO, NAME, AGE field from the
Student table:
SELECT ROLL_NO, NAME, OLD FROM PUPILS;
The SELECT statement extracts the data from the database.
The data is returned in a table structure called a result set.
SELECT is the most commonly used action in the database.
Syntax SQL SELECT.
The general syntax is as follows:
SELECT column names
FROM table-name
To select all columns to use *
SELECTION *
FROM table-name
SQL SELECT examples
Problem: List all clients
SELECTION *
Client
Results: 91 records.
Id First Name Last Name, Country.
1 Maria Anders Berlin Germany 030-0074321.
2 Ana Trujillo Mexico D.F. Mexico (5) 555-4729.
3 Antonio Moreno, Mexico DF Mexico (5) 555-3932.
4 Thomas Hardy London U K (171) 555-7788.
5 Christina Berglund Luleå Sweden 0921-12 34 65.
BUYER
ID card
Last name
Last name
1C
Country
Phone number
Problem: Indicate the name, first name and city of all customers.
SELECTION Surname, first name, city.
Client
Results: 91 records.
Name City
Maria Anders, Berlin.
Ana Trujillo, Mexico D.F.
Antonio Moreno, Mexico D.F.
Thomas Hardy, London.
Christina Berglund. Lulea.
CHAPTER THREE
 SQL WHERE
What is the WHERE clause?
We examine how to query data from a database using the SELECT
statement from the previous tutorial. The SELECT statement
returned all the results from the database table accessed.
However, we may want to limit the results of the query to a
specific state and the SQL WHERE clause is useful in such
situations.
WHERE is the syntax clause?
The basic syntax of the WHERE clause, when used in the
SELECT command, is as follows.
CHOOSE * FROM THE TABLE WE HAVE O the condition;
RIGHT HERE.
An introduction to the SQL Server WHERE clause.
When you use the SELECT statement to write data to a table,
you get all the rows in that table, which is quite unnecessary
because the application can only process one row or rows at a time.
To obtain tables from a table that satisfies one or more
conditions, use the WHERE clause as follows:
SELECT
Select_list
IZ
Table_name
Or
Condición_búsqueda;
In the WHERE clause, you stipulate a search condition to filter
the rows returned by the FROM clause. The WHERE clause returns
only rows that set TRUE to the search query.
 A search term is a logical expression or a combination of
several logical expressions. In SQL, a logical expression is often
named a predicate.
Note that SQL Server uses a three-line predicate logic in which
a logical expression can be evaluated as TRUE, FALSE, or
UNKNOWN. The WHERE clause will not return any rows in which a
predicate will be evaluated as FALSE or UNKNOWN.
Find the lines using a simple equality
The following statement retrieves all products with a category ID
1:
SELECT
Product ID
Product Name,
Category_id,
MODELO_AÑO,
Price list
IZ
Produccion.productos
Or
Category_id = 1
ORDER BY
List_price DESC;
Find lines that fulfil two conditions
The proceed example returns products that meets two
requirements: a category ID is one, and a template is 2018. Use
logical operator I to combine the two conditions.
SELECT
Product ID
Product Name,
Category_id,
MODELO_AÑO,
Price list
IZ
Produccion.productos
Or
Category_id = 1 and model_year = 2018
ORDER BY
List_price DESC;
 Find the lines using the comparison operator
The following statement finds products priced above $ 300 and
the model is 2018.
SELECT
Product ID
Product Name,
Category_id,
MODELO_AÑO,
Price list
IZ
Produccion.productos
Or
List_price> 300 AND model_year = 2018
ORDER BY
List_price DESC;
 Find lines that meet one of the two conditions
The following query searches for products with a price higher
than 3,000 or a 2018 template. Each product that fits one of these
conditions are included in the result set.
SELECT
Product ID
Product Name,
Category_id,
MODELO_AÑO,
Price list
IZ
Produccion.productos
Or
List_price> 3000 OR model_year = 2018
ORDER BY
List_price DESC;
Note that the OR operator has been used to combine
predicates.
 Find lines with a value between two values
The following statement finds products with prices between
1,899 and 1,999.99:
SELECT
Product ID
Product Name,
Category_id,
MODELO_AÑO,
Price list
IZ
Produccion.productos
Or
Price_list BETWEEN 1899.00 AND 1999.99
ORDER BY
List_price DESC;
In the list of advantages, find the lines that have a
value
The following example uses an IN operator to search for a
product with a list price of 299.99 or 466.99 or 489.99.
SELECT
Product ID
Product Name,
Category_id,
MODELO_AÑO,
Price list
IZ
Produccion.productos
Or
List_ amount IN (299.99, 369.99, 489.99)
ORDER BY
List_price DESC;
 Find lines whose rate contain a string
The following example uses the LIKE operator to search for a
product named Cruiser string:
SELECT
Product ID
Product Name,
Category_id,
MODELO_AÑO,
Price list
IZ
Produccion.productos
Or
_product name AS '% Cruiser%'.
ORDER BY
Price list;
"SELECT * FROM table Name" is a standard SELECT
statement.
"WHERE" is the keyword that limits our result set from the
selection query and "condition" is the filter that will be applied to the
results. The screen can be a range, a single value, or a subset.
Let's look at a practical example.
Suppose we wanted to get the details of a member table
concerning number 1, we would use the following script to do it.
SELECTION * FROM `members` WHERE` member number` =
1;
WHERE the clause is combined with the logical operator - Y
 The WHERE clause, when used with the AND logical operator,
executes only if ALL the specified filter criteria are met.
Now let's take a concrete example: Suppose we want to get a
list of all category of two films released in 2017, we would use the
scenario presented below.
SELECTION * FROM `movies` WHERE` category_id` = 2 AND`
year separated` = 2008;
Running the previous script in the MySQL workgroup with
"myflixdb" produces the following results.
Film_id director title year_electedcategory_id.
Forget Sarah Marshal Nicholas Stoller 2008 2.
WHERE the clause is combined with - OR the logical operator.
The WHERE clause, when used with the OR operator, executes
only if some or all of the specified filter criteria are met.
The following script gets all Category 1 or Category 2 movies.
SELECTION * FROM `movies` WHERE` category_id` = 1 OR
category_id` = 2;
Running the previous script in the MySQL workgroup with
"myflixdb" produces the following results.
Film_id director title year_electedcategory_id.
Pirates of the Caribbean 4 Rob Marshall 2011 1.
Forget Sarah Marshal Nicholas Stoller 2008 2.
WHERE the clause is combined with the keyword - IN
The WHERE clause, when used in conjunction with the IN
keyword, only affects rows whose values match the list of benefits
specified in the IN keyword. Help IN reduce the amount of OR
clauses you may use.
The following query contains rows in which the number of
members is 1, 2, or 3.
 SELECTION * FROM `members` WHERE` member_number` IN
(1,2,3);
OR the clause is combined with - NOT IN Keyword.
The WHERE clause, used in conjunction with the NOT IN
keyword, does not affect rows whose values match the list of values
specified in the NOT IN keyword.
The following query contains rows whose subscription number is
NOT 1, 2, or 3.
SELECTION * FROM `members` WHERE` member_number`
NOT IN (1, 2, 3);
OR the clause is combined with - COMPARISON OF THE
OPERATOR.
Comparison operators less than (), equal (=), non-similar (), can
be used with the Where clause
= Equal.
The following script gets all female members of a member table
using the peer comparison operator.
SELECTION * OF 'MEMBERS' OERE 'sex' = 'woman';
> More than.
The following script receives all payments higher than 2,000
from the payments table.
SELECTION * FROM `payment` WHERE`paid_account`> 2000;
<> Not equal.
The following script gets all movies whose category ID is not 1.
SELECTION * FROM `movies` WHERE` category_id` <> 1;
The SQL WHERE clause limits the number of rows affected by
a SELECT, UPDATE, or DELETE query.
The WHERE clause can be used in conjunction with logical
operators such as AND and OR, comparison operators such as =
etc.
When used with AND logical operators, all criteria must be
effectively met.
When used with an OR logical operator, one of the criteria must
be met.
The critical word IN is used to select the rows that correspond to
the list of values.
The WHERE keyword is used to obtain filtered data in the result
set.
O WH is the clause.
The WHERE clause is put-upon when you want to extract some
data from a table, excluding other irrelevant data. E.g. when you
want to display information about Grade 10 students only, you need
information about Grade 2 students. Obtaining information about all
students would increase query processing time.
Therefore, SQL provides a feature called the WHERE clause,
which we can use to limit the extracted data. The condition that you
specify in the WHERE clause filters the rows that are retrieved from
the table and provides you with only the rows that you expected. The
term WHERE can be used in conjunction with SELECT, DELETE,
UPDATE.
Syntax of the SQL WHERE clause.
Where do you compare the value of the comparison operator?
The syntax of the WHERE clause with the Select statement is
as follows:
SELECT LIST OF COLUMNS FROM NAME OF TABLE
Where is the condition;
Column or expression: is a column of a table or expression.
Comparison operator - operators like = <> etc.
 Value: any user value or column name for comparison.
E.g., to find the name of a student with ID 100, the query will be:
CHOOSE name_name, name_name.
O id = 100;
Comparability operators and logical operators are used in the
WHERE clause. These operators are discussed in the next section.
NOTE: Aliases defined for columns in a SELECT statement
cannot be used in a WHERE clause to identify conditions. Only
aliases made for tables can be used to call table columns.
How to use facial in the WHERE clause?
Facial can also be used in the WHERE clause of a SELECT
clause.
For example, consider a table of employees. If you want to
display the employee's name, current payroll, and a 20% increase
only for products whose pay increment exceeds 30,000, then the
SELECT statement can be written as follows.
SELECTION of names, salaries, wages * 1.2 AS new payment
of employees.
Where he pays * 1, 2> 30000;
It is used to obtain data according to specific criteria.
The keyword WHERE can also be used to filter the data by
correspondence.
Basic syntax:
CHOOSE COLUMN 1, COLUMN 2, FROM THE NAME OF THE
TABLE, OR IS THE FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF THE COLUMN;
column1, column2: fields of the table.
Table name: The name of the table.
Column name: Name of the area used to filter the data.
 Operator: Operation to take into account for filtering.
Value: The exact amount or model to obtain related data in the
result.
The WHERE clause permits you to limit the result set to those
that interest you.
In the last session, we used a SQL SELECT statement to recall
all records from a database table. This is amazing if we want to see
each file, but what happens if we are interested only in certain
information? For example, what would happen if we were only
interested in people whose names were Homer?
We could use the WHERE clause.
With WHERE, you can only filter records that satisfy the given
condition.
In fact, in the previous lesson, we used the WHERE clause to
select records in multiple tables. Here is a closer look at the WHERE
clause.
Syntax SQL WHERE
SELECTION * OF FAME_name.
WHERE column name = 'criteria';
An example
SQL statement where
INDIVIDUAL SELECTION *
WHERE First Name = 'Homer';
Multiple conditions
You can filter records based on various shapes using the
operator. Two known operators are AND and OR operators.
The And operator.
The AND operator filters the query only in records satisfying the
first and second conditions.
 INDIVIDUAL SELECTION *
WHERE Given name = 'Homer.'
And Name = 'Brown';
The Or operator.
The OR operator filters the query only in records that satisfy
either condition.
INDIVIDUAL SELECTION *
WHERE Given name = 'Homer.'
O Name = 'Ozzbourne';
CHAPTER FOUR
 SQL joins using WHERE or ON
Filtered in the ON clause
Typically, filtering is handled in the WHERE clause once the two
tables have already merged. You may want to filter one or both
tables before entering them. For example, you only want to create
table-to-table matches under certain circumstances.
Using the Crunchbase data, let's look at another LEFT JOIN
example from the previous lesson (this time we'll add the ORDER
BY clause):
SELECTION OF THE COMPANY. AS permanent link
companies_permalink.
Companies. name AS company name.
Acquisitions.company_permalink AS
acquisitions_permalink.
Acquisitions.acquired_at AS acquired_date.
From a company tutorial.crunchbase_companies.
LEFT JOIN acquisitions tutorial.crunchbase_
IN companies.permalink = acquisitions.company_permalink.
ORDER UP TO 1
Compare the following query to the previous query, and you will
see that all the contents of the tutorial.crunchbase_acquisitions table
are attached, except for the line for which company_permalink '/
company / 1000memories':
SELECTION OF THE COMPANY. AS permanent link
companies_permalink.
Companies. name AS company name.
Acquisitions.company_permalink AS
 acquisitions_permalink.
Acquisitions.acquired_at AS acquired_date.
From a company tutorial.crunchbase_companies.
LEFT JOIN acquisitions tutorial.crunchbase_
IN companies.permalink =
acquisitions.company_permalink.
Andacquire.company_permalink! = '/ Company / 1000memories'
ORDER UP TO 1
Filtered in the WHERE clause
If you move the same trickle to the WHERE clause, you will
detect that the screen appears once the tables are attached. The
result is that the 1000memories line is written to the original design,
and then wholly filtered (in both tables) in the WHERE clause before
the results are displayed.
SELECTION of companies. Permalink AS
companies_permalink.
Companies.name AS company name.
Acquisitions.company_permalink AS
acquisitions_permalink.
Acquisitions.acquired_at AS acquired_date.
From a company tutorial.crunchbase_companies.
LEFT JOIN acquisitions tutorial.crunchbase_
IN companies.permalink =
acquisitions.company_permalink.
WHERE acquisitions.company_permalink! = '/ Company /
1000memories'
Oracquisition.company_permalink IS NOT NULL.
 ORDER UP TO 1
Refine your SQL skills
For this set of practical problems, we will introduce a new
dataset: tutorial.crunchbase_investments. This table was also
obtained from Crunchbase and contained much of the same
information as the tutorial.crunchbase_companies Data. However, its
structure is different: it contains one line per investment. There may
be several investments in a company, and it is even possible that an
investor could invest in the same company several times. Column
names cannot be explained. The important thing is that company_
permalink from the tutorial .crunchbase_ investments and the table is
given a permanent link in the tutorial. Crunchbase _companies
Table. Note that some random information has been removed from
this table because of this lesson
 The syntax of the WHERE clause in SQL is as
follows:
Where the conditions;
Parameters or arguments.
Terms
Conditions to be fulfilled for the selection of the recordings.
Example: a condition of the WHERE clause
The syntax of the SQL WHERE limitation is hard to explain.
Let's start with a template that uses the WHERE clause to apply a
single condition.
In this exercise, we have a table called providers with the
following information:
Provider_idprovider_name city-state.
100 Microsoft Redmond, Washington.
200 Google Mountain View in California.
300 Oracle Redwood City, California.
400 Kimberly-Clark Irving, Texas.
500 Tyson Foods Springdale, Arkansas.
600 SC Johnson Racine, Wisconsin.
700 Dole Food Company, Village of Westlake, California.
800 Thomasville Georgia Food Flowers.
900 Electronic Arts Redwood City, California.
Enter the following SQL statement:
Try
SELECT *
 FROM THE SUPPLIER
WHERE state = 'California';
Four records will be selected. Here are the results you should
see:
Provider_idprovider_name city-state.
200 Google Mountain View in California.
300 Oracle Redwood City, California.
700 Dole Food Company, Village of Westlake, California.
900 Electronic Arts Redwood City, California.
In this example, we use the SQL WHERE clause to filter our
results from the vendor table. The previous SQL statement would
return all rows from the vendor table, where the state of California is
located. Since * is used in the selection, all fields in the vendor table
will appear in the results field.
Example: Two conditions in the WHERE clause (a condition I).
