Module 2 PDF

BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
AIR- STANDARD CYCLES AND

THEIR ANALYSIS
Air standard cycles
• IC engines does not operate on a thermodynamic cycle as it

involve open systems.
• These are difficult to analyse.
• Hence performance is analysed on idealised closed cycles
(air standard cycles) that closely approximates the real cycle.
• Various air standard cycles:

Carnot cycle, Stirling cycle,
Ericsson cycle, Otto cycle,
Diesel cycle, Dual cycle,
Lenoir cycle, Atkinson cycle,
Brayton cycle.
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Assumptions in an air
standard cycle
• The working medium is a perfect gas (pV = mRT).
• No change in mass of the working medium.
• All processes in the cycle are reversible.
• Heat is assumed to be supplied from a constant high
temperature source and not from chemical reactions.
• Heat is assumed to be rejected to a constant low temperature
sink.
• There are no heat loss from the system to the surroundings.
• Working medium has constant high specific heats throughout
the cycle.
• Cp =1.005 kJ/kg K
• Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg K
• γ = 1.4
• M = 29 kg/kmol

Carnot Cycle
• Consists of two isothermal and two adiabatic process.
• The cylinder and piston arrangement works without
friction.
• Cylinder wall is perfect insulator, cylinder head is a
perfect insulator cum perfect conductor.

Carnot Cycle
• Heat is transferred from high temp source T3 isothermally

to working medium in the cylinder (process 3-4).
• Working medium expands adiabatically (4-1).
• System is brought in contact with a low temperature sink
T1, there is isothermal heat rejection (1-2).
• Medium compresses adiabatically (2-3).
• Efficiency
• η= (
(
)
)
• η
• η

The Carnot Cycle

The Stirling Cycle
• Produces higher mean effective pressure than the Carnot

cycle while achieving Carnot cycle efficiency.
• Consists of two isothermal and two constant volume
process.
• Heat rejection and addition takes place at constant
temperature.
• Efficiency:
( ) ( )
• η
( )
• η

The Stirling Cycle

Stirling Cycle
• The Stirling cycle was used earlier for hot air engines
and became obsolete as Otto and diesel cycles came
into use.
• The design of Stirling Cycle involves a major difficulty in

the design and construction of the heat exchanger to
operate continuously at very high temperatures.
• With development in metallurgy and intensive research

in this type of engine, the Stirling engine has staged a
comeback in practical appearance.

The Stirling Cycle

The Ericsson Cycle
• Consists of two isothermal and two constant pressure

processes.
• Heat addition and rejection takes place in both the
isothermal and the constant pressure processes.
• Has a smaller pressure ratio and greater mean effective
pressure than the Carnot cycle.
• Cycle does not find practical application in piston
engines, but is approached by a gas turbine employing a
large number of stages with heat exchangers, insulators
and reheaters.

The Ericsson Cycle

The Otto Cycle
• It is a constant volume heat addition cycle.

• Used in SI Engines.
• 0-1 & 1-0: Suction and exhaust.

• 1-2 : isentropic compression.
• Piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead centre.
• 2-3 : constant volume head addition.

• Spark ignition and combustion.
• 3-4 : isentropic expansion.

• Piston moves from top dead centre to bottom dead centre.
• 4-1 : constant volume heat rejection.

The Otto Cycle

Otto Cycle

Otto Cycle
• Efficiency:
• Work Output:
• Mean Effective Pressure:

Effect of r and γ on efficiency
of Otto Cycle
• Thermal efficiency depends on the compression ratio (r)
and the ratio of specific heats γ.
• Efficiency is increased by increasing r as γ is constant for
a working fluid.
• Use of gasses with higher γ values would increase
efficiency of the Otto Cycle.

