Fluid Mechanics

Fluid of Mechanics
[IV SEM MECHANICAL ENGG.]

MME 2202 Fluid Mechanics [3 1 0 4]

1. Properties of fluids: Mass density, specific weight, relative density,

specific volume, coefficient of dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity,
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids, ideal and real fluids, surface tension,
FLUID MECHANICS
capillarity, vapor pressure, bulk modulus and compressibility.
[04]

2. Fluid statics: Intensity of pressure, Pascal’s law, pressure variation in static

fluid, pressure measurement by manometers.
[05]

3. Hydrostatic forces on surfaces: Resultant hydrostatic force and centre of

pressure on horizontal, vertical, inclined and curved plane surface
submerged in a liquid.
[05]

4. Buoyancy: Equilibrium of floating bodies, Metacenter and Metacentric

height, determination of metacentric height (Experimental and Analytical).
Stability of floating and submerged bodies.
[05]

5. Kinematics of fluid flow: Methods of describing the fluid motion, path

line, stream line, streak line and stream tube. Types of flow, Continuity
equation for one and three dimensional flow, fluid velocity and acceleration.
[04]

6. Dynamics of fluid flow: Energy possessed by fluid, Euler’s equation of

motion along a stream line and reducing it to Bernoulli’s equation, Impulse
momentum equation.
[04]

9. Viscous Flow: Reynolds experiment, Reynolds Number, critical Reynolds

number laminar flow through circular pipe (Hagen Poiseuille’s equation),
laminar flow between fixed parallel plates.
[04]

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7. Fluid flow measurements: Venturimeter, Orifice, Orifice meter, Pitot

tube and V-notch and Rectangular notch.
[04]

8. Dimensional analysis: Fundamental and derived units of dimensions,

dimensional homogeneity, Rayleigh’s method and Buckingham’s Pi-
theorem, similitude, types of similarity, significance of dimensionless
FLUID MECHANICS
numbers.
[04]

9. Viscous Flow: Reynolds experiment, Reynolds Number, critical Reynolds

number laminar flow through circular pipe (Hagen Poiseuille’s equation),
laminar flow between fixed parallel plates.
[04]

10. Flow through pipes: Major loss and Minor losses in pipe flow, Darcy
and Chezy equation, Siphon, Hydraulic transmission of power through
pipes-efficiency of transmission, Hydraulic gradient and Total energy line.
[05]

11. Flow past immersed bodies: Definition of Lift and drag, skin friction
drag and form drag, streamlined body, Bluff body, Boundary layer concept,
laminar boundary layer thickness, displacement and momentum thickness.
Boundary layer separation.
[04]

References:
1. Streeter V. L. and Beinzamin E., Fluid Mechanics, Willy Intl., New York,
1998.
2. Modi P. N. and Seth S. M., Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, Standard
Book House, 2011.
3. Kumar K. L., Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Eurasia Publishing House, New
Delhi, 2000.
4. Bansal R. K., Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, Laxmi Publication,
New Delhi, 2006.
5. Yunus A. Cengel and John M. Cimbla, Fluid Mechanics, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publications, 2006.
6. Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young and Teodore H. Okiishi, Fundamentals
of Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, 2005.

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1. Properties of fluids
Introduction:
Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies
under the influence of forces. The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is
called statics, while the branch that deals with bodies in motion is called dynamics. The
subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids
at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or
other fluids at the boundaries. Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid dynamics by
considering fluids at rest as a special case of motion with zero velocity.

Basic concepts:
Fluid:
It is a substance which deforms continuously under the action of shearing forces, however
small they may be.

Mechanics:
It deals with action of forces on bodies at rest or in motion.

Fluid Mechanics:
It is the study of fluids either in motion(fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics). Both gases
and liquids are classified as fluids.

Liquid is incompressible and occupies definite volume but are not affected appreciably by
the change in pressure and temperature.

Gas: It is capable of being compressed and expanded. They confine to the shape and volume
of the container. They are affected by the change in temperature and pressure.

Ideal fluid:
Ideal fluid is the one which has no property other than its density. No resistance is
encountered when such a fluid flows. In true sense, no such fluid exists in nature. However,
water and air can be treated as ideal fluids under certain conditions.

Real fluid:
The fluid which has viscosity, surface tension and compressibility in addition to density is
real fluid.

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Fluid Mechanics

Fluid statics Fluid kinematics Fluid dynamics

Fluid statics: It deals with action of forces on fluids at rest or in equilibrium.

Fluid kinematics: It is the study of fluid in motion, where pressure forces are not considered.
It deals with the velocity, acceleration and pattern of flow only.

Fluid dynamics:
It deals with study of fluid where the relations between velocities, acceleration of fluid with
the forces or energy causing them.

Properties of fluid:
1. Mass density or specific gravity ():
It is defined as the ratio of mass (m) of fluid to its volume(V). It is expressed as,
𝐦
=
𝐕
SI Unit is kg/m3
Density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Density of mercury is 13,600 kg/m3.

2. Specific weight or weight density(w):

It is defined as the ratio of weight of fluid to its volume. It is expressed as,
=𝐠
SI Unit is N/m3
Specific weight of water is 9810 N/m3

3. Specific volume (v):

It is defined as the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid. It is expressed as,
𝐕 𝟏
𝐯= =
𝐦 
SI Unit is m3/ kg

4. Specific gravity(s):
It is the ratio of weight density of a fluid to the weight density of a standard fluid. The
standard fluid for liquid is water and for gas it is air.

The density of fluid = s x density of water

Specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.

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Viscosity ():
It is defined as the property of fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer
of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid.

It is the measure of fluidity of the fluid. It is also defined as the shear stress required to
produce unit rate of shear strain.

𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞/𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚

 = =
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲/𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 (𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡/𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞)/𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡


𝐯=
𝐝𝐮
𝐝𝐲

SI Unit: N sec/m2 = Pa sec

In CGS unit, unit of viscosity is poise. 1 poise = 1 dyne sec/cm2

1 dyne = 1 gm cm/sec2

1 N = 1 kg m/sec2 = 105 dynes

1 Pa.s = 1 N sec/m2 =105 dynes sec/m2 = 10 poise

Newton’s law of viscosity:

It states that the shear stress on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of
shear strain or velocity gradient.

Velocity gradient:
It is the difference in velocity per unit distance between any two layers of fluid. If velocity
profile is linear then it is expressed as U/y and if it is non-linear then du/dy.

Consider two layers of fluid at a distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over the other at different
velocities u and u+du as shown in above fig. The viscosity and relative velocity causes a
shear stress acting between the fluid layers. The top layer causes shear stress on the
adjacent layer and lower layer causes shear stress on the adjacent top layer.

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Above equation is called Newton’s law of viscosity.

’’ is known as absolute or dynamic viscosity.

Kinematic viscosity ():

It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity of the fluid to its mass density. It is expressed as,

=

SI Unit: m2/sec

CGS unit: 1 Stoke = 1 cm2/sec = 10-4 m2/sec

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Types of fluid:
Viscous fluids can be classified as Newtonian, non- Newtonian, ideal plastic fluids.

Newtonian fluid:
Fluid which obey’s Newton’s law of viscosity is called Newtonian fluid.
Example: water, air, thin motor oil

Non-Newtonian fluid:
Fluid which does not obey Newton’s law of viscosity is called non-Newtonian fluid.
Example: Paint, blood, syrup

Ideal plastic fluid:

A fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is proportional to
the rate of shear strain is known as ideal plastic fluid.
Example: Bingham plastic flow in toothpaste

Effect of temperature and pressure on properties of fluid:

a. Mass density and weight density
Increase in temperature will increase volume of fluid and decreases both mass
density and weight density of the fluid

Increase in pressure will decrease the volume of fluid and hence both mass density
and weight density increases.

b. Specific volume
Increase in temperature will increase volume of fluid and hence specific volume
increases.

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Increase in pressure will decrease the volume of fluid and hence specific volume
decreases.
c. Viscosity
Pressure has very little or no effect on the viscosity of the fluids.

Increase in temperature will decrease the viscosity of the liquids but increase that of
gases

Because in liquids, viscosity is due to the cohesive force between the molecules of
adjacent layers. As temperature increases, cohesive force decreases, hence viscosity
increases. But in gases, viscosity is due to molecular activity between adjacent layers.
As the temperature increases momentum transfer in molecules increases and hence
viscosity increases.

Surface Tension ():

It is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the
surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane
under tension.

Surface tension is measured as the force(F) exerted by the film on a line of unit length(L) on the
surface of liquid. It can be expressed as,

𝐅
=
𝐋
SI unit: N/m

Expression for surface tension for the following cases:

a) Liquid droplet

Let ’d’ be the diameter of the droplet, ‘’ be the surface tension, ‘P’ is the pressure inside the
droplet.

Tensile force on the surface =  x circumference

=  x d

d2
Pressure force inside droplet = P
4

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For equilibrium,

Tensile force on the surface of droplet = Pressure force inside the droplet
d2
 x d = P
4
4
P=
d
b) Hollow bubble:

In case of a hollow bubble, air is in contact with two surfaces, one inside and other outside. Thus
two surfaces are subjected to surface tension.

Tensile force on the surface = 2 x circumference

=2 x d

d2
Pressure force inside droplet = P
4

For equilibrium,

Tensile force on the surface of droplet = Pressure force inside the droplet
d2
2 x d = P
4

8
P=
d

c) Liquid Jet:

Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘d’ and length ‘l’. ‘P’ is the pressure inside the jet and ‘’ is
the surface tension of the liquid.
Pressure force inside the jet = P x area of semi jet
= P x (L x d)

Force due to surface tension =  x 2 L

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For equilibrium,
Tensile force on the surface of jet = Pressure force inside the jet
PLd=x2L

P= 2
d

Capillarity:

It is the phenomena by which liquids will rise or fall in a tube of small diameter dipped in
container. It is due to cohesion or adhesion and surface tension of liquids. If adhesion is more
than cohesion, then there will be capillary rise. If cohesion is more than adhesion then there
will be capillary fall or depression. It is expressed in mm of liquid. Its value depends upon
specific weight of liquid, diameter of tube and surface tension of liquid.

Angle of contact ():

It is the angle between surface tensile force and the vertical edge of the tube. The angle of
contact is zero for water and 1280 for mercury.

Expression for capillary rise:

Consider a small tube of diameter ‘d’ dipped in a liquid of specific weight ‘w’, capillary rise
‘h’, surface tension of the liquid ‘’ and ‘’ is the angle of contact between liquid and glass
tube.

For equilibrium,
Vertical force due to surface tension = weight of column of liquid

 x d x cos = d2
h (g)
4
𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬
h=
𝐠𝐝

For water  = 0; cos = 1;

𝟒
h=
𝐠𝐝

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Capillary depression:

If a small glass tube (open at both ends) is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube
will be lower than the general level outside the tube. Let ‘P’ be the hydrostatic pressure
acting on the liquid surface in the tube (upward) and ‘’ is the surface tension acting
downwards and its vertical component in the downward direction is d cos.

For equilibrium,
Pressure force = force due to surface tension
2
P.A = (gh) d
4

d cos = P.A = (gh) d2

4

Bulk modulus (K):

It is defined as the ratio of change in pressure to volumetric strain.

−dV
K= V
dp

Negative sign indicates volume decrease with increase in pressure.

SI Unit = N/m2

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Compressibility(1/K):
It is the property by virtue of which there will be change in volume of fluid due to change in
pressure. It is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity.

SI Unit = m2/N

Thermodynamic properties of fluids:

Since gases are compressible fluids, thermodynamic properties play an important role. The
relationship between pressure, volume and temperature of a gas is given by the equation,
Pv = RT
Where,
P – is the absolute pressure of gas in N/m2
v – is specific volume (1/)
R – Gas constant = 287 J/kg K
 – is density of gas

Gases will be subjected to two types of compression process. They are isothermal and
adiabatic.
Isothermal:
If a change in density occurs at constant temperature, then the process is called isothermal.
The relationship between pressure and density is given by
𝐏
= const.