You can use the AND state of the WHERE clause to specify
several requirements that must be met for the selected record. Let's
see how to do that.
In this exercise, we have a table called Buyers that contains the
following information:
CUSTOMER_ID last_namefirst_namefavorite_website.
4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com.
5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com.
6000 Ferguson Samantha bigactivities.com.
7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com.
8000 Anderson Paige NULL.
9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com.
Now enter the following SQL statement:
 Try
SELECT *
BUYERS
WHERE favorite_website = 'techonthenet.com'
And customer_id> 6000;
A record will be selected. Here are the results you should see:
CUSTOMER_ID last_namefirst_namefavorite_website.
9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com.
This example uses the WHERE clause to define multiple
conditions. In this case, this SQL statement uses the AND clause to
return all clients whose preferred website is techonthenet.com and
whose client ID is greater than 6000.
Example: Two conditions in the WHERE clause (condition OR).
You can use the OR condition of the WHERE clause to test
multiple situations in which a record is returned if one of the
requirements is met.
In this example, we have a table named Products containing the
following information:
product_idproduct_namecategory_name.
One pear 50
Two bananas 50
Three orange 50
Four blocks 50
5 75 bread
Six ham 25
7 NULL fabrics
Now enter the following SQL statement:
 Try
SELECTION *
Of products
WHERE product_name = 'Pear'
Or product_name = 'Apple';
Two recordings will be selected. Here are the results you should
see:
product_idproduct_namecategory_name.
One pear 50
Four blocks 50
This sample uses the WHERE clause to define multiple
conditions, but instead of using the AND condition, use the OR
condition. In this case, this SQL statement would return all records in
the product table whose pear name is Pear or Apple.
Example: A combination of AND and OR conditions.
You can also combine the AND status with the OR condition in
order to test more complex situations.
Let's use the product table again for this example.
product_idproduct_namecategory_name.
One pear 50
Two bananas 50
Three orange 50
Four blocks 50
Five bread 75
Six ham 25
7 Kleenex NULL
Now enter the following SQL statement:
 Try
SELECTION *
Of products
WHERE (product_id> 3 AND category_id = 75)
OR (product_name = 'Pear');
Two recordings will be selected. Here are the results you should
see:
product_idproduct_namecategory_name.
One pear 50
Five bread 75
CHAPTER FIVE
 FROM in SQL
SQL clause: FROM
This SQL guide explains how to use the SQL FROM requirement
with syntax and examples.
Description.
The SQL FROM clause is used to enumerate the tables and
combinations needed for the SQL statement.
The syntax.
The syntax of the FROM clause in SQL is as follows:
From Table 1
[INSIDE JOIN
| LEFT [OUTSIDE] JOIN
| RIGHT [OUTSIDE] JOIN
| FULL [OUTER] JOIN} table2
ON table1.column1 = table2.column1]
Parameters or contentions
Table1 and table2
These are the tables utilised in the SQL statement. Both tables
are joined according to table1.column1 = table2.column1.
When the FROM clause is used in an SQL statement, there
must be at least one table specified in the FROM clause.
If two or more tables are listed in the SQL FROM clause, these
tables are usually joined using an INNER or OUTER join.
Example: a table listed in the FROM clause
We will begin by considering how to use the FROM statement
that contains a single table in an SQL statement.
 In this sample, we have a table called providers with the
following information:
provider_idprovider_name city-state.
100 Microsoft Redmond, Washington.
200 Google Mountain View in California.
300 Oracle Redwood City, California.
400 Kimberly-Clark Irving, Texas.
500 Tyson Foods Springdale, Arkansas.
600 SC Johnson Racine, Wisconsin.
700 Dole Food Company, Village of Westlake, California.
800 Thomasville Georgia Food Flowers.
900 Electronic Arts Redwood City, California.
 Enter the following SQL statement:
SELECT *
FROM THE SUPPLIER
WHERE vendor_id<400
ORDER BY DESC city;
Three records will be selected. Here are the results you should
see:
provider_idprovider_name city-state.
300 Oracle Redwood City, California.
100 Microsoft Redmond, Washington.
200 Google Mountain View in California.
In this example, we use the FROM clause to list a table called
providers. There was no merge in this query because we only listed
one table.
Example: Two tables in the FROM (INSIDE) clause.
Let's see how to use the RELATION clause. JOIN both tables
together.
In this sample, we have a table called Products containing the
following information:
product_idproduct_namecategory_name.
One pear 50
Two bananas 50
Three orange 50
Four blocks 50
5 75 bread
Six ham 25
 7 NULL fabrics
And a table called categories containing the following
information:
category_idcategory_name.
25 Deli
50 we produce
75 bakery
100 general merchandise
125 technology
Enter the following SQL statement:
SELECT products.product_name, groups.category_name.
OF PRODUCTS
INTERNAL CATEGORY
ON products.category_id = categories.category_id
O is the name of the product <> 'Pear';
Five records will be selected. Here are the results you should
see:
product_namecategory_name.
Banana products
Orange product
Apple product
bread bakery
Sliced ham
This example uses the FROM clause to merge two tables:
products and categories. In this case, we use the OD clause to
determine the INTERNAL UNION between product categories and
tables based on the category_id column of both tables.
 Example: Two tables of the FUT clause (OUTER JOIN).
Let's see how to use the FROM clause when we join two tables
using OUTER JOIN. In this case, we will see the LEFT EXTERNAL
CONNECTION.
We use the same product tables and categories from the
previous example INNER JOIN, but this time we will join the tables
using a LEFT OUTER JOIN. Enter the following SQL statement:
Try
SELECT products.product_name, groups.category_name.
OF PRODUCTS
LEFT EXTERIOR JOIN CATEGORIES
ON products.category_id = categories.category_id
O is the name of the product <> 'Pear';
Six records will be selected. Here are the results you should
see:
product_namecategory_name.
Banana products
Orange product
Apple product
bread bakery
Sliced ham
Null fabric
The FROM clause can be simple and very intricate. However, in
all cases, the critical point about the FROM clause is that it produces
a tabular structure. This worksheet structure is known as the result
set of the FROM clause. You can also see it as an intermediate
result set, a standard result set, or an interstitial table. But regardless
of whether the SELECT query retrieves data from a table, many
tables, or other similar table structures, the result is always the
same: The FROM statement generates a table structure.
Why start with the FROM clause?
To start writing a SELECT statement, my strategy is to omit the
current SELECT clause and write the OD clause first. Finally, we will
need to enter some expressions in the SELECT clause and use
WHERE GROUP BY as well as other clauses. But there are good
causes why we should always start with the OD clause:
If the FROM clause is incorrect, the SQL statement will always
return false results. The FROM request generates a spreadsheet
structure, an initial dataset in which all other operations are
performed in a SELECT element.
The FROM clause is the first sentence that the database system
observes when parsing an SQL statement.
Analyse the SQL statement
Whenever we send an SQL affirmation to the database for
execution, the first action performed by the system is called analysis.
This is how the database system tests the SQL statement to
determine if there are any syntax errors. First, divide the report into
its constituent clauses; then examine each clause based on the
syntax rules for that clause. Contrary to what one might expect, the
database system first parses the FROM clause instead of the
SELECT statement.
For example, suppose we try to execute the following SQL
statement in which, like computers, we have badly written
computers:
SELECT
Username
OD
Theteans
Or
 Conference = 'F'
In this case, the FROM clause brings up to a nonexistent table,
so there is an immediate syntax error. If the database system first
parsed the SELECT clause, it would be necessary to examine the
table definitions of all tables in the database, looking for a definition
that could contain two columns named name and ID. It is quite
common for a database to have multiple two-column tables named
name and ID. There could be confusion, and the database would
require more information to know from which table to extract its
name and identification. So, why the database system parses the
FROM clause in the first place, and this is the first clause we are
also thinking about.
 Of the table
We have already seen the FROM clause with a single table. In
Chapter 1, Introduction to SQL, we saw that the FROM clause
specifies a team table:
SELECT
Username
OD
Hardware
In Chapter 2, Understanding the SELECT Command, we saw
that the FROM clause specifies a table of entries:
SELECT
Title category
OD
Tickets
This kind of the FROM clause is as simple as it seems. There
must be at least one specific table structure, and one table meets
this requirement. When we want to return data from multiple tables
at the same time; however, we should start by using combinations.
FROM more than one table using JOIN
An alliance connects, connects or combines two tables. The
union starts with two tables, then combines or associates them in
different ways, thereby creating a single spreadsheet structure (the
result of the alliance). The verb "to join" is very descriptive of what is
happening, as we will see in a moment.
Table Merge Method: The combination type is specified in the
FROM clause using specific keywords, as well as the JOIN keyword.
I will briefly describe different kinds of alliances to see how they
differ. We will then see specific binding examples, using our
application examples.
Types of compounds
The combination combines the rows of two tables according to a
rule called the combination condition. This compares the row values
in the two tables to determine the rows to join.
There are three basic types of merge:
Internal merge, created by the keywords INNER JOIN
External seal, which comes in three models:
LEFT OUT JOIN
RIGHT EXTERNAL COUNCIL
JOIN COMPLETELY
Cross-linking, created using CROSS JOIN keywords.
To visualise the operation of the merge, we will use two arrays
called A and B, as shown below.
In Tables A and B.
These tables are too simplistic because they blur the difference
between table and column names. The merge condition specifies the
columns that must match. Also, it is not common for tables to have a
single column.
Do not worry about what A and B might represent. They could
be anything. The idea in the following illustrations is to focus your
attention on the values of the lines that merge. Table A has a column
called an attribute and rows with values 102, 104, 106, and 107.
Table B has a column called by rows with values 101, 102, 104, 106,
and 108.
Internal Union
Only personal lines that fulfil the ON element condition are
returned for internal merge. Internal junctions are the most common
types of terminals. In most cases, as in the example below, the ON
clause specifies that both columns should have the appropriate
values. In this case, if the value (column a) of one row of a table (A)
is equal to the value (column b) of one row from another table (B),
the merge condition is satisfied. And these lines are merged:
SELECT
a, b
IZ
INTERNAL PROGRAM B
EN a = b
As you can see, the line of A joins the line of B when their
values are equal. Therefore, the values 102, 104, and 106 are
returned in the result set. The value 107 in A does not match B and
is therefore not included in the result set. Likewise, the values 101
and 108 in B do not compete with A and are therefore not included in
the result set. If this is easier, you can think of it as matching lines in
a long line, which then acts on the rest of the SELECT statement.
Joining abroad
Then we will see the outer joints. External mergers are different
from internal alliances, in that mismatched rows can also be
returned. As a result, most people say that the external union
includes lines that do not fit the condition of the union. That's fine,
but it could be a little misleading because foreign mergers add all the
matching lines. Common external seals have many parallel lines,
and only a few do.
Report an ad.
There are three types of external coupling: left, right and
complete. We will start with the left external linkage.
Joining left outside.
For the left external union, all rows in the left table are returned,
whether or not they have a corresponding row in the table on the
right. What is the left table, and what is right? These are simply the
tables mentioned on the left and right of the word OUTER JOIN. For
example, in the next sentence, A is the left table and B is the right
table, and the remaining outer combination is specified in the FROM
clause:
SELECT
a, b
IZ
OUTSIDE LEFT JOIN B
EN a = b
The following image shows the results of this association.
Remember: the left outer joins return all the rows in the left chart, as
well as the corresponding lines in the right table if any.
Note that all values in point A are returned because A is a left
table. In case 107, which did not correspond to B, we see that it is
included in the results, but this set of results of B has no value. For
the moment, it is correct to think that the value of B is missing, which
of course, for 107 is.
Join on the right.
For the right outer join, all rows in the right table are returned
regardless of whether they have a match in the left table. In other
words, the right exterior combination acts exactly like the left exterior
combination, except that all rows in the right table are returned:
SELECT
a, b
IZ
EXTERNAL RIGHTS JOIN B
EN a = b
In the previous example, A is still the left table and B is always
the right table because the keywords OUTER JOIN are mentioned
there. Therefore, the result of the merger contains all the rows in
Table B, as well as the corresponding rows in Table A.
The right external articulation is opposite to the left external
coupling. With the same tables in the same point, A as the left table
and B as the correct table, the results of the right outer joint are very
different from those of the left external union. This time, all B values
were returned. In cases 101 and 108, which did not correspond to A,
they are included in the results, but some lines do not indicate any
value for some of the results A. Again. These A values are missing,
but the line always returns.
A complete external union
For the entire foreign community, all rows in both tables are
returned, whether or not they fit into another table. In other words,
the full external combination works in the same way as the left and
right outer combinations, except that all rows in both tables are
returned this time. Consider this example:
SELECT
a, b
OD
JOIN COMPLETELY
EN a = b
Again, A is the table on the left, and B is the table on the right,
although this time, it does not matter. The complete external links
return all the rows of the two tables, as well as the corresponding
rows of the second table, if any, as shown below.
The full outer suit is a combination of left and right upper
garments. (Technically, if you remember the predetermined
mathematical theory at school, you have to combine the results of
the left and right external combination). The corresponding lines are
of course, included, but tracks that do not match any table are
added.
CHAPTER SIX
 AND in SQL
A combination of AND and OR conditions.
This SQL tutorial explains how to use AND and the OR condition
together in a single query with syntax and examples.
Description.
The AND and OR SQL statements can be combined to test
multiple terms in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
comment.
When you combine these conditions, it is essential to use
parentheses to tell the database in which order it can evaluate each
situation. (Like when I learned the order of operations in math class!)
Syntax.
The syntax for the AND and OR states in SQL are as follows:
O is the condition1
I condition2
Or state_n;
Parameters or arguments.
Condition1, condition2, ...condition_n.
Conditions being evaluated to determine if the records are
selected.
Note
The AND & OR SQL conditions allow testing of several
conditions.
Remember the order of the operating media!
Example: Using the "Y" and "O" Conditions with the SELECT
Command.
 Now, let's look at sample of using the AND condition and the OR
state in a SELECT statement.
In this section, we have a table called Service Providers that
contains the following information:
Provider_idprovider_name city-state.
100 Microsoft Redmond, Washington.
200 Google Mountain View in California.
300 Oracle Redwood City, California.
400 Kimberly-Clark Irving, Texas.
500 Tyson Foods Springdale, Arkansas.
600 SC Johnson Racine, Wisconsin.
700 Dole Food Company, Village of Westlake, California.
800 food flowers from Thomasville, Georgia.
900 Electronic Arts Redwood City, California.
Enter the following SQL statement:
SELECTION *
FROM the service provider
WHERE (state = 'California' AND provider_id<> 900)
OR (provider_id = 100);
Four records will be selected. Here are the results you should
see:
Provider_idprovider_name city-state.
100 Microsoft Redmond, Washington.
200 Google Mountain View in California.
300 Oracle Redwood City, California.
700 Dole Food Company, Village of Westlake, California.
 This example would return all vendors in the state of California,
but does not have a vendor ID of 900. The query also returns all
vendors with vendor IDs equal to 100. The brackets specify the
vendor ID order in which the AND conditions are evaluated. And OR.
Just as you learned in a series of mathematical operations!
Example: Using "Y" and "O" conditions with UPDATE
statements.
Then, let's take a look at how the AND and OR terms are used
in the UPDATE statement.
In this example, we have a table called clients that contains the
following information:
website_idlast_namefirst_namefavorite_website.
