AE 56 Agricultural Mechanization and Machinery Management

INTRODUCTION

Machinery management has increased in today’s farming operations because of its direct
relation to the success of management in mixing land, labor, and capital to return a satisfactory
profit.

The importance of machinery management in the total farming operation is indicated by

the machinery cost in relation to the total cost and timeliness in operation. Typically, machinery
costs overshadow all other cost except land. It is not unusual to find the differences in profit from
one farm to the next are due solely to the differences in the way machinery is selected and
managed.

AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION

- Agricultural mechanization it embraces the use of tools, implement and machines for
agricultural land development, production, harvesting, and post-production processes. It
includes three main power sources: human, animal and mechanical. (FAO definition,
1979)

- Agricultural mechanization is the art and scientific application of mechanical aids for
increased production and preservation of food and fiber crops with less drudgery and
increased efficiency

- Agricultural mechanization is the application of animal and machine power to multiply

man’s ability to perform production operations. Mechanization permits man to multiply
his production by the use of animal or fuel power. Mechanization allows the performance
of tasks efficiently. - Loyd Johnson, 1964.

- Agricultural mechanization is the use of hand and animal-operated tools and

implements as well as motorized equipment to reduce human efforts, improve quality,
perform operations that cannot be done by other means, and improve the timeliness of
various operations, thereby increasing yield, quality of product and overall efficiency.
(STOUT AND DOWNING)

- A system of production for food and fiber that embraces tools, implement, and machines
for agricultural land development, production, harvesting and on-farm processes.

- It includes three main power sources: human, animal and mechanical. Natural power
(solar, water, and wind) are included in mechanical power because a mechanical device is
needed to transfer this power into useful work. As a discipline, agricultural
mechanization covers the manufacture, distribution, and utilization of tools, implements,
and machines.

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Models of mechanization

1. High land area to farmer ratio: (example:USA)

Motivated into increasing the level of mechanization in order to cultivate large
agricultural lands with limited available manpower and take advantage of favourable
agricultural commodity prices. Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia follow the USA model.
2. Low land area to farmer ratio: (example: Japan)
Motivated into increasing the level of mechanization in order to increase yields and
cropping intensities to meet the growing demands for food and agricultural raw materials.
South Korea, China, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines follow the Japanese model.

Potential benefits from mechanization

1. Increased cropping intensity and production

- Tractors, power tillers, irrigation pumps, harvesters and threshers increase cropping
intensities
- Irrigation pumps increase yields
- Harvesters and threshers reduced losses which effectively increases yields.
2. Increased productivity of labor
- Tractors in land preparation reduced 50% of the labor units.
- However, labor for land preparation in the Philippines comprised mainly family labor
- Freed family labor can look for alternative work opportunities; children can go to school
3. Full utilization of farm products and by products
- Availability of machines allow the processing of farm products and by products
- Take the case of pineapple and coconut. Rather than selling the fruit and nut, they can be
processed into different products
4. Reduction of losses
- Development of harvesting, threshing and processing machines reduced harvest and
postharvest losses.
- Losses: rice : 10-37%
Corn : 30%
5. Increased value added of farm products
- Secondary and tertiary processing open up market potentials and lead to higher retail
prices
- Shelled peanut retailers earn P0.50/kg more
- Dried corn can extend the selling period and need not to be forced to sell at a low price.
6. Employment and livelihood generation
- Machines designed to increase cropping intensities and production will correspondingly
increase labor requirements for production and postharvest operations

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 - Machine designed to diversify farm products and by products open up various livelihood
opportunities.
- Use of machines will require the putting up of repair shops in the village area.
7. Import substitution
- Local agricultural machinery manufacturing will minimize the importation of agricultural
machinery
8. Export possibilities
- Locally manufactured agricultural machinery can be exported to countries with similar
farming conditions such as the Philippines.

Conceptions and Misconceptions on mechanization

(STOUT and DOWNING, 1974 and Lantin, 1982)

1. Mechanization is synonymous to tractorization.

2. High level of mechanization is equated to modernization and therefore, is an indicator
and requirement for development.
3. Mechanization displaces farm labor and causes unemployment in agriculture; any
substitution of capital for labor is socially desirable.
4. Mechanization is a western or developed country system of farming that is not suited for
developing countries.
5. Mechanization is a costly input in farming especially the rising cost of fossil fuel.
6. Mechanization is not suitable in developing countries where labor is abundant and capital
is scarce.
7. Mechanization is not feasible where farm holdings are fragmented and inaccessible.
8. Mechanization increases yield per unit of labor but not necessarily yield per unit area.
9. Only large farms can afford the cost of mechanization.
10. Mechanization ignores social problems.
- It is the responsibility of all those involved in agricultural mechanization not to advocate
indiscriminate high level of mechanization and those against mechanization not to come
up with sweeping statements that mechanization is undesirable. There exist combinations
of levels of mechanization that will render mechanization in a specific area desirable.

