Chapter-5

Induction Motors
Introduction
Ø Three electrical Machines (dc, induction & synchronous) are used
extensively for electromechanical energy conversion.
Ø In these machines, conversion of energy results from the following
two electromagnetic phenomena.
- When a conductor moves in a magnetic field voltage is induced in the
conductor: (generator action)
- When a current –carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force (Motor action)

Fig 3.1 Electromechanical energy conversion

Ø Induction machine – the rotor voltage that produces the rotor current and the rotor magnetic field
is induced in the rotor windings rather than being physically connected by wires.
Ø The distinguishing feature of an induction motor: no dc field current is required to run the
machine.
Ø A induction machine can be used as either a induction generator or a induction motor.
Ø However, the performance characteristics as a generator are not satisfactory for most
applications. For this reason, induction machines are usually referred to as induction motors.
Ø So we focus on three phase induction motor.
Ø Induction motor transforms electrical energy to mechanical energy.
Ø Induction motors are used worldwide in many residential, commercial, industrial and utility
applications.
Ø It can be part of pump or fan, or connected to some other form of mechanical equipment's such as
a winder, conveyor, or mixer.
Ø The single-phase induction motor is
the most frequently used motor in the
world

Ø Most appliances, such as washing

machines and refrigerators, use a
single-phase induction machine

Ø Highly reliable and economical

Introduction
Ø Three-phase induction motors are the most common and
frequently encountered machines in industry
- simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance
- wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to
Housing
10 MW
- run essentially as constant speed from no-load to full Motor

load
- Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source
• not easy to have variable speed control
• requires a variable-frequency power-electronic drive
for optimal speed control
 Construction of IM
Ø The three basic parts of AC motor are the
rotor, stator, and enclosure.
Ø The induction machine has a stator and the
rotor mounted on bearings and separated from
the stator by an air gap (.
Ø The stator and the rotor are electrical circuits
that perform as electromagnet and carry
alternating current.
Construction of stator
Ø The stator is the stationary electrical part of
the motor.
Ø Stator laminations are stacked together
forming a hallow cylinder, coils of insulated
wire are inserted in to slots of the stator core.
 Contu..
Ø The stator windings are connected directly to the power
source.

Ø The stator of the three phase induction motor consists of

three main parts :
ü Stator frame : It is the outer most part of the three phase induction
motor. Its main function is to support the stator core and the field
winding. It acts as a covering and it provide protection and
mechanical strength to all the inner parts of the induction motor.
Contu…
ü Stator core: The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In
order to reduce the eddy current loss, the stator core is laminated. These laminated
types of structure are made up of stamping which is about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. All
the stamping are stamped together to form stator core, which is then housed in
stator frame. The stamping is generally made up of silicon steel, which helps to
reduce the hysteresis loss occurring in motor.
ü Stator winding or field winding. The slots on the periphery of stator core of the
three phase induction motor carries three phase windings. This three phase winding
is supplied by three phase AC supply. The three phases of the winding are
connected either in star or delta depending upon which type of starting method is
used.
Advantages of 3 phase induction motor
Ø Generally easy to build and cheaper than corresponding dc or synchronous
motors
Ø Induction motor is robust
Ø The motor is driven by the rotational magnetic field produced by 3 phase
currents, hence no commutator or blush is required
Ø Maintenance is relatively easy and at low cost
Ø Satisfactory efficiency and reasonable power factor
Ø A manageable torque-speed curve
Ø Stable operation under load
Ø Range in size from few Watts to several MW
Disadvantages of 3 phase induction motor
Ø Induction motor has low inherent starting torque
Ø Draw large starting currents, typically 6-8 x their full load values
Ø Speeds not easily controlled as DC motors
Ø Operate with a poor lagging power factor when lightly loaded
Construction of Rotor
Ø The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is
connected to the mechanical load through the shaft.
Ø The rotor of the three phase induction motor are further
classified as (i.e. two basic design types depending on the
rotor design)
- Squirrel cage rotor,
- Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
Ø Squirrel-cage windings, which produce a squirrel-
cage induction motor(most common)
Ø Almost 90% of the three-phase AC Induction
motors are of this type.
 Rotor bars (slightly skewed)

Rotor Designs
End ring

Ø squirrel-cage: conducting bars laid into slots

and shorted at both ends by shorting rings.
- Advantages of squirrel cage induction rotor- Its
construction is very simple and rugged.
- As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors requires
less maintenance.
Ø The bars are slanted on a small rotor to reduce audible noise.
Ø Fins are placed on the ring that shorts the bars. These fins
work as a fan and improve cooling.
Ø Applications: Squirrel cage induction motor is used
in lathes, drilling machine, fan, blower printing
machines etc
 Construction
v wound-rotor: A wound rotor or slip ring motor has a 3-phase
winding, similar to the stator winding (complete set of three-
phase windings exactly as the stator). Usually Y-connected,
the ends of the three rotor wires are connected to 3 slip rings
on the rotor shaft. In this way, the rotor circuit is accessible.
The three slip rings which turn with the rotor.
v Advantages of slip ring induction motor -
v It has high starting torque and low starting current.
v Possibility of adding additional resistance to control speed.
v Application: Slip ring induction motor are used where high
starting torque is required i.e in hoists, cranes, elevator etc.
v Most motors use the squirrel-cage rotor because of the robust
and maintenance-free construction.
 Construction
v wound-rotor type are expensive to manufacture and it is
vulnerable to overheat but we can control the starting torque
and running characteristics
Contu..
Ø The other parts, which are required to complete the induction motor, are:
ü Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is made up of steel.
ü Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.
ü One of the problems with electrical motor is the production of heat during its
rotation. In order to overcome this problem we need fan for cooling.
ü For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is needed.
ü There is a small distance between rotor and stator which usually varies from
0.4 mm to 4 mm. Such a distance is called air gap.
Construction
Squirrel cage rotor