4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com5000 Smith Jane
digminecraft.com
6000 Ferguson Samantha bigactivities.com
7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com
8000 Anderson Paige NULL
9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com
We will now show how to use the AND and OR conditions to
update the records in the table. Enter the following UPDATE
statement:
Update your customers
SET favorite_website = 'techonthenet.com'
WHERE client_ID = 6000
OR (customer_id> 7000 and name <> 'Johnson');
There will be two records updated. Reselect the data in the
user's table:
SELECTION * OF BUYERS;
Here are the results you should see:
 website_idlast_namefirst_namefavorite_website.
4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com
5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com
6000 Ferguson Samantha techonthenet.com
7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com
8000 Anderson Paige techonthenet.com
9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com
This example would update all the personal website values from
the user's table to "techonthenet.com" where customer_id is 6000
and records where customer_id is greater than 7000 and where
lastname_ is not equal at "Johnson." As you can see, the value of
pages 3 and 5 have been updated.
Example: Using "Y" and "O" conditions with DELETE
instructions.
Then, let's see how to combine the AND and OR terms to delete
records using the DELETE statement.
In this example, we have a table called Products containing the
following information:
Product_idproduct_namecategory_name.
One pear 50
Two bananas 50
Three orange 50
Four block 50
Five bread 75
Six ham 25
7 Kleenex NULL
Enter the following DELETE statement:
 Delete products
OERE category_id = 25
O (product_id<4 and product name <> 'Banana');
Three records will be deleted. Select the information in the
product table again:
PRODUCT SELECTION *;
Here are the results you should see:
Product_idproduct_namecategory_name.
Two bananas 50
Four block 50
5 75 bread
7 NULL fabrics
CHAPTER SEVEN
 OR in Sql
SQL: or state.
This SQL guide explains how to use SQL OR land with syntax and
examples.
Description.
The SQL OR clause allows you to test multiple conditions in the
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE commands. All
requirements must be met for the selection of records.
The syntax.
The syntax for the OR state in SQL is as follows:
O is the condition1
Or condition2
Or state_n;
Parameters or arguments
Condition1, condition2, ...condition_n
Different test conditions for each record. Each condition can be
fulfilled to be included in the result set.
Example: Using the "O" condition with the SELECT command.
Let's look at a sample that shows how to use an OR state in a
SELECT command to test multiple situations in which any case must
be met to select records.
In this example, we have a table named Service Providers that
contains the following information:
Provider_idprovider_name city-state.
100 Microsoft Redmond, Washington.
200 Google Mountain View in California.
300 Oracle Redwood City, California.
 400 Kimberly-Clark Irving, Texas.
500 Tyson Foods Springdale, Arkansas.
600 SC Johnson Racine, Wisconsin.
700 Dole Food Company, Village of Westlake, California.
800 food flowers from Thomasville, Georgia.
900 Electronic Arts Redwood City, California.
We will now show how to use the OR condition to test two
conditions. Enter the following SELECT statement:
Try
SELECTION *
FROM the service provider
WHERE city = 'Mountain View'.
Or Supplier_id = 100
ORDER BY NAME OF SELLER;
Two recordings will be selected. Here are the results you should
see:
Provider_idprovider_name city-state.
400 Google Mountain View in California.
100 Microsoft Redmond, Washington.
This example returns all providers located in the city of Mountain
View or whose vendor ID is equal to 100. Since * is used in the
SELECT statement, all fields in the vendor table are displayed in the
result set.
Example: Using the "O" condition with the UPDATE statement.
The OR condition can be used in the SQL UPDATE statement
to test multiple concepts.
 In this part, we have a table called clients that contains the
following information:
website_idlast_namefirst_namefavorite_website.
4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com
5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com
6000 Ferguson Samantha bigactivities.com
7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com
8000 Anderson Paige NULL
9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com
Enter the following UPDATE statement:
UPDATE YOUR CUSTOMERS
SET favorite_website = 'techonthenet.com'
WHERE client_ID = 5000
Or last_name = 'Reynolds'
Or first name = 'Paige';
There will be three updated records. Reselect the data in the
user's table:
SELECTION * OF BUYERS;
Here are the results you should see:
website_idlast_namefirst_namefavorite_website.
4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com
5000 Smith Jane techonthenet.com
6000 Ferguson Samantha bigactivities.com
7000 Reynolds Allen techonthenet.com
8000 Anderson Paige techonthenet.com
9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com
 This example would update all personal site values in a user
table on techonthenet.com where the user ID is 5000 or the
Reynolds surname or Paige first name. As you can see, the favourite
site field in the second, fourth, and fifth lines is updated.
Example: Using the "OR" condition with the DELETE
statements.
Next, let's see how to use the OR condition in the DELETE
statement to test all the requirements that must be met before
deleting a record.
In this part, we have a table called Products containing the
following information:
Product_idproduct_namecategory_name.
One pear 50
Two bananas 50
Three orange 50
Four blocks 50
Five bread 75
Six ham 25
7 Kleenex NULL
Enter the following DELETE statement:
Delete products
WHERE product_name = 'Pear'
Or product_name = 'Apple'
Or category_id = 25;
Three records will be deleted. Select the information in the
product table again:
PRODUCT SELECTION *;
Here are the results you should see:
Product_idproduct_namecategory_name.
Two bananas 50
Three orange 50
5 75 bread
7 NULL fabrics
CHAPTER EIGHT
 The difference between internal and external
unions.
The results of the external combination will always be equal to the
results of the corresponding internal mixture between the two arrays,
plus the incompatible lines of the left panel, the right group, or both,
depending on whether the mixture is left, right, or full.
Therefore, the difference between the left outer and the right
external combination is simply the difference between the return
lines in the left table with or without a match in the table on the right,
or the next range of rows in the table of power with or without table
ranks on the left.
Meanwhile, the complete outdoor combination always includes
the results of the left and right outer combinations.
The cross joins
To join, each row of two tables assigned to each row of another
table is returned, whether they match or not. The difference between
cross unions is that it does not have an ON clause, which you can
see in the following query:
SELECT
a, b
OD
BLOOD join B
The cross may be useful, but it is quite rare. Its purpose is to
produce a spreadsheet structure containing rows that are
representing all possible combinations of two sets of values (in our
example, columns from two tables), as shown in Figure 3.6, "CROSS
JOIN B"; This can be useful for generating test data or searching for
missing values.
Old-fashioned unions
 There is another type of combination which contains a comma-
separated list of tables in the FROM clause with the combination
conditions required in the WHERE clause; this type of combination is
sometimes called a combination of "old-style," "comma list" or
"WHERE clauses." For example, for tables A and B, it would look
like this:
SELECT
a, b
OD
AB
O
a=b
These odd combinations can only be internal; other types of
merge are possible only with a very exclusive and confusing syntax,
which the same system manufacturers advise to use. Compare this
to the recommended syntax for the internal binding:
SELECT
a, b
OD
INTERNAL UNION B
EN a = b
You can see these old unions in nature, but I warn you not to
write them yourself. Always use the JOIN syntax.
There are three basic combinations and five different variants to
renew our team combination:
Join internally.
Left external union, right external union and complete external
union.
The covenant of the cross.
 Now for some more realistic examples.
The real world unites
In the second chapter, which contains a general description of
the SELECT statement, we present a table of entries in the content
management system that we will continue to use in subsequent
queries to show how to write combinations, the "input table" shows
some but not all of its content. For example, the content column is
missing.
Within our CMS website, the goal is to give each category its
area of the site, linked from the main menu and the leading site. The
scientific field will contain all entries in the science category, the field
of humour will provide all entries of the category humour and similar,
as indicated in the "Proposed CMS Site Structure." For this purpose,
each entry receives a note, stored in the category column of each
line.
The main category pages require more than the name of the
word category we see in the input table. Visitors to the page would
like to understand the content of each section. We will need a more
descriptive name for each category. But where can it be stored on
the site? We could code the longest name directly on each
significant section of the website. However, a better solution would
be to save the name in the database. The second table will work
well. So we created a category table. We will give you two category
columns and title, "Category Table."
The category column is the key for each row in the category
table. This is called a key because the values in this column are
unique and identify each row. This is the column we will use to join
the list table.We'll learn more about keyboard design in Chapter 10;
Relative Integrity. At this point, let's explore different ways to
associate categories and lists of lists.
Create a category table.
The script used to create the category table is in Appendix C,
Script Examples, and to download the book to a file named
CMS_05_Categories_INNER_JOIN_Entries.sql.
Internal union: categories and entries
The first type of union that we will see is the internal union:
SELECT
Category .name, tickets. Title, tickets.created
OF
Category
INNER JOIN Tickets
IN entry.category = categories.category
The pursuing figure shows the results of this query.
Let's take a look at the query clause and look at what you do
when we compare the query to the results it produces. The first part
of the question to consider is, of course, the OD:
OF
Category
INNER JOIN Tickets
In the tickets. category = categories.category
The category table joins the list table with the INNER JOIN
keywords. The ON clause specifies a union condition that indicates
that the rows of two tables must match to participate in the union.
Use dot notation (table name, line name) to indicate that the rows of
a category table matches the rows of an input table only if the values
of the columns in their category are the same. We will see in more
detail the designation of the point in this chapter.
The image below shows in detail how to query a result set by
internally merging a category table into an input table. Since this is
an internal union, each row of a category table joins only rows in the
input table that have the corresponding values in the relevant column
columns.
 Some of the entrance tables are hidden.
The list table has several additional columns that are not
displayed: id, updated, and content. These columns are also
available but omitted to simplify the diagram. The image would be
rather messy if the content column were included because it
contained several lines of text. Since these columns are not
mentioned in the query, their inclusion in the diagram could be
confusing. Some readers would inevitably ask, "Hey, where are they
from?"
When it comes to matching category rows and listing tables,
keep in mind that:
The line of the humour category corresponds to two-line entries,
and in the results of the two cases, the path corresponds, and the
name of the humour category appearing twice.
The blog category line does not match line entries. Therefore,
since this is an internal alliance, this category does not appear in the
results.
The rows of the other categories corresponded to a row of
entries and these results corresponded.
By placing these observations in a slightly different way, we can
see that a row in a category table cannot match any row, line, or
more than one row in the input table.
The relationships
Several aspects of the relationship between a row in a category
table and the corresponding rows in an input table are a fundamental
feature of what we call a one-to-many relationship. Each category
(one) can have several entries.
Although a specific category (blog) may not have appropriate
entries and only one of the groups (humour) has multiple entries, but
the relationship between classes and table entries still has a one-to-
one structure. Once the tables are fully populated with real-time
data, all types probably have multiple entries.
 Looking at this relationship from another angle, so to speak, we
can see that each entry can belong to a single category. This is a
direct result of a category column in an input table that has a unique
value that can match a single category value in the category table.
However, many items may fall into the same category, as we have
seen with humour entries. So the one-to-many relationship is also
the one-to-many relationship. It only depends on the direction of the
relationship being discussed.
Now that we have looked at the OD clause and see how it is
located inside, and the ON condition has specified how tables should
be joined, we can see the term SELECT:
SELECT
Categories .name, entries.title
, entries created
As expected, the SELECT clause specifies which columns of
the result of the internal merge should be included in the result set.
Main notches
Note that the SELECT clause is now written line by column,
using a convention called the first comma; this is used to separate
the comma that’s been used to separate the second and subsequent
elements at the top of the line. It may seem new at first, but the
syntax is right; Keep in mind that new paths and plain SQL are
neglected, as is HTML. Experienced developers can get used to the
end of comma-separated lines more easily, like this:
SELECT
catégories.nom,
tickets.title,
Created entries
I use commas as the encoding style convention to make SQL
queries more readable and durable. The importance of readability
and sustainability cannot be overstated. For example, see if you can
notice two coding errors in this hypothetical query:
SELECT
Last name
The name
Title
The position,
Staff_id,
Group
Region
IZ
Staff
Now, see if you can notice the coding errors here:
Report an ad
SELECT
Last name
The nameTitle
Position
, scale_pay
Group
Region
,
IZ
Staff
A comma is missing in the query in the middle of the list, and
there is an extra, unnecessary comma at the end of the list. In which
example are the errors easier to detect?
Also, the first commas are more comfortable to manipulate if
you modify your SQL code in a text editor using a keyboard.
Sometimes, it is necessary to move or delete a column of the
SELECT class, and it is easier to select (highlight) a line with the
Shift and Arrow keyboards. Similarly, removing the last column also
requires deleting the comma from the previous record, which is easy
to forget. A comma entangled in front of the FROM keyword is a
standard error that is difficult to resolve with the initial commas.
All columns are available after joining
With each combination, all columns in the associated tables are
accessible for the SELECT query, even if the query does not use
them. Let's take a look again at our internal connection:
SELECT
catégories.nom, entry. title, entries created
IZ
Categories
INNER JOIN Tickets
IN entry.category = categories.category
In most merge queries, merge tables typically contain more
columns than those specified in the SELECT clause. This is also true
here; the input table has other columns that are not specified in the
query. "Internal Details" for the simplicity of the figure. Although the
number is correct, it could be interpreted as a false misconception
because it only shows the result of a set of queries, not a tabular
structure produced by an internal merge.
The following figure shows the processing of the query and
shows a tabular structure generated by the FROM clause and the
internal union. It contains columns of two categories, one from each
table. This worksheet, a long table, is produced by the database
system at run time and is held temporarily for the SELECT clause.
 When the union is executed in a query
Two essential points emerged from the analysis of our first
example of union counselling:
The Union produces an intermediate set of results;
The SELECT clause comes after the FROM clause and run in
the average result set.
At the beginning of this chapter, I pointed out that the FROM
clause is the first clause parsed by the database system when we
send a query. If there is no syntax error, the database system
continues and runs the question. Well, it alternates out that the
FROM clause is also the first clause to run the database system.
You can consider that the execution of a union query works as
follows. First, the database system generates a set of standard
Union-based tabular results specified in the FROM clause which
contains all the columns of both tables. Then, the database system
uses the SELECT statement to select only the specified columns
from this intermediate result set and retrieve them from the final table
structure returned as the result of the query.
Qualified column names
Finally, let's take a closer look at our internal combination query:
SELECT
categorías.nombre
, entry.title
, created tickets
OD
Categories
INNER JOIN Tickets
IN entry.category = categories.category
Each of the column names utilised in this query is qualified by
the name of the table using a note point, and the name of the table
preceding the name of the column with a space between them.
The qualification of the column name is required when there are
multiple instances of the same column name in the query. (These
would, of course, come from different tables, and numerous
examples of the same column name in a single table are not
possible because all columns in a table must have a unique name.)
If you do not identify each column uniquely with the same name but
are in different tables, the syntax for spelling mistakes. This applies
whether the query refers to both columns or not; each reference
must be qualified.
When there is only one instance of a column name in the query,
the qualification of the column name becomes optional. Therefore,
we could write the following and return to the same result set:
SELECT
Last name
Title
, created
OD
Categories
INNER JOIN Tickets
IN entry.category = categories.category
However, it is a good idea to evaluate all column names in this
situation because when you examine the SELECT clause, you
cannot always determine the table for each column. This can be
especially frustrating if you know very little about the meals that are
included in the board, for example when you solve a question written
by another person (or even by you, a few months ago).
Always evaluate each column in the union query
Although some or all columns do not need to be assessed in a
union query, and learning each column in a multi-table question is
part of the correct SQL coding style because it is easy to
understand.
In a way, the qualification of the column name automatically
documents the request: the question is clearly defined, which
facilitates the explanation in the documentation.
The nickname of the table
Another way to evaluate column names is to use alias tables.