The Diesel Cycle
• In this cycle air is compressed in the cylinder and the

fuel is then injected.
• Heat addition takes place at constant pressure.
• Thermal efficiency:
( )
• Work output:
( ) ( ( )]
• Mean Effective pressure:

[ ]
( )( )

Diesel Cycle

Diesel Cycle

The Dual Cycle
• A part of heat is supplied to the system at constant

volume and the remaining part at constant pressure.
• Thermal efficiency:
• Work Output:
• Mean effective pressure:

Dual Cycle

Comparison of the Otto, Diesel
and Dual Cycle
• Otto cycle 1-2-3-4-1
• Diesel Cycle 1-2-3`-4`-1
• Dual Cycle 1-2-2”-3”-4”-1

Same Compression Ratio And
Heat Rejection

Same Peak Pressure, Peak
Temperature and Heat Rejection

Same Maximum Pressure and
Heat Input

The Lenoir Cycle
Processes:
• Constant volume heat addition (1-2).
• Isentropic expansion (2-3).
• Constant pressure heat rejection (3-1).
Used for pulse jet engines
Efficiency:
`

Lenoir Cycle

The Atkinson Cycle
• The Atkinson cycle is designed to provide efficiency at

the expense of power density.
• Used in some modern hybrid electric applications.
• In this cycle the isentropic expansion of the Otto cycle
(3-4) is allowed to proceed to the lowest cycle pressure
so as to increase the work output.
• Efficiency:
•
where e= expansion ratio `

Atkinson Cycle

Comparison of Atkinson Cycle
with Otto Cycle

The Brayton Cycle
• It is a theoretical cycle for gas turbines.

• Consists of two reversible adiabatic or isentropic
processes, and two constant pressure processes.
• The isentropic expansion of the diesel cycle (3-4) is
further extended followed by constant pressure heat
rejection.
• Efficiency:

The Brayton Cycle

Open and Close Brayton
Cycle

BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Fuel-Air cycles and their Analysis

Introduction
• The estimated engine performance by air standard cycle

is on the higher side compared to the actual cycle.
• This is because of the simplifying assumptions.
• In an actual engine the working medium is a mixture of

air, fuel vapour and residual gases.
• The specific heat of the working fluid is not constant, but
increase with temperature.
• The products of combustion are subjected to a certain
disassociation at higher temperature.
• The analysis based on the actual properties of working

medium is called fuel-air cycle.
Fuel-Air Cycle
• The fuel-air cycle analysis takes into account the

following:
• The actual composition of the cylinder gasses (fuel, air,

water vapour, and residual gases).
• The variation in specific heat with temperature.
• The effect of disassociation.
• The variation in the number of molecules.

Assumption in Fuel-air Cycle
Analysis
• There is no chemical change in fuel or air prior to
combustion.
• After combustion, the change is always in chemical
equilibrium.
• There is no heat exchange between the gases and the
cylinder walls. Thee compression and expansion
processes are frictionless.
• Fluid motion can be ignored inside the cylinder.
• Fuel is completely vaporized and mixed with air .
• Burning takes place instantaneously at he top dead
centre.

Composition of Cylinder
Gases
• The fuel-air ratio changes during the engine operation.
• This change effects the composition of gases before
combustion as well as after combustion.
• In four stroke engines, fresh charge as it enters the
engine cylinder, comes in contact with the burnt gases.
The amount of exhaust gases in the clearance space
varies with speed and load on the engine.
• Fuel-air cycle analysis takes into account this face and
the results are computed for preparing the combustion
charts.

Variable Specific Heats
• All non mono- atomic gases show an increase in specific

heats with temperature. This increase does not follow any law.
• Over the temperature range generally encountered in the heat
engines (300K to 2000K), the specific heat curve is nearly a
straight line.
• This may be approximated and expressed in the form:
Cp = a1 + k1 T
Cv = b1 + k1 T
a1, b1, k1 are constants.
R = Cp – Cv = a 1 – b 1
• Above 1500K the increase is much rapid and may be
expressed in the form:
Cp = a1 + k1 T + k2 T2
Cv = b1 + k1 T + k2 T2

• Physical explanation is that as temperature is raised,

larger fractions of heat would be required to produce
motion of the atoms within the molecules.
• Since temperature is the result of motion of the molecules,
the energy which goes into moving the atoms does not
contribute to proportional temperature rise.
• Hence more heat is required to raise the temperature of
unit mass through one degree at higher levels.
• For air at 300K:
• Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K
• Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg K
At 2000 K
• Cp = 1.345 kJ/kg K
• Cv = 1.057 kJ/kg K.

• Since difference between Cp and Cv is constant (R), γ

decreases with increase in temperature.
• The final temperature and pressure is lower than if
constant values of specific heat are used.