Wound rotor

Notice the slip

rings
Construction
Slip rings

Cutaway in a typical
wound-rotor IM.
Notice the brushes and
the slip rings

Brushes
 Slip ring or phase wound Induction motor
Construction is complicated due to presence of slip ring
and brushes
The rotor winding is similar to the stator winding
We can easily add rotor resistance by using slip ring
and brushes
Due to presence of external resistance high starting
torque can be obtained
Slip ring and brushes are present
Frequent maintenance is required due to presence of
brushes
The construction is complicated and the presence of
brushes and slip ring makes the motor more costly
This motor is rarely used only 10 % industry uses slip
ring induction motor
Rotor copper losses are high and hence less efficiency
Speed control by rotor resistance method is possible
Slip ring induction motor are used where high starting
torque is required i.e in hoists, cranes, elevator etc
Squirrel cage induction motor
Construction is very simple
The rotor consists of rotor bars which are permanently
shorted with the help of end rings
Since the rotor bars are permanently shorted, its not
possible to add external resistance
Staring torque is low and cannot be improved
Slip ring and brushes are absent
Less maintenance is required
The construction is simple and robust and it is cheap as
compared to slip ring induction motor
Due to its simple construction and low cost. The squirrel
cage induction motor is widely used
Less rotor copper losses and hence high efficiency
Speed control by rotor resistance method is not possible
Squirrel cage induction motor is used in lathes, drilling
machine, fan, blower printing machines etc
The Rotating Magnetic Field
• After going through this lesson, we will be able to answer the
following questions:
1. How a rotating magnetic field is formed in the air gap of a
three-phase Induction motor, when the balanced winding of
the stator is fed from a balanced supply?
2. Why does the magnitude of the magnetic field remain
constant, and also what is the speed of rotation of the
magnetic field, so formed? Also what is meant by the term
‘synchronous speed’?
Ø The most basic 3-phase induction motor has three
Ø sets of windings, with each phase connected to a
different set of windings, Figure ….
Ø The current in each winding is 120 electrical
degrees out of phase with the current in the other
windings.
Ø The current flowing through the windings creates
an electromagnet with a north pole and a south Figure: Simplified view of a 2-pole, 3-
pole. Since this motor has one north pole and one phase induction motor. It is a 2-pole
south pole, it is a 2-pole motor. motor because at any one time
there is one north and one south
magnetic pole. The stator
magnetic field will rotate from A 1 to
B1 to C1 and then back to A 1, 60
times each second.
Ø Assume that when the alternating current reaches a
maximum, a strong north pole is created in the winding next
to the rotor, as in Figure . Notice that there is a north pole at
stator pole A 1, but not at pole B1 or pole Cl. As time
progresses, a strong north pole will appear at pole B 1 and
then at pole C 1. This sequence repeats itself 60 times each
second, or 3600 times per minute.
Ø The magnetic field in the stator rotates around the motor at a
Figure 16-4 Simplified view of a 2-
speed of 3 600 r/min.
pole, 3-phase induction motor. It is a
Ø A 4-pole motor has twice as many windings, and it actually 2-pole motor because at any one time
creates two sets of north and south poles at the same time. there is one north and one south
In one alternating-current cycle, the pole moves halfway magnetic pole. The stator
around the stator. It takes a second ac cycle for the magnetic magnetic field will rotate from A 1 to
field to complete a full revolution of the stator. The magnetic B1 to C1 and then back to A 1, 60
field rotates at 30 revolutions per second, or 1 800 revolutions times each second.
per minute.
Ø Reversing the Rotation
Ø Now, let us see how the motor can be reversed. Fig-
ure 16-5 is a 2-pole motor with phase wires B and
C
Ø reversed. The north pole will move from stator pole
AI to pole C 1 , and then to pole B 1. The magnetic
field is now rotating counterclockwise. In Figure 16-4,
the mag-netic field is rotating clockwise. Therefore,
the direction of rotation of the magnetic field for a 3-
phase induction
Figure 16-5 The direction of rotation
of the magnetic field is reversed by
reversing any two phase wires of a
3-phase induction motor. Compare the
rotation of this motor with that in
Figure 16-4.
 The rotating magnetic field
Ø The basic idea of an electric motor is to generate
two magnetic fields: rotor magnetic field and stator
magnetic field. The rotor will constantly be turning
to align its magnetic field with the stator field.
Ø • The 3-phase set of currents, each of equal
magnitude and with a phase difference of 120o,
flow in the stator windings and generate a rotating
field will constant magnitude.
Ø A three-phase balanced winding in the stator of the
Induction motor (IM) is shown in Fig. 29.1 (schematic
form). In a three-phase balanced winding, the number of
turns in three windings, is equal, with the angle between the
adjacent phases, say R & Y, is (electrical). Same angle of
(elec.) is also between the phases, Y & B.
Ø A three-phase balanced voltage, with the phase sequence as
R-Y-B, is applied to the above winding. In a balanced
voltage, the magnitude of the voltage in each phase,
assumed to be in star in this case, is equal, with the phase
angle of the voltage between the adjacent phases, say R &
Y, being120 .
Ø The three phases of the stator winding
(balanced) carry balanced alternating
(sinusoidal) currents as shown in Fig. 29.2.
Ø Consider a simple 3-phase stator containing
three coils, each 120o apart. Such a winding will
produce only one north and one south magnetic
pole; therefore, this motor would be called a two
pole motor.
Ø In this section we study the magnetic filed produced by
the currents flowing in the polyphase windings of an ac
machine.
Ø The figure shows, the three phase windings, represented
by aa’, bb’, and cc’, are displaced from each other by
1200 electrical degrees in space around the inner
circumference of the stator.
Ø A 2-pole machine is considered.
Ø If an alternating current flows through the phase coil, it
produces a sinusoidally distributed mmf wave centered on
the axis of the coil representing the phase winding. The
amplitude and direction of this mmf depends on the
instantaneous value of the current flowing through the
winding.
Ø Let’s now consider a balanced three-phase
current flowing through the three-phase
windinds. The currents are