The nickname of the table is another name that is assigned to the
table in the query. In practice, a table alias is usually shorter than the
table name. For example, here is the same internal combination
using a table alias:
SELECT
Nombre.cat
, ent.title
, Ent. created
OD
Categories like the cat
INNER JOIN AS Tickets
EN ent.category = cat.category
Here, a category table is assigned to the nickname and an alias
ent is attached to the input table. You are free to choose the name
that you want; the table names are temporary and are only valid
during the consultation. Some people prefer to use simple letters as
table aliases because it reduces the number of characters in the
query, which makes reading easier.
The only drawback to using a table alias is that once you have
assigned a table alias, you can no longer use the table name to
evaluate your columns in that query and you must have a nickname
consisting of the complete query. However, once the query is
complete, you can return to the original table with your full name, the
same alias, or even another nickname. The point here is that the
alias table is defined only for the duration of the query that contains
it.
Left external merge: categories and entries
Continuing with the search for combination queries, the left
external merge query that we will look at is the same as the internal
merge query we just described, except for the fact that it uses LEFT
OUTER JOIN as a combination keyword:
SELECT
catégories.nom
, entry.title
, entries created
IZ
Categories
LEFT INPUT Join entries
IN entry.category = categories.category
The next figure shows the results of the previous query.
The only difference between this left outer combination query
and the previous inner combination query is the inclusion of an extra
row, for a category called Subscribe to My Blog in the result set. The
second line is included because the query uses an external merge.
In particular, it is a left external combination, and therefore all the
rows in the left table and the category table, must be included in the
results. Remember that the table on the left is simply the table
mentioned to the left of the keywords LEFT OUTER JOIN.
To clarify which table is on the left and which table is on the
right, we could write a merge without breaking the line and the
spacing, so that the categories are more clearly the left table in this
union:
From LEFT OUTSIDE JOIN classes.
 Let's look at the results of the left external link because there is
another important feature of the external links that I must clearly
point out.
External connection request: site map
Looking at the answer of our LEFT OUTER JOIN query, it's easy
to see how they could form the basis of a CMS site map. For
example, the HTML code of a sitemap that can be obtained with
these query results can be:
<h2>A few words of advice </ h2>
<Ul>
<li> Be the love of all (03/02/2009) </ li>
</ Ul
<h2> Stories of Identity </ h2>
<Ul>
<li> What happens if I get sick and die? (12/30/2008) </ li>
</ Ul
<h2> Subscribe to my blog </ h2>
<h2> Humorous anecdotes </ h2>
<Ul>
<li> Hello statue (2009-03-17) </ li>
<li> Uncle Karl and Gasoline (2009-02-28) </ li>
</ Ul
<h2>Our spectacular universe </ h2>
<Ul>
<li> Size of our galaxy (2009-04-03) </ li>
</ Ul
 If you are a knowledge web developer, you can probably see
how the results of the query will be converted to HTML using a
specific application language.
Note that the category Join in my blog has no entry, but it is
included in the result (because it is an external combination left).
Therefore, the application logic should detect this situation and not
create unordered list tags (<ul>) for entries in this category. Without
going into the details of the programming logic of the application, I
noticed that this has been done by detecting NULL in the input
columns of this result line.
External connections are produced by NULL
Our left external union includes the left-hand table rows that do
not match in the right-hand table, as shown in Figure 3.13, "Left
external union results." What precisely are the values in the title and
create columns for the blog results? Remember that these columns
come from an input table.
The answer is: they are NULL.
NULL is a unique value in SQL that clearly represents the
absence of a value. In the left outer combination, the columns from
the right table for the incompatible rows in the left table are NULL in
the result set. This means that there is no value here, which is logical
because there is no corresponding line in the table on the right for
this particular line in the left table.
Working with NULL is a part of everyday life when it comes to
working with databases. We first found NULL (although briefly) in
Chapter 1- Introduction to SQL, where it was used in the CREATE
TABLE expression model, and we will see NULL again throughout
the book.
Right External Alliance: Entries and Categories
The following right outer combo query gives the same results as
the left combo query we just described:
SELECT
 categorías.nombre
, entry.title
, created tickets
OD
Tickets
FOREIGN LAW JOIN CATEGORIES
IN entry.category = categories.category
But how can this be?
I hope you have seen the answer: I changed the order of the
tables! In the right external query, I wrote:
FOREIGN RIGHT Tickets Join Categories.
In the previous external query, I had:
LEFT CONFERENCES VANJER Join the tickets.
The lesson to be learned from this deviation is simply that the
left and right outer joins are precisely the same, it's just a matter of
knowing which table will be outer: a table that will include all rows in
the result set. As a result, many professionals avoid writing right
external queries but convert them to left external unions by changing
the order of the tables. Thus, the table from which all lines will
always be returned is on the left. The remaining outer union seems
to be much easier for most people than the right outer joints.
Right External Alliance: categories and entries
And what if the order of the tables of the other right outer
combination had not changed? Suppose the query was:
SELECT
categorías.nombre
, entry.title
, created tickets
 OD
Categories
FOREIGN LAW APPLY TO TICKETS
IN entry.category = categories.category
This time, as in the first left outer combination, the category
table is on the left while the input table is on the right. The following
figure shows that the results of this query are the same as those of
the previous internal union.
How can this be? Is this more false? No, not this time. The
reason is the actual content of the tables. Remember that the right
outer join returns all the rows of the correct table with or without a
match in the left table. The input table is the correct table, but in this
case, each entry has a corresponding category. All entries are
returned, and there are no incompatible lines.
Therefore, it is not wrong to show that the correct outer
combination produces the same results as the inner combination
because it has emphasised the rule for external combinations that all
rows of an outer table returns with or without the corresponding lines
if any. In this case, there was none.
To see the correct external combination in action, we need an
entry with no matching category. Let's add a list to the worksheet for
a new class called computers, as shown in the image below.
Test your SQL
An INSERT statement that adds this extra line to the input table
is in the section titled "Content Management System."
"Combined External Query Results - Take-Two," shows that
when we re-launched an actual external combined query with a new
category, the results are the expected ones.
This time, we could see inconsistent entries in the query results
because there are no rows in the computer category table.
Full external collaboration: categories and entries
 Our next example of a union request is a completely external
union. As you can predict, the overall syntax of combination queries
is surprisingly similar to the other types of combinations that we have
seen so far:
SELECT
catégories.nom
, entry.title
, tickets. created
IZ
Categories
JOIN COMPLETE ENTRIES
IN entry.category = categories.category
This time, the keywords of the union are FULL OUTER JOIN,
but an unfortunate error occurs in at least one common database
system. In MySQL, this does not support PUNI OUTER JOIN;
although it is standard SQL, the result is the following syntax: SQL
error: there is an error in SQL syntax; check in the manual
corresponding to your MySQL server version that the correct syntax
is used near "OUTER JOIN ON"
The following figure shows the result in other database systems
that support PUNO OUTER JOIN.
Note that the result set includes incompatible rows from the left
and right tables. This is a speciality full of exterior joints that we have
seen before; both tables are external, so incomparable lines of both
are also included. For this reason, complete external links are quite
rare in Web development because many situations require them. On
the contrary, left internal and external seals are quite common.
UNION asked
If your database system is not compatible with the FULL
OUTER JOIN syntax, you can as well get the same results with a
slightly more complex query called Union. Trade union consultations
do not unite on their own. However, most people think of the results
obtained by a union query consisting of two sets of merged or
merged results. UNION requests only meet in a very lax sense.
Let's see a union query:
SELECT
catégories.nom
, entry.title
, tickets. created
IZ
Categories
LEFT INPUT Join entries
IN entry.category = categories.category
UNION
SELECT
catégories.nom
, entry.title
, tickets. created
IZ
Categories
RIGHT Join the tickets
IN entry.category = categories.category
As you can see, the left and right external queries we saw in this
chapter are combined using the UNION keyword. The union query
consists of multiple SELECT statements combined with a UNION
operator. In this context, they are called sub queries because they
are subordinates to the entire UNION query; they are only a part of
the query, not that the query runs alone. Sometimes they are
mentioned and approved, although this term is usually used to refer
to a more specific situation with which we will soon become familiar
with.
When properly executed, Operation UNION combines the result
sets that’s been generated by each of its sub selection queries into a
result set. "How a Business Request Works" shows how it works in
the previous example:
I mentioned earlier that a merge operation could be thought of
as merging one row of a table at the end of a row in another table, a
horizontal merge if you wish to call it. The join is like a vertical link: a
second result set is added at the end of the first result set.
An exciting feature is that duplicates are deleted. You can see
the clones quite quickly: they are whole lines where the value of
each column is identical. The reason for creating copies in this
example is because the two sub-selectors - left outer and right outer
combinations - return rows from the same two tables that correspond
to the same combination conditions. Therefore, the corresponding
lines support both sub-selections, thus creating double lines in the
mutual results. Only incompatible lines are not duplicated.
You may be wondering why UNION eliminates duplicates; the
answer is simply that it is designed and that the work of a UNION
operator should work.
UNION and UNION ALL
Sometimes, it is crucial to keep all the lines created by the
merge operation and not to delete the duplicates. To do this, use the
keywords UNION ALL instead of UNION.
UNION deletes duplicate rows. Only one row in each set of
double rows is included in the result set.
UNION ALL keeps all the lines produced in the sub-divisions of
the Union, thereby maintaining the double lines.
UNION ALL is much faster because the dire need to look for
duplicates to eliminate them is redundant.
 The fact that our union query has deleted the duplicate rows
means that the previous union query produces the same results as a
full external union. Of course, this example is designed to do just
that.
There is more to say about union queries, but for now, let's
finish this section with one point: union queries, like union queries,
produce a tabular structure; as a result, set.
Viewpoints
A view is another type of database aim that we can create, such
as a table. However, opinions are not significant because they do not
store data (unlike tables). Opinions are SELECT statements (often
complex) that have been named for easy reference and reuse, and
can be used for many purposes:
You can customise a SELECT statement by providing column
aliases.
They can be a nickname for a result set that in its definition
generated a SELECT statement. If the SELECT report in the view
contains unions between multiple tables, then the database has
already attached them before the query in the view. After All this
query, then, is a table to consult. This is probably the most crucial
benefit of using sight.
They can impose security on the database. Database users may
have restrictions on the full display of the underlying tables; instead,
they can only have access to the views. A classic example is a table
of employees that contains columns such as name, department, and
salary. Due to the confidential nature of wages, very few people were
allowed to access this table directly; instead, a unique view is
available that excludes the classified columns.
To illustrate this, here's how you define an internal combination
query that was previously used as a view:
SELECT
categorías.nombre
 , entry.title
, created tickets
OD
Categories
LEFT OUTSIDE JOIN THE TICKETS
IN entry.category = categories.category
UNION
SELECT
categorías.nombre, entry.title
, created tickets
OD
Categories
FOREIGN LAW APPLY TO TICKETS
IN entry.category = categories.category
Of course, this is not a table: the view itself does not store the
result set generated by its SELECT command. Using a view name
here works by executing the underlying SELECT view statement,
thereby storing its results in an intermediate table and using that
table following the FROM clause. The results of the previous query,
as shown below.
This result set is similar to that which is obtained by an internal
union query, which defines the view. Note that only two columns
have been returned because the SELECT element using light in the
FROM clause (unlike the SELECT statement outlining the aspect)
requires only two columns. Also, note that the alias in the Category
Name column is assigned to the Name column of the category table
in the view definition. This is the name of the column to use in any
SELECT statement that uses the view, which is the name of the
column used in the result set.
 A specific implication of the view definition is that for each query
that uses the view, only the columns that are defined in the SELECT
view element are available. Although the input table contains a
content column, and this view column is unknown and will generate
a syntax error if a reference is used at the prompt.
Web development impressions
How do the aspects relate to our daily tasks as web developers?
When working on a large project in a team environment, you
can only grant access to the views, and not to the underlying tables.
For example, a database administrator (DBA) may have created a
database, and you use it. You may not even clear the fact that you
are using views. Indeed, syntactically, tables and figures are used in
the FROM clause in the same way.
When creating a database, you can create views for
convenience. For example, if you often need to display a list of ads
and their categories are on different pages of a site, it is much easier
to write OD_con_category entries than the next union.
 Support derived tables too
We begin this chapter by examining the FROM clause, moving
from simple tables to different types of combinations. We have briefly
seen the UNION query and its sub-selections, as well as how the
views facilitate the use of associated complex expressions. To finish
this chapter, we will quickly see the derived tables. Here is an
example:
SELECT
Title
, category name
IZ
(SELECT
tickets.title
, entries created
, groups.name AS category_name
IZ
Tickets
INTERNAL CATEGORY
IN category.category = entry.category
) AS entry_with_category
The table presented here represents the complete SELECT
query in parentheses (the syntax is mandatory in parentheses to
determine the attached query). A derived table is a mutual type of
sub query, which is a subordinate or nested query in another query
(similar to subsections of the union record).
And that sounds familiar. This request is the same as the one
used in the entry_with_categories view defined in the previous
section. Since each image needs a name, each derived table must
also receive a name, even using the AS keyword (in the last line) to
assign entry_with_category as the alias of the table to the derived
table. Given these similarities, derived tables are often called
standard views. In other words, they define a tabular structure, a set
of results produced by a sub query, directly in (or in) SQL
statements, and the tabular structure constructed by the sub query is
used in turn as a data source for the clause. OD of external or
primary consultation.
In summary, anything that produces a spreadsheet structure can
also be specified as a data source in the FROM clause. Even the
UNION query, described briefly, can also be used in a FROM
requirement if it is defined as a derived table; the entire UNION
query enters parentheses that limits the derived table.
Derived tables are incredibly useful in SQL. We will see some of
them throughout the book.
Final: of the disposition.
In this section, we examine the FROM clause and how it
determines the data source for a SELECT statement. There are
many types of worksheets that can be specified in a FROM clause:
Individual tables
Associated tables
Comments
Support or derived tables
Finally, this is one of the critical concepts of the book, the
FROM clause specifies not only one or more tabular structures from
which data can be extracted, but the result of executing the FROM
clause is another structure. Tabular, called average result score, or in
the middle of the table. Typically, this intermediate table is created
first, before the database system processes the SELECT clause.
 The WHERE clause, we'll see how the WHERE clause can be
used to filter the table structure produced by the FROM clause.
Join and Union can be used to combine data from one or more
tables. The difference lies in the way the data is mixed.
In simple terms, combinations combine data in new columns. If
two tables are joined, the data from the first table is displayed in a
set of columns next to the column of the second table in the same
row.
Unions combine data in new lines. If two tables are "joined" then
the data in the first table is aligned while the data in the second table
is in the second set. The lines are under the same result.
Each row of results contains the TWO columns of Tables A and
B. Lines are created when the columns of one table correspond to
the columns of another. This coincidence is called the condition of
union.
It is ideal for searching for values and including them in the
results. This is usually the result of denormalisation (deletion of
normalisation), and involves the use of a foreign key in one table to
search for column values using a primary key in another.
Now compare the description above with that of the alliance. In
the community, each line appears in the results of one table O on
another. In the city, the columns are not combined to create effects,
and on the other hand the rows are connected.
Joints are typically used when you have two results whose rows
you want to include in the same result. The use case can have two
tables: teachers and students. You want to create a master list of
names and birthdays sorted by date.
To do this, you can first use an alliance to combine the rows into
a result, and then sort them.
Let's take a closer look at both.
Data combination with union.
 In this section, we will see the inner union. This is one of the
most common forms of aggregation. It is used when you have to
align the rows of two tables. The parallel lines remain in the result,
and they are the ones that are not ignored.
The following is an example of a simple select statement with an
INNER JOIN clause.
SELECT column list
Of sustainable
INTERNAL JOIN
ON the common state of the second table.