Disassociation
• The process of disintegration of combustion products at

higher temperature.
• During disassociation heat is absorbed.
• In SI engines disassociation of CO2 into CO and O2
occurs, in addition to a little disassociation of H2O.
• Disassociation of CO2 starts at 1000oC.
• 2CO2 2CO + O2.
• Disassociation of H2O occurs at temperatures above

1300oC.
• 2H2O 2H2 + O2.

Disassociation
• Maximum extent of disassociation occurs in the burnt

gases of the chemically correct fuel-air mixture when the
temperatures are expected to be high but decreases with
the leaner and richer mixtures.
• As the temperature falls during the expansion stroke, the
separated constituents recombine, releasing energy. A
portion of this heat is carried away by the exhaust gases.
• Disassociation reduces the maximum temperature by

300oC.

Disassociation
3.2

Effect of disassociation on
Otto cycle
• Lower maximum temperature.
• Maximum pressure is also reduced.
• This causes a loss of power.
• Efficiency reduces.

Disassociation in CI Engine
• Effects of disassociation are not so pronounced in the CI

engine as in the SI engine due to:
• The presence of a heterogeneous mixture,
• Excess air to ensure complete combustion.

Effect of Number of Moles
• Number of molecules present in the cylinder after

combustion depends upon the fuel-air ratio, type and
extend of reaction in the cylinder.
• According to gas law:
pV = NRT
• The pressure depends on the number of molecules or
moles present.
• This has direct effect on the amount of work the gasses
can do.

Comparison of Air-Standard
Cycles and Fuel-Air Cycles
Variation of efficiency with mixture strength:
• Efficiency ratio: Fuel-Air cycle Efficiency/ Air standard cycle
efficiency.
• Efficiency ratio increases as mixture becomes leaner.
• Thermal efficiency will deteriorate as the mixture supplied to
the engine is enriched, due to increasing losses due to
variable specific heats and disassociation.
• Enrichment beyond the chemically correct ratio would lead to
incomplete combustions and loss in thermal efficiency.
• Beyond a certain leaning the combustion becomes erratic.
• Maximum efficiency is within the lean zone near the
stoichiometric ratio.

Effect of operating variables
Effect of Compression ratio:

• Fuel air efficiency increases with the compression ratio.

Indicated thermal efficiency:
• Equivalence ratio: ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to chemically
correct fuel-air ratio.

Fuel-Air Ratio
• As mixture is made lean, the temperature rise due to

combustion will be lowered as a result of reduced energy
input per unit mass of mixture, resulting in lower specific
heat.
• It will also lower losses due to disassociation and
variation in specific heat.
• Thermal Efficiency will therefore increase as the fuel-air
ratio is reduced.
• As the mixture becomes richer, in addition to higher
specific heat and chemical losses there is insufficient air,
leading to formation of CO and H2. Therefore efficiency
and power output decreases.

Effect on maximum temperature and maximum pressure:
• At a given compression ratio, the temperature after
combustion reaches a maximum when the mixture is slightly
rich.
• At chemically correct ratio, there is some oxygen left.
• A rich mixture will cause more fuel to combine with oxygen at
that point thereby raising the temperature.
• A richer mixture will result in the increased formation of CO.
• Maximum pressure depends on the maximum temperature
and the no of moles.
• Because of the no of molecules, pressure decreases at a
richer ratio than required for maximum temperature.

Effect on exhaust temperature:
• Exhaust gas temperature T4 is maximum at chemically
correct ratio.
• At lean mixtures, T3 is less; hence T4 is less.
• At rich mixtures, less sensible energy is developed
hence T4 is less.
• At high compression ratios, T4 is lower, because the
increased expansion causes the gas to do more work on
the piston, leaving less heat to be rejected.

Effect of fuel-air ratio on mean effective pressure:
• Mean effective pressure increases with compression
ratio.
• Maximum at fuel-air ratio slightly richer than the
chemically correct ratio.

BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Lec: Actual Cycles and Their

Analysis
Comparison of Air Standard
and Actual Cycles
• The difference between air standard cycle and actual
cycle are mainly due to:
1. The progressive combustion rather than instantaneous

combustion.
2. The heat transfer to and from the working medium.
3. The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of
work on the expansion stroke due to early opening of
the exhaust valve.
4. Gas leakage, fluid friction etc. in actual engines.