LEVELS OF MECHANIZATION (UPLB-BAR, 2001)

The levels of mechanization were classified into: low, intermediate, high and full
mechanization.
1. Low mechanization means that an operation is done with the use of non-
mechanical power source such as man and animal.
2. Intermediate mechanization refers to operations done with the use of non-
mechanical power source in combination with the use of mechanical power

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 source operated by man (i.e. in plowing: 95 percent is plowed using a hand tractor
and five percent is done with an animal-drawn plow).
3. High mechanization is any operation done solely with the use of a mechanical
power source operated by a person (i.e. four-wheel tractor).

These three levels are further subdivided into three sublevels indicating advancement in
technology through process and strength of the power source. A fourth albeit minor level is Full
mechanization wherein the operations are done with the use of mechanical power source with
limited human intervention such as computerized machines or robots. Involves the use of a
mechanical power source with limited power intervention by man such as computerized drying
of crops.

Mechanization levels in various operations of selected crops by PCCARD.

Table 1. Mechanization levels in various operations of selected crops

Vegetable,
Legumes
Rice Fiber
Operations and Root Coconut Sugarcane Fruits
&Corn Crops
crops
Intermediate Intermediate
Low Low Low
Land Preparation to high to High
Planting/ Low to
Low Low Low Low Low
Transplanting intermediate
Crop care/
Low Low Low Low to high Low Low
Cultivation
Low Low Low Low Low Low
Harvesting
Threshing/Shelling/ Intermediate Low
Low
Dehusking to high (legumes)
Low
Cleaning
Low
Low (legumes Low Low
Drying
and RC
Milling/Village
High Low Low Low Low
level processing

Sources of power in the farm

1. Human power
- Oldest source of power in the farm
- Man used his muscles to walk long distances, hunt animals and till the soil.

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- Man learned to tame animals he hunted for food to work for him by providing pulling
power.
- Man leaned the use of sleds for transporting cargoes; use of rollers underneath the sleds;
and finally the use of wheels.
- While fire is considered the greatest discovery of man; the wheel is considered the
greatest invention of man.
- Today, still considered the major source of power in the farm because of:
o Size of farm
o Topography
o Crops grown
o High cost of equipment
o High cost and non-availability of fuel
o Availability of low cost labor
- Poor source of power.
- Develops only 0.1hp working continuously under favourable conditions (good health,
well fed, and favourable environment)
- Considering that there were 11.76M farmers and 9.67M hectares of agricultural lands,
human power contribution is about 0.122 hp/ha.
- Man is suited to farm operations requiring judgment rather than simple power.

2. Animal Power
- In the Philippines, the Carabao is the beast of burden.
- It can generate 1 hp walking continuously under favourable conditions.
- Its work is confined mostly to pulling operations such as plowing, harrowing, cultivating,
and transport.
- There are about 3.3M carabaos in the Philippines (BAS, Feb 2009) and about 70-75% is
used for draft work.
- The contribution of animal power in the farm is about 0.256hp/ha.
- Compared with mechanical energy sources, the carabao offers the following advantages:
o Low initial cost
o Easy to maintain
o Rarely bogs down in mud
o Can work closer to the levees
o Mobile in most terrain conditions
o If female, is capable of reproduction
o Source of milk, meat, leather and fertilizer
- As a power source, it also has its disadvantages
o Low work output
o 25-50 hours plowing once per hectare
o 77 km walking per hectare

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 o Limited working hours to avoid intense heat of the sun
o Prone to disability by disease, poisoning, lost by rustling, and death
o Requires daily attention such as feeding and pasturing.
o Under poor management practices, causes unsanitary conditions.

-about 15% of the weight of the carabao is the optimum draft the animal can sustain.

500kg carabao ------- 75 kg draft at 4 kph -------- 1.1hp (0.82Kw)

3. Electric Motors
- Device used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy
- Efficient means of converting energy into mechanical energy compared to gasoline and
diesel engines.

Table 1. Energy conversion efficiencies of major farm power units

POWER UNIT ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCY
Electric Motor 60% - 90%
Gasoline Engine 25%- 30%
Diesel Engine 30% - 36%

- Used as prime movers for stationary and indoor equipment such as those for processing
of farm products and by products.
- Advantages of electric motors:
o Low initial cost
o Available in fractional horsepower sizes (1/4, ½, 3/4 hp) and integral hp sizes (1,
1 ½, 2, 2 ½, and etc)
o Compact
o Long life
o Simple to operate
o Inexpensive to operate (motor: P6.22/kW-hr, Diesel engine: P6.75/kW-hr, and
Gasoline engine: P11.20/kW-hr)
o Quiet operation
o No exhaust fumes
o Potential for automatic control
- Disadvantages of electric motors:
o Not adopted to mobile applications such as engines
o Used only in farms with existing electrical lines
o Affected by power outages

4. Internal Combustion Engine

- Device used to convert the heat energy of fuel into mechanical energy
- Thermal Efficiency range from 25% - 36%

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 - Despite of low thermal efficiency, still considered one of the few inventions that have
great influence on human lives
- Engines are used as prime movers for mobile and field equipment such as tractors,
pumps, sprayers, harvesters, and threshers.
- Engines are also used in fishing boats to increase the mobility of fishermen and the scope
of fishing grounds.
- In general, engines are used in applications here electric motors cannot be used.