Here is an example of using a combination to search for an
employee's name:
SELECT Employee.NationalIDNumber,
Name of the person,
Person.LastName,
Employee.JobTitle
Human resources. employee
INTERNAL JOIN
Person person
ON HumanResources.EEmployee.BusinessEntityID =
Person.BusinessEntityID.
ORDER BY PERSON. Last name;
You can get more information on INTERNAL ASSOCIATIONS
here, but for now, I want to point out two things.
First, examine the state of the join and see how we associate
the BusinessEntityID of the two tables.
Second, make sure that the results appear in the columns of
both tables.
 Data combination with UNION
Let's take a nearer look at the UNION statement. In SQL, the
UNION statement looks like
SELECT column list
OF tables1
UNION
SELECT column list
OF tables2
Suppose that you are prompted to list all AdventureWorks2012
product categories and subcategories. To do this, you can write two
separate queries and provide two different results, such as two
worksheets, or you can use the UNION clause to get results.
SELECTION C. Name
DE Manufacturing.Category of products as C
UNION ALL
SELECTION S.Name
DE Manufacturing.ProductSubcategory AS S
To join the two tables, there are several requirements:
The number of columns must be the same for both selected
expressions.
The columns, regularly, must be of the same type of data.
When the lines are combined, the duplicates are then deleted. If
you want to keep all rows of the results of the select statement, use
the ALL keyword.
Union
The Union operator includes the results of two or more queries
into a single, and independent result set that includes all rows
belonging to all Union queries. In this operation, two more queries
are combined, and the duplicates are deleted.
The SQL equivalent of the above information is provided below.
(
1 ID SELECTION
UNION
SELECTION 2
UNION
SELECTION 3
)
UNION
(
SELECTION 3
UNION
SELECTION 4
UNION
SELECTION 5
)
In the output, you can see a different list of records in both result
sets.
Union all
When we look at the union against each other, we find that they
are quite similar, but have significant differences from the results of
the work.
The Union operator dwell the results of two or more queries into
a result set that includes all rows belonging to all Union queries. In
other words, combine two or more sets of lines and contain the
duplicates.
The SQL equivalent of the above information is provided below.
(
1 ID SELECTION
UNION
SELECTION 2
UNION
SELECTION 3
)
UNION ALL
(
SELECTION 3
UNION
SELECTION 4
UNION
SELECTION 5
To cross
The interest operator keeps the lines common to all inquiries.
SQL view of previous tables
(
1 ID SELECTION
UNION
SELECTION 2
UNION
SELECTION 3
 )
to cross
(
SELECTION 3
UNION
SELECTION 4
UNION
SELECTION 5
)
The SQL view of previous tables with the EXCEPT statement is
provided below.
(
SELECTION 1 [missing only]
UNION
SELECTION 2
UNION
SELECTION 3
)
EXCEPT
(
SELECTION 3 B
UNION
SELECTION 4
UNION
SELECTION 5
)
 It is easy to visualise an ensemble operator using a Venn
diagram, where the intersection shapes represent each of the tables.
The intersections of how the planes overlap are the lines in which
the condition is fulfilled.
Syntax:
Syntax for Union and Union All SQL statements are as follows:
SELECTION Column1, Column2, ...ColumnN
DE <table>
[O conditions]
[GROUP BY Column (s)]
[Have terms]
UNION
SELECTION Column1, Column2, ...ColumnN
Of the table
[WHERE conditions);
ORDER Column1, Column2 ...
 Rules:
Several rules apply to all established operators:
Explanation in each row or the number of columns defined in
each query must have the same line.
The following sets of SQL statement strings must match the
data type of the first query.
Square brackets can create other set operators in the same
declaration.
It is possible to have the command ORDER BY, but it should be
the last SQL statement.
BY and HAVING group restrictions can be applied to a single
request.
Note:
All of these set operators eliminate duplicates except Union, and
All.
The names of the output columns of the first query have been
referred to, i.e. when we execute SELECT statements with one of
the Set comments and the result set for each question can have
names of the different column, and then the result of the command.
The SELECT statement refers to the column names of the first query
in operation.
SQL JOIN is most often used to combine columns from multiple
linked tables, whereas SET operators combine rows from multiple
tables.
When expression types are equal but differ in accuracy, scale,
and length, the result is determined by the same expression
combining rules.
Examples:
 The following T-SQL queries are prepared and started in the
Adventureworks2014 database. You can download a sample from
the AdventireWorks2014 database here.
How to use a simple SQL Union clause when selecting a
declaration?
In this example, the result set includes a set of lines separate
from the first and second sets. The following example is based on
rules 1, 3, and 5.
SELECTION *
OD
(
(
SELECTION 1 A
UNION
SELECTION 2
UNION
SELECTION 3
)
UNION
(
SELECTION 3 B
UNION
SELECTION 4
UNION
SELECTION 5
)
UNION ALL
 (
SELECTION 8 c
UNION
SELECTION 9
UNION
SELECTION 1
)
) T;
How to use SQL Union with queries that have a
WHERE clause
The following example shows that the use of the union in two
SELECT clauses with WHERE and ORDER BY terms clauses.
The following example is based on rules 1, 2, and 3.
SELECTION P1.ProductModelID,
P1.Nombre
DE Production.ProductModel P1
O IS THE PRODUCTMODELID IN (3, 4)
UNION
SELECTION P2.ProductModelID,
P2.Nombre
DE Manufacturing.ProductModel P2
WHERE P2.ProductModelID IN (3, 4)
ORDER BY P1.Name;
The union adheres without union clause.
UNION STYLES
 In simple terms, let's compare two styles of table combinations
using SQL syntax and SAS® data steps. In a wise column, merge
the two columns 'acol', and 'bcol' return with the result of a set as
large as the intersection of tables a and b are attached
using the values of its standard 'key' key variable.
SELECTION a.col as acol, data _null_;
b.col as bcol fusion b;
DE by key;
Internal union b EN a.key = b.key run;
ACOL BCOL KEY
p one six
q two seven
r three eight
The combination of rows returns a single 'col' column instead of
a result set containing all the rows of the constituent tables a and
b, regardless of the values in the "key" column of each table.
SELECT a column of _null_ data;
UNION establishes b;
SELECTION B-neck run;
Column
a
Two
Three
Six
Seven
Eight
 The ambiguity about whether the aob table should be listed first
before the UNION statement is an excellent clue for this query to be
supported in the database. When consistent table sizes are small,
query performance may not be noticeable.
However, when UNION members are involved in a complete
selection of multiple tables or with the massive size of the content
line executed by UNION,
then the query may not work but returns a terrible execution
error 'Timeout time'.
 Basic rules for combining two or more queries using
UNION
Basic rules for combining two or more consultations with
UNION:
1.) Multiple columns and column order of all queries must be the
same.
2.) The data types of the table included in each request must be
identical or compatible.
3.) Generally, column return names are extracted from the first
query.
UNION acts by default as UNION [DISTINCT], i.e. deletes
duplicate rows. However, using ALL-UNION keywords returns all
lines, including duplicates.
Difference between SQL JOIN and UNION
1.) The columns of the union tables may be different in JOIN,
but in UNION, the number of columns and the column order of all the
queries must be the same.
2.) UNION defines the query lines one after the other (vertically),
but JOIN defines the query column one after the other (defines
horizontally). That is to say that it creates a Cartesian product.
Syntax:
SELECT <list_columns> t [INTO]
[O]
[GROUPS TO] [BEDS]
[UNION [ALL]
SELECTION <list_columns>
[O]
[GROUPS TO] [PAYMENT] ...]
 [ORDER BY]
All queries are executed independently, but their output is
connected.
In the following example, no clause with UNION has been
added. As a result, UNION defaults to UNION [DISTINCT] and only
single lines are available in the result set.
Sample table: Product.
PROD_CODE PROD_NAME COM_NAME LIFE
---------------------------------------------------------------------
PR001 Т.В. SONY 7
PR002 DVD PLAYER LG 9
PR003 IPOD PHILIPS 9
PR004 SONY 8 SON SYSTEM
PR005 MOBILE NOKIA 6
Example of a table: purchase
PUR_NO PROD_CODE PROD_NAME COM_NAME PUR_QTY
PUR_AMOUNT
---------------------------------------------------------------------
2 PR001 Т.В. SONY 15 450000
1 PR003 IPOD PHILIPS 20 60000
3 PR007 LAPTOP COMPUTER H.P. 6 240000
4 PR005 MOBILE NOKIA 100 300000
5 DVD PLAYER PR002 LG 10 30000
6 PR006 CREATIVE SOUND SYSTEM 8 40000
SQL code:
SELECTION_product_products, product names
Product
 UNION
SELECTION_product_products, product names
About the purchase;
a copy
Exit:
PROD_CODE PROD_NAME
---------------------------------------------------------------------
PR001 Т.В.
PR002 DVD PLAYER
PR003 IPOD
PR004 SON SYSTEM
PR005 MOBILE
PR006 SOUND SYSTEM
PR007 LAPTOP COMPUTER
SQL UNION ALL
In the following sample, the optional clause ALL is added to
UNION for which all rows of each query are available in the result of
the set. Here, in the previous output, the highlighted lines are not
unique but are displayed. If ALL clauses are ignored, the highlighted
lines appear once.
SQL code:
SELECTION PRO_code, add_name, com_name
Of the product
UNION ALL
SELECTION PRO_code, add_name, com_name
Buying;
 SQL UNION ALL using where
In the following example, two queries were made using two
different criteria, including the WHERE clause. As a result, all
recovery lines (including duplicates) are displayed in the result set. In
this example, the highlighted lines are the same, but this is indicated
for the ALL clause with UNION. If ALL requests are ignored, then the
label queues will appear once.
SQL code:
SELECTION PRO_code, add_name, com_name
OF PRODUCTS
O life> 6
UNION ALL
SELECTION PRO_code, add_name, com_name
PURCHASE
O pur_qty> 10
SQL UNION table by itself
In the following example, two queries were made using two
different criteria for the same table. This shows all recovered lines
(including duplicates). In this example, the highlighted lines are the
same, but this is clearly indicated for the ALL clause with UNION.
SQL code:
SELECTION PRO_code, add_name, com_name
PURCHASE
O pur_qty> 6
UNION ALL
SELECTION PRO_code, add_name, com_name
PURCHASE
WHERE pur_amount> 100,000
 SQL UNION with different column names
In the following Sample, two queries were made using two
different criteria and different columns. The various columns in both
statements are 'life' and 'pur_qty'. However, since the data types are
the same for both columns, the result is displayed. The names of the
returned columns are extracted from the first query.
SQL code:
SELECT product_code, add_name, life
OF PRODUCTS
O life> 6
UNION
SELECT product_code, add_name, pur_qty
PURCHASE
O pur_qty<20
SQL UNION with internal union
In the following example, the union is performed with two
queries. The consultations are two internal statements of
association. In the first query, the union is played between two tables
in which the prod_ code of the two tables is very identical. In the
second query, the union is performed between two tables in which
the name_prod of the two tables is also very identical.
SQL code:
SELECT product.prod_code, product.product_name,
buy.pur_qty, buy.pur_amount
OF PRODUCTS
Buy INNER JOIN
ON product.prod_code = acquire.prod_code
UNION
SELECT product.prod_code, product.product_name,
buy.pur_qty, buy.pur_amount
Of the product
Buy INNER JOIN
ON produces.product_name = acquire.product_name;
 SQL: Union against Union of all
The main difference between UNION and UNION ALL is that
UNION deletes duplicate records, unlike UNION ALL. Apply these
two commands to both tables1 and table2.
Rows in Table 1:
field1
---------
1
4
2
3
Rows in Table 2:
field1
----------
2
4
2
1
UNION example (delete all duplicate records):
SQL code:
SELECT case 1
From Table 1
UNION
SELECT claim 1
From the table2;
Copy
Exit:
field1
----------
1
2
3
4
UNION ALL Example:
SQL code:
SELECT case 1
From Table 1
UNION ALL
SELECT claim 1
From the table2;
Copy
Exit:
field1
----------
1
4
2
3
2
4
 2
1
How to utilise the SELECT INTO clause and SQL
Union
The following sample creates a new dbo.dummy table by using
the INTO clause of the first SELECT statement, which contains the
last result set Union of ProductModel columns and the name of two
different result sets. In this case, it is generated from the same table,
but in the real world, it can be two different tables altogether. The
following example is based on rules 1, 2, and 4.
DROP TABLE IF dbo.dummy exists;
SELECTION P1.ProductModelID,
P1.Nombre
In the doll
DE Production.ProductModel P1
O IS THE PRODUCTMODELID IN (3, 4)
UNION
SELECTION P2.ProductModelID,
P2.Nombre
DE Manufacturing.ProductModel P2
WHERE P2.ProductModelID IN (3, 4)
ORDER BY P1.Name;
IR
SELECTION *
OD dbo.Dummy;
How to use SQL Union with WHERE and ORDER
BY queries.
 This is only possible if we use TOP functions or aggregation
functions in the instructions of each operator in the selected Union.
In this case, the first ten rows of each result set are listed and
combined using the Union clause to get the final result. You will also
see that the order by clause is placed in all selection declarations.
SELECTION a.ModelID,
Last name
OD
(
SELECTING THE TOP 10 PRODUCTSModelIDModelID,
Last name
DE Manufacturing.ProductModel
OR THE PRODUCT MODEL IS NOT IN (3, 4)
Sort by DESC
)a
UNION
SELECTION b.ProductModelID,
b. Last name
OD
(
SELECTION OF TOP 10 ProductModelID,
Last name
DE Manufacturing.ProductModel
O IS THE PRODUCTMODELID IN (5, 6)
Sort by DESC
) b;
 How to use SQL Union and SQL Pivot
In the following example, we try to combine several results. In
the real case, you can have financial figures from several regions or
departments, and the tables can have the same columns and data
types, but you may want to place them in a set of rows and a single
report. In such a scenario, I would use a Union clause, and it would
be easy to combine the results and convert the data into a more
meaningful report.
In this Sample, ProductModel is classified as Top10, Top100,
Top 100, and converts the rows into an aggregated set of values in
the corresponding columns. The following example is based on rule
2.
MAXIMUM SELECTION (Top10) Top10,
MAX (Top100) Top100,
MAX (Top1000) Top100
OD
(
ACCOUNT SELECTION (*) Top10,
0 Top100,
0 Top1000
DE Manufacturing.ProductModel
WHERE ProductModelID<10
UNION
SELECTION 0,
COUNT (*),
00
DE Manufacturing.ProductModel
WHERE ProductModelID> 11
 And ProductModelID<100
UNION
SELECTION 0,
0
COUNT (*)
DE Manufacturing.ProductModel
WHERE ProductModelID> 101
) T;
NULL values are fundamental for definition operators and are
treated as second-class database citizens because NULL values are
considered unique, and if two rows have NULL values in the same
column, they will be regarded as identical. In this case, you compare
NULL with NULL, and you get a tie. In the following sample, you will
see the use of NULL values. In this case, it works with the
aggregation function, max.
MAXIMUM SELECTION (Top10) Top10,
MAX (Top100) Top100,
MAX (Top1000) Top100
IZ
(
SELECTION ACCOUNT (*) Top10,
NULL Top100,
NULL Top1000
Production Product Model
WHERE ProductModelID<10
UNION
SELECT NULL,
 ACCOUNT (*)
NULL
Production Product Model
WHERE ProductModelID> 11
And ProductModelID<100
UNION
SELECT NULL,
NULL
ACCOUNT (*)
Production Product Model
WHERE ProductModelID> 101
) T;
How to utilise SQL Union with group and property clauses:
The following examples use a union operator to combine the
results of a table for which all conditional clauses are defined using
the Group by and Have expression.