Ø When these currents flow through the respective

phase windings, each produces a sinusoidally
distributed mmf wave in space, pulsating along
its axis and having a peak located along the axis.
Ø .
Ø Each mmf wave can be represented by a space vector along the axis
of its phase with magnitude proportioal to the instantaneous value of
the current.
Ø The resultant mmf wave is the net effect of the three component mmf
waves, which can be computed either graphically or analytically.
Graphical Method
Ø The phase sequence of the three-phase voltage applied to the stator winding is a-b-c.
Ø If this sequence is changed to a-c-b, it is observed that direction of rotation of the field is
reversed i.e., the field rotates counterclockwise rather than clockwise.
Ø However, the number of poles and the speed at which the magnetic field rotates remain
unchanged.
Ø For a three-phase supply, the direction of rotation of the magnetic field can be done by
interchanging any two of the three lines
Ø The rotor in a 3-phase induction motor runs in the same direction as the rotating magnetic
field. Therefore, the direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motor can be reversed by
interchanging any two of the three motor supply lines.
a) Production of Rotating Magnetic Field Due to 3-Phase Currents
- For 4 different cases the production of flux is illustrated:
Analytical Method
Ø Because the phase axes are shifted from leach other by 120 elect.
degrees, the contributions from phases b and c are, respectively,
Ø The currents are functions of time and are defined in previous equations and thus
Ø Operation Principle
Ø The three fluxes generated by the phase windings are separated by 120° in
space and in time for a two-pole motor
Ø • The total flux in the machine is the sum of the three fluxes.
Ø • The summation of the three ac fluxes results in a rotating flux, which turns with
constant speed and has constant amplitude.
Ø • The rotating flux induces a voltage in the short-circuited bars of the rotor. This
voltage drives current through the bars.
Ø • The interaction of the rotating flux and the rotor current generates a force that
drives the motor.
Ø • The force is proportional with the flux density and the rotor bar current
Ø • The voltage and current generation in the rotor bar require
Ø a speed difference between the rotating field and the rotor.
Synchronous speed
P 50 Hz 60 Hz
2 3000 3600
4 1500 1800
6 1000 1200
8 750 900
10 600 720
12 500 600
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating Magnetic Field
Principle of operation

 ind  kBR  Bs
Cont’d
Ø The torque induced would generate acceleration to the rotor, hence the rotor will spin.
Ø However, there is a finite upper limit to the motor’s speed.

Conclusion: An induction motor can thus

speed up to near synchronous speed but it
can never reach synchronous speed.
Induction motor speed
Ø At what speed will the IM run?
- Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why?
- If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is the same speed of the rotating
magnetic field, then the rotor will appear stationary to the rotating magnetic
field and the rotating magnetic field will not cut the rotor. So, no induced
current will flow in the rotor and no rotor magnetic flux will be produced so
no torque is generated and the rotor speed will fall below the synchronous
speed
- When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field will cut the rotor windings
and a torque is produced
Induction motor speed
Ø So, the IM will always run at a speed lower than the synchronous speed.
Ø The voltage induced in a rotor bar of an induction mot or depend s on the speed
of the rotor relative to the magnetic fields.
Ø Two terms are commonly used to define the relative motion of the rotor and the
magnetic fields.
Ø The difference between the motor speed and the synchronous speed is called the Slip
speed

Where nslip= slip speed of the machine

nsync= speed of the magnetic fields (Bs and Br)
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the motor
q It is possible to express the mechanical speed of the rotor shaft in
terms of synchronous speed and slip.

Ø These equations are useful in the derivation of induction motor torque and power
relationships.
 The Slip

Where s is the slip

Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the above
eq. by 100, notice that the slip is a ratio and doesn’t have units
Induction Motors and Transformers
Ø Both IM and transformer works on the principle of induced voltage
- Transformer: voltage applied to the primary windings produce an induced
voltage in the secondary windings
- Induction motor: voltage applied to the stator windings produce an induced
voltage in the rotor windings
- The difference is that, in the case of the induction motor, the secondary
windings can move
- Due to the rotation of the rotor (the secondary winding of the IM), the induced
voltage in it does not have the same frequency of the stator (the primary)
voltage
q An induction motor works by inducing voltages and currents
in the rotor of the machine, and for that reason it has been
sometimes called a rotating transformer.
q But unlike the transformer, the secondary frequency is not
necessarily the same as the secondary frequency.
§ If the motor is locked so that it cannot move (at standstill), the rotor will have the same
frequency as the stator.
§ If the rotor turns at synchronous speed, the frequency on the rotor will be zero.
Ø Several alternative forms of this expression exist that are
sometimes useful.
Torque
Ø While the input to the induction motor is electrical
power, its output is mechanical power and for that we
should know some terms and quantities related to
mechanical power
Ø Any mechanical load applied to the motor shaft will
introduce a Torque on the motor shaft. This torque is
related to the motor output power and the rotor speed

and
Horse power
Ø Another unit used to measure mechanical power is the horse power
Ø It is used to refer to the mechanical output power of the motor
Ø Since we, as an electrical engineers, deal with watts as a unit to
measure electrical power, there is a relation between horse power and
watts
Example
A 208-V, 10hp, four pole, 60 Hz, Y-connected induction motor has a
full-load slip of 5 percent
1. What is the synchronous speed of this motor?
2. What is the rotor speed of this motor at rated load?
3. What is the rotor frequency of this motor at rated load?
4. What is the shaft torque of this motor at rated load?
Solution
1. nsync  120 f e  120(60)  1800 rpm
P 4

2. nm  (1  s )ns
 (1  0.05)  1800  1710 rpm

3. f r  sf e  0.05  60  3Hz

4.  load  Pout  Pout

m nm
2
60
10 hp  746 watt / hp
  41.7 N .m
1710  2  (1/ 60)
Effect of Slip on the Rotor Circuit
Equivalent Circuit
Ø The induction motor is similar to the transformer with
the exception that its secondary windings are free to
rotate