5. Renewable Energy Sources

- Solar, wind, micro-hydro, and biomass

Policy and Development Issues on Agricultural Mechanization

Primary objective of mechanization

- Increase in land productivity and diversification of products and by products

The first objective would translate the increased production while the second
objective aims to generate labor and livelihood as well as increase farmer’s
income and product’s export potentials.

Emphasis should also be given to the decreasing costs, increasing labor

productivity, expanding the area under sustained cultivation and broadening of
technological base.

Conditions necessary for mechanization

a. Mechanization must result in more production at lower cost than the traditional
method - to justify the equipment cost, divert displaced labor to more productive
operations.
b. Mechanization must assist labor to overcome peak energy requirements which are
in excess of manpower available.
c. Mechanization must replace time and energy efficiently – should be less than
those required with the use of hand tools.

Issues and Constraints

1. Mechanization needs and appropriate mechanization technologies

- Timely assessment of mechanization needs and availability of suitable mechanization
technologies to satisfy the needs.
- Mechanization needs are influenced by agronomic, environmental, and socio-economic
conditions such as cropping systems, farm size distribution, availability of off-farm job
and farm gate prices.

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 - Criteria for the assessment of available technologies may include efficiency, cost per unit
capacity, BCR, affordability, durability, versatility, labor displacement, threats, labor
generation potentials, and harmony with national programs.
2. Mechanization and Crop production
- Generally assumed that it increases cropping intensities and yield levels
- Not all farm machines results in higher cropping intensities and production
3. Mechanization and Labor displacement

Three categories of farm machines

Category I – machines that generate labor by increasing cropping intensities and make possible
the full utilization of farm products and by products. (i.e. pumping irrigation water,
extracting fibers and other raw materials, secondary and tertiary processing of products
and by products)

Category II – machines that enable farmers to perform tasks that cannot be done by available
animal and human labor. (i.e. sprayers, engines, solar driers, gasifiers, electric motors and
hand tools)

Category III – machines that directly replace human and animal labor

Labor displacement revolves around category III machines

- Agricultural operations are seasonal in nature

- Some machines are sometimes more economical than human labor
- Some machines can increase cropping intensities and yield levels due to the adoption of
improved farming technologies
- Some machines cut down production losses.

4. Mechanization and Fossil energy requirement

- Increasing cost of fuel slowed down the advancement of mechanization technologies
- Development of alternative energy sources
- Efficient use of energy in agricultural production without jeopardizing adoption of
suitable farming technologies.
5. Mechanization and Investment cost
- Large machines require high investment costs
- Small farmers can only avail through credit facilities, collective ownership through
cooperatives and custom hire services
- Economic and institutional issues should be considered in the choice of suitable farm
machines.

6. Local Manufacturing versus Importation

Local manufacturing needs to cope with constraints such as

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 - Competition from new and second-hand imported machines
- Poor quality of local steel products
- Higher import to local component proportions of finished products
- High tariff rates on imported components
- Lack of credit facilities
- Critical gaps in manufacturing technologies
- Inadequate industrial extension services

7. Technology transfer
- Industrial extension to improve the manufacturing and management capabilities of local
manufacturers
- Machine testing and evaluation to guarantee quality products and adequacy of after sales
services
- Agricultural extension such as
o Continuing process of technology assessment, needs analysis and packaging of
matured technologies
o Instruction on the selection, operation and maintenance of farm machines
o Provision of support infrastructure and institutional service arrangement for the
promotion of mechanization technologies

8. Affordability, credit, subsidy and farm gate prices

- These are the indices of the individual farmer’s capability to purchase machines.
- Success of mechanization program is due to government subsidy and institutionalized
credit, design of cheaper and better quality machines and favourable farm gate prices of
products

9. After sales service and quality control

- Availability of spare parts
- Availability of service centers from the dealers and manufacturers.

Changes necessary for agricultural mechanization (Lantin, 2003)

In farm practices and crops grown – mechanization overcomes peak energy requirements to
permit a second crop or next crop immediately following the previous crop, hence increasing
cropping intensity

In farm size and layout – present day paddy size is most efficient for animal and man farming
operations but not for mechanized operations; energy available has limited such size, that’s why
large land ownership resulted in tenant system

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In social systems – mechanization is based solely on cash exchange which is true in any industry
that makes use of power.