The last name is broken down by specifying the conditions in
the clause that you have.
The following sample is based on rule 5.
SELECTION pp. Last name,
COUNT (*) repeated,
0 repeat three times
FROM.Person AS pp
JOIN HumanResources.E Employee AS and ON
e.BusinessEntityID = pp.BusinessEntityID
GROUP BY pp.lastname
COUNT (*) = 2
 UNION
SELECTION pp. Last name,
0
COUNT (*) NtoZRange
FROM.Person AS pp
JOIN HumanResources.E Employee AS and ON
e.BusinessEntityID = pp.BusinessEntityID
GROUP BY pp. Last name
THIS NUMBER (*)> 2;
UNION deletes duplicate rows.
UNION ALL does not delete double lines.
Syntax
The syntax of the UNION manipulator in SQL is as follows:
SELECT expression1, expression2, ...expression_n
OF tables
[O conditions]
UNION
SELECT expression1, expression2, ...expression_n
OF tables
[WHERE conditions];
Parameters or arguments
expression1, expression2, expression_n
The columns or budgets that you want to resend.
Tables
Tables from which to extract records. There must be leastways
for one table listed in the FROM clause.
 Where are the conditions?
Optional. Conditions to be fulfilled for the selection of the
recordings.
Note
There must be the same number of expressions in both
SELECT expressions.
The corresponding expressions must have the same type of
data in the SELECT elements. For example, expression1 must be of
the same data type in the first and second SELECT statements.
See also UNION ALL operator.
Example: A field with the same name.
Let's see how to use the SQL UNION operator to return a field.
In this simple sample, the field in both SELECT statements will have
the same name and type of data.
For example:
SELECT provider_id
FROM the service provider
UNION
SELECT provider_id
OF commands
ORDER BY Vendor_id;
In this example, the UNION SQL statements, if vendor_id
appears in the Providers and Orders table, then it will appear once in
the result set. The UNION operator deletes duplicates. If you do not
want to remove copies, try using the UNION ALL operator.
Now, let's explore this example in detail.
If you have filled the vendor table with the following records:
supplier_idsupplier_provider
1000 Microsoft
2000 Oracle
3000 apples
4000 Samsung
And the command table is populated with the following records:
order_idorder_datevendor_id
1 2015-08-01 2000
2 2015-08-01 6000
3 2015-08-02 7000
4 2015-08-03 8000
And he made the following UNION statement:
SELECT provider_id
FROM the service provider
UNION
SELECT provider_id
OF commands
ORDER BY Vendor_id;
You will get the following results:
Vendor identification
1000
2000
3000
4000
6000
7000
 8000
As you can see in this example, UNION retrieved all vendor_id
values from the vendor and order tables and returned a combined
result set. Because the UNION operator has eliminated duplicates
between result sets, 2000_ vendor_id only appears once, even
though it is in both the vendor table and the ordering table. If you do
not want to delete duplicates, try using the UNION ALL operator
instead.
 Example: different field names
The corresponding columns of each SELECT command do not
need to have the same name but must have the same relevant data
types.
When you do not have the same column names between
SELECT statements, it becomes a little complicated, especially
when you want to sort the results of a query using the ORDER BY
clause.
Let's see how to use a UNION operator with different column
names and sort the results of the query.
For example:
SELECT provider_id, provider name.
FROM the service provider
WHERE donor_id> 2000
UNION
CHOOSE the name of the company, the name of the company.
OF companies
WHERE company_id> 1000
ORDER UP TO 1;
In this example of SQL UNION, since the column names differ
between the two SELECT statements, it is best to refer to the
columns of the ORDER BY clause because of its position in the
result set. In this example, we have sorted the results by vendor_id /
company_id in ascending order, as shown in ORDER 1. The
Supplier_id / company_id fields are in position 1 in the result set.
Now, let's explore this example with the data.
If you have filled the vendor table with the following records:
supplier_idsupplier_provider
1000 Microsoft
2000 Oracle
3000 apples
4000 Samsung
And the table of society is filled with the following records:
company_id Company name
1000 Microsoft
3000 apples
Sony 7000
8000 IBM
And you made the following statement from UNION:
SELECT vendor_id, vendor name
FROM THE SUPPLIER
WHERE vendor_id> 2000
UNION
CHOOSE the name of the company, the name of the company.
Enterprises
WHERE company_id> 1000
ORDER UP TO 1;
You will get the following results:
supplier_idsupplier_provider
3000 apples
4000 Samsung
Sony 7000
 8000 IBM
First, note that the Supplier_id record of 3000 appears only once
in the result set because the UNION query has deleted duplicate
entries.
Second, keep in mind that the column headers in the result set
are called vendor_id and the provider name. This is because of the
column names used in the first SELECT statement in UNION.
If you wanted, you could have deleted the columns as follows:
SELECT provider_ID AS ID_Value, provider name AS
Name_Value
FROM THE SUPPLIER
WHERE vendor_id> 2000
UNION
SELECT Company_ID AS ID_Value, Company Name AS
Name_Value
Enterprises
WHERE company_id> 1000
ORDER UP TO 1;
From now on, the column headings of the result will be alienated
as ID_Value for the first column and Name_Value for the second
column.
ID_VALUE NAME_VALUE
3000 apples
4000 Samsung
Sony 7000
8000 IBM
Frequently asked Questions.
 Question: I have to compare the two dates and return the field
number according to the value of the date. For example, the table
refers to the last update date, and the field contains the date. I need
to check if trunc (last_update_date> = trunc (sysdate-13).
Answer: As you use the COUNT function, which is an aggregate
function, we recommend that you use Oracle UNION. For example,
you can try the following:
SELECT the code AS a.code, a.name Name AS, COUNT
(b.Ncode)
OD cdmaster a, nmmaster b
O a.code = b.code
And a.status = 1
And b.status = 1
And b.Ncode<> 'a10'
I TRUNC (last_update_date) <= TRUNC (sysdate-13)
GROUP BY a.code, a.name
UNION
SELECT the code AS a.code, a.name Name AS, COUNT
(b.Ncode)
OD cdmaster a, nmmaster b
O a.code = b.code
And a.status = 1
And b.status = 1
And b.Ncode<> 'a10'
I TRUNC (last_update_date)> TRUNC (sysdate-13)
GROUP BY a.code, a.name;
Oracle UNION allows you to count according to a set of criteria.
 TRUNC (last_update_date) <= TRUNC (sysdate-13)
He likes to count according to another set of criteria.
TRUNC (last_update_date)> TRUNC (sysdate-13)
The UNION ALL SQL statement is used to combine a result set
of 2 or more SELECT comments. It does not delete duplicate rows
between different SELECT accounts (all rows are returned).
Each SELECT entry in UNION ALL must have the same amount
of fields in the feedback sets with the same data types.
What is the difference in amount in UNION and UNION ALL?
UNION deletes duplicate rows.
UNION ALL does not delete double lines.
The syntax
The syntax for UNION ALL in SQL is as follows:
SELECT expression1, expression2,expression_n
OF tables
[SO conditions]
UNION ALL
SELECT expression1, expression2,expression_n
OF tables
[WHERE conditions];
Parameters or arguments
expression1, expression2, expression_n
The columns or budgets that you want to resend.
Tables
Tables from which to extract records. There must be leastways
for one table listed in the FROM clause.
Where are the conditions?
 Optional. Conditions to be fulfilled for the selection of the
recordings.
Note
There must be the same number of expressions in both
SELECT expressions.
Matching expressions must have the same type of data in
SELECT comments. For example, expression1 must be of the same
data type in the first and second SELECT statements.
See also, the UNION operator.
Example: A field with the same name.
Let's see how to use the UNION ALL SQL operator to return a
field. In this part, the field in both SELECT statements will have the
same name and type of data.
For example:
SELECT provider_id
FROM the service provider
UNION ALL
SELECT provider_id
OF commands
ORDER BY Vendor_id;
This SQL UNION ALL example would return Supplier_id
multiple times in the result set if the same value appeared in both the
vendor table and the command table. The UNION ALL SQL
statement does not remove duplicates. If you want to remove
duplicates, try a UNION operator.
Now, let's explore this example in detail.
If you have filled the vendor table with the following records:
supplier_idsupplier_provider
1000 Microsoft
2000 Oracle
3000 apples
4000 Samsung
And the command table is populated with the following records:
order_idorder_datevendor_id
1 2015-08-01 2000
2 2015-08-01 6000
3 2015-08-02 7000
4 2015-08-03 8000
And he made the following statement from UNION ALL:
SELECT provider_id
FROM the service provider
UNION ALL
SELECT provider_id
OF commands
ORDER BY Vendor_id;
You will get the following results:
Vendor identification
1000
2000
2000
3000
4000
6000
 7000
8000
As you can see in this example, UNION ALL retrieved all
value_id values from the vendor table and the order table and
returned a combined result set. Duplicates have not been removed,
as shown by the value of the 2000 vendor, which appeared twice in
the result set.
Example: Different field names.
The corresponding columns of each SELECT command do not
need to have the same name, but must have the same relevant data
types.
When you do not have the same column names between
SELECT statements, it becomes a little complicated, especially
when you want to sort the results of a query using the ORDER BY
clause.
Let's see how to use the UNION ALL operator with different
column names and sort the results of the query.
For example:
SELECT provider_id, provider name
FROM the service provider
WHERE donor_id> 2000
UNION ALL
CHOOSE the name of the organisation, the name of the
organisation.
OF companies
WHERE company_id> 1000
ORDER UP TO 1;
In this example, SQL UNION ALL operator because the column
names are different between the two SELECT statements, it is better
to call the columns in the ORDER BY command because of the
position in the result set. In this example, we have sorted the results
by vendor_id / company_id in ascending order, as shown in ORDER
1. The Supplier_id / company_id fields are in position 1 in the result
set.
Explore this example with the data.
If you have filled the vendor table with the following records:
supplier_idsupplier_provider
1000 Microsoft
2000 Oracle
3000 apples
4000 Samsung
And a social table filled with the following documents:
Company Name
1000 Microsoft
3000 apples
Sony 7000
8000 IBM
And you made the following statement from UNION ALL:
SELECT vendor_id, vendor name
FROM THE SUPPLIER
WHERE vendor_id> 2000
UNION ALL
CHOOSE the name of the company, the name of the company.
Enterprises
WHERE company_id> 1000
ORDER UP TO 1;
 You will get the following results:
supplier_idsupplier_provider
3000 apples
3000 apples
4000 Samsung
Sony 7000
8000 IBM
First, notice that a Supplier_id record of 3000 appears twice in
the result set because the UNION ALL query returns all rows and
does not remove duplicates.
Second, keep in mind that the column headers in the result set
are called vendor_id and the provider name. This is because of the
column names used in the first SELECT statement in UNION ALL.
If you wanted, you could have deleted the columns as follows:
SELECT provider_ID AS ID_Value, provider name AS
Name_Value
FROM THE SUPPLIER
WHERE vendor_id> 2000
UNION ALL
SELECT Company_ID AS ID_Value, Company Name AS
Name_Value
Enterprises
WHERE company_id> 1000
ORDER UP TO 1;
From now on, the column headings of the result will be alienated
as ID_Value for the first column and Name_Value for the second
column.
ID_VALUE NAME_VALUE
 3000 apples
3000 apples
4000 Samsung
Sony 7000
8000 IBM
Combines the results of two queries into a result set. You control
whether the result set includes double rows:
UNION ALL - Includes duplicates.
UNION - Excludes duplicates.
Operation UNION is different from UNION:
UNION links a set of results from two queries. But UNION does
not create single rows from columns collected from two tables.
JOIN compares the columns of two tables in order to create
rows of results composed of columns of two tables.
Here are the basic rules for combining a result set of two
queries using UNION:
The number and order of columns must be the same in all
queries.
Data types must be compatible.
The syntax
{<specification_query> | (<Consulta_expresión ')}
{UNION [ALL]
{<specification_query> | (<Consulta_expresión ')}
[... not]}
Arguments
<specification_query> | (<query_expression>), this is a query
specification or query expression that returns data that will be
combined with data from another query specification or query
expression. Column definitions that are part of a UNION operation
do not have to be identical, but must be supported by an implicit
conversion. When the data types differ, the resulting data type is
determined based on the priority of the data type. When the species
are identical but differ in their precision, scale, or length, the result is
based on the same combination of expression rules. See Precision,
Scale, and Length (Transact-SQL) for more information.
The columns of the XML data type must be identical. All
columns must be written in an XML schema or without writing. I
wrote, and they must be written in the same collection of XML
schemas.
UNION
Specifies that multiple result sets should be combined and
returned as a result set.
ALL
Include all lines in the results, including duplicates. If not
specified, the double lines are deleted.
Samples
Use simple UNION
In the following part, the result set includes the contents of the
ProductModelID and Name columns in the ProductModel and
Gloves tables.
SQL
- Use AdventureWorks
IF OBJECT_ID ('dbo.Gloves', 'U') IS NOT NULL
DROP STOL dbo.Guantes;
IR
- Make a glove table.
 SELECT ProductModelID, Name
AND dbo.Guantes
DE Manufacturing.ProductModel
WHERE PRODUCTMODELID IN (3, 4);
IR
- Here is a simple union.
- Use AdventureWorks
SELECT ProductModelID, Name
DE Manufacturing.ProductModel
OR THE PRODUCT MODEL IS NOT IN (3, 4)
UNION
SELECT ProductModelID, Name
From dbo.Gloves
NAME ORDER;
IR
Using SELECT INTO with UNION
In the following example, the INTO sentence of the second
SELECT statement specifies that a table named ProductResults
contains a set of final merge results for the selected columns of the
ProductModel and Gloves tables. The glove table was created in the
first SELECT statement.
SQL
- Use AdventureWorks
IF OBJECT_ID ('dbo.ProductResults', 'U') IS NOT NULL
DROP TABLE dbo.ProductResults;
IR
IF OBJECT_ID ('dbo.Gloves', 'U') IS NOT NULL
 DROP STOL dbo.Guantes;
IR
- Make a glove table.
SELECT ProductModelID, Name
AND dbo.Guantes
DE Manufacturing.ProductModel
WHERE PRODUCTMODELID IN (3, 4);
IR
- Use AdventureWorks
SELECT ProductModelID, Name
In dbo.ProductResults
DE Manufacturing.ProductModel
OR THE PRODUCT MODEL IS NOT IN (3, 4)
UNION
SELECT ProductModelID, Name
OD dbo.Gloves;
IR
SELECT ProductModelID, Name
OD dbo.ProductResults;
Using the union of two SELECT statements with
ORDER BY
The order of the individual parameters used with the UNION
clause is essential. The following example shows the correct and
incorrect use of UNION in two SELECT statements in which the
name of the column in the output is changed.
SQL
- Use AdventureWorks
IF OBJECT_ID ('dbo.Glovess', 'U') IS NOT NULL
PUT DOWN CHART dbo.Glaves;
To go
- Create a glove table.
SELECT ProductModelID, Name
EN dbo.Guantes
Production Product Model
OR BETWEEN THE PRODUCT (3, 4);
To go
/ * INCORRECT * /
- Use AdventureWorks
SELECT ProductModelID, Name
Production Product Model
WHERE THE PRODUCTODELID IS NOT IN (3, 4)
ORDER BY NAME
UNION
SELECT ProductModelID, Name
OD dbo.Gloves;
To go
/ * IT'S CORRECT * /
- Use AdventureWorks
SELECT ProductModelID, Name
Production Product Model
WHERE THE PRODUCTODELID IS NOT IN (3, 4)
 UNION
SELECT ProductModelID, Name
OD dbo. Gloves
ORDER BY NAME
To go
Using the UNION of Three SELECT Statements to
Show the Effects of ALL and Parentheses
The following examples use UNION to unite the results of three
tables that contains the same five rows of data. The first example
uses UNION ALL to display duplicate records and returns the 15
rows. In the second example, UNION without EVERYTHING is used
to eliminate duplicate rows from the combined results of three
SELECT statements and return five rows.