As we noticed in the transformer, it is easier if we can combine

these two circuits in one circuit but there are some difficulties
Ø An induction motor can be described as rotating transformer, it is
input is three phase voltage and current, the output of IM is shorted
out so no electrical output exist, instead the output is mechanical. The
Per phase equivalent circuit of an induction motor:
Transformer model of induction motor

Magnetization curve of induction motor

Transformer Model of Induction Motor

Ø Note: slope of induction motor’s magneto-motive force-flux

curve is much shallower than curve of a good transformer
Ø because there is an air gap in an induction motor which
greatly increase reluctance of flux path & therefore reduces
coupling between primary & secondary windings
Ø Higher reluctance caused by air gap means a higher
magnetizing reactance XM in equivalent circuit will have a
much smaller value (larger susceptance BM) than its value in
an ordinary transformer.
Equivalent Circuit
Ø When the rotor is locked (or blocked), i.e. s =1, the
largest voltage and rotor frequency are induced in
the rotor, Why?
Ø On the other side, if the rotor rotates at synchronous
speed, i.e. s = 0, the induced voltage and frequency
in the rotor will be equal to zero, Why?

Where ER0 is the largest value of the rotor’s induced voltage

obtained at s = 1(loacked rotor)
Equivalent Circuit
Ø The same is true for the frequency, i.e.

Ø It is known that

Ø So, as the frequency of the induced voltage in the

rotor changes, the reactance of the rotor circuit also
changes
Where Xr0 is the rotor reactance
at the supply frequency
(at blocked rotor)
Equivalent Circuit
Ø Then, we can draw the rotor equivalent circuit as follows

Where ER is the induced voltage in the rotor and RR is the rotor resistance
Equivalent Circuit
Ø Now we can calculate the rotor current as
ER
IR 
( RR  jX R )
sER 0

( RR  jsX R 0 )
Ø Dividing both the numerator and denominator by s so nothing
changes we get

Where ER0 is the induced voltage and XR0 is the rotor reactance at blocked rotor
condition (s = 1)
Equivalent Circuit
Ø Now we can have the rotor equivalent circuit
Equivalent Circuit
Ø Now as we managed to solve the induced voltage and different
frequency problems, we can combine the stator and rotor circuits in
one equivalent circuit
Where

2
X 2  aeff X R0
2
R2  aeff RR
IR
I2 
aeff
E1  aeff ER 0
NS
aeff 
NR
Power losses in Induction machines
Ø Copper losses
- Copper loss in the stator (PSCL) = I12R1
- Copper loss in the rotor (PRCL) = I22R2
Ø Core loss (Pcore)
Ø Mechanical power loss due to friction and windage
Ø How this power flow in the motor?
Power flow in induction motor
Cont’d
Ø MECHANICAL LOSSES: There are two basic types of mechanical losses:
friction and windage.
Ø Friction losses are losses caused by the friction of the bearings in the machine,
while windage losses are ca used by the friction between the moving parts of the
machine and the air inside the motor 's casing. These losses vary as the cube
of the speed of rotation of the machine.
Ø The mechanical and core losses of a machine are often lumped together and called
the no-load rotational loss of the machine.
Ø At no load, all the input power must be used to overcome these losses.
Therefore, measuring the input power to the stat or of an ac machine acting as a
motor at no load will give an approximate value for these losses.
Cont’d
Ø STRAY LOSSES (OR MISCELLANEOUS LOSSES). Stray
losses are losses that cannot be placed in one of the previous
categories. No matter how carefully losses are accounted for, some
always escape inclusion in one of the above categories .
Ø All such losses are lumped into stray losses. For most machines,
stray losses are taken by convention to be 1 percent of full load.
Power relations

Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 V ph I ph cos 

PSCL  3 I12 R1

PAG  Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore )

PRCL  3I 22 R2
Pconv  PAG  PRCL
Pconv
Pout  Pconv  ( Pf  w  Pstray )  ind 
m
Power relations

Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 V ph I ph cos 

PSCL  3 I12 R1
R2 PRCL
PAG  Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore )  Pconv  PRCL  3I 2
2 
s s
PRCL  3I 22 R2
R2 (1  s ) PRCL (1  s )
Pconv  PAG  PRCL  3I 22 
s s
Pconv  (1  s ) PAG
Pconv (1  s ) PAG
Pout  Pconv  ( Pf  w  Pstray )  ind  
m (1  s )s
Power relations
PAG Pconv
1 1-s

PRCL
s
Separating the Rotor Copper Losses and the Power
Converted in an Induction Motor 's Equivalent Circuit
Ø We can rearrange the equivalent circuit as follows

Resistance
Actual rotor
equivalent to
resistance
mechanical load
Example
A 480-V, 60 Hz, 50-hp, three phase induction motor is drawing 60A at
0.85 PF lagging. The stator copper losses are 2 kW, and the rotor
copper losses are 700 W. The friction and windage losses are 600 W,
the core losses are 1800 W, and the stray losses are negligible. Find
the following quantities:
1. The air-gap power PAG.
2. The power converted Pconv.
3. The output power Pout.
4. The efficiency of the motor.
Solution
1. Pin  3VL I L cos 
 3  480  60  0.85  42.4 kW
PAG  Pin  PSCL  Pcore
 42.4  2  1.8  38.6 kW
2. Pconv  PAG  PRCL
700
 38.6   37.9 kW
1000
3. Pout  Pconv  PF &W
600
 37.9   37.3 kW
1000
Solution
37.3
Pout   50 hp
0.746