1. Bayanihan system is limited because time and favors are exchanged; exchange of labor
is now getting rare.
2. Cooperatives have been suggested and tried many times but with little or no success
because members must have self-discipline and equality.
3. Contractor-cash system works in nearly all micro and macro service enterprises, like
milling and threshing, transportation, private schools, hospitals, and construction. Thus,
custom service operations appears to be a viable strategy for promoting mechanization
because it is based on direct client-provider relationship where under normal market
forces, the client has power over the provider and can demand quality and value or the
next provider gets the contract. Here the poor farmer is in control over the essential
services provided.
4. Government-implemented mechanization system have not been successful in the
Philippines and anywhere else in the world. The main reason is that services are not
direct but passéd through policymakers and the bureaucracy and nobody is held
accountable. (Ref. DEverajan, S. and R. Reinikka. Making services work for poor people.
Finance and Development, September 2003. An IMF publication).

A Paradigm Shift:

1. From marginal farming to large-scale farming by grouping together and consolidating

resources
2. From adapting a small but inefficient machine for small field plots to bigger plots so
as to be able to utilize efficient large machines through custom operation service
providers.
3. From inefficient and low-capacity small machines to efficient and high-capacity large
machines.

Land consolidation

The grouping together of small parcels of land comprising a contiguous area and
reforming the boundaries for the purpose of effecting suitable field shapes and sizes
conducive to efficient operation of agricultural machinery, building access roads, field
irrigation and drainage canals as well as allotting spaces for crop postharvest processing
structures.
The initial steps in planning for land consolidation consist of topographic surveys and
determining the layout of the required infrastructures (requiring an agricultural engineer’s
professional work). Certain mutually agreed arrangements (may require the intervention of a
third party, like an NGO or government, like DAR, DA, and DECS) among the farmers
involved are made in relocating boundaries, removal of existing bounds and leveling along
contours, which may entail land swapping, sales (may involve outside areas to consolidate

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 conjugal or family land properties into one area), donations, or equitable sharing of labor and
benefits, especially in rice paddies. Implementation of land consolidation requirements may
be facilitated by forming farmer cooperatives or groups, reselling or leasing the land to an
agribusiness or agro-industrial entrepreneur or corporation, which would demand a large
farm area to effect economies of scale. It can also be facilitated by farm planning and
implementing land consolidation physical infrastructures on a single or family owned area
before titling and distributing the land parcels to the farmer beneficiaries of the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP). Land consolidation is expected to be a
torturous endeavor that will need education and information among those directly affected
and is a step towards modernizing agriculture through gradual change from unproductive,
unprofitable or low-income generating marginal farming systems to efficient and profitable
large-scale and modernized farming. The current small landholder-farmers will retire and
their children will be encouraged and assisted to get college education so that none of them
will engage in marginal farming as an economic base. Certain safety nets may be in place to
ensure food and financial security in case of economic downturns and natural and man-made
calamities.

 For physical infrastructure development

o Provides road access to fields
o Provides field irrigation system
o Provides efficient drainage system
o Increase field size upon mutual agreement among neighbour farmers
 For institutional infrastructure development
o Synchronizes farm activities
o Encourages custom operation services at affordable costs
o Makes agricultural extension services efficient and effective
o Makes farming profitable for the farmer
 Provides necessary infrastructures for farming rice, corn, sugarcane, and other
row crops
o Efficient and effective farming system
o Modernize agriculture comparable to that in advanced countries
o Uplift the small farmers income.

Farmland clustering

The grouping together of farms in an area (initially forming a minimum of 50-ha cluster)
for synchronized farming operations from land preparation to harvesting in cooperation or
contract with agricultural mechanized operations service providers for the purpose of making
field operations efficient and thus, effect low cost, timely, and professional or high quality
services to the benefit also of the farmers forming the cluster.
Within a farm or among neighboring farms, the farmers in the cluster agree to remove or
relocate boundaries or physical barriers (yet retaining the integrity of property lines on paper
or corner markers on land or both) to effect minimum interruptions of field operations, like in
continuous plowing, planting, and harvesting across property lines. Farmland clustering has
shown success, acceptance, and benefits among farmers in corn farmland areas in Isabela and

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 Quirino provinces through the efforts of cooperatives and private custom operation service
providers and encouragement by the DA and DAR.

Asian Experiences on Land Consolidation

Japan
- Increase in large scale farms
- Crop diversification thru multi-purpose use of paddies
- Increase rice production from 4.02 to 4.5 tons/ha
- Irrigation system has flood regulating function
- 40% overall work reduction in paddy field from 185 hrs/0.1 ha (1950’s) to 39 hrs/0.1 ha
(1993)
- Reduction in human labor from 1050 hrs/ha to 300 hrs/ha

Korea
- 94-99% mechanized in 1998
- 5 years to implement scheme due to objections from landowners/farmers

Benefits of Land Consolidation

- Develop cooperation among farmers
o For water management
o Synchronized harvesting
o Common warehouse, postharvest facilities, etc
- Develop market channels that demand bulk harvest
- Efficient field operations
- Efficient use of water and better weed control
- Increase land and labor productivity
- Increase crop production

Phases of Land Consolidation

A. Pre-construction phase
a. Social preparation
b. Technical preparation
B. Construction phase
a. Physical/infrastructure development
C. Implementation/Operational phase

Basic Components of Land Consolidation

1. Land Swapping
2. Site Clearing and Earth moving
3. Leveling of field
4. Subsurface drainage works
5. Irrigation facilities
6. Construction of farm road, farm ditch, farm drain, other construction activity
7. Installation of power supply

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 8. Construction of production and postharvest facilities

Philippine Experiences in Land Consolidation

o Before 1960’s, labor hours for lowland rice cultivation using traditional methods ranges
from 380-491 man/animal-hours/hectare
o In rice farming, land preparation and threshing are the most mechanized operations 40
years behind Japan in land consolidation
o BMD Corn World custom hiring services and clustering project in Isabela activities are
probably the nearest scheme to land consolidation

BMD Corn World: Private Custom Provider

- Custom services provider (land preparation, planting, fertilizer application, harvesting,
and drying)
- Research on hybrid seed and hybrid vegetables
- Source of hybrid/certified palay and corn seeds
- Distributor of agricultural machines
- Pioneered land consolidation activities in Isabela
- Prepared loan proposal package and project feasibility for the machinery requirement of
clustering and mechanized project in Isabela.
- Technology demonstration of four-wheel tractor, planter, sprayer, and harvester.
- Conducted training on machine operation for land preparation, planting, fertilizer and
herbicide application and harvesting

BMD’s Reason for Mechanizing

- Lack of hired laborers during peak labor seasons
- Farmers save time, do not have to wait for hired laborers; and avoid postharvest losses
- With pre-arranged custom provider, farmers could have time for other jobs.
Field plot size measures about 45-50 m x 50 m or 2250 to 2500 square meters.

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 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
Brief History

Spanish Era – 1890’s

- Agricultural machines from Spain and later from US were introduced in the country.
- The machines were first used in the big estates of sugar plantations
- Traditional animal draft technology was used in small farm holdings.
1940’s
- Government efforts were exerted to promote mechanization in the country but they were
still heavily biased to large scale farming
- Machines introduced:
o Stationary
 Rice threshers
 Rice mills
 Sugarcane mills
 Water pumps
o Mobile application
 Four-wheel tractors for land preparation and for opening new areas for
cultivation
 Use of cultivators, corn planter, and big combines
1960’s
- Central Bank-International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (CB-IBRD) loan
in 1966-1980. Initial phase was used for the promotion of four-wheel tractors for
sugarcane, rice and corn.
- Demand of small power tillers was increased since these were smaller and lower in
acquisition cost and more preferred by farmers.
- Other machines like the threshers, cleaners and dryers were adopted by farmers
- The advent of high-yielding, non-photosensitive rice varieties increased the need for
mechanization
- This era was also the outbreak of hoof and mouth disease in carabao industry

1970’s
- Growth of the local agricultural machinery manufacturing industry
- Green revolution was implemented in 1976 that increased the demand for agricultural
machinery
- Shift from American and European model to Japanese model
- Call for appropriate, alternative, selective, and intermediate mechanization technology
- Imported large machines were compared to “Trojan Horses” sent by developed countries
in disguise as aids to developing countries while small machines which can be locally
manufactured were found to be “beautiful”
- Golden age of farm mechanization
o Coherent program of the government to increase grain production
- PCARRD included agricultural engineering as one of the priority commodity

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 - AMMDA was organized (400 manufacturers and dealers)

1980’s – 90’s
- Mechanization slowed down due to political, social, and financial constraints
- Creation of: AMDP, AMIC, BPRE, AMTEC, and PhilRice
- Increase in total available manpower in the farm from 0.198 hp/ha to 0.52 hp/ha was due
to increased human labor. (ARNAM, 1990)
- Comprehensive land reform program of the government was introduced (Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Law – 1988) to promote social justice among landless farmers/farm
workers and to move the nation toward sound and rural development and
industrialization.
- Farmers cooperative were encouraged to engage in production, processing and marketing
of their produce.