The third sample uses ALL with the first UNION, and the
brackets place the second with UNION without using ALL. The
second UNION is progress first because it is in parentheses and
restores five lines because ALL options are not used, and duplicates
are removed. These five lines are combined with the results of the
first selection using the keywords UNION ALL. This example does
not delete the copies between two sets of five lines. The final result
has ten tracks.
SQL
- Use AdventureWorks
IF OBJECT_ID ('dbo.EposleeeOne', 'U') IS NOT NULL
DROP TABLE dbo.EEmployeeOne;
To go
IF OBJECT_ID ('dbo.EslueeeTwo', 'U') IS NOT NULL
DROPS TABLE dbo.EslueeeTwo;
To go
 IF OBJECT_ID ('dbo.EEmployeeThree', 'U') IS NOT NULL
DROP TABLE dbo.EEmployeeThree;
To go
SELECTION pp.LastName, pp.FirstName, e.JobTitle
IN dbo.EEmployeeeOne
FROM PERS.Person AS pp JOIN HumanResources.E AS
Employees and
ON e.BusinessEntityID = pp.BusinessEntityID
WHERE Name = 'Johnson';
To go
SELECTION pp.LastName, pp.FirstName, e.JobTitle
IN dbo.EEmployeeewo
FROM PERS.Person AS pp JOIN HumanResources.E AS
Employees and
ON e.BusinessEntityID = pp.BusinessEntityID
WHERE Name = 'Johnson';
To go
SELECTION pp.LastName, pp.FirstName, e.JobTitle
IN dbo.EEmployeeThree
FROM PERS.Person AS pp JOIN HumanResources.E AS
Employees and
ON e.BusinessEntityID = pp.BusinessEntityID
WHERE Name = 'Johnson';
To go
- Union ALL
SELECTION Name, First Name, Position Title.
FROM dbo.EEmployeeeOne
UNION ALL
SELECTION Name, First Name, Position Title.
DE dbo.EEmployeeewo
UNION ALL
SELECTION Name, First Name, Position Title.
DE dbo.EEmployeeThree;
To go
SELECTION Name, First Name, Position Title.
FROM dbo.EEmployeeeOne
UNION
SELECTION Name, First Name, Position Title.
DE dbo.EEmployeeewo
UNION
SELECTION Name, First Name, Position Title.
DE dbo.EEmployeeThree;
To go
SELECTION Name, First Name, Position Title.
FROM dbo.EEmployeeeOne
UNION ALL
(
SELECTION Name, First Name, Position Title.
DE dbo.EEmployeeewo
UNION
SELECTION Name, First Name, Position Title.
 DE dbo.Eee employees
)
To go
Samples: Azure Synapse Analytics (SQL DW) and Parallel Data
Warehouse.
Using a simple union
In the following part, the result set includes the contents of the
CustomerKey columns of the FactInternetSales and DimCustomer
tables. As the ALL keyword is not used, duplicates are excluded
from the result.
SQL
- Use AdventureWorks
SELECT customer key
Internet sales
UNION
SELECT customer key
From DimCustomer
CUSTOMER ORDER BY CLIENT;
Using two SELECT UNION statements with
ORDER BY
When a SELECT report of a UNION statement contains an
ORDER BY command, this clause must be placed after all SELECT
comments. The following sample extensively shows the correct and
incorrect use of UNION in two SELECT statements in which the
column is sorted with ORDER BY.
SQL
- Use AdventureWorks
- NEED
SELECT customer key
Internet sales
CUSTOMER ORDER
UNION
SELECT customer key
From DimCustomer
CUSTOMER ORDER BY CLIENT;
- CORRECT
USE AdventureWorksPDW2012;
SELECT customer key
Internet sales
UNION
SELECT customer key
From DimCustomer
CUSTOMER ORDER BY CLIENT;
 Using two SELECT UNION statements with
WHERE and ORDER BY
The following sample shows the correct and incorrect use of
UNION in two SELECT statements where WHERE and ORDER are
required.
SQL
- Use AdventureWorks
- NEED
SELECT customer key
Internet sales
Where key key> = 11000
CUSTOMER ORDER
UNION
SELECT customer key
From DimCustomer
CUSTOMER ORDER BY CLIENT;
- CORRECT
USE AdventureWorksPDW2012;
SELECT customer key
Internet sales
Where key key> = 11000
UNION
SELECT customer key
From DimCustomer
CUSTOMER ORDER BY CLIENT;
 Use the UNION of three SELECT statements to
display the effects of ALL and parentheses
The following examples make use of UNION to combine the
results from the same array in order to show the effects of ALL and
brackets when using UNION.
The first example uses UNION ALL to display duplicate records
and returns three rows in the original table three times. Another
example uses UNION without ALL to remove duplicate rows from the
combined results of three SELECT statements and returns only non-
duplicate rows from the original table.
The third example uses ALL with the first UNION and
parentheses covering the second UNION that ALL do not apply. The
second UNION is treated first because it is in parentheses and it
returns only row in the table that is not duplicated because the ALL
option is not used, and duplicates are removed. These lines are
combined with the results of the first CHOICE using the keywords
UNION ALL. This example does not delete the copies between two
games.
SQL
- Use AdventureWorks
SELECT CustomerKey, First Name, Last Name.
From DimCustomer
UNION ALL
SELECT CustomerKey, First Name, Last Name.
From DimCustomer
UNION ALL
SELECT CustomerKey, First Name, Last Name.
OD DimCustomer;
SELECT CustomerKey, First Name, Last Name.
From DimCustomer
UNION
SELECT CustomerKey, First Name, Last Name.
From DimCustomer
UNION
SELECT CustomerKey, First Name, Last Name.
OD DimCustomer;
SELECT CustomerKey, First Name, Last Name.
From DimCustomer
UNION ALL
(
SELECT CustomerKey, First Name, Last Name.
From DimCustomer
UNION
SELECT CustomerKey, First Name, Last Name.
From DimCustomer
)
 SQL JOIN
First, it helps to understand how databases store data. They use
tables with rows and columns. Each line is a single record containing
the same types of data, each stored in a column. For example, a
customer information table might provide columns with the name,
last name, and customer ID (unique for each customer, for example,
to separate two John Smith). In this table, when a new user is added
to the database, the new row is combined with a unique ID, along
with his first and last name in the corresponding column.
Then, it is useful to know that the data can be extracted from the
database using a short and structured query language or a SQL
structure (see-kwul). Different types of databases (Oracle, Teradata,
SQL Server, etc.) have their SQL syntax, but are generally similar.
All forms of SQL allow you to easily retrieve data from one or
more tables in a result set, and all will enable you to join multiple
tables.
For example, in addition to the customer table mentioned above,
there could be a customer address table. This table could include a
column for the address, one for the city, one for the country, and one
for the compression and identification of the address (a unique
number for each class). And to maintain this simplicity, although you
rarely design such a database, it would also include the ID of the
client whose address is in this record.
In this way, you can write a query that selects the name and
information of a client table and associates a client table with a client
address table, using a syntax that is similar to the following:
Select * from the customer, customer address
wherecustomer.cust_id = customer_address.cust_id
(*) Then return all records. The records come from the customer
table and the customer address table. Therefore, each returned row
will have all the columns of the user table and the user address
table:
Name, cust_id, address, city, country, zip code, address_id,
cust_id
Note the "where" clause in the previous query. This specifies the
ONLY record combination in the Customer_address table of the user
table to which cust_ids corresponds. This is the right way to join.
Cartesian merge, also known as product association, results in
all records in one table joining all files in another. In the previous
example, we can create a Cartesian merge by eliminating the
'Where' clause.
Suppose that there are 200 records in the customer table and
each customer has a career in the customer address table (hence,
another 200 records in the customer address table). If the query
uses the correct syntax to merge the two tables, the result set must
have 200 rows, and one row per user also contains address
information.
However, if we delete the where clause, SQL returns EACH the
client associated with the EACH address. Customers 1 will have a
record for Class 1, Address two and Address 3, etc. To address 200.
Also, customers 2, 3, etc. Up to 200 customers.
The result set should be 40,000 instead of 200. Each of the 200
customers would display 200 times and 200 * 200 = 40,000. That is
why the Cartesian combination is also called product combination
because it is a multiplication of records, not just a combination of
files.
See the following statements:
- Internal connection to the USING clause.
SELECTION * IN TABLE 1 INTERNAL CONNECTION WITH
SECOND TABLE b APPLICATION (column name).
- Internal union with ON clause.
 CHOOSE * From the first to the inner JO, join the second b to
a.somecolumn = b.anthercolumn
It counts
The general operation in SQL statements is the internal union.
Identify and combine only rows in linked database tables when a
match can be found in both tables. The condition is used to
determine the association of the data stored in the addressed tables.
The keywords ON or USING can be effectively used to determine
the binding condition:
ON is used when the Relations column has a different name.
USING is used when the Relations column has the same name
in both tables.
See the following examples:
- ON clause
SELECTION *
FROM TABLE A TO
INTERNAL UNIT table b
ON a.someColumn = b.otherColumn
- Use clause
SELECTION *
FROM TABLE TO
INTERNAL UNIT table b
APPLICATION (column name)
Internal Union, Interstate Union and Union
In MySQL, CROSS JOIN AND JOIN stands for INNER JOIN.
The ANSI SQL standard describes CROSS JOIN as an
unconditional union. It is a Cartesian product of two tables and it is
called a cross union. In MySQL, it's just an internal stateless union.
The result set is a Cartesian product of these tables.
 If you want MySQL to create a Carthusian product with two
tables, use the CROSS JOIN keywords to indicate this intent. It
allows you to read your statement and manage your transfer code
between different relational database management systems
(RDBMS), such as Oracle or Postgres.
More than one alliance
It is not uncommon to combine multiple tables with a single
statement, and nothing special. Just add combinations and
conditions (most likely):
- More than one
SELECTION *
FROM TABLE TO
INTERNAL UNIT table b
ON a.someColumn = b.otherColumn
INTERNAL UNIT table c
ON b.anotherColumn = c.nextColumn
MySQL creates a large set of results in the first two steps. The
first step is to combine rows of tables and tables. In the second step,
the rows of tables and tables are combined.
Unbalanced link conditions in database queries
Relational database management systems or RDBMS use
queries to extract data from the database. Queries can be built into
multiple tables using equi or non equi merge. Queries can also
specify where the conditions are, where the data will be retrieved
under certain conditions, such as Choose student's student name
where place_of_residence = "Chennai." The binding terms are
specified as follows: Select a.client_name, b.id of the client a, an
order b where a.cid of the client = b.cid of the client.
In the previous case, the connection is established between two
tables and the command. Before running the query, the SQL engine
calculates the execution plan. The query execution plan is a series of
steps that are applied to determine the query optimizer. These steps
would result in a series of operations that would reduce the costs of
running the query. In complex situations, when queries are built
between multiple tables that specify many conditions, one or two lost
union states may result in longer execution times if the database
contains a large amount of data.
The junction of two tables without junction conditions is only a
network product of the two groups. If Table A has 10,000 rows, and
Table B has 5,000 rows, the cross product of both tables will
generate 5.00 million records. While, if a link condition is entered, the
result set will contain 10,000 rows or 5,000 rows in the search
results. If a query includes, for example, ten tables and network
products of two or three tables taken simultaneously, and the query
expression contains 20 to 30 unions, then 3 or 4 links conditions may
be lost due to negligence or error. This can happen in the case of
SQL queries that run on a large production or production outputs that
handle large amounts of data. The size of each table is enormous,
as is the number of tables.
The designer can configure a query to record the update
process in a production house where the actual sales data related to
projections is loaded into the database. Because of the complexity of
the database, a query can use 20 tables with an average of more
than 100,000 records per table. The query can use many
combinations, and if due to an accident, some link conditions are
ignored, the query will search in the space of 10 power records
instead of five power records. This would result in longer execution
time of the query. Sometimes a program that contains an incorrect
request may run for up to 20 hours without updating, but if lost
queries can be identified and added to the query, such as
table3.column3 = table4.column7 or table7.column2 =
table1.column9, and so on, they can be executed within acceptable
time frames.
CHAPTER NINE
 Difference between function and stored
procedure
What is a stored procedure (SP)?
A stored procedure is a set of queries/commands encapsulated in a
function that is stored on a database server. The service can receive
parameters that can then be used as request/command parameters.
Why is a stored procedure useful?
Because SP will tailor your queries/commands to parameterised
data queries/data definitions/changes, you can standardise the
exchange of data between the database server and its users. This
will also reduce the debug time of application development because
all business logic is stored in the database. The SP can help you
maintain security by classifying authorised and forbidden users to
call stored processes.
Why do we need a stored procedure?
Since we want to achieve the result mentioned in number 2, we
can simply do this by replacing the stored procedure as a function
library stored outside of the database server. But this will interfere
heavily with the flexibility of the type of applications that makes use
of the same business logic. For example, the current business
application uses an Internet interface; if we want to create a
smartphone/desktop-based client application, we will use more time
to translate business logic into different programming
languages/frameworks. We will have a terrible headache if we have
to update the application, but not the business logic.
Why do not we need a stored procedure?
Because SP is less potent than the programming language used
in a web application/business application/smart client, it is also
possible that we are locked into a single RDBMS provider. As a
result of which we are reducing flexibility in managing our IT budget.
 When is the registered process appropriate for
us?
When you are sure that the current RDBMS will be implemented
in your organisation long enough for the time needed to develop the
stored procedure, then extending the program to multiple
platforms/programming language should be mentioned in your
application development plan.
Stored procedure data
The use of stored procedures to consider has several
advantages. This technology offers the power of a precompiled
execution. The example shows the SQL server that compiles each
method and then reuses the executed plan to improve performance
when system calls are repeated dramatically. Also, the client or
server traffic is reduced. If you give high priority to network
bandwidth, you should be satisfied because you can minimise
single-string SQL queries sent over a cable.
Also, another feature of stored procedures is the efficient reuse
of programs and code abstraction. Multiple users or client programs
can apply the technology used for stored procedures. If you use
them in an organised plan, you will probably realise that the
development cycle is faster. There are also enhanced security
controls because you can grant permissions to users so that they
can run the process themselves without any leaves from the table.
Stored procedures looks a bit like other types of programming
language, such as user-defined functions. Also, SQL Server
supports other temporary methods, such as temporary tables, in
which they are automatically ignored when the connection is
disconnected. These transient processes are in "tempdb" and maybe
viable for earlier versions of SQL Server. They can be used with the
application to create dynamic Transact-SQL statements.
Instead of asking Transact-SQL statements to recompile each
interval, this stored procedure allows you to create a temporary built
procedure on first performance before running the precompiled plan
multiple times. However, continuous or tight clothing may eventually
cause the system cards to be transferred to "tempdb". Also, the
procedures provide native support for the OLE DB and ODBC model
executed without using stored procedures.
Comparing Functions and Procedures Stored in
SQL Server
1. Handling results of stored procedures and functions with table
values.
To store the extracted data from a stored process in a table
when we call it, you must first create a table and then insert the
process data that is stored in the table.
Let's look at a sample. We will first create a stored procedure
that returns the selected expression:
Create a sample of a process table
as
to choose
[AddressID]
[Address1,]
[AddressLine2]
1C
of
[Nobody]. [Address]
This is a procedure called sample table, and returning the
selection of information from the Person table to the address is
included in the Adventureworks databases mentioned in the
requirements.
After you create a stored procedure, you must create a table to
store the data in:
CREATE A TABLE [Person]. [Address2] (
 [Address ID] [int] NO NULL,
[AddressLine1] [nvarchar] (60) NO NULL,
[AddressLine2] [nvarchar] (60) NULL,
[City] [nvarchar] (30) NO NULL
CONSTRAINT [PK_Address_AddressID2] CLUSIFIED
PRIMARY KEY
(
[AddressID] ASC
)
) ON [PRIMARY]
IR
Finally, you can insert in the table and call the stored procedure:
Insert into a person.Address2
An example of an executable table.
As you can see, the stored procedure can be called and
extracted by inserting it.
If we try to insert from a stored procedure to automatically
create a table, we get the following result:
An example of an executable table in
Address of the person3
When you try to insert the result of calling a stored procedure in
a table, the following message is displayed:
Message 156, Level 15, State 1, Line 170
Incorrect syntax near the "en" keyword.
Let's create a function with table values and compare it to the
stored procedure:
CREATE FUNCTION dbo.functiontable ()
 RETURN TABLES
How? 'Or' What
Vraca
(
to choose
[AddressID]
[Address1,]
[AddressLine2]
1C
of
[Nobody]. [Address]
)
This function called the function table, returns information about
the person. Address table To call a function with table values, we can
make a selection like this:
Select *
withdbo.functiontable ()
A function with table values can be used as a view. You can
filter the columns that you want to see:
selectAddressID
withdbo.functiontable ()
You can also add filters:
selectAddressID in dbo.functiontable ()
whereaddressID = 502
If you want to store the outcome of a function, you do not need
to create a table. You can use the select clause in the class to store
the results in a new table:
 Select *
at my table
withdbo.functiontable ()
2. Comparison of the performance of procedures and functions
stored in the value of the table with the clause where
Some developers claim that stored processes are faster than
table-based services. Is it true?
We will create a table of one million rows for this test:
With random values
as (
select 1 id, CAST (RAND (CHECKSUM (NEWID ()))))) * 100 as
integer) random number
union all
select id + 1, CAST (RAND (CHECKSUM (NEWID ()))))) * 100
as integer) random number
random values
or
id<1000000
)
Select *
in my big
random values
OPTION (MAXRECURSION 0)
The code creates a table called my large table of millions of
rows with values between 1 and 100.
We will create a function that returns values against a filter that
is specified by a parameter:
 CREATE FUNCTION dbo.functionlargetable (@rand int)
RETURN TABLES
AS
Return
(
select a random number
from my big office
where random number = @ rand
)
3. Are scalar functions bad?
Some say that scalar functions are an offshoot of the devil. We
will check if this bad reputation is justified.
We will use a stored procedure with a computed column. The
calculated column will convert US dollars to Mexican pesos. The
formula will be:
Select a random number * 20.33 [Mexican pesos]
$ 1 will be 20.33 pesos.
The stored procedure will be as follows:
Create a grand table procedure
as select a random number * 20.33 [Mexican pesos]
from my big office.
We use the table that created my big table in section 2.
To test the results, we can refer to the following procedure:
Largetableproc executive.
The fast development of database applications.
A fast database application revolves around the concept of
identifying and using fast and straightforward database applications.
Here are some examples of such software that you can use, so keep
reading.
There are many reasons why you need a fast connection to the
database. For example, when you develop a custom database to
manage your business data or need a quick update of the
eCommerce site, it will help you to reduce downtime during updating
of your website.
To produce the best application, you must specify the user
interface design, the database design, the business strategy
treatment design, the test plan, and the implementation process. You
must also have a training plan and all the necessary material plans,
i.e. implementation/acquisition plans, database standardisation,
stored procedures and triggers.
Now, you must create a preliminary database design and use a
modelling tool to test all database indexing structures. This will allow
you to quickly develop database applications when you move to
"mass production" or massive scale development.
When you want to get dirty at work, you can use the MSSQL,
MySQL, Oracle, Alpha Five or Access databases. Some other newer
development technologies include C #, ASP.NET, and VB.NET.
Samples of fast or fast database application development tools
now include the Base One Foundation Component Library (BFC),
which you can use to build .NET applications using SQL databases.
Server, Oracle, DB2, Sybase and MySQL. Others include Clarion,
Developers and Construction, which is a tool and development
environment for fast Windows and Web business applications for the
.NET framework.
CHAPTER TEN
 SQL Encrypting
Microsoft SQL Server users are asking us whether they should
always use encrypted or transparent data encryption to use secured
and confidential information. This is a relevant issue, especially
given the concerns of the GDPR, and it is suitable for many other
compliance and data requirements regulations. Let's dig into these
technologies in more detail, and I think a response will be given.
Always Encrypted
Always Encrypted is a comparatively new client-side
implementation of SQL Server encryption. That is to say that the
data is encrypted on the source system before being inserted into
the SQL Server database. Run as a Windows driver, Always
Encrypted intercepts your SQL statement before exiting the client-
side system (computer, web server, etc.), determines if there are
fields in the SQL statement to be encrypted, establishes or retrieves
an encrypted key, encrypts the domain and sends a modified SQL
statement to SQL Server for processing.
An advantage of this approach is that the data is encrypted
when moving in an internal or external network and stored in a
database. Recovering encrypted data cancels this process by
ensuring that information is protected in transit.
An essential limitation of Always Encrypted is that it can only be
applied to a small subset of SQL operations. Many SQL operations
are complex and cannot be processed as Always Encrypted.
Transparent encryption of data and encryption at the cellular
level
SQL Server Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) and Station
Level Encryption (CLE) are server-side objects that encrypt the
entire SQL Server database on hold or the selected columns. The
client-side application completely ignores the TDE or CLE
implementation, and no software is installed on the client-side
system. The SQL database itself performs all the encryption tasks. It
is quite easy to implement and it works very well for most SQL
Server users.
TDE and CLE are part of Microsoft's SQL Server key
management strategy, which has been part of the SQL Server since
it was launched in 2008. This technology is well developed, and
many companies use TDE or CLE to protect their confidential data.
Manage encryption keys
Encryption policy is as valid as your encryption key
management policy. Creating, protecting, and utilised encryption
keys are a difficult part of encryption. For your overall security, the
correct management of your keys are essential.
Transparent data encryption is a crucial well-defined
management strategy through the Microsoft Extensible Key
Management (EKM) provider interface. Critical management
systems, such as our Alliance Key Manager for SQL Server,
provides written software with the EKM interface specification, and
SQL Server users can achieve complete management of the built-in
encryption key through the interface of EKM supplier.
Always encryption does not provide a crucial formal
management interface. Instead, external providers must always offer
encrypted drivers that implement the interface in the key
management system. This means that the key management system
interface is proprietary. Also because the implementation is always a
client-side encrypted implementation, each client-side application
must have access to the key manager in order to protect and use the
encryption keys properly. This can be a challenge for distributed
network topologies.
In a nutshell: you can get critical management of any approach,
but expect to find yourself more complex with Always Encrypted
when distributing clients.
When to use always encrypted
Since the Always Encrypted functions modify the SQL operation
before interacting with the SQL Server database, and many complex
SQL operations will not work with Always Encrypted, I would still
recommend using Encrypted only when the architecture of L
application is simple. For example, you can use data that is always
encrypted to send data from an internal SQL Server database to a
database and SQL Server Web Hosting application. The data will be
saved in transit and encrypted in the database. As long as your web
application includes simple SQL queries in the database, this
approach can work properly.
 Transparent Data Encryption (TDE)
Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) encrypts data in physical
database files, "inactive data." Without the original encryption
certificate and the master key, the data cannot be read when
accessing the device or stealing the physical media. The data
contained in the unencrypted data files can be read by sending them
to another server. TDE requires planning, but can be enforced
without changing the database. Robert Sheldon explains how to
apply the TDE.
With the release of SQL Server 2016, Microsoft extended the
security features of the database engine by adding Transparent Data
Encryption (TDE), which is a built-in feature for inactive data
encryption. TDE protects physical media containing data associated
with a user database, including data and log files, as well as backups
or records. Inactive data encryption can prevent malicious people
from reading them if they can access the files.
SQL Server TDE uses all or nothing against data protection.
When enabled, TDE encrypts all information in the database, as well
as many outside the database. You cannot select and choose how to
proceed with the encryption at the column level. Nevertheless, it is
relatively easy to activate TDE once you have successfully chosen
the route to follow.
In this part, we will know how to implement TDE in a user
database. The element is the second in a series on SQL Server
encryption. The first (SQL Server Encryption: Using the Encryption
Hierarchy to Protect Column Data) covers column-level encryption. If
you know SQL Server encryption for the first time, you can first view
the article.
 TDE encryption hierarchy
When I introduced column-level encryption, I analysed the
encryption hierarchy and how SQL Server uses several keys and
certificates to protect column data. The approach used to implement
the TDE is quite similar, but different enough to be strictly observed.
Similar to column-level encryption, the Windows Data Protection
API (DPAPI) is at the top of the hierarchy. It is used to encrypt the
Master Service Key (SMK), an asymmetric key located in the
database. SQL Server creates SMK the first time an instance is
commenced. Also, you can utilise the key to encrypt credentials,
connected server passwords, and master database keys (DMKs)
residing in different databases.
In the TDE encryption hierarchy, SMK is less than DPAPI and
DMK less than SMK. The DMK is a symmetric key that is encrypted
at the column level. However, using column-level encryption, you
create a DMK in a user database in which the data in the column will
be encrypted. Using TDE, you create a DMK in the master database
even if it will encrypt the user database. SQL Server uses the user-
supplied SMK words and password to encrypt the DMK with a 256-
bit AES algorithm.
Before continuing with our description, take a close look at the
following image that presents the entire TDE encryption hierarchy,
starting with Windows DPAPI at the top and SQL Server data at the
bottom. As you can see, the next level in our authority is the
certificate, which is also created in the master database.
The DMK protects the certificate and the guarantee protects the
database encryption key (DEK) in the user database. DEK is specific
to TDE and is utilised to encrypt the data in the user database where
the key is located.
You can ignore the DMK and the certificate as a whole, and use
the Extensible Key Management Module (EKM) to protect the DEK
key. SQL Server 2008 introduced the EKM framework as a way to
store encrypted keys in hardware outside the database, essentially
integrating hardware into encryption. However, this is an EKM
problem that is beyond the scope of this part but would be
addressed later in this series.
For the moment, we will direct you on the TDE encryption
hierarchy as shown in the figure. We can conclude that the
implementation of TDE in a database of users must be done and we
must follow the following steps:
Create a DMK in the master database if it does not already
exist.
Perform a check-in the central DEK insurance database.
Create a DEK key in a custom encryption database.
Enable TDE in the user database.
By actualising TDE, DBAs can meet the examiner's encryption
necessities. To enable a database to utilise TDE, you can use the
following step:
To do this, we will need to configure a test database similar to
the one presented in the following T-SQL script:
USE the master;
To go
CREATE DATABASE EmpData2;
To go
USE EmpData2;
To go
CREATE EmpInfo TABLE (
PRIMARY KEY RECEIVED,
NatID NVARCHAR (15) IS NOT NULL,
LoginID NVARCHAR (256) NO NULL);
 To go
PUT IN EmpInfo (EmpID, NatID, LoginID)
SELECTION BusinessEntityID, NationalIDNumber, LoginID
DE AdventureWorks2014.HumanResources.E Employee
O NationalIDNUM IS NOT NULL;
The database and table created here differ only slightly from
those we created in the first part in this series. The database admit
the EmpInfo table and uses the INSERT statement to retrieve data
from the HumanResources.E Employee table in the
AdventureWorks2014 database. However, I named the new
EmpData2 database in case you want to keep the database of
another article. (Note that I created all the samples in a local
instance of SQL Server 2016).
You do not need to use this database to test the examples in
this article. If you want to use another one (and you can try it safely),
rename the database name accordingly. However, you would want
the database to remain small so that it won’t be cluttered during the
initial encryption process.
Make a DMK
To create a DMK file that supports a database that promotes
TDE, follow the same steps as creating a DMK file to support one-
column encryption, except for one crucial difference. You must make
the key in the master database as present in the following T-SQL
code:
USE the master;
To go
Create a master key
PASSWORD ENCRYPTION = 'pw1234!';
The CREATE MASTER KEY statement does not support
optional arguments. We need to provide the password with the basic
syntax. (Of course, we would like to use a stronger and more real
password.)
To confirm that the DMK has been created, we can request a
revision of the sys.symmetric_keyscatalog:
SELECTION of KeyName,
symmetric_key_idKeyID,
Key_lengthKeyLength,
Algorithm_descAlgorithm key
OD sys.symmetric_keys;
_the keys;
The SELECT statement returns the results displayed in the
following table.
Keyname
Key Identifier
Keyengeng
KeyAlgorithm
## MS_DatabaseMasterKey ##
101
256
AES_256
## MS_ServiceMasterKey ##
102
256
AES_256
Note that the results include both DMK and SMK. As noted
above, SQL Server automatically creates SMK in the primary
database. As you can see, both keys are based on the 256-bit AES
encryption algorithm.
Create a certificate
The next step is to create a document in your initial database
using the CREATE CERTIFICATE statement. In SQL Server, the
license is a digitally signed database security that connects the
public and private keys.
SQL Server encryption explained
Transparent Data Encryption in SQL Server protects inactive
data by encrypting the database and log files on the disk. This works
seamlessly for existing client applications, so they do not need to be
changed when TDE is enabled. TDE utilise real-time encryption at
the page level. Pages are encrypted earlier being written to disk
without increasing the size of their data and log files, and pages are
decrypted when read from memory. TDE is only available in the
Enterprise section of SQL Server. This also works for Azure SQL
Database, Azure SQL Data Warehouse, and Parallel Data
Warehouse.
TDE encryption has a hierarchical structure with the Data
Protection API (DPAPI) at the top of the hierarchy and it is used to
encrypt the service key (SMK). You can use SMK to encrypt
credentials, associated server passwords, and master database
keys (DMKs) that reside in different databases. SQL DMK is a
symmetric main that protects private certificate keys and asymmetric
keys stored in databases.
SQL Server can yield self-signed certificates for use with TDE,
or you can request a license from the CA (a most common
approach). If you choose to enable TDE, you must save the
document and the associated private key to the report. You must
restore or attach the database to another SQL Server to obtain the
desired result. If you enable TDE in another SQL Server database,
the tempdb database is also encrypted. If you disable TDE, you must
keep the certificate and private key because some parts of the
transaction log may remain encrypted until you have a full stand-in.
 TDE also demand a database encryption key (DEK), a key
protected by an asymmetric certificate stored in a primary database,
or an asymmetric key protected by a service that uses Extensible
Key Management (EKM), such as Microsoft Azure Key Vault. The
database backup files that TDE activates are encrypted with the
DEK key. Therefore, a certificate protecting the DEK key must be
available during restore operations.
Symmetric keys utilise the same password to encrypt and
decrypt the data. Asymmetric keys use a password to encrypt the
data (public key) and another password to decrypt the data (private
key). You can use the CREATE CERTIFICATE command to create
certificates, and the CREATE SYMMETRIC KEY and CREATE
ASYMMETRIC KEY Transact-SQL commands to create database
encryption keys.