4. Pout
  100%
Pin
37.3
  100  88%
42.4
Example
A 460-V, 25-hp, 60 Hz, four-pole, Y-connected induction motor
has the following impedances in ohms per phase referred to
the stator circuit:
R1= 0.641 R2= 0.332
X1= 1.106  X2= 0.464  XM= 26.3 
The total rotational losses are 1100 W and are assumed to be
constant. The core loss is lumped in with the rotational losses.
For a rotor slip of 2.2 percent at the rated voltage and rated
frequency, find the motor’s
1. Speed 4. Pconv and Pout
2. Stator current 5. ind and load
3. Power factor 6. Efficiency
Solution
120 f e 120  60
1. nsync    1800 rpm
P 4
nm  (1  s )nsync  (1  0.022)  1800  1760 rpm
R2 0.332
2. Z2   jX 2   j0.464
s 0.022
 15.09  j 0.464  15.11.76 
1 1
Zf  
1/ jX M  1/ Z2  j 0.038  0.0662  1.76
1
  12.94 31.1  
0.0773  31.1
Solution
Z tot  Z stat  Z f
 0.641  j1.106  12.9431.1 
 11.72  j7.79  14.0733.6 
4600
V 3
I1    18.88   33.6  A
Z tot 14.0733.6
3. PF  cos 33.6  0.833 lagging
4. Pin  3VL I L cos   3  460  18.88  0.833  12530 W
PSCL  3I12 R1  3(18.88) 2  0.641  685 W
PAG  Pin  PSCL  12530  685  11845 W
Solution
Pconv  (1  s ) PAG  (1  0.022)(11845)  11585 W

Pout  Pconv  PF &W  11585 1100  10485 W

10485
=  14.1 hp
746
PAG 11845
5.  ind    62.8 N.m
sync 2  1800
60
Pout 10485
 load    56.9 N.m
m 2  1760
60
Pout 10485
6.   100%   100  83.7%
Pin 12530
INDUCTION MOTOR TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
Ø How does the torque of an induction motor change as the load
changes?
Ø How much torque can an induction motor supply at starting
conditions?
Ø How much does the speed of an induction motor drop as its shaft load
increases?
Ø To find out the answers to these and similar questions, it is necessary
to clearly understand the relationships among the motor's torque, speed,
and power.
 Induced Torque from a Physical Standpoint
Ø Here the torque- speed
relationship will be
examined first from the
physical viewpoint of the
motor's magnetic field
behavior.
Ø Then, a general equation
for torque as a function of (b) The magnetic fields in
(a) The magnetic fields
slip will be derived from an induction motor under
in an induction motor
the inductionmotor heavy loads.
under light loads.
equivalent circuit
 ER
IR

IR

 ind  kBR  BS
 kBR BS sin

97
Now suppose the IM is loaded down (Fig b).
As the motor’s load increases, its slip increases, and the
rotor speed falls.
Since the rotor speed is slower, there is now more
relative motion between the rotor and the stator
magnetic fields.

Greater relative motion produces a stronger ro­tor voltageER

which in turn produces a larger rotor current IR .
With a larger rotor current, the rotor magnetic field BR also
increases.

98
H. A. Suud ECEg4221 Fall
2015
Ø However, the angle of the ro­tor current &BR changes as well.
Ø Since the rotor slip is larger, the rotor fre­quency rises f(r  sfe ), and the rotor’s
reactance increases (  LR ).
Ø Therefore, the rotor current now lags further behind the rotor voltage, and the rotor
magnetic field shifts with the current.
Ø Fig (b) shows the induction motor operating at a fairly high load. Notice that the rotor
current has increased and that the angle  has increased.
Ø The increase in BR tends to increase the torque, while the increase in angle tends to
decrease the torque ( ind is proportional to sin  , and   90 ).
Ø Since the first effect is larger than the second one, the overall induced torque
increases to supply the motor’s increased load.

99
 When does an induction motor reach pullout torque?

Ø This happens when the point is reached where, as the load on the shaft is
increased, the sin  term decreases more than the BR term increases.
Ø At that point, a further increase in load decreases  ind , and the motor stops.

100
 Modelling the torque-speed characteristics of an
induction motor
Ø It is possible to use a knowledge of the machine’s
magnetic fields to approx­imately derive the output
torque­versus­speed characteristic of an IM.
Ø Each term in this expression can be considered
separately to derive the overall machine behavior.
The individual terms are:
1. BR : is directly proportional to the current flowing in
the rotor, as long as the rotor is unsaturated. The
current flow in the rotor in­creases with increasing
slip (decreasing speed). This current flow was plotted
earlier and is shown again in the below Fig a.
Cont’d
Cont’d

A plot of rotor power factor versus speed is shown in Figure c.

 Cont’d
Ø Since the induced torque is proportional to
the product of these three terms, the torque-
speed characteristic of an induction motor
can be constructed from the graphical
multiplication of the previous three plots
(Figure a to c).
Ø The torque-speed characteristic of an
induction motor derived in this fashion is
shown in Figure d.
Ø This characteristic curve can be divided roughly into 3 regions.
Ø The first region is the low­slip region of the curve.
Ø In the low­slip region, the motor slip in­creases approximately linearly with increased
load, and the rotor mechanical speed decreases approximately linearly with load.
Ø In this region of operation, the rotor reactance is negligible, so the rotor power factor is
approximately unity, while the rotor current increases linearly with slip.
Ø The entire normal steady­state operating range of an induction motor is included in
this linear low­slip region.
Ø Thus in normal operation, an IM has a linear speed droop.
Ø The second region on the IM’s curve can be called the moderate­slip region.

105
Ø In the moderate­slip region, the rotor frequency is higher than before, and the rotor reactance is on the
same order of magnitude as the rotor resistance.
Ø In this region, the rotor current no longer increases as rapidly as before, and the power factor starts to
drop.
Ø The peak torque (pullout torque) of the motor occurs at the point where, for an incremental increase in
load, the increase in the rotor current is exactly balanced by the decrease in the rotor power factor.
Ø The third region on the IM’s curve is called the high­slip region.
Ø In the high­slip region, the induced torque actually decreases with increased load, since the increase in
rotor current is completely overshadowed by the de­crease in rotor power factor.
Ø For a typical IM, the pull out torque on the curve will be 200 to 250 percent of the rated full­load
torque of the machine, and the starting torque (the torque at zero speed) will be 150 percent or so of
the full­load torque.
Ø Unlike a syn­chronous motor, the induction motor can start with a full load attached to its shaft.