Factors Influencing Actual
Cycle
• Time loss factor: loss due to time required for mixing of

fuel and air and also for combustion.
• Heat loss factor: loss of heat from gases to cylinder

walls.
• Exhaust blowdown factor: loss of work on the expansion

stroke due to early opening of the exhaust valve.

Time Loss Factor
• In air standard cycle, heat addition is assumed to be

instantaneous whereas in actual it takes place over a
definite period of time.
• The crankshaft will actually rotate 30-40o between the
initiation of spark and the end of combustion.
• Peak pressure will occur, not at TDC, but sometime after.
• This causes loss of work, reducing efficiency, and is
called time loss factor.
• Time taken for burning depends upon the flame velocity,
which depends upon type of fuel and fuel-air ratio, and
also on the shape and size of combustion chamber.

Time Loss

Spark Advance
• Combustion start time is varied, so that the peak

pressure is not reached too late.
• With spark at TDC, peak pressure is low.
• If spark is advanced to achieve complete combustion
close to TDC, additional work is required to compress
the burning gases.
• Work area is less, power output and efficiency are low.
• Moderate or optimum spark advance is best compromise
resulting in minimum losses.

Spark Advance

Optimum Advance

Spark Advance
• When ignition advance is increased, there is drastic

reduction in imep.
• Sometimes spark retardation from optimum maybe
necessary, in order to avoid knocking and reduce
exhaust emission of hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxides.

Composition of Exhaust
Gases
• It is impossible to obtain perfect homogeneous mixture
with fuel-vapour and air, since residual gases from the
previous cycle are present in the clearance volume.
• Only limited time is available between the mixture
preparation and ignition.
• It is possible that a pocket of oxygen is present in one
part of the cylinder and a pocket of excess fuel in
another part.
• Therefore some fuel does not burn, or burns partially to
CO and the unused O2 appears in the exhaust.
• Energy released in actual engine is about 90% of fuel
energy input.

• It is necessary to use a lean mixture to eliminate
wastage of fuel.
• Slightly leaner mixture gives maximum efficiency.
• Too lean mixture will burn slowly increasing time losses
or not burn at all.
• In a rich mixture a part of the fuel will not get the
necessary oxygen and will be completely lost.
• Flame speed in more than 10% richer is low, increasing
time losses.

Heat Loss Factor
• Heat flows from the gases through the cylinder walls and
the cylinder head into the water jacket or the cooling fins.
• Some heat enters the piston head and flows through the
piston rings into the cylinder walls, or is carried away by
the lubricating oil.
• Heat loss during combustion has maximum efficiency on

the cycle efficiency.
• Heat loss just before the end of the expansion stroke has
very little effect on the efficiency because its contribution
to the useful work is minimum.
• About 15% of the total heat is lost during combustion
and expansion.

• Effect of loss of heat during combustion is to lower the
maximum temperature, and therefore the specific heats.
• Heat loss contributes about 12% of total losses.

Exhaust Blowdown
• If the exhaust valve is opened at the BDC the piston has

to do work against the high cylinder pressures during the
early part of the exhaust stroke.
• If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part of the
expansion stroke is lost.
• The best compromise is to open the exhaust valve 40o -

70o before the BDC thereby reducing the pressure to half
before the exhaust stroke begins.

Exhaust Blowdown

Loss due to Gas Exchange
Processes
• Pumping work: the difference of the work done in
expelling the exhaust gases and the work done by the
fresh charge during the suction stroke.
• Work loss due to gas exchange process (pumping loss)
is due to pumping gas from lower inlet pressure pi to
higher exhaust pressure pe.
• Pumping loss increases at part throttle, because
throttling reduces the suction pressure.
• Pumping loss also increases with speed.

Volumetric Efficiency
• Defined as the ratio of the volume of air actually inducted

at ambient condition to swept volume.
• Also defined as ratio of actual mass of air drawn into the
engine during a given period of time to the theoretical
mass that should have been drawn in.
• Volumetric efficiency is affected by:

• Density of fresh charge.
• Exhaust gas in the clearance volume.
• Design of intake and exhaust manifolds.
• Timing of intake and exhaust valves.