Adiabatic process:
If the change in density occurs with no heat exchange to and from gas, the process is called
adiabatic. The relationship between pressure and density is given by

𝐏
= const.
𝒌

k– is the ratio of sp. Heat of gas at constant pressure and volume = 1.4 for air

The relationship between bulk modulus and pressure is obtained as follows:

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Vapor pressure:

The process by which the molecules of the liquid go out of its surface in the form of vapor
when the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced is called vaporization. If the reduction
in pressure is stopped, vaporization continues until vapors if liquid exert certain pressure
which will just stop the vaporization. This minimum partial pressure exerted by the vapors
of liquid to stop vaporization is called vapors of liquid.

Cavitation:
If pressure of liquid goes below its vapor pressure, it leads to formation of bubbles of liquid.
When these bubbles move to high pressure zone they get busted and create partial vacuum.
Surrounding liquid occupies this space with very high velocity exerting large force on the
machinery. This creates cavities and a phenomenon is called cavitation.
In-case of turbines, design should be such that there is no cavitation. In carburators and
sprayers, vapors of liquid are created by reducing pressure below vapor pressure of liquid.

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Numericals:
1) Calculate specific weight, density, specific volume and specific gravity and if one liter of Petrol
weighs 6.867N.
Solution:




2. Specific gravity of a liquid is 0.7 Find mass density and specific weight. Also find the mass
and weight of 10 liters of liquid.
Solution: 





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3) Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m 3. The shear stress at a
point in oil is 0.2452 N/m2 and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second.
Solution:

4) A flat plate 0.025 m distance from a fixed plate moves at 60 cm/sec and requires a force
of 2 N/m2 to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates.
Solution:

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5) If velocity distribution of fluid over a plate is given by u = (2/3)y –y2 in which ‘u’ is the
velocity in m/sec at a distance ‘y’ meter above the plate, determine the shear stress at
y=0 and y=0.15 m. Take the dynamic viscosity  =8.63 poises.

Solution:

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6) Determine the intensities of shear of oil having viscosity equals 1 poise. The oil is used
for lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter 10 cm and its bearing. The
clearance is 1.5 mm and shaft rotates at 150 rpm.
Solution:

7) Calculate the dynamic viscosity of oil which is used for lubrication between a square
plate of size 0.8 x 0.8 m2 and an inclined plane with the angle of inclination 30 0. The
weight of square plate is 300 N and it slides down with uniform velocity 0.3 m/sec. The
thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm.
Solution:

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8) A shaft of diameter 0.4 m is supported in a journal bearing of length 90 mm and

clearance 1.5 mm. The viscosity of lubricant is 6 poise. The shaft rotates at 190 rpm.
Calculate the power lost in the bearing.
Solution:

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9) Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with
fluid. What force is required to drag a very thin plate of surface area 0.5 square meter
between two large plane surfaces at a speed of 0.6 m/sec, if
i) The thin plate is in the middle of two plane surfaces
ii) The thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces. Take dynamic
viscosity of fluid as 8.1 x 10-1 Ns/m2
Solution:

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10) A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contain a fluid of viscosity 2 Ns/m 2 and
specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.2 cm is to be lifted up with a
constant velocity of 0.15 m/sec through the gap. If the plate is in the middle of the gap,
find the force required. The weight of the plate is 40 N.
Solution:

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11) The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm 2(atm. pr.).
Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension is given as 0.0725 N/m of
water.
Solution:

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12) Calculate the capillary effect in mm in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, when immersed in
a) water b) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20 0c and the value of surface
tension of water and mercury at 200c in contact with air are 0.0735 N/m and 0.51 N/m
respectively. The angle of contact is zero for water and 1300 for mercury. Density of
water at 200c is 998 kg/m3.
Solution:

13) Determine the minimum size of the glass tubing that can be used to measure water level
if capillary rise is not to exceed 2 mm. Take  = 0.0736 N/m at 200c.
Solution:

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14) If a tube is made so that one limb is 20 mm in diameter and other 2 mm in diameter and
water is poured in the tube. What is the difference in the level of surface of liquid in the
two limbs? Take  = 0.073 N/m for water.
Solution:

15) Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is
increased from 70 N/cm2 to 130 N/cm2. The volume of the liquid decreases by 0.15%.
Solution:

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