1990’s – 2000’s
- Passage of RA 8435 (Agriculture and Fishery Modernization Act in 1997) to modernize
the agriculture and fisheries sectors of the country in order to enhance their profitability
and prepare the said sectors for the challenges of globalization through an adequate,
focused, and rational delivery of necessary support services. Among others, the main
purpose of the Act are:
1. Poverty alleviation and social equity
2. Food security
3. Rational use of resources
4. Global competitiveness
5. Sustainable development
6. People empowerment
7. Protection from competition
- Passage of RA 8559 (The Philippine Agricultural Engineering Act of 1998) an act
regulating the practice of Agricultural Engineering in the Philippines which upgrade the
practice of Agricultural Engineering profession in the country and accelerate agricultural
modernization through adequate and well trained professional engineers.

At present:
- Reorientation of the R&D program started from very hardware-focused technology
development to a more information-driven, demand-responsive and system-based
technology. (Elepaño, 2007)

LEVEL OF MECHANIZATION

Land preparation which is comprised of plowing, harrowing and secondary harrowing

has been found to be mechanized in the intermediate to high levels using hand-tractors as the
primary equipment.

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 Crop establishment, crop care, and harvesting are all at low level. The introduction of
new equipment for direct seeding, transplanting, and harvesting has not progressed well despite
the efforts of various research institutions in the country.
Palay threshing is in the intermediate level with most of the farmers using mechanical
threshers. It is estimated that more than 80% of rice fields are now threshed by axial-flow
threshers which come in different sizes and forms depending on the locality
A great percentage of farmers do away with the drying of rice as they can directly sell
their harvest while wet and process only those which are for their household consumption.
Sundrying on concrete pavements is prevalent in the farm level.
The level of mechanization of transport systems depends on the road network and road
conditions. Manual and animal means of transport is common when the field is inaccessible to
other means of transportation such as hand-tractor drawn trailers or trucks.
Rice milling is highly mechanized in the country as the old “kiskisan” units have mostly
been replaced by modern rubber rolls and other more efficient systems. Portable custom mills
mounted on land vehicles and hand carried or hand-tractor-mounted micromills are reportedly
available in few remote areas through the promotion work of various institutions.

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Table 1. Present areas of mechanization by operation on rice in the Philippines, 1999.
Source: Bautista, 2003
Operation Equipment locally adopted Level of R&D/equipment adoption
Power tiller + attachments Highly adopted in favourable areas, for
custom hiring in irrigated areas
Land Preparation Four-wheel tractor + For custom hiring service near sugar estates.
rotavator Reconditioned mini-tractors becoming
popular in Luzon for custom land preparation.
Transplanting None (done manually) IRRI manual transplanters introduced are not
widely accepted.
Direct Seeding None (mostly by hand Slow but continuing adoption of drum seeder.
broadcast)
Lever-operated knapsack Highly adopted (imported from China,
sprayer Taiwan, and other countries)
Crop Protection
Manual rotary weeder Adopted in Laguna, Cotabato, and Nueva
Viscaya)
Harvesting None (still done mostly by IRRI reaper introduced but not popular;
sickle) PhilRice reaper released for commercial
manufacture. Imported reaper-windrower
highly adopted in Bataan, nearby provinces.
Stripper gatherer newly introduced in Isabela
and Central Luzon.
Threshing Axial-flow design IRRI thresher design highly adopted in
irrigated areas and rainfed areas with many
models and sizes.
Pedal thresher Widely adopted in Northern Luzon, Bohol,
Other small islands in Visayas
Drying None (mostly sun drying Flat-bed/continuous flow, other imported
on concrete pavements) designs adopted by big rice millers/traders.
PhilRice flatbed dryer slowly being adopted
with some 150 units installed since 1994.
Flash Dryer, in-bin drying systems (high
capacity) introduced by BPRE through DA
programs.
Milling Rubber roll/cono/steel Highly mechanized except in upland remote
hullers area but low quality of output from locally
manufactured mills
Centrifugal pumps Highly adopted in Ilocos, Central Luzon, and
few rainfed areas.
Irrigation
Axial-flow pumps Less adoption in rice farms; more adoption by
fish pond operators.
Transport Power tiller + trailer Highly adopted in irrigated/rainfed areas.

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The study conducted by Gavino, et al. (2006) gave the same level of rice mechanization of
various farm operations in Regions I, II, and III.
Mechanical power is used in 95% of all land preparation activities
Crop establishment is 100% manual – 0.3% makes use of the drum seeder.
Crop care is 100% manual – use of manual sprayer in pest control
Irrigation is largely by gravity system (85.5%),
Harvesting operation is 92.55% manual
Threshing operation is 93.9% by mechanical thresher
Transport is 35% manual, 40.55% animal power and 23.35% machines (carts, jeeps, and
trucks)
Drying is 96.7% by solar energy
Milling is 100% by machine

Overall mechanization of corn is low and concentrated in land preparation, shelling and transport
operation.
Plowing and harrowing are done with mechanical source of power but furrowing is mostly done
with animal-drawn furrowers. Farmers prefer animal-drawn furrowers because they can make
straighter and better aligned furrows than with 2-wheel or 4-wheel tractors.
Seeding operation is done using bare hands and/or hand tools to seed the furrow.
Crop care which includes weeding, fertilizer and chemical are mostly done manually. Animal-
drawn plows are utilized in weeding and hilling-up operation.
Harvesting operation is done with the aid of hand tools such as sickle.
Shelling operation is accomplished using corn shellers and threshers/shellers with small engines.
Some farmers also use hand-operated corn shellers.
Sundrying is still the most widely used for drying corn.
Transport and operation for corn varieties with farm locations and traditional practices of
farmers. Animal-drawn transport systems are used if the farm is inaccessible but motorcycles,
jeepneys and trucks are used to transport corn if road network and conditions would allow.

VEGETABLES
Overall mechanization level of vegetable farming is low. Except for land preparation, irrigation
and transport, all other major operations are manually done by farmers with the use of hand tools
and animal-drawn implements.
In certain limited areas, washing, sorting and packing operations are somewhat mechanized but
in the overall, the use of machines is very minimal.

COCONUT
Mechanization in the production of coconut is nil. Traditional tools and systems for farm
operations have not changed for years.
No advancement in the post production operations particularly in the farm level.
“Tapahan” system is still the most prevalent copra making procedure while “lambanog”
production has almost disappeared in the Southern Luzon areas.

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It is observed that there is a decline instead growth of village-level processing systems along
with the decline of the coconut industry itself. Whole coconut fruits are now directly sold to
middlemen for transport to large processing centers instead of being processed in the farm.
Recently decorticating machines for coir were developed for coconut (geotextiles) production.
Machinery systems for production of oil (including VCO) are available only for the large scale
processors.

ABACA
The Philippines monopolizes the abaca products in the world market.
Abaca extraction is 80% manual, with only 1 % of the fiber being recovered.
Portable decorticating machines for extraction could increase up to 3%.
A fiber twining machine has yet to be used for farm level or industry level application.
The superior tensile and folding strength and high porosity of abaca makes it especially suitable
for currency paper, furniture, home décor, textiles, cosmetics, cigarette papers, surgical masks,
even sausage casings, tea bags, coffee filters and others.

FRUITS
Low level of mechanization in the production of fruits.
Although there are imported and locally manufactured processing equipment, they are generally
found in large scale plants.
Machines for small scale and/or village level processing of fruits like canning, bottling,
preservation, repacking, and many others have yet to be developed or adopted.
Machines for the diversification of products and by-products are not currently in use. For
example, while pineapple is grown extensively in the country mainly for its fruits, its leaves are
discarded as farm wastes. No machine or system is in use with which to extract the fibers as raw
materials for textile and papers.

ROOTCROPS
The level of mechanization for the production of rootcrops is generally low like vegetable
production.
Machines for processing are available but they have very limited application because farmers
choose to sell their products in raw forms after harvest particularly in the rural areas.

SUGARCANE
Highly mechanized systems are available particularly for the land preparation stage of sugarcane
along with two fruit crops, banana, and pineapple, where imported equipment and machines are
widely used by large commercial growers.

LIVESTOCK
For livestock and poultry, manual labor with or without the aid of tools or specialized equipment
is still used extensively throughout the whole range of production operations.
Machines are rarely used in animal production except for pumping water and feed milling. Only
large scale farms are using high mechanization technology in their operations.

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MACHINE PERFORMANCE:

𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑓𝑓
1. 𝐶 = 10
Where: C, field capacity in ha/h
S, speed in kph
W, width of cut in meter
Eff, efficiency in decimal
1
2. 𝑇 = 𝐶

Where: T, time in hr/ha

3. Distance travelled in one hectare:

𝑊𝐷
𝐴 =
𝑇𝐷

Where: A, area in ha
W, width of cut in meter
D, distance travelled in km

4. Horsepower requirement:
𝐷𝑎 𝑥 𝑆 𝐷𝑎 𝑥 𝑆
𝐻𝑝 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑜𝑟
274 375

Where: S, speed in kph or mph

Da, draft in kg or lbs
Constant values, 274 or 375

𝐻𝑝 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝐻𝑝 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
0.8

RATE OF MACHINE PERFORMANCE:

1. Tillage equipment

C = field capacity, in ha/hr

2. Harvesting equipment
- Low area per hour capacity
- High mass per hour capacity with identical machine
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐶 =
ℎ
20
 Where: mass, in kg or quintals or tons