Density of Fresh Charge
• Fresh charge is heated due to the hot chamber and the

hot residual exhaust gases.
• This results in a decrease in the mass of the fresh
charge admitted and a reduction in the volumetric
efficiency.
• The volumetric efficiency is increased by low

temperatures and high pressures of fresh charge, since
density increases, and more mass of charge can be
inducted.

Exhaust Gas in the Clearance
Volume
• During the intake stroke, the exhaust gases tend to
expand and occupy a portion of the piston displacement
greater than the clearance volume.
• This reduces the space available to the incoming charge.
• Moreover these tend to increase the temperature of the
fresh charge and decrease its density, lowering the
volumetric efficiency.

Design of Intake and Exhaust
Manifolds
• Exhaust manifold should be designed to enable exhaust
gases to escape readily.
• Intake manifold should bring in maximum fresh charge.
• Minimum restriction is offered to the fresh charge as well
as the exhaust products.

Timing of the Intake and
Exhaust Valves
• Valves require a finite period of time to open or close for
smooth operation.
• A slight lead is necessary for proper opening and
closing.
• Design of the valve operating cam provides smooth

transition from one point to other.
• Cam settings determine the timing of the valves.

Valve Timings (Intake)
• Intake valve opens a few degrees before TDC, ensuring

that the valve will be fully open and the fresh charge
starts to flow into the cylinder as soon as the piston
reaches TDC.
• Intake valve closes 10o after BDC for a low speed
engine, and 60o for a high speed engine.
• For a low speed engine, if the intake valve remains open
much beyond BDC, the piston would tend to force some
of the charge back into the intake manifold.
• However for a high speed engine, the inertia of the
incoming charge causes a ram effect, tending to pack
more charge into the cylinder.

Valve Timings (Exhaust)
• Exhaust valve usually opens before the piston reaches

BDC.
• This reduces the work done during power stroke, but
decreases the work necessary to expel the exhaust
gases, resulting in overall gain in output.
• If exhaust valve is closed beyond TDC, the inertia of the
exhaust gases tends to scavenge the cylinder better by
carrying out a greater mass of the gas left in the
clearance volume, and results in increased volumetric
efficiency.

Valve Timing for a Low Speed
and a High Speed SI Engine

Rubbing Friction Losses
• These are due to friction between the piston and the

cylinder walls, friction in various bearings, energy spent
in operating auxiliary equipment such as cooling water
pump, ignition system, fan etc.
• These losses increase to a small extent with increase in
mean effective pressure.
• The bearing friction and the auxiliary friction also
increase with engine speed.

Actual and Fuel-Air Cycles of
CI Engines
• In diesel engine the losses are less than the Otto cycle.
• Main loss is due to the incomplete combustion.
• In fuel-air cycle, the combustion is supposed to be
complete at the end of the constant pressure burning,
whereas in actual cycle, after burning continues up to
half of the expansion stroke.
• In actual cycles allowances are made for the losses due
to heat transfer and finite combustion time in addition to
the presence of fuel and combustion products.
• The ratio of actual efficiency to the fuel air efficiency is
about 0.85 in the diesel engines.


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BITS Pilani

AIR- STANDARD CYCLES AND

• IC engines does not operate on a thermodynamic cycle as it

• Various air standard cycles:

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• Heat is transferred from high temp source T3 isothermally

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• Produces higher mean effective pressure than the Carnot

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• The design of Stirling Cycle involves a major difficulty in

• With development in metallurgy and intensive research

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• Consists of two isothermal and two constant pressure

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• It is a constant volume heat addition cycle.

• 0-1 & 1-0: Suction and exhaust.

• 2-3 : constant volume head addition.

• 3-4 : isentropic expansion.

• 4-1 : constant volume heat rejection.

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• Mean Effective Pressure:

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• In this cycle air is compressed in the cylinder and the

• Mean Effective pressure:

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• A part of heat is supplied to the system at constant

• Mean effective pressure:

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Used for pulse jet engines

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• The Atkinson cycle is designed to provide efficiency at

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• It is a theoretical cycle for gas turbines.

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Fuel-Air cycles and their Analysis

• The estimated engine performance by air standard cycle

• In an actual engine the working medium is a mixture of

• The analysis based on the actual properties of working

• The fuel-air cycle analysis takes into account the

• The actual composition of the cylinder gasses (fuel, air,

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus