Zoran Radmilović, Dragan Čišić (eds.) - Shaping Climate Friendly Transport in Europe_ Key Findings & Future Directions, REACT 2011, Proceedings-University of Belgrade – The Faculty of Transport and Tr

University of Belgrade
Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering
SHAPING CLIMATE FRIENDLY

TRANSPORT IN EUROPE: KEY FINDINGS
& FUTURE DIRECTIONS
REACT 2011
PROCEEDINGS
Editors:
Prof. Dr. Zoran Radmilović
Prof. Dr. Dragan Čišić
Belgrade, Serbia
2011.
Editors: Prof. Dr. Zoran Radmilović, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Prof. Dr. Dragan Čišić, University of Rijeka, Croatia
SHAPING CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORT IN EUROPE: KEY FINDINGS &
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
First edition
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONSORTIUM PAPERS
P-1. Bresciani C. (Milano, Italy), Colorni A. (Milano, Italy), Lia F. (Milano, Italy), Lué A. 1
(Milano, Italy), Whitmarsh L. (Cardiff, UK), Xenias D. (Cardiff, UK), Anoyrkati E.
(Coventry, UK), Radmilović Z. (Belgrade, Serbia), Maraš V. (Belgrade, Serbia)
A STRATEGIC RESEARCH AGENDA FOR FUTURE RESEARCH PRIORITIES IN
CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORT
P-2. Gruber R. (Wuppertal, Germany), Koska T. (Wuppertal, Germany) 11
ASSESSMENT OF CARBON REDUCTIONS FROM
TRANSPORT MEASURES
P-3. Whitmarsh L. (Cardiff, UK), Xenias D. (Cardiff, UK), Čišić D. (Rijeka, Croatia), Perić 17
Hadţić A. (Rijeka, Croatia), Tijan E. (Rijeka, Croatia), Radmilović Z. (Belgrade, Serbia),
Maraš V. (Belgrade, Serbia), Spirić Z. (Zagreb, Croatia), Anoyrkati E. (Coventry, UK),
Smagas K. (Nicosia, Cyprus), Stylianidis E. (Nicosia, Cyprus)
LOW-CARBON TRANSPORT RESEARCH IN EUROPE
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS
SESSION A
FUTURE RESEARCH PRIORITIES IN CLIMATE FRIENDLY
TRANSPORT
A-1. Alli G. (Milano, Italy), Savaresi S. (Milano, Italy) 27
ELECTRIC VEHICLES INTEGRATION IN MULTI-BUSINESS
VEHICLE SHARING MODEL: THE “KEY-LESS” MOBILITY
A-2. Belošević I. (Belgrade, Serbia), Kosijer M. (Belgrade, Serbia), Ivić M. (Belgrade, Serbia), 35
Vesković S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Pavlović N. (Belgrade, Serbia), Milinković S. (Belgrade,
Serbia)
RAILWAY TRANSPORT DIRECTED TO CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORT
A-3. Belošević I. (Belgrade, Serbia), Milinković S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Ivić M. (Belgrade, Serbia), 39
Vesković S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Marković M. (Belgrade, Serbia), Pavlović N. (Belgrade,
Serbia)
PARTICIPATION OF RAILWAYS IN CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORT THROUGH
INTERMODALITY
A-4. Bojković N. (Belgrade, Serbia), Pejčić-Tarle S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Macura D.( Belgrade, 45
Serbia), Bojović N. (Belgrade, Serbia)
THE ROLE OF MOBILITY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN GHG EMISSIONS
REDUCTION: LIBRARY – BASED APPROACH FOR IMPACTS EVALUATION
A-5. Dorčić M. (Rijeka, Croatia), Ratković I. (Rijeka, Croatia), Šćulac D (Rijeka, Croatia) 51
(NON)CONVENTIONAL HYBRID SYSTEMS
A-6. Goodyer E. (Leicester, UK), Ahmadi S. (Leicester, UK), Chiclana F. (Leicester, UK), 55
Elizondo D. (Leicester, UK), Gongora M. (Leicester, UK), Passow B. (Leicester, UK), Yang
Y. (Leicester, UK)
COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE, AND ITS ROLE IN ENHANCING SUSTAINABLE
TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
A-7. Kamburow C. (Berlin, Germany), Nolte R. (Berlin, Germany) 60
RAILWAYS AS A CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORT MODE FACING THE
CONSEQUENCES OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND ADAPTING TO THEM
A-8. Klomp – de Boer R. (Marknesse, Netherlands) 69
AUTOMATED PREFORM FABRICATION BY DRY TOW PLACEMENT
III
A-9. Köhler J. (Karlsruhe, Germany), Vieira J. (Lisbon, Portugal), Frencia C. (Porto, Portugal), 81
Szendro G. (Budapest, Hungary), Carvalho D. (Lisbon, Portugal)
MARKET UPTAKE OF TRANSPORT RESEARCH
A-10. Lee S. (Cardiff, UK), Senior M. (Cardiff, UK) 90
DOES NEW RAIL SERVICE DISCOURAGE CAR USE?
A-11. Lufčić M. (Rijeka, Croatia), Maras M. (Rijeka, Croatia), Vukelić M. (Rijeka, Croatia) 104
ENERGY SAVING DESIGN AND MATERIALS IN ROAD TRANSPORT
A-12. Martínez de Osés X.(Barcelona, Spain), Gil Aizpuru J. (Barcelona, Spain) 110
IS THE UTILIZATION OF METHANE GAS, THE SOLUTION OF AIR POLLUTION IN
DIFUSE SECTORS?. THE CASE OF PORT OF CASTELLÓN
A-13. Neumann H. (Vaduz, Liechtenstein), Droege P. (Vaduz, Liechtenstein), Genske D. (Vaduz, 115
Liechtenstein)
TRANSPORT ASPECTS OF LOCAL AND REGIONAL ENERGY AUTONOMY
A-14. Popović D. (Belgrade, Serbia), Vidović M. (Belgrade, Serbia), Ivković M. (Belgrade, Serbia) 120
ASSIGNMENT OF SERVICE ZONES TO CAPACITATED VEHICLES WITH TIME
CONSTRAINTS
A-15. Radivojević G. (Belgrade, Serbia), Popović D. (Belgrade, Serbia), Lazić B. (Belgrade, 127
Serbia)
APPLICATION EFFECTS OF GPS TECHNOLOGY IN FLEET MANAGEMENT OF STATE
OWNED ENTERPRISES
A-16. Radmilović Z. (Belgrade, Serbia), Zobenica R. (Belgrade, Serbia), Maraš V. (Belgrade, 133
Serbia)
CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORT: TYPOLOGY OF TRANSPORT IMPACTS ON
CLIMATE CHANGE – MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION
A-17. Studer L. (Milano, Italy), Marchionni G. (Milano, Italy), Caprile E. (Milano, Italy), 144
Bankosegger D. (Vienna, Austria), Kulmala R. (Finland), Böhm M. (Vienna, Austria),
Schwillinsky S. (Vienna, Austria)
2DECIDE: DESIGN OF A TOOL TO SUPPORT DECISION MAKING IN INTELLIGENT
TRANSPORT SYSTEM DEPLOYMENT
A-18. Šelmić M. (Belgrade, Serbia), Macura D.( Belgrade, Serbia), Teodorović D. (Belgrade, 154
Serbia)
SOLVING THE RIDE MATCHING PROBLEM: CLUSTERING APPROACH
A-19. Tiboni M. (Brescia, Italy), Rossetti S. (Brescia, Italy) 161
THE ROLE OF URBAN PLANNING INTO A LONG-TERM CLIMATE FRIENDLY
TRANSPORT VISION
A-20. Varelas T. (Greece), Archontaki S. (Greece) 168
INTELLIGENCE VOYAGE PLANNING FOR EMISSION LOWERING
A-21. Vasov Lj. (Belgrade, Serbia), Gvozdenović S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Mirosavljević P.( Belgrade, 172
Serbia), Čokorilo O.( Belgrade, Serbia), Stojiljković B. (Belgrade, Serbia)
THE ROLE OF AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE IN EMISSION REDUCTION
A-22. Zrnić N.( Belgrade, Serbia), Vujičić A. (Belgrade, Serbia) 180
REDUCTION OF RTG CRANES CO2 EMISSION BY USING HYBRID TECHNOLOGY
SESSION B
POLICY INTERVENTIONS IN CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORT
B-1. Bruglieri M. (Milano, Italy), Davidovic T. (Belgrade, Serbia), Roksandic S (Belgrade, 191
Serbia)
OPTIMIZATION OF TRIPS TO THE UNIVERSITY: A NEW ALGORITHM FOR A
CARPOOLING SERVICE BASED ON THE VARIABLE NEIGHBORHOOD SEARCH
B-2. Ciccarelli D. (Milano, Italy), Colorni A. (Milano, Italy), Lué A. (Milano, Italy), Nocerino R. 200
(Milano, Italy), Paruscio V. (Milano, Italy)
GREEN MOVE: SETTING UP OF A PROCEDURE TO DESIGN AND EVALUATE A ZEV
SHARING SYSTEM FOR THE CITY OF MILAN
B-3. Djukić A. (Belgrade, Serbia), Vukmirovic M (Belgrade, Serbia) 206
FUTURE CHALLENGES IN MOTIVATING PEOPLE TO CHOOSE WALKING AS A
CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORTATION MODE
IV
B-4. Hall S. (Hull, UK) 216
TRANSPORT AND LOW-CARBON GOVERNANCE: A CITYREGIONAL PERSPECTIVE.
B-5. Lučić J. (Belgrade, Serbia), Zrnić N.( Belgrade, Serbia) 232
IMPLICATIONS OF EU DIRECTIVES FOR EXHAUST EMISSION IN THE SERBIAN
MARKET
B-6. Mazur K. (Poland) 238