3. Grain quantities are measured thru volume:

a. BUSHELS
o Volume of produce weighing a designated number of pounds depending on the
crop and moisture content
o Combine threshers, shellers, mills, and similar machines that separate desired
materials from undesirable materials
o Measured as total materials handled (Input)
b. THROUGHPUT
o Time rate of processing total mass of materials through the machine
o i.e throughput thresher:
 total mass of grain, chaff, straw, and weeds that enter the thresher.
c. FIELD CAPACITY
o Ratio of the time a machine is effectively operating in the field to the total time
the machine is committed to the operation
o If not actually tilling the soil, then considered as time waste
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
𝐶 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇

T = t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 +t5

Where: t1, machine operation at optimum forward speed and

performing its full width of action
t2, turning time
t3, time to load and unload (if not on-the-go)
t4, time for adjustments – levelling, tightening of
sprockets, etc – (if not on-the-go)
t5, time for refuelling
note: not included in field efficiency computation:
- Time to prepare the machine to do field work (bolts, and belts tightening, lubrication,
fuelling, and etc.)
- Time to transport machine from shed to work area
- Time to make repairs after machine breaks down in the field.

𝑡1 𝑡1
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑋 100% =
𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + 𝑡3 + 𝑡4 + 𝑡5 𝑇

MATERIAL CAPACITY, M

- The reduction in the value of a material after being handled by a machine compared to
the value it would have with no material loss.

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 𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑓𝑓 𝑌
𝑀=
10
Where: M, material capacity in mass/h
Y, yield per hectare, tons/ha

AGRICULTURAL MACHINE PERFORMANCE IS MEASURED

In terms of:

1. Rate of machine
2. Quality of which the operation are accomplished

SELECTION OF FARM MACHINERY:

- Particular type of machine has several models and manufactured by different

manufacturers.

POINTERS IN SELECTING A MACHINE:

1. Trademark
2. Source of repairs
3. Design
4. Ease of operation
5. Ease of maintenance
6. Safety
7. Other factors
a. Power requirement
b. Cost of operation
c. Initial cost, years of service expected
d. Machine is economical in relation to the size of farm and work to be performed.

OPTIMUM CAPACITY OF FARM MACHINES:

- The economic objective in the selection of power and machines is to secure maximum
profit
- Optimum capacity is the capacity which gives the greatest profit over a period of years of
operation
- There are numerous problems of farmer in the acquisition and use of machines and is
usually complicated with the time available for performing field operations which is
affected by weather conditions

Factors in determining the optimum capacity of a machine are:

1. Weather factors - days dry enough to work are influenced by

a. number of days

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 b. amount of rainfall
c. temperature
d. sunshine
e. relative humidity
f. topography
g. soil type
h. soil structure
i. drainage
2. machine size factors – rate of work, as influenced by
a. amount of power
b. size of machine
c. draft requirement of soil
d. crop condition at harvest
e. smoothness of fields
3. intervening activities – time available for actual field operation as affected by
a. time travel to field
b. repair and maintenance time for machine
c. time required for livestock and other chores
d. time required for emergencies such as broken fences
e. possibility of securing extra labor for night operations
4. price factors – profit margins are affected by
a. ratio of labor and machine cost
b. price differential for quality
c. price rises due to short crops resulting from bad weather conditions

The lowest cost for power and machine will be secured with the smallest capacity that will get
the job done on time.

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 PAES:

1. PAES 109:2000 Agricultural Machinery – Walking-type Agricultural

Tractor – Specifications. Part 1: Pull type

2. PAES 118:2001 Agricultural Machinery – Four-wheel Tractor –

Specifications

Rerences:

UPLB-BAR
PCCARD, Agricultural Mechanization in the Philippines
Agricultural Mechanization Development Program (AMDP), 1997
Bainer, R. et. al. 1972. Principles of Farm Machinery. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New
York.
Barger, E.L. et. al. 1963. Tractors and Their Power Units. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
New York.
Esmay, M. and C. Hall. 1973. Agricultural Mechanization in Developing Countries.
Shin-Norinsha Co., Ltd. Japan.
Japan International Cooperation Agency. 1998. Farm Mechanization Planning
(Mechanization Management). Vols. 1-3. Tsukuba International Center.
Ibaraki-ken, Japan.
Hunt, Donnell. 1973. Farm Power & Machinery Management. Laboratory Manual
and Workbook. 7th Ed. Iowa State University Press. Ames, Iowa.
Resurreccion, A.N. 2006. AENG 62 Agricultural Machinery Lecture Notes. UPLB-
CEAT Library
Amongo, R.M.C. AENG162 Agricultural Mechanization Lecture Notes. UPLB-
AMD.
Yadao, G.S. 1992. AE 56 Farm Machinery and Management Lecture Notes. CMU-
COE-AE Dept.
AMTEC. Philippine Agricutltural Engineering Standards 2nd Edition (PAES 2nd ed.)
AMTEC. Catalogue of AMTEC-tested. Agricultural Machines for Prime Movers and
Hand Tractors. 2004.

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