106
The Derivation of the IM Induced­Torque Equation :

Ø It is possible to use the equivalent circuit of an IM and the power­ flow diagram
for the motor to derive a general expression for induced torque as a function of
speed.
Ø The induced torque in an IM is given by Equation:

Pconv PAG
 ind   ind 
m sync

107
Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem
Ø Thevenin’s theorem can be used to transform the network to the left
of points ‘a’ and ‘b’ into an equivalent voltage source VTH in series
with equivalent impedance RTH+jXTH
Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem

jX M XM
VTH  V | VTH || V |
R1  j ( X 1  X M ) R12  ( X 1  X M ) 2
RTH  jX TH  ( R1  jX 1 ) // jX M
Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem
Ø Since XM>>X1 and XM>>R1

Ø Because XM>>X1 and XM+X1>>R1

Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem
VTH VTH
I2  
ZT  R2 
2
2
R
 TH    ( X TH  X 2 )
 s 
Then the power converted to mechanical (Pconv)
R2 (1  s )
2
Pconv  3I 2
s
And the internal mechanical torque (Tconv)
2 R2
Pconv Pconv 3I
2
s PAG
 ind    
m (1  s)s s s
Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem
2
 
 
3  VTH   R2 
 ind     s 
s 
  
2
 R  R2   ( X  X ) 2
  TH s  TH 2 
 
Torque-speed characteristics

Typical torque-speed characteristics of induction motor

Comments
The induction motor torque-speed characteristic curve plotted in Figure
above provides several important pieces of infonnation about the operation
of induction motors .
1. The induced torque is zero at synchronous speed. Discussed earlier.
2. The torque- speed curve is nearly linear between no load and full load. In
this range, the rotor resistance is much larger than the rotor reactance,
so the rotor current, the rotor magnetic field, and the induced torque
increase linearly with increasing slip.
3. There is a maximum possible torque that can’t be exceeded. This torque
is called pullout torque or breakdown torque and is 2 to 3 times the rated
full-load torque.
Comments on the Induction Motor
Torque-Speed Curve
4. The starting torque of the motor is slightly higher than its full-load torque, so the
motor will start carrying any load it can supply at full load.
5. The torque of the motor for a given slip varies as the square of the applied voltage.
This fact is useful in one form of induction motor speed control that will be
described later.
6. If the rotor of the induction motor is driven faster than synchronous speed, then
the direction of the induced torque in the machine reverses and the machine
becomes a generator, converting mechanical power to electric power.
7. If the motor is turning backward relative to the direction of the magnetic fields, the
induced torque in the machine will stop the machine very rapidly and will try to
rotate it in the other direction. Since reversing the direction of magnetic field
rotation is simply a matter of switching any two stator phases, this fact can be
used as a way to very rapidly stop an induction motor. The act of switching
two phases in order to stop the motor very rapidly is called plugging.
Induction motor torque-speed
characteristic curve. showing
the extended operating ranges
(braking region and generator
region).
Complete Speed-torque c/c
Maximum (pullout) torque of an Induction Motor
Ø This torque is proportional to the square of the supply voltage
and is also inversely related to the size of the stat or impedances
and the rotor reactance.
Ø The smaller a machine's reactances, the larger the maximum
torque it is capable of achieving. Note that slip at which the
maximum torque occurs is directly proportional to rotor resistance,
but the value of the maximum torque is independent of the value of
rotor resistance.
Ø The torque-speed characteristic for a wound-rotor induction motor
is shown in Figure.
Ø Recall that it is possible to insert resistance into the rotor
circuit of a wound rotor because the rotor circuit is brought out
to the stat or through slip rings. Notice on the figure that as
the rotor resistance is in creased, the pullout speed of the mot
or decreases, but the maximum torque remains constant.
Ø It is possible to take advantage of this characteristic of wound-
rotor induction motors to start very heavy loads. If a
resistance is inserted into the rotor circuit , the maximum
torque can be adjusted to occur at starting conditions.
Therefore, the maximum possible torque would be available to
start heavy loads.
Ø On the other hand , once the load is turning, the extra resistance
can be removed from the circuit , and the maximum torque will The effect of varying rotor resistance on
move up to near-sy nchronous speed for regular operation. the torque-peed characteristic of a
wound-rotor induction motor
Maximum torque
Ø The corresponding maximum torque of an induction
motor equals

The slip at maximum torque is directly proportional to

the rotor resistance R2

The maximum torque is independent of R2

Maximum torque
Ø Rotor resistance can be increased by inserting
external resistance in the rotor of a wound-rotor
induction motor.
The
value of the maximum torque remains unaffected
but
the speed at which it occurs can be controlled.
Maximum torque

Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic

Example
A two-pole, 50-Hz induction motor supplies 15kW to a load at a speed of 2950
rpm.
1. What is the motor’s slip?
2. What is the induced torque in the motor in N.m under these conditions?
3. What will be the operating speed of the motor if its torque is doubled?
4. How much power will be supplied by the motor when the torque is doubled?
Solution
120 f e 120  50
1. nsync    3000 rpm
P 2
nsync  nm 3000  2950
s   0.0167 or 1.67%
nsync 3000