STAKEHOLDERS ENGAGEMENT IN MUNICIPAL TRANSPORTATION PROGRAMS
B-7. Petrović-Vujačić J. (Belgrade, Serbia), Kaplanović S. (Belgrade, Serbia) 248
ENVIRONMENTAL TAXES AS POLICY INSTRUMENTS FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN
TRANSPORT – RESULTS AND DILEMMAS
B-8. Radonjic A. (Belgrade, Serbia), Pjevcevic D. (Belgrade, Serbia) 254
POLLUTION REDUCTION STRATEGY FOR SERBIAN PUSHBOATS
B-9. Raičević V. (Belgrade, Serbia), Vesković S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Marković M. (Belgrade, 262
Serbia), Pavlović N. (Belgrade, Serbia), Aćimović S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Stojić G. (Novi Sad,
Serbia)
MODEL FOR SELECTION OF THE RAILWAY AGENECY ORGANIZATION WITH
EMPHASIS ON EU STANDARDS FOR RAILWAY SECTOR IN SERBIA
B-10. Roksandic S (Belgrade, Serbia), Urošević D. (Belgrade, Serbia), Mladenović N. (Belgrade, 270
Serbia), Davidovic T. (Belgrade, Serbia), Carrizosa E. (Seville, Spain)
HUFF LOCATION MODEL OF THE BICYCLE PARKING SERVICES
B-11. Sedmak A. (Belgrade, Serbia), Ninković D. (Belgrade, Serbia), Stankovic I. (Belgrade, 276
Serbia)
ENTERPRISE EUROPE NETWORK: SUPPORT OF R&D AND INNOVATION IN
TRANSPORT SECTOR
B-12. Tepić J. (Novi Sad, Serbia), Sremac S. (Novi Sad, Serbia), Aleksić D. (Belgrade, Serbia), 282
Tanackov I. (Novi Sad, Serbia), Stojić G. (Novi Sad, Serbia)
MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY “A” FOR REDUCING CARBON DIOXIDE
EMISSION
B-13. Trifunović J. (Belgrade, Serbia), Momčilović V. (Belgrade, Serbia), Manojlović A. 289
(Belgrade, Serbia), Redţić N. (Belgrade, Serbia)
ESTIMATION OF POLLUTANTS EMISSIONS FROM ROAD TRANSPORT IN THE
REPUBLIC OF SERBIA USING COPERT IV, PERIOD 1990 – 2009
B-14. Usabiaga Santamaría J. (Barcelona, Spain), Castells i Sanabra M. (Barcelona, Spain), 296
Martínez de Osés X.(Barcelona, Spain)
PORT-CITY CLOSENESS AND TURNAROUND TIME CRITICAL FOR SHORT SEA
SHIPPING SUSTAINABLE PERFORMANCE
B-15. Ţuškin S. (Rijeka, Croatia), Valčić M. (Rijeka, Croatia), Rudan I. (Rijeka, Croatia) 304
ECDIS SYSTEM IN FUNCTION OF SEA ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION
SESSION C
EVALUATING POLICIES AND MEASURES IN CLIMATE FRIENDLY
TRANSPORT
C-1. Andrejić M. (Belgrade, Serbia), Ratković B. (Belgrade, Serbia), Kilibarda M. (Belgrade, 313
Serbia), Bjelić N. (Belgrade, Serbia)
MEASURING ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF REFRIGERATED WAREHOUSES
C-2. Bakalar G. (Rijeka, Croatia), Tomas V. (Rijeka, Croatia), Bukša A. (Rijeka, Croatia) 319
MONITORING OF CHEMICAL POLLUTION FROM THE SHIPS IN COASTAL AREAS
C-3. Barić M. (Rijeka, Croatia), Smokrović M. (Rijeka, Croatia), Butorac D. (Rijeka, Croatia) 325
METHODS FOR WASTE DISPOSAL ON COMMERCIAL SHIPS
C-4. Costaki J. (Athens, Greece) 332
CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORT BY USING SYNCHRONIZED MULTIMODAL
TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
C-5. Čičević S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Čubranić-Dobrodolac M. (Belgrade, Serbia) 337
EXPLORING THE YOUTH ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES AND INTENTIONS TO
TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR CHANGE
V
C-6. Čišić D. (Rijeka, Croatia), Perić Hadţić A. (Rijeka, Croatia), Tijan E. (Rijeka, Croatia), 346
Ogrizović D. (Rijeka, Croatia), Smagas K. (Nicosia, Cyprus), Stylianidis E. (Nicosia,
Cyprus)
METHODS OF DEFINING AND EVALUATING FUTURE RESEARCH PRIORITIES IN
CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORT: PRELIMINARY RESULTS FROM THE REACT OPEN
CONSULTATION
C-7. Dapčić I. (Rijeka, Croatia), Brusić P. (Rijeka, Croatia) 350
CO2 REDUCTION METHODS FROM VEHICLES
C-8. Đorić V. (Belgrade, Serbia), Ivanović I. (Belgrade, Serbia), Grujičić D. (Belgrade, Serbia) 355
DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT RAIL SYSTEM IN BELGRADE – MODELING APPROACH TO
SCENARIO ANALYSIS
C-9. Gavanas N. (Thessaloniki, Greece), Politis I. (Thessaloniki, Greece), Dovas K. (Thessaloniki, 362
Greece), Lianakis E. (Thessaloniki, Greece)
IS A NEW METRO LINE A MEAN FOR SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY AMONG
COMMUTERS?
C-10. Gojkovic Bukvic N. (Bari, Italy) 369
ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY TRANSPORT SOLUTION- TRANSADRIATIC BALKAN
TRANSPORT CORRIDOR
C-11. Ljevaja D. (Serbia) 373
IMPACT OF EMISSIONS OF MARINE DIESEL ENGINES TO AIR POLLUTION ON THE
EXAMPLE OF THE YUGOSLAV RIVER SHIPPING
C-12. Mirosavljević P.( Belgrade, Serbia), Gvozdenović S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Čokorilo O.( 379
Belgrade, Serbia), Vasov Lj. (Belgrade, Serbia)
THE TURBOFAN TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT POLLUTION
CALCULATION SOFTWARE
C-13. Mitrović S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Aćimović S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Pavlović N. (Belgrade, 397
Serbia), Janković S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Milinković S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Kosijer M.
(Belgrade, Serbia)
IMPROVEMENT OF EMPLOYEES EDUCATION IN SERBIAN RAILWAYS
C-14. Mitsakis E. (Thessaloniki, Greece), Papanikolaou A. (Thessaloniki, Greece), Salanova J. 403
(Thessaloniki, Greece), Georgia A. (Thessaloniki, Greece), Margaritis D. (Thessaloniki,
Greece)
A COMPUTATIONAL METHOD FOR ASSESSING THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE-CHANGE
RELATED WEATHER EVENTS ON TRANSPORT NETWORKS
C-15. Ratković B. (Belgrade, Serbia), Bjelić N. (Belgrade, Serbia), Vidović M. (Belgrade, Serbia), 411
Andrejić M. (Belgrade, Serbia)
MANAGING REVERSE LOGISTICS SYSTEMS AS AN ELEMENT OF SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
C-16. Schipper M. (Berlin, Germany) 417
SUPPORTING REGIONAL RAIL DECISION MAKERS TO AWARD GREEN: THE
ECORAILS PROJECT [1]
C-17. Stojić G. (Novi Sad, Serbia), Tepić J. (Novi Sad, Serbia), Tanackov I. (Novi Sad, Serbia), 421
Sremac S. (Novi Sad, Serbia), Tešić D. (Novi Sad, Serbia)
INTERMODAL TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION ON THE BELGRADE-BAR RAILWAY
LINE
C-18. Stojić G. (Novi Sad, Serbia), Tanackov I. (Novi Sad, Serbia), Tepić J. (Novi Sad, Serbia), 429
Sremac S. (Novi Sad, Serbia), Stanić M. (Novi Sad, Serbia)
TECHNOLOGICAL AND CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION OF THE NOVI SAD
MARSHALLING STATION
C-19. Tomić-Petrović N. (Belgrade, Serbia) 436
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS FOR BETTER
TRANSPORT
C-20. Vesković S. (Belgrade, Serbia), Marković M. (Belgrade, Serbia), Belošević I. (Belgrade, 440
Serbia), Ivić M. (Belgrade, Serbia), Kosijer M. (Belgrade, Serbia), Milinković S. (Belgrade,
Serbia)
A VIEW ON THE LIBERALIZATION OF RAILWAY PASSANGER TRANSPORT
C-21. Woodcock A. (Coventry, UK) 448
LESSONS FROM A SURVEY OF AN ELECTRIC PARK AND RIDE BUS ABOUT
STTITUDES TO SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT
VI
ABSTRACTS
SESSION A
FUTURE RESEARCH PRIORITIES IN CLIMATE FRIENDLY
TRANSPORT
Abs-1. Cerne F. (Slovenia) 459
SEETRANS 2011: MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND ITS POTENTIAL RELEVANCE TOWARDS
A CLIMATE-FRIENDLY TRANSPORT AND MOBILITY
Abs-2. Ristic L. (Serbia), Rapec A. (Serbia) 460

IMPACT OF TRANSPORT ON CLIMATE AND OTHER ELEMENTS OF BELGRADE AREA
ENVIRONMENT
SESSION B
POLICY INTERVENTIONS IN CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORT
Abs-3. Chao K-M. (Coventry, UK),Li W. (Coventry, UK) 463
GREEN URBAN TRANSPORT FOR SHOPPING (GUTS)
Abs-4. Misanovic S. (Belgrade, Serbia) 464