2.  no Pf W given
 assume Pconv  Pload and  ind   load
Pconv 15 103
 ind    48.6 N.m
m 2950  2
60
Solution
3. In the low-slip region, the torque-speed curve is linear and the induced torque
is direct proportional to slip. So, if the torque is doubled the new slip will be
3.33% and the motor speed will be

nm  (1  s )nsync  (1  0.0333)  3000  2900 rpm

4.
Pconv   ind m
2
 (2  48.6)  (2900  )  29.5 kW
60
Example
A 460-V, 25-hp, 60-Hz, four-pole, Y-connected wound-rotor induction motor has
the following impedances in ohms per phase referred to the stator circuit
R1= 0.641 R2= 0.332
X1= 1.106  X2= 0.464  XM= 26.3 
1. What is the maximum torque of this motor? At what speed and slip does it
occur?
2. What is the starting torque of this motor?
3. If the rotor resistance is doubled, what is the speed at which the maximum
torque now occur? What is the new starting torque of the motor?
4. Calculate and plot the T-s c/c for both cases.
Solution
XM
VTH  V
R12  ( X 1  X M )2
460
 26.3
 3  255.2 V
2 2
(0.641)  (1.106  26.3)
2
 XM 
RTH  R1  
 X1  X M 
2
 26.3 
 (0.641)    0.590
 1.106  26.3 
X TH  X 1  1.106
Solution
R2
1. sTmax 
2
RTH  ( X TH  X 2 )2
0.332
  0.198
2 2
(0.590)  (1.106  0.464)

The corresponding speed is

nm  (1  s )nsync  (1  0.198)  1800  1444 rpm
Solution
The torque at this speed is

1  3VTH2 
 max   
2s  R  R 2  ( X  X )2 
 TH TH TH 2 
3  (255.2) 2

2
2  (1800  )[0.590  (0.590) 2  (1.106  0.464) 2 ]
60
 229 N.m
Solution
2. The starting torque can be found from the torque eqn. by substituting s = 1
2  R2 
3V  
TH
1  s 
 start   ind 
s 1
s  R2 
2

 RTH    ( X TH  X 2 ) 2
 s  s 1

3VTH2 R2

s [ RTH  R2   ( X TH  X 2 ) 2 ]
2

3  (255.2) 2  (0.332)

2
1800   [(0.590  0.332) 2  (1.106  0.464) 2]
60
 104 N.m
Solution
3. If the rotor resistance is doubled, then the slip at maximum torque doubles too

R2
sTmax   0.396
2
RTH  ( X TH  X 2 )2
The corresponding speed is

nm  (1  s )nsync  (1  0.396)  1800  1087 rpm

The maximum torque is still
max = 229 N.m
Solution
The starting torque is now
3  (255.2) 2  (0.664)
 start 
2
1800   [(0.590  0.664) 2  (1.106  0.464) 2]
60
 170 N.m
Determination of motor parameters
Ø Due to the similarity between the induction motor equivalent circuit
and the transformer equivalent circuit, same tests are used to
determine the values of the motor parameters.
- DC test: determine the stator resistance R1
- No-load test: determine the rotational losses and magnetization current
(similar to no-load test in Transformers).
- Locked-rotor test: determine the rotor and stator impedances (similar to
short-circuit test in Transformers).
DC test
- The purpose of the DC test is to determine R1. A variable DC voltage source is
connected between two stator terminals.
- The DC source is adjusted to provide approximately rated stator current, and
the resistance between the two stator leads is determined from the voltmeter and
ammeter readings.
DC test
- then
VDC
RDC 
I DC
- If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase stator resistance is

- If the stator is delta-connected, the per phase stator resistance is

No-load test

1. The motor is allowed to spin freely.

2. The only load on the motor is the friction and windage losses,
so all Pconv is consumed by mechanical losses.
3. The slip is very small (possibly as small as 0.00 1 or less).
No-load test
No-load test

5. Combining Rc & RF+W we get……

No-load test
6. At the no-load conditions, the input power measured by meters must equal the
losses in the motor.
7. The PRCL is negligible because I2 is extremely small because the large load
resistance R2( 1 - s)/s], so they may be neglectedR2(1-s)/s.
8. The stator copper losses are given by

9. so the input power must equal

Where
Prot  Pcore  PF &W
 No-load test
9. Thus, given the input power to the motor, the rotational losses of the machine may be
determined.
10. The equivalent circuit that describes the motor operating in this condition contains resistors
Rc and R2(1-s)/s in parallel with the magnetizing reactance XM .
11. The current needed to establish a magnetic field is quite large in an induction motor, because
of the high reluctance of its air gap, so the reactance XM will be much smaller than the
resistances in parallel with it and the overall input power factor will be very small.
12. With the large lagging current , most of the voltage drop will be across the inductive
components in the circuit. The equivalent input impedance is thus approximately

If X1 can be found, in some other fashion, the magnetizing impedance XM will be known
Blocked-rotor test
Ø The rotor resistance R2 plays an extremely critical role in the
operation of an induction motor. Among other things, R2 determines
the shape of the torque-speed curve, determining the speed at
which the pullout torque occurs.
Ø A standard motor test called the locked-rotor test can be used to
determine the total motor circuit resistance. However, this test finds
only the total resistance.
Ø To find the rotor resistance R2 accurately, it is necessary to
know R1 (from DC test) so that it can be subtracted from the total.
Blocked-rotor test

Ø In this test, the rotor is locked or blocked so that it cannot move, a voltage is applied to
the motor, and the resulting voltage, current and power are measured.
Ø Notice that since the rotor is not moving, the slip s = 1, and so the rotor resistance
R2/s is just equal to R2 (quite a small value)
Blocked-rotor test
Ø Since R2 and X2 are so small, almost all the input current will
flow through them, instead of through the much larger
magnetizing reactance XM .
Ø Therefore, the circuit under these conditions looks like a series
combination of X1, R1, X2 , and R2 .
Blocked-rotor test
Ø The AC voltage applied to the stator is adjusted so that the current
flow is approximately full-load value.
Ø The input power to the motor is given by

Ø so the locked-rotor power factor can be found as

Ø The magnitude of the total impedance in the motor circuit at this

time is
Blocked-rotor test
'
Z LR  RLR  jX LR
 Z LR cos   j Z LR sin 

RLR  R1  R2
'
X LR  X 1'  X 2'
Where X’1 and X’2 are the stator and rotor reactances at the test frequency
respectively
R2  RLR  R1
f rated '
X LR  X LR  X1  X 2
ftest
Blocked-rotor test
X1 and X2 as function of XLR

Rotor Design X1 X2

Wound rotor 0.5 XLR 0.5 XLR

Design A 0.5 XLR 0.5 XLR

Design B 0.4 XLR 0.6 XLR

Design C 0.3 XLR 0.7 XLR

Design D 0.5 XLR 0.5 XLR

Assignment-I
The following test data were taken on a 7.5-hp, four-pole, 208-V, 60-Hz,
design A, Y-connected IM having a rated current of 28 A.