STRATEGY TO REDUCE CO2 EMISSIONS BY BUSES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN EU
Abs-5. Aničić M. (Belgrade, Serbia), Tomašević M. (Belgrade, Serbia), Frontasyeva M. (Russia), 465
Špirić Z. (Zagreb, Croatia)
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLY TRANSPORTATION: ACTIVE MOSS
BIOMONITORING OF TRACE ELEMENT ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION IN THE
BELGRADE URBAN AREA
Abs-6. Micharikopoulos D. (Arachni, Greece), Tavlaki E. (Arachni, Greece) 466

SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY: A CHIMERA OR A SOCIAL IMPERATIVE? SHOULD
POLICY-MAKING INTERVENE FOR THE REALIZATION OF SUSTAINABLE
MOBILITY?
Abs-7. Nadrljanski D. (Novi Sad, Serbia), Nadrljanski M. (Novi Sad, Serbia), Djula Lj. (Novi Sad, 467
Serbia)
THE MANAGEMENT OF PORT-TRANSHIPMENT PROCESSES
Abs-8. Bresciani C. (Milano, Italy), Lia F. (Milano, Italy), Pellegrino C. (Lombardia Region, Italy), 468
Zaggia R. (Finlombarda, Italy)
CREATION OF A MOBILITY MANAGER FOR MOUNTAIN AREAS: THE ACCESS
INTERREG PILOT PROJECT IN VALSASSINA (ITALY)
Abs-9. Zhang M. (Delft, The Netherlands), Drist M. (Delft, The Netherlands), Wiegmans B. (Delft, 469
The Netherlands)
IMPACT OF CO2 PRICING AND BIODIESEL ON CONTAINER TRANSPORT IN THE
NETHERLANDS
SESSION C
EVALUATING POLICIES AND MEASURES IN CLIMATE FRIENDLY
TRANSPORT
Abs-10.Whitmarsh L. (Cardiff, UK), Xenias D. (Cardiff, UK) 473
EXPERT AND PUBLIC ATTITUDES TO SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT OPTIONS
VII
Abs-11.Matt E. (UK) 474
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE EUROPEAN UNION ENVIRONMENTAL
GOVERNANCE: VOLUNTARY AGREEMENT TO REDUCE CARBON DIOXIDE
EMISSIONS FROM NEW CARS
Abs-12.Kokot V. (Embassy of Ukraine, Republic of Macedonia) 475

TOWARDS A CLIMATE-FRIENDLY URBAN TRANSPORT IN SKOPJE: PROBLEMS AND
PROSPECTS
Abs-13.Anoyrkati E. (Coventry, UK), Arampatzis E. (Coventry, UK), Papadopoulos F. (Coventry, 476

UK)
DEFINING FUTURE SUTAINABLE MOBILITY PATTERNS BASED ON SOCIAL
BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS
Abs-14.Piccoli G. (Italy) 477

MASTER PLAN OF THE NORTHERN ITALY WATERWAY SYSTEM: AN ALTERNATIVE
FOR A CLIMATE FRIENDLY TRANSPORT
Abs-15.Tijan E. (Rijeka, Croatia), Cisic D. (Rijeka, Croatia), Ogrizovic D. (Rijeka, Croatia) 478
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF NUCLEAR BASED SHIPS
VIII
Preface
Preface
Preface
This conference has been part of FP7 project REACT (“Supporting Research on Climate-friendly
Transport”) and the development that climate-friendly transport has undergone in the recent decades. As
known, the transport is one of the major contributors of greenhouse gases and is one of the few industrial
sectors where emissions are still growing.
The REACT Conference vision was to raise awareness and, in parallel, to actively contribute to the shaping
of a consensus among EC, Member States and Associated States RTD funding agencies and more effective
means of addressing climate-friendly transport challenges by fully exploring the resources available.
The Conference was held in the Belgrade Chamber of Commerce, 16-17th, May 2011. The organizers of this
Event under the theme “Shaping Climate Friendly Transport in Europe: Key Findings & Future Directions”
were the Consortium of the FP7 project REACT and the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and
Traffic Engineering, as the host and partner.
This book contains the short description of REACT project, reviewed abstracts and full papers under
conditions that the abstracts have been accepted.
All presentations were shown in three different and parallel sections or sub-themes:
(1) Future research priorities in climate friendly transport;
(2) Policy interventions in climate friendly transport;
(3) Evaluating policies and measures in climate friendly transport.
In addition, all projects funded under FP6 and FP7 calls were invited to participate in the REACT
Competition by submitting a paper describing the research and the results / findings. Synenergies and energy
and environment of FP6 and FP7 calls have been a goal. Based on the REACT online competition results,
three FP7 projects were selected as most significant projects in green transport on a European level. This
projects were presented and rewarded.
Young researches and students from Croatia had four interesting poster presentations during the Conference.
The Editors would like to acknowledge the collaboration of the members of the International Scientific
Committee for their help in reviewing the material published in this book, all the participants, especially
authors of papers and all organizations and persons that, with their support, have made possible the success
of this Conference.
Belgrade, June, 2011
Editors
Prof. Dr. Zoran Radmilović Prof. Dr. Dragan Čišić
University of Belgrade University of Rijeka
Faculty of Transport and Faculty of Maritime Studies,
Traffic Engineering, Serbia Croatia
REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport i

Preface
Preface by Project Officer

The future of our mobility passes through overcoming key challenges in order to achieve a cleaner, greener,
more efficient and integrated multi-modal European transport.
These challenges concern inter alia the scarcity of fuel and rising oil prices, increased competition in a
globalized economic context, and harmonizing infrastructure gaps in the enlarged EU.
To meet these challenges, European transport must use less energy, develop the use of cleaner energy and
exploit efficiently a multimodal, integrated and intelligent transport network.
DG Research is actively supporting the ambitious vision of the recent Commission's White Paper on
Transport by translating it into European Research priorities.
In order to meet these challenges, the European Transport imperatively needs innovation and research to
provide the solutions for more efficient and sustainable transport in the future.
The major goals fixed by the White Paper to be achieved by 2050 include phasing out conventionally-fuelled
cars in cities, 40% use of sustainable low carbon fuels in aviation, at least 40% cut in shipping emission, and
a 50% shift of medium distance intercity passenger and freight journeys from road to rail and waterborne
transport.
Transport Research priorities are directly linked to the goals of the White Paper. They include research to
help the introduction of electric vehicles on the market (European Green Cars Initiative), to improve urban
mobility and to support better intermodal transport, to improve certification and standardisation, and research
to contribute to more environmentally friendly transport. European research also aims to make transport safer
and to improve the economic competitiveness of the sector.
How to achieve these goals? First of all, by creating a single European Transport area – by eliminating the
technical and administrative barriers between modes and between national systems; second, by further
investment in innovation and infrastructures across the EU; and third, by opening up third country markets in
transport services and extending internal market rules through work in international organisations.
One of the key European Commission strategies to encourage high quality European research is to grow into
an Innovation Union, that should provide innovative and competitive solutions to challenges of our time, and
the innovative products and services should help to keep our economy competitive. European research is
especially focused on its added value to tackle the societal challenges, to boost European competitiveness
and growth through stimulating innovation, and to arrive at common priorities and strategies.
The network created by REACT perfectly fits the European Transport Research goals and objectives, and
will contribute to strengthening the Single European Transport Area by continuously raising awareness on
the importance and the necessity of sharing knowledge, innovation, good practices and results in the field of
climate-friendly transport, by fostering synergies, and by enhancing collaboration between different actors
on the market working together to mitigate the impact of green house gases.
Ioana Adamescu
Project Officer
European Commission
ii REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

Preface
Preface by Project Coordinator

EU transport policy has historically focused on liberalisation of markets and harmonisation of standards and
policy to pursue the aim of developing a single, integrated trans-European transport network. We all accept
that free mobility is essential to the functioning of European society, but we have come to realise that it does
not come without costs. In addition to the obvious need to invest in transport infrastructure, the potential
environmental and social costs of congestion, safety, pollution and negative impacts on the quality of life of
more movements have rightly risen up the agenda. In recent years, environmental and social sustainability
have been incorporated as main elements of transport policies alongside economic viability.
The challenges presented by balancing the competing objectives of a modern EU transport policy are
complex and diffuse, and cannot be tackled on a country-by-country or issue-by-issue basis. At the same
time we must not be lulled into thinking that the issues are the same in all countries or that the balance
between economic, social and environmental concerns is generic. However, the knowledge underpinning
decision making and policy development is common to all and needs disseminating and sharing. For
example, if we want to achieve a substantial reduction in CO 2 emissions, we should join forces to share
experience and research results. Progress is to be found within systematic multi-disciplinary research and
development and application of the concepts underlying sustainable development.
The REACT project aimed to support multi-stakeholder international collaboration in climate-friendly

transport research, enhance EC Member States’ research efforts and cooperate with Associated States and the
broader international community The REACT conference provided a knowledge repository platform where
more than 150 researchers exchanged views on the varied challenges and approaches in the climate friendly
transport arena. This book presents all the abstracts and papers submitted at the REACT Conference, it
illustrates very well the diversity of research and development which these exciting and important challenges
present. The papers presented vary from the technical and scientific dealing with localised issues to the
design of low carbon transport cities, from encouraging more cycle use to reducing pollution caused by ships
and from small scale technology trials to vast pan-European comparative projects. I hope you will find this
source of knowledge interesting and useful for your future research activities
Last but not least, a number of organisations supported the delivery of the Conference. On behalf of REACT
consortium, I would like to thank all participants for their valuable contribution to the research community.
In particular, I would like to thank our hosts and partners in Belgrade; the Faculty of Transport and Traffic
Engineering of the Belgrade University as well as the Belgrade Chamber of Commerce who offered their
premises.
Eleni Anoyrkati
REACT Coordinator
REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport iii

Consortium Papers
Scientific Papers from the REACT Consortium
A Strategic Research Agenda for future research

priorities in climate friendly transport:
agenda creation, consultation and results analysis
Chiara Bresciania, Alberto Colornib, Eleni Anoyrkati

Federico Liaa, Alessandro Luéa,b Coventry University Enterprises Ltd,
a
Poliedra - Politecnico di Milano Coventry, United Kingdom
b
INDACO - Politecnico di Milano e.anoyrkati@coventry.ac.uk
Milano, Italy Zoran Radmilović, Vladislav Maraš
lue@poliedra.polimi.it Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering
Lorraine Whitmarsh, Dimitrios Xenias University of Belgrade
School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Belgrade, Serbia
Cardiff, UK {z.radmilovic; v.maras}@sf.bg.ac.rs
BRASS & Tyndall Centre for Climate Change
Research
whitmarshle@cardiff.ac.uk
Abstract— Research funding and innovation allocated according to weighting criteria that have been
processes are key instruments to reduce greenhouse gas defined in numerous consultations with the experts. The
(GHG) emissions from transport. On the basis of identification of the most promising research areas is
scientific breakthroughs in recent years, the explosion in anticipated to give an indication to the European
knowledge on transport sector is set to deliver a Commission of the research topics recommended for
continuous stream of new applications. REACT is one of strategic financial support in the next decades.
the FP7 projects that contributes to the development of a
European-wide strategy on climate-friendly transport Keywords— transport, greenhouse gas (GHG),
research funding based on a review of research themes’ innovation processes, emission.
importance. A Strategic Research Agenda (SRA) was set
up, in order to define research priorities, develop future
roadmaps, and suggest targets that can be actually
achieved in the field of climate friendly transport. The
I. INTRODUCTION
SRA future vision is inspired by the EU strategic
objectives towards 2020, e.g. shares the same targets for THE contribution of the transport sector to the
carbon reduction. The SRA has been built taking into emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) has been
account the current EU research programs on transport gradually increasing in this century [1]. Among the
and mobility, analyzing the research agendas of selected possible responses to this tendency, the European
European Technologies Platforms, and considering the
points of view of different key stakeholders (market
Commission brought into play actions of
players, academics, policy makers, publics) through a coordination between national and European RTD
consultation process. The consultation process has been strategies and programs on climate-friendly
articulated into three phases, characterized by different transport. Research and development can help
consultation procedures: 1. Expert validation of structure develop both technological and behavioural
and initial; 2. Expert consultation, involving high profile solutions. For this reason, an analysis of the actual
experts and key–players in climate friendly transport; 3. research system and the contribution that various
Open consultation, a less detailed consultation but open research areas can grant to general reduction of GHG
to the wider public. REACT SRA considers all research emissions is needed.
areas in transportation that tackle the GHG emission
problem, considering not only research on technology Within this framework, the European
related aspects but also on policy, economy and social Commission co-financed REACT, a project that
issues. The methodology for data analysis synthesizes involves nine partners from Croatia, Germany,
results; it also considers and evaluates the level of Greece, Italy, Serbia and UK. One of the REACT
certainty bound to responses received. A set of project‟s main objectives is to articulate a long-term
evaluations provides a general picture of the research vision and a Strategic Research Agenda on climate-
priorities to be considered. Different ranks have been
friendly transport that will contribute to the
REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport 1

development of a European strategy on the issue. ERTRAC4 and ERRAC5. By consulting these SRAs
This paper describes the methodology and the it has been possible to find out the key elements and
preliminary results of the development of the structural features of a SRA. In general, SRAs are
Strategic Research Agenda. characterized by:
 A hierarchical structure: high level objectives,
mostly interpretable as challenges, derive from
II. WHAT IS A STRATEGIC RESEARCH AGENDA the Vision, further sub-objectives define high
level objectives and main research areas are the
contents to be developed in order to fulfill
A. Definition challenges and to achieve the Vision. The lowest
A Strategic Research Agenda (SRA) represents level is generally occupied by specific research
an identifiable, coherent forward looking and areas.
adaptable framework for research at the beginning of  Research areas include technologies needed for
the 21st Century. It suggests a clear signal and path their development and present ongoing studies,
to the stakeholders involved and indicates the projects and programmes.
direction to be taken and the speed of progress
needed to be made towards a climate-friendly vision.  Criteria for qualifying, categorizing and ordering
This vision has to categorize where to stand for the the research areas, generally depending on the
next 20 years, to find out ambitious targets that need challenges included in the Vision.
to be met and the related innovation challenges [2]. The REACT SRA structure is similar to
In other words, a Strategic Research Agenda is ERTRAC‟s SRA (Fig. 1): it can be broadly
expected to respond to the demand of supporting and considered as a base model. ERTRAC SRA is
addressing European competitiveness by focusing on tailored with an easy-to-understand structure; it is
research activities. For this reason, it can be divided into pillars and for each pillar the relative
considered as a strategic tool for the definition of research areas are defined in terms of level of
research priorities, developing future roadmaps and development, difficulty to achieve and benefit to
suggesting targets that can be actually achieved. society.
B. The Vision
Most of the existing SRAs share a common
feature: they are the result of a stakeholders
consultation process. The consultation, in most of
cases, is built around a strategic vision of the future
and stakeholders are asked to suggest what research
activities should take place in order to reach such a
vision. The REACT SRA is inspired by the EU
strategic vision [3][4], that points at a 20% reduction
of carbon emissions by 2020.
C. Preliminary research
Preliminary research has been conducted in order Figure 1. An extract from the SRA produced by
to have a complete picture of both the structure and ERTRAC [4]
the methodologies generally used for developing a
SRA. This research activity [5]-[9] firstly addressed The REACT SRA is structured around two main
the European Technologies Platforms (ETPs) pillars (“Engineering and Information Technology”
Strategic Research Agendas on transport. In and “Planning, Social and Economy”); each pillar
particular, the following ETPs 1 have been includes a set of sub-categories, named sectors.
considered: ACARE 2 , WATERBORNE 3 , Every sector includes different research approaches
and for each research approach some research areas
1
The ETPs are supranational organizations that developed are included. The lowest level is the specific research
after the Lisbon European Summit, in 2000, with the area, a subset of the main research areas. Fig. 2
involvement of stakeholders, to define medium- to long- shows the top-level structure of the REACT SRA
term research and technological development objectives down to Sector level.
and of laying down markers for achieving them in
different fields.
2 4
Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe European Road Transport Research Advisory Council
3 5
Waterborne TP, European Maritime Equipment Council European Rail Research Advisory Council
2 REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

The two pillars reflect an assumption: carbon aspects of the research areas and are generally
reduction is not only a matter of technological selected in relation to the Vision. Moreover, through
improvement but also the expected effect of the use of criteria, stakeholders can express their
behavioural change. The content of the Engineering evaluation and therefore concur on the elaboration of
and ICT pillar mostly correspond to those defined by strategic roadmaps. The criteria selected for the
the ETPs SRAs. This pillar is divided into sectors REACT SRA have to refer to the specific research
according to transport mode (Air, Rail, Road, Water) areas. They are the following:
and each sector has been further expanded with a
1. Research demand asks for an indication of the
supplementary desk analysis. [10]. The second pillar
(Planning, Social Sciences and Economics) has also present stage of research: basic research,
been set up by assembling different sources [11][12]. applied research or implementation. It
After a long internal consultation, this second pillar considers the year 2030 as the threshold for
was decided to include the following sectors: framing the development stages.
Planning and Systems, Social and Behavioral 2. GHG emissions considers the capability of the
Measures, and Industry and Economy. Thematics research area to reduce GHG emissions and the
like multimodal, non-motorized means of transport cost per reduced unit of GHG.
(cycling, walking), policy (e.g. planning and analysis 3. Feasibility asks whether the specific research
tools) and economy are included in this pillar. area can be developed even though
social/political/economic obstacles may stand
Strategic Research Agenda against it (e.g. is it hardly socially acceptable or
on climate-friendly transport politically inconvenient?).
4. Other effects are considered to evaluate
Engineering and Planning, Social
Information Sciences and Pillars whether the development of a specific research
Technology Economy
area may have negative or positive impacts on,
Aeronautics Planning and for example, job creation or social equity.
Systems
5. Overall priority asks for a general evaluation of
Social and the priority of a specific research area to
Behavioral
Rail
Measures achieve the Vision.
Industry and Sectors
Economy Criteria, within the REACT consultation process,
Road
allowed experts to share their view with the final
aim of establishing a priority rank of the research
areas. Concretely, experts were asked to give marks:
Water
 most of the criteria can be assessed by means of

Figure 2. The structure of REACT SRA. Only a numerical scale (from 1 to 5);
the first two levels (Pillars and Sectors) are  the other effects indicator shared the same
displayed.
numerical scale but was extended with negative
values;
Throughout the SRA structuring process, the
classification of the research areas used by EU for  the research demand criterion asked to indicate
the calls for proposals in the 7th Framework the period of time needed for basic research,
Programme [13] has been used as a validation tool; it applied research and implementation.
has assessed:
Uncertainty was also considered in experts‟
 whether the relations among research areas answers. In effect, uncertainty is information: it
(same level) and among upper and lower levels deals with the incapability, even for an expert, to
were correct; predict future impacts and development of such a
 whether the SRA actually included, in a research area whose scope, perhaps, is not very clear
reasonable way, all the research themes bound at present For example, a research area could have a
to climate-friendly transportation. This activity high impact on GHG emission reduction but a high
ran in background, for the duration of the level of uncertainty with regards to feasibility; this
development phase. kind of information warns policy makers (in our
case the EU) of the possible risks connected to
Another feature of the REACT SRA, deriving financing such research area.
from the ETPs‟ SRAs is the use of criteria and
indicators. They allow assessment of different

III. INVOLVING EXPERTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT  two facilitated break-out groups, organized
OF REACT SRA according to experts‟ expertise (i.e., social or
technical), for analyzing in depth the contents,
Since the beginning, the development process of hierarchy of research areas and proposed
the REACT SRA involved stakeholders, in the form evaluation criteria;
of both European experts in transportation and the  plenary sessions for openly debating and
wider public. The participation of the right mix of discussing outcomes of the break-out groups;
stakeholders was the main element of success of the
 (phone and face-to-face interviews were later
consultation session. The consultation began when a
consistent version of the REACT SRA had been conducted with transport NGOs and
drafted by the consortium. Experts‟ opinions on Aeronautics sector representatives who were
both the structure and the criteria of the SRA have under-represented during the workshop).
been mainly gathered in a three-step consultation
process . The first step of the whole consultation The major modification as regards the
asked experts for a Validation of the REACT SRA Engineering and ICT section concerned the
that meant the collection of their views on the Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) research
structure: division into pillars, completeness of area: since it was too fragmented, ITS specific
research areas and removing inconsistencies. The research areas were collected into a unique research
second step, named Expert consultation has been the area under the Planning, Social Sciences and
focused consultation activity, targeting at building a Economy pillar.
picture of the present state of research on climate As regards the “social” pillar, the overall
friendly transport. During the Expert Consultation structure, in experts‟ opinion, had to be wholly
phase a number of key experts expressed their revised. “Policies”, for example, was conceived as a
opinion either through their participation in separate sector whereas experts stated that policy
structured workshops or via email/phone. The actions had to be put inside the research areas they
stakeholders mainly came from industry and deal with.
academia while also we interviewed a few policy-
makers. Representatives of these groups included Some of the suggested criteria were deleted and
NISSAN, ERRA, MARTEC, ASD-Europe, FEHRL, new ones were selected. For example, in order to
JRC-EC, UITP. Within the REACT methodology measure economic feasibility of specific research
for the development of the SRA the Expert areas, a cost-efficiency criterion was chosen.
Consultation involved experts evaluating, for each As an outcome of the Rijeka workshop, a
specific research area of expertise, the impact validated version of the Agenda was produced. This
according to criteria. After that, a final version of version was considered appropriate for use in the
the SRA was produced. The last step consisted in subsequent Expert Consultation step.
opening the consultation to a wider public. More
than 200 responses were received during the Open B. Expert Consultation
Consultation. To ensure an adequate representation
of 'end users', we addressed a number of non-experts Since the Consultation, as it was conceived, had
or „lay experts' who expressed their view on future to deal with geographical dispersion and had to
research priorities mainly based on personal involve experts with a range of expertise in a
experiences. The spectrum of the experience of the complex evaluation, a specific methodology was
participants varies from transport PhD students to setup. The Delphi Method (DM) [14], properly
experienced research directors and end-users tailored, was adopted6. DM can be divided into two
phases. A research phase aimed to understand the
A. Validating the REACT SRA issue at stake and the people to involve into the
The REACT Rijeka Workshop, held on the 29th 6
The Delphi method (DM) is a systematic, interactive
of June in Rijeka (Croatia), had the aim of testing forecasting method which relies on a panel of experts.
the SRA. Specifically, experts in Rijeka were asked The DM, in fact, recognizes the value of opinions, of
to evaluate, according to their expertise, whether the experiences and forecasts led by experts and allows to
SRA was missing research areas or research areas make use of a limited or uncertain information in those
were misplaced and whether criteria were cases where there is lack of an agreed and full scientific
intelligible and reasonable, given the general knowledge and the issue at stake is complex. It states the
objectives previously explained. The methodology principle that forecasts, given a preset of shared
used for managing experts‟ comments and information and within a structured process, from a
modifications included:
determined group of experts can be more accurate than
those from unstructured groups or individuals.

process. An actuation phase, organized into rounds. Comments received related to the general
Every round follows the same action flow: structure of the questionnaire – specifically, to better
submitting questionnaires, analyzing and providing introduce the questions by explaining the approach,
results back to participants. The aim of using rounds highlighting that the focus is on research and not
is to iteratively explore areas of disagreement and measured effects in terms of carbon reduction.
converge on areas of agreement. Participants are Experts agreed on the overall results of the first
shown the results of the previous round so they round of consultation, even if some asked for
might revise their views and converge on a attributing more importance to spatial planning and
consensus view. eco-driving, while other experts gave lower to
medium priority to hybrid and fuel cell research.
The first round of the Expert Consultation
Feedback collected by the invited experts during the
involved about fifty experts from European policy-
workshop was evaluated and processed to help
making authorities in low-carbon transport, EC, MS
shape the structure and content of the second DM
and AS market players, experts in green transport
round. This second round took place from the end of
research and academics. Experts were asked to join
February to mid-March 2011 and utilized a shorter
the consultation via the internet and were provided
and simplified SRA questionnaire.
with a questionnaire (Fig. 4), shaped with a easy-to
navigate tree-structure solution. By clicking on a The next step involved data analysis of the
“leaf” of the tree (Fig. 5) the experts were allowed Expert Consultation data. The outcomes of a set of
to assess the values of the criteria for each specific preliminary results has been presented and discussed
research area. Experts could decide the specific in the REACT Milan Workshop, on 8th February
research areas to assess, according to their expertise. 2011. A sample of the experts who answered the
questionnaire attended the Workshop.
The outcomes of the first DM round were
presented and discussed with a sub-set of round 1
participants in a second REACT workshop, held in
Milan in February 2011. During the plenary session,
initial DM results were presented and invited
experts were then split into two thematic (social,
technical) break-out groups to discuss the results
and identify areas of the SRA to be prioritized for
the next DM round.
Figure 4. The web questionnaire page, available

by clicking on a “leaf” of the tree-structured
questionnaire presented in Fig. 3.
Experts in climate-friendly transport filled in

more than 650 questionnaires in two rounds of the
Expert Consultation. The following four questions
were used for ranking specific research areas:
1. Assess the potential contribution to reducing

GHG emissions (C1);
2. Assess the cost-efficiency in reduction of GHG
Figure 3. The tree–structure of the REACT SRA emissions (C2);
as it appears in the web questionnaire used for 3. Assess the specific research area‟s level of
the Expert Consultation.
impact (C3);

4. Assess the possibility for the current specific Basic results of the expert consultation process
research area to overcome social and/or political are given in tables III-V. As we can see from these
obstacles (e.g. hardly socially acceptable or tables, we have ranked all specific research areas in
politically inconvenient) to its development (C4). three ways: by sector (Road, Rail, Water and
The eigenvector method was used for calculating Aeronautic Transport, Planning and Systems, Social
and Behavioural measures and Industry and
criteria weights. During the Milan workshop,
economy) – RANK 1, by main research field
experts were asked to fill in relevant tables (given as (Engineering and Information Technology and
Table I) where they could express their opinions on Planning, Social Sciences and Economics) – RANK
preferences of one criterion relative to another. 2 and in total including all specific research areas –
RANK 3.
TABLE I. CRITERIA PREFERENCES TABLE TYPE STYLES
GHG Cost-
Assessment Feasibility
reduction efficiency
GHG
1 1
reduction
Cost-
1 1
efficiency
Assessment 1 1
Feasibility 1 1
After elaborating experts‟ opinions and answers, reducing GHG, Transport fuels, Energy storage,
we applied the criteria weights given in Table II. Vehicle technology, Infrastructure, Pricing and
taxation – while the second part, named Transport
Mode was divided into five fields depending on
TABLE II. CRITERIA WEIGHTS stakeholder expertise: Road transport, Road freight
transport, Rail and fixed track transport, waterborne
Criteria Weights transport and Air transport. Over 100 completed
C1 0.472 questionnaires were obtained through the Open
consultation. For more details on the procedure,
C2 0.301 please see [15].
C3 0.076
C4 0.151 IV. CONCLUSIONS
C. Open consultation procedure
Many approaches could be chosen for classifying
The Open consultation procedure was performed and collecting all the research areas connected with
through an on-line questionnaire, in an open web climate friendly transportation. Choices mainly
software. The Open consultation questionnaire was differ in the aspect to be highlighted. The choice of
structured around the SRA and Expert consultation REACT tended to elicit the difference between
procedure, identifying how research can contribute “technological” and “non–technological” research,
to low-carbon transport. Here, though, target as it was considered the best approach for shaping a
respondents were from the general public, as well as clear and whole picture of research areas.
the academic community, industry, policy-makers Furthermore, previous research has suggested there
and NGOs (i.e., the „wider transport public‟). The is an imbalance in the attention given to
questionnaire used was a simplified version of that technological versus social research in relation to
used in the expert consultation. The questionnaire transport research [16,17]. We have also ensured a
was divided into two parts: the first part contained range of expertise is involved in evaluating and
questions regarding several fields - Measures for developing an SRA for climate-friendly transport,
due to the different perspectives and preferences

evident amongst different groups [17,18]. [7] ERTRAC. (2010). Strategic Research Agenda 2010.
Available at:
http://www.ertrac.org/pictures/downloadmanager/1/1
/ERTRAC_SRA_2010.pdf
The hierarchical SRA classification follows a [8] ERTRAC. (2004). Vision 2020 and Challenges.
top-down approach, privileging clarity. This choice Available at:
cannot highlight relations among research areas http://www.ertrac.org/pictures/downloadmanager/1/6
/ertrac_vision2020_2004_10.pdf
belonging to the same level within the SRA [9] WATERBORNE TP (2005). Vision 2020: A Key
hierarchy, although many cross–cutting themes can Asset for Europe‟s Development and Future.
be found in the whole SRA. Available at: http://www.emec-marine-
equipment.org/docs/waterborne_vision_2020.pdf
[10] E. Cascetta. Transportation Systems Engineering:
Theory and Methods, Springer Netherlands, 2001.
[11] D. Banister. Unsustainable Transport: City Transport
REFERENCES in the New Century, Routledge, 2005.
[12] Institution for Highways and Transportation.
Transport in the Urban Environment, William
MacKay, 1997.
[1] T. Barker, I. Bashmakov, L. Bernstein et al, “Climate [13] European Commission, European Work Programme
Change 2007 Mitigation of Climate Change,” 2010 FP7 on Transports (including aeronautics).
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Available at: http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/wp-
Geneve, Switzerland, 2008. 2010_en.html
[2] European Expert Group (2011, January). Future [14] H.A. Linstone, M. Turoff, The Delphi Method:
Transport Fuels. Available: Techniques and Applications. Reading, Mass.:
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/index_en.htm Adison-Wesleydelp, 1975.
[3] European Commission (2001, September) WHITE [15] D. Cisic, A. Peric Hadzic, E. Tijan, D. Ogrizovic
PAPER European transport policy for 2010: time to (2011). REACT Open Consultation - preliminary
decide. Available: results. Proceedings of the REACT International
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/strategies/doc/2001_whi Conference on Climate Friendly Transport, Belgrade,
te_paper/lb_com_2001_0370_en.pdf Serbia, May 16-17.
[4] European Parliament. (2009, Aprile). Directive [16] Grubler, A. & Riahi, K. (2010). Do governments
2009/28/EC. Available: http://eur- have the right mix in their energy R&D portfolios?
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L: Carbon Management, 1 (1),79-87.
2009:140:0016:0062:en:PDF [17] Xenias, D. & Whitmarsh, L. (2010). Measuring
[5] ERRAC. (2002). Strategic Rail Research Agenda support for sustainable transport policies and
2020. Available at: technologies. British Psychological Society Social
http://www.errac.org/IMG/pdf/SRRA-2007.pdf Psychology Section Conference, Winchester (Sep
[6] ACARE. (2004, October). Strategic Research 7th-9th 2010).
Agenda. Available at: [18] Whitmarsh, L., Swartling, Å. & Jäger, J. (2009).
http://www.acare4europe.com/html/sra2_background Participation of experts and non-experts in a
.asp sustainability assessment of mobility. Environmental
Policy & Governance, 19, 232-250.

8
Criteria
Reduce Cost Important RANK-TOPSIS RANK-AHP
Political
Specific Research Areas GHG efficiency effects
SUB- RANK RANK RANK SUB- RANK RANK RANK
C1 C2 C3 C4 GROUP TOTAL GROUP TOTAL
GROUP 1 2 3 GROUP 1 2 3
Intelligent Transports Systems 3.064 2.779 1.757 2.864 0.398 11 0.503 22 0.496 45 0.049 10 0.060 32 0.039 36
New combustion concepts 2.000 2.000 2.000 5.000 0.448 10 0.469 27 0.480 47 0.047 11 0.069 28 0.048 29
Biomass derived fuels 2.500 1.500 1.000 3.500 0.315 13 0.355 33 0.364 59 0.04 13 0.048 39 0.032 41
Advanced Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs) 3.000 2.000 3.000 5.000 0.512 7 0.523 20 0.539 37 0.056 8 0.079 22 0.056 23
Energy saving design and materials 3.375 2.750 3.125 3.375 0.502 8 0.563 19 0.565 33 0.053 9 0.070 27 0.047 30
Hybrid technologies 3.000 3.000 3.000 1.000 0.359 12 0.474 26 0.458 49 0.046 12 0.059 34 0.039 36
Non conventional hybrid systems 5.000 5.000 5.000 3.000 0.769 2 0.819 2 0.805 2 0.137 1 0.160 1 0.107 1
Full electrical vehicles 4.429 4.000 4.143 4.500 0.795 1 0.820 1 0.823 1 0.096 3 0.124 4 0.086 4
Components NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Vehicle energy management 4.000 4.000 4.000 4.000 0.732 3 0.775 3 0.772 4 0.09 4 0.113 7 0.076 9
ROAD
In-use performance 3.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 0.458 9 0.486 24 0.498 44 0.047 11 0.065 30 0.045 32
Vehicle emissions reduction systems 4.000 3.667 -0.333 2.667 0.459 9 0.581 17 0.564 34 0.078 5 0.080 21 0.052 25
Fuel cell technologies NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Fuel cell vehicles 4.000 3.000 4.250 3.750 0.621 5 0.654 11 0.662 20 0.075 6 0.095 15 0.066 16
Hydrogen storage on vehicles NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Hydrogen production from non-fossil sources 4.000 2.750 3.500 3.750 0.699 4 0.614 15 0.622 26 0.073 7 0.087 19 0.059 20
Hydrogen distribution infrastructure 5.000 4.000 4.000 3.000 0.521 6 0.752 4 0.744 5 0.113 2 0.123 5 0.083 5
Intelligent Transports Systems NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
ICT applied to traffic flows, railway networks 3.333 3.667 4.000 4.000 0.879 1 0.700 6 0.697 13 0.247 1 0.100 12 0.067 15
ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY)
Reduction of air pollutants NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

design of lightweight materials and highly aerodynamic profiles

3.250 2.500 3.000 2.250 0.454 3 0.479 25 0.475 48 0.153 3 0.058 35 0.038 37
Braking energy recovering 3.833 3.500 3.000 2.833 0.711 2 0.639 12 0.630 25 0.231 2 0.077 23 0.051 26
RAIL
Alternative technologies NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Alternative propulsion systems 2.000 1.500 2.500 3.500 0.398 4 0.365 32 0.375 58 0.115 6 0.136 2 0.104 2
Environmental impact of railway infrastructure 2.500 3.000 2.000 1.500 0.344 5 0.454 28 0.436 51 0.125 5 0.063 31 0.041 34
Rail track engineering and design 2.750 2.250 3.000 2.000 0.319 6 0.419 29 0.415 54 0.129 4 0.050 38 0.033 40
REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

TABLE III. RANKING OF SPECIFIC RESEARCH AREAS – ROAD AND RAIL TRANSPORT (MAIN RESEARCH FIELD:
Criteria
Political
Shipping operations and training 3.393 3.259 2.857 3.527 0.786 3 0.621 13 0.618 27 0.122 4 0.066 29 0.043 33
Inland navigation 2.375 2.438 1.250 2.313 0.484 7 0.403 30 0.392 55 0.064 8 0.050 38 0.035 39
Door - to - door applications 2.667 3.167 1.500 3.667 0.639 5 0.553 19 0.545 35 0.1 5 0.057 36 0.036 38
Vehicle emissions reduction systems 4.167 2.167 3.833 2.167 0.650 4 0.498 23 0.503 43 0.125 3 0.084 20 0.057 22
Alternative propulsion systems 4.200 3.500 4.200 3.500 0.959 1 0.709 5 0.710 10 0.159 1 0.090 18 0.062 18
Energy saving hydrodynamic profile; innovative vessel concepts
3.750 3.625 2.500 3.500 0.820 2 0.670 10 0.663 19 0.145 2 0.091 17 0.059 20
WATER
On board power generation and management 2.000 0.000 1.000 3.000 0.140 9 0.203 36 0.219 62 0.049 10 0.038 42 0.027 44
Port operations NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Oil spill response 1.600 1.000 3.400 3.200 0.326 8 0.319 34 0.333 60 0.058 9 0.046 40 0.032 41
Accidents prevention technologies 2.167 3.083 2.417 2.750 0.591 6 0.502 22 0.489 46 0.084 7 0.059 33 0.039 36
Manufacturing and maintenance 3.100 2.500 2.300 3.700 0.639 5 0.519 21 0.523 40 0.093 6 0.055 37 0.036 38
Airspace management and control 3.333 2.667 3.000 2.667 0.630 11 0.519 21 0.516 41 0.043 9 0.071 26 0.048 29
Flight / Ground tests and numerical models for fast time simulation
4.000 3.000 4.000 4.500 0.835 4 0.676 8 0.688 15 0.063 4 0.084 20 0.056 23
High lift device; high altitude aircrafts 4.000 3.000 5.000 4.000 0.819 5 0.672 9 0.682 16 0.063 4 0.116 6 0.080 6
Airframe aerodynamics 4.000 3.000 5.000 5.000 0.862 1 0.698 6 0.712 9 0.067 2 0.109 9 0.074 11
Metallic and composite Materials & Basic processes 5.000 2.000 5.000 5.000 0.767 6 0.617 14 0.641 23 0.078 1 0.129 3 0.091 3
Manufacturing and Assembling Technologies 3.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 0.742 9 0.639 12 0.646 22 0.053 8 0.096 14 0.067 15
Design for environment and recycling 4.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 0.848 2 0.688 6 0.700 12 0.064 3 0.107 10 0.075 10
Performance and propulsion aerodynamics 4.000 3.000 4.500 4.500 0.845 3 0.683 7 0.695 14 0.064 3 0.111 8 0.079 7
Combustion 5.000 2.000 5.000 5.000 0.767 6 0.617 14 0.641 23 0.078 1 0.124 4 0.086 4
ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY)
Air - breathing propulsion 5.000 0.000 4.000 3.000 0.393 13 0.402 31 0.426 52 0.056 6 0.107 10 0.077 8

Nozzles, Vectored, Thrust, Reheat 4.000 2.000 4.000 5.000 0.710 10 0.577 18 0.599 30 0.054 7 0.076 24 0.052 25
AERONAUTICS
Engine controls 4.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 0.848 2 0.688 6 0.700 12 0.064 3 0.107 10 0.075 10
Electrical Power Generation & Distribution 4.000 2.000 4.000 5.000 0.756 8 0.577 18 0.599 30 0.054 7 0.097 13 0.069 13
Unconventional configurations and new aircraft concepts 4.500 2.500 2.000 4.500 0.393 13 0.602 16 0.615 29 0.063 4 0.093 16 0.066 16
Breakthrough technologies 5.000 0.000 4.000 3.000 0.284 14 0.402 31 0.426 52 0.058 5 0.102 11 0.073 12
Airport Operations 1.875 1.250 2.125 1.750 0.760 7 0.247 35 0.247 61 0.021 10 0.041 41 0.028 43
Ground operations 4.000 2.500 4.000 4.000 0.515 12 0.602 16 0.615 29 0.054 7 0.075 25 0.050 27
9
TABLE IV. RANKING OF SPECIFIC RESEARCH AREAS – WATER AND AERONAUTIC TRANSPORT (MAIN RESEARCH FIELD:
10
Criteria
Political
Integration of Spatial Planning, Urban Planning, Transportation4.303 planning 3.643
and Economic
4.155Policies
3.298 0.808 3 0.803 4 0.715 8 0.124 4 0.060 2 0.076 9
Land use taxation 2.200 2.467 1.533 1.933 0.001 10 0.142 24 0.377 57 0.053 10 0.021 18 0.033 40
Alternative fuels distribution infrastructure planning 3.333 3.417 3.500 3.000 0.554 7 0.595 13 0.616 28 0.085 7 0.039 10 0.047 30
Traffic planning 3.794 3.230 3.333 3.635 0.665 5 0.693 7 0.653 21 0.101 5 0.046 7 0.053 24
Non - motorised mobility planning 4.528 4.139 4.583 3.333 0.895 1 0.864 1 0.776 3 0.154 1 0.070 1 0.091 3
PS
Public transports planning 4.125 3.800 3.625 3.750 0.814 2 0.826 2 0.739 6 0.128 2 0.060 2 0.068 14
Motorway speed limits 2.982 2.884 1.527 1.973 0.223 9 0.303 21 0.456 50 0.061 9 0.028 16 0.043 33
Gathering of emissions' information along the supply chain2.922 3.039 1.804 3.186 0.386 8 0.428 20 0.531 39 0.072 8 0.032 15 0.036 38
New logistic concepts; logistic strategic agendas 3.386 3.557 3.650 3.543 0.645 6 0.676 10 0.663 19 0.097 6 0.044 8 0.058 21
Supply chain, route planning, avoidance of empty trips 3.875 3.792 4.146 3.729 0.800 4 0.815 3 0.733 7 0.125 3 0.058 3 0.073 12
Car - pooling, Car - sharing, Bike - sharing 3.487 3.802 3.653 3.218 0.665 5 0.680 8 0.673 17 0.111 2 0.047 6 0.065 17
ECONOMICS
Congestion charging 3.357 2.829 3.571 2.448 0.326 9 0.495 17 0.534 38 0.085 10 0.034 14 0.049 28
Parking pricing 3.083 3.250 3.792 2.750 0.417 7 0.535 15 0.579 31 0.087 8 0.035 13 0.048 29
Motorway pricing 3.367 3.067 1.967 2.833 0.260 10 0.466 18 0.543 36 0.086 9 0.034 14 0.041 34
Fuel taxation 3.622 3.289 2.667 2.511 0.345 8 0.527 16 0.576 32 0.092 7 0.039 10 0.049 28
SBM
Awareness campaigns 3.014 3.464 3.257 3.829 0.670 4 0.611 12 0.637 24 0.103 5 0.041 9 0.046 31
Sustainable transport education (schools) 3.367 3.450 3.533 3.867 0.784 2 0.679 9 0.665 18 0.107 4 0.044 8 0.058 21
Initiatives for climate friendly travel to office, school, public
3.625
institutions3.625 3.813 4.000 0.922 1 0.756 5 0.709 11 0.119 1 0.049 5 0.068 14
Eco - driving 3.270 3.778 3.476 3.579 0.738 3 0.668 11 0.673 17 0.11 3 0.046 7 0.060 19
Teleworking, internet shopping 3.170 3.152 3.352 3.011 0.427 6 0.541 14 0.579 31 0.099 6 0.036 12 0.047 30
Subsidies for development of low emissions cars, E-mobility; 2.450purchase2.225
subsidies 1.475 2.475 0.259 3 0.205 23 0.385 56 0.168 3 0.021 18 0.027 44
Integration of transport into emission trading schemes 3.750 3.000 1.250 2.250 0.507 2 0.431 19 0.512 42 0.258 2 0.037 11 0.040 35
IE
European regulation on emission performance standards for 4.417
new passenger
3.250 cars 3.083 3.333 1.000 1 0.715 6 0.663 19 0.41 1 0.056 4 0.058 21
Competition regulation 1.833 2.667 0.667 3.000 0.203 4 0.226 22 0.416 53 0.164 4 0.022 17 0.031 42

TABLE V. RANKING OF SPECIFIC RESEARCH AREAS – MAIN RESEARCH FIELD: PLANNING, SOCIAL SCIENCES AND
Assessment of Carbon Reductions from

Transport Measures
Methodology, Models and Indicators
Robert Gruber, Thorsten Koska

Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment, Energy
Research Group 2 - Energy, Transport and Climate Policy
robert.gruber@wupperinst.org
thorsten.koska@wupperinst.org
Abstract— In order to reduce greenhouse gas - Identify relevant indicators to assess carbon
emissions from the transportation sector, accurate impact for the different types of measures and
projections for the evaluation of transport measure and transport modes
the assessment of the status quo are necessary. While
calculation methodologies for transportation emissions - Show the connection of the indicators by the
have significantly improved in recent years, the development of formulae for specific
transportation sector often lacks accurate and up-to date combinations of modes and measures.
data. This is related to the relative unpredictability of the
transport sector, which is inherently prone to - Compare different models and tools for the
sociological and psychological influences, but is also due assessment of carbon impact in the transport
to methodological issues affecting data acquisition. In sector
this paper, we will present a methodology for the
calculation of the carbon impact from transport, and - Discuss the relevance of correction factors for
discuss the use of models for the calculation and of specific indicators
indicators needed for the assessment. - Define the data requirement and suggest data
Keywords— evaluation; measuring; modelling;
sources
methodology; ASIF; indicators; low-carbon transport
- Discuss the eligibility of default values and
check their availability.
I. INTRODUCTION
These tasks have been fulfilled in the context of
Any strategy aiming at a reduction of carbon the FP7-funded project REACT. The full results of
emissions in the transport sector needs to consider the work will be published by the REACT project in
the potentials of carbon reduction that different a project report [4]. In this article, key points of the
measures and policy instruments offer. In this way, results of this research are presented.
it is possible to estimate the impact and the
importance of specific measures and instruments
and to assess the ratio of their costs and benefits. II. METHODS
Previous research has developed methodologies
and models to assess the carbon reduction of To give answers to these questions, we conducted
transport measures [1][2]. Still, for policy makers it a review on recent scientific literature on methods,
is not easy to get an overview of the most models and indicators. The sources include
appropriate method of assessment, and some of the methodologies that were developed in university
models are difficult to apply since they require a research, research conducted for the EC, or in the
large amount of data input, which is not always context of carbon reduction finance mechanisms, for
available. which it is necessary to determine the CO2-reduction
reached by specific measures, like Clean
Therefore an overview of existing methodologies Development Mechanism, Clean Technology Fund,
and models for the assessment of the carbon impact or Global Environment Facility.
of transport measures has been developed according
to following aims: Specific models for the calculaton of carbon
impact can be found on national or international
level – for example the software tools COPERT
(Computer Programme to Calculate Emissions from