DC Test:
VDC = 13.6 V IDC = 28.0 A
No-load Test:
Vl = 208 V f = 60 Hz
I = 8.17 A Pin = 420 W
Locked-rotor Test:
Vl = 25 V f = 15 Hz
I = 27.9 A Pin = 920 W

(a) Sketch the per-phase equivalent circuit of this motor.

(b) Find the slip at pull-out torque, and find the value of the pull-out torque.
 Starting Method for Induction Motors
Ø Three phase induction motors employ a starting method not to
provide a starting torque at the rotor, but because of the
following reasons;
- Reduce heavy starting currents and prevent motor from overheating.
- Provide overload and no-load protection.
Ø There are many methods in use to start three phase induction
motors.
Ø Some of the common methods are;
a) Direct On-Line starter
 Contu…
Ø The Direct On-Line (DOL) starter is the simplest and the most
inexpensive of all starting methods and is usually used for squirrel
cage induction motors.
Ø It directly connects the contacts of the motor to the full supply
voltage. The starting current is very large, normally 6 to 8 times
the rated current.
Ø The starting torque is likely to be 0.75 to 2 times the full load torque.
Ø In order to avoid excessive voltage drops in the supply line due to
high starting currents, the DOL starter is used only for motors with
a rating of less than 5KW.
Contu…
Ø There are safety mechanisms inside the DOL starter which
provides protection to the motor as well as the operator of
the motor.
b) Star-Delta Starter
Ø The star delta starting is a very common type of starter and
extensively used, compared to the other types of the
starters. This method used reduced supply voltage in
starting.
Ø The method achieved low starting current by first
connecting the stator winding in star configuration, and
then after the motor reaches a certain speed, throw switch
changes the winding arrangements from star to delta
configuration.
Contu…
Ø By connecting the stator windings, first in star and then in delta, the
line current drawn by the motor at starting is reduced to one-third
as compared to starting current with the windings connected in delta.
Ø At the time of starting when the stator windings are start connected,
each stator phase gets voltage VL/ √3, where VL is the line voltage.
Since the torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to
the square of the applied voltage, star- delta starting reduced the
starting torque to one – third that obtainable by direct delta
starting.
Contu…
C) Auto Transformer Starter
Ø The operation principle of auto transformer method is similar to the star delta
starter method. The starting current is limited by (using a three phase auto
transformer) reducing the initial stator applied voltage.
Ø The auto transformer starter is more expensive, more complicated in operation and
bulkier in construction when compared with the star – delta starter method. But an
auto transformer starter is suitable for both star and delta connected motors, and
the starting current and torque can be adjusted to a desired value by taking the
correct tapping from the auto transformer.
Contu…
d) Rotor Impedance Starter
Ø This method allows external resistance to be connected to
the rotor through slip rings and brushes. Initially, the rotor
resistance is set to maximum and is then gradually
decreased as the motor speed increases, until it becomes
zero.
Ø The rotor impedance starting mechanism is usually very
bulky and expensive when compared with other methods. It
also has very high maintenance costs. Also, a considerable
amount of heat is generated through the resistors when
current runs through them.
Ø However, the rotor impedance method allows the motor to
be started while on load.
 SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

Ø
Contu…
1. Pole changing
Ø The methods of speed control by pole changing are suitable for cage motors only
because the cage rotor automatically develops number of poles equal to the poles
of stator winding.
Ø The number of stator poles can be change by
ü Multiple stator windings
ü Method of consequent poles
ü Pole amplitude modulation (PWM)
2. Stator Voltage Control
The torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the square of the applied voltage.
The variation of speed torque curves with respect to the applied voltage is shown in fig bellow.
These curves show that the slip at maximum torque sm remains same, while the value of stall
torque comes down with decrease in applied voltage.
Contu…
 Contu…
Ø Further, we also note that the starting torque is also lower at lower
voltages. Thus, even if a given voltage level is sufficient for achieving
the running torque, the machine may not start.
Ø This method of trying to control the speed is best suited for loads that
require very little starting torque.
3. Supply Frequency Control
Ø The synchronous speed and, therefore, the speed of motor can be
controlled by varying the supply frequency.
Contu…
Ø Thus, the speed control of an induction motor using variable
frequency supply requires a variable voltage power source.
Ø This type of control is known as constant volt in per hertz.
Ø In order to avoid saturation and to minimize losses, motor is
operated at rated air gap flux by varying terminal voltage with
frequency so as to maintain (V/f ) ratio constant at rated value.
Contu…
Ø 4. Rotor Resistance Control
Ø In wound rotor induction motor, it is possible to change the shape of
the torque – speed curve by inserting extra resistance into rotor
circuit of the machine. The resulting torque – speed characteristic
curves are shown in fig bellow.
Ø This method of speed control is very simple. It is possible to have a
large starting torque and low starting current at small value of
slip.
Ø The major disadvantage of this method is that the efficiency is low
due to additional losses in resistors connected in the rotor circuit
Contu…
Ø Because of convenience and simplicity, it is often
employed when speed is to be reduced for a short
period only.

Fig. Torque – speed curve for rotor resistance variation