Road Transport) [5] or the Transport Emission total conducted ways or in relation to vehicle or
Model TREMOD, developed on behalf of the passenger kilometres. In the ASIF model, modal split
German Federal Environment Agency UBA [6]. is calculated as the distribution of vehicle kilometres
across transport modes, since this is directly related
Finally, indicators and specific values can be
to the CO2 emissions. The share of a transport mode
found in various sources: in studies on the
is the activity of this transport mode divided by the
development of the transport sector.and in statistics
total activity.
of nation states and the EC, like the TERM
indicators [7] or the German Study ―MID‖ (Mobility I – Energy Intensity (in MJ/km): The energy
in Germany) [8] consumption of the vehicle is measured as the
amount of energy (in megajoules) necessary to move
Additionally to the literature research, the
the vehicle (not the transported persons) one
preliminary findings were discussed with experts in
kilometre (it might make sense to take into account
the field of transport emission assessment on the
life cycle emissions as well). Energy intensity of
REACT workshop in Milan in February 2011.
European vehicles can be derived as the product of
standard (laboratory) energy intensity and different
factors as driving behaviour, topographic conditions
III. RESULTS and other factors.
F - Fuel Carbon Content (in g CO2 /MJ or
A. Methodology: the ASIF Approach CO2e/MJ):
As a bottom-up methodology for the assessment This factor describes how much carbon is
of the carbon impact, the ASIF approach as been released from the fuel which powers the vehicle in
identified. The ASIF-approach was initially the process of releasing its energy. The carbon
introduced by Schipper and Marie-Lilliu [3]. It content of a fuel as well as the shares of it are widely
demonstrates an easily understandable bottom-up available.
approach to calculate the CO2 emissions of a
transport mode. CO2 emissions here are displayed as Calculation of total CO2 emissions
the product of four factors - activity (A), modal spilt In order to evaluate total carbon emissions, these
(S), energy intensity (I) of a specific mode and factors described above have to be multiplied: The
carbon content of the respective fuel (F), which are total transport activity multiplied by the modal share
of crucial importance for an assessment of the status of a specific transport mode results in the total
of a transport sector and which are further described transport activity of the transport mode. Information
below. about the specific emissions per vehicle kilometre
In a first step, these four basic indicators are split can be calculated by multiplying the energy intensity
up into sub-factors which are used to calculate A, S, and the fuel carbon content. For the calculation of
I and F. In a second step, the situation of the change the total CO2 emissions, the factors have to be
in one or more of the indicators is regarded. In a multiplied which results in the following formula:
third step, a discussion about rebound effects and the n n ki
time dependency of emission reduction follows. CO2   Gi   Ai Si Ii   j Fij
A - Activity (in km): Transport activity in this i1 i1 j1
respect means the total amount of vehicle kilometres

throughout all transport modes which have been “Business-as-usual” projections
driven in the respective time span. The transport A projection of the development in the transport
activity of a transport mode can be derived as the sector within the observed time range is needed to
product of the average trip length of this transport compare these estimations against the estimated
mode and the number of vehicle trips. In most cases, emissions with the measures taken. Therefore, the
data availability for the average trip length and the concept of baseline projections has to be introduced:
number of vehicle trips is rather bad: most statistics A baseline projection is a projection of the
are directly presented for transport. Alternatively, development of a sector or a single indicator, if the
vehicle kilometres of a transport mode can also be current development goes on without disturbing
derived from the passenger kilometres divided by the interventions (what this exactly means can be subject
load factor of the vehicle. to debate).
S – Modal Split (in percent): The modal split is For the assessment of the impacts of
measured in % and describes the total share of a transportation measures, a baseline projection, which
certain transport mode in a transportation system. is as accurate as possible, is necessary. Even small
The modal split can be measured in relation to the

differences in the projection can mean that the same (projected) CO2 emissions in the event that the
measure is evaluated in very different ways [9]. measure has taken place. Additionally, D as the
constant emissions of the transport measure (e.g. for
the construction of a new railway) are taken into
CO2 total CO2 emissions of all transport modes account.
Gi n
CO2  t * (CO 2old  CO2new )  D   Gi  D
CO2 emissions of transport mode i
n number of traffic modes i 1


k number of fuels in traffic mode i
 i For each of the components A (activity), S
(modal shift), I (energy intensity) and F (fuel), an
Ai Total transport activity in ton-km or
individual set of indicators is needed to assess the
vehicle km per traffic mode i
carbon impact of transport measures.

j Shares of the k fuels for transport mode
i Additional considerations: Lifetime development and
 i (%) rebound effects
As a first additional factor, the temporal
Si Share of travel mode i (e.g. 0.2 if 20% of
distribution of emission reductions of transport
 travel
takes place in this mode) (%) measures have to be taken into account: There are
measures with a short-term impact (e.g. a temporary
Ii Energy intensity of travel mode i (MJ/km)
traffic reduction) which cause a rapid decrease in
Fij Fuel CO2 emissions of fuel j in transport emissions for a short term, but are not sustainable in
the long term. Other measures which are beneficial
mode i (g/MJ)
only in the long term (e.g. emissions restrictions for
 new vehicles) have no short-term effects.
To assess the CO2 emission savings of a transport Because of the complexity of the transport sector,
 measure or measure package, not only the estimated measures in the transport sector can have secondary
CO2 emissions after the measure(s) but also the effects, and changes in any of the indicators have
„business-as-usual― (BAU) or baseline projections side effects on other indicators. Those can be
about the expected emissions without the measure(s) working in the same direction as the original effect
are important. According to the ASIF model, and thus increasing it (multiplier effects) or working
emission savings by a transport measure m are in the opposite direction and attenuate the original
calculated as follows: effect (rebound effects). [10]
B. Relevant Factors and Indicators
CO2  ABAU * SBAU * IBAU * FBAU  Am * Sm * Im * Fm By the analysis of the relevant literature on
indicators and through a comparison of different
The projections should be derived upon the basis transport emission models, a list of indicators and
of similar experiences (in our case, this could be factors for the calculation of carbon emission
 countries or cities with a similar transport structure), reductions was created. This list does not include all
and they should be calculated in a conservative indicators and factors, but those that are most
manner, which in this case means that we rather tend relevant for the calculation.
to underestimate than to overestimate resulting CO2
Depending on the type of measure (A, S, I or F),
emission reductions.
additional parameters are important:
Depending on the time of the measure
assessment, a BAU scenario can either be done ex Additionally to these input parameters, the
ante, giving an answer to the question: „How will following indicator variables are being derived from
the future emissions develop if we don´t implement these input parameters. Sometimes only these
this measure?― or ex post, which gives an answer to parameters instead of the variables above may be
the question: „How would emissions have developed known. In some cases, the calculation may be done
if we had not implemented this measure?―. with substitute parameters:
Calculation of CO2 emission changes
In the project report, the different factors are
The CO2 savings of a transport measure after t discussed, additional literature and sources of
years are calculated as the difference between annual standard values are provided. The in the assessment
baseline projection CO2 emissions and annual of the calculation models (see C), the role of these

factors and indicators in the respective model (as - Scale: global models vs regional/local
input, output, standard value, or not provided) is models
stated.
- Coverage of mode: only specific modes of
transport vs. whole transport sector
Factor Description Unit - Coverage of output: only CO2-emissions
Vi Total vehicle trips in time number vs. all pollutants, economic effects etc.
period of transport mode i - Detail: sophisticated models vs. schematic
i
ltrip
Average vehicle trip length km models
of transport mode i
PTi Passenger kilometres in one pkm
Factor Description Unit
transport mode in time period
 capi Capacity of vehicle of number mi Market share of new % / 100,
transport mode i technology or fuel in transport values
 vwi Weight of vehicles of kg mode i between
transport mode i 0 and 1
i
Ilab Laboratory energy MJ / km
XY Effect of X measure on Y X,Y =
consumption of transport mode
measure (e.g. rebound and self A/S,I,F
i
inducing effects)
i
genv Environmental -
 capi Estimated capacity potential % / 100
consumption factor (e.g. for 
urban driving) of transport to intercept changes in
mode i transport demand without new
 i
gbeh Driving behaviour - vehicle trips of transport mode
consumption factor of transport
 i
mode i n Number of affected number
i
g misc
Additional consumption - transport modes
 factor of transport mode i
Di Fixed CO2 emissions for tons
Fij Fuel CO2 emissions of fuel g / MJ
j in transport mode i the measure for transport mode CO2
 cw i Additional energy % / 100
i
consumption of vehicle per %
 weight increase (=0.01 for 1% In the literature research and the process of expert
energy consumption increase if consultation, the following relevant models have
 weight increases by 1%) been identified:
wi Weight increase because of % / 100
The final report on the ―Development of a
measure in transport mode i Common Set of Indicators‖ will provide a detailled
1,..., k i
Shares of the k different
i
% / 100 assessment of these models according to the
fuels for transport mode i
following dimensions: Area of application ,
 applicability for local policy makers, target group,
methodology , means of transportation covered,
 
C. Calculation Models input indicators, output indicators, standard values
The methodology described above gives an provided in the model, access and availability of the
overview about the general way of calculating a model, state of development, scalem, level of detail,
consideration of secondary effects and lifetime
measure’s carbon impact. For the specific task of
developments.
calculation, different types of emission calculation
models exists. The models differ in the several The assessment can give an overview of
dimensions [11]: applicable models to policy-makers and local project
evaluators, describing strenghts and weaknesses of
- Starting point of calculation: Top-down vs.
bottom-up models the models and showing which factors and variables
are needed as input or are provided as standard
values.

Variable Description Unit Approach, taking into account secondary effects and
CO2 Total CO2 emission Tons lifetime development of the emissions.
change because of measures CO2
CO2i Total CO2 emission Tons
change because of measures CO2 AIM/End- GAINS SMOKE
 use
for transport mode i
ASTRA GEMIS STEPS
CO2ijfuel Total CO2 emission Tons CCOptions GLOBALVI TEEMP
 change in tons for fuel j and CO EW-CO2
transport mode i for fuel CMEM HBEFA TRANS-
measures TOOLS
CONSAVE LUTM TREMOD
 Ei CO2 emissions of vehicle g / km COPERT MARS TREMOVE
at average load of transport E3ME NTM UKTCM
mode i ECORegion NCFRP VACLAV
i EXTREMI SCENES
Ireal Real energy consumption MJ / km
S
 of vehicle including factors
for transport mode i The methodology primarily uses bottom-up
Cij Fuel consumption of l / km elements and as it can be used for different purposes,
 transport mode i and fuel j (for it is useful especially for local policy makers. An
fossil fuel vehicles) expansion for usage on a country or EU level should
consider including more top-down elements.
E veh
i CO2 emissions change of g / km
 vehicles of transport mode i at The research showed that relevant and detailled
average load models for the calculation of the carbon impact of
Cij Fuel consumption change L / km measures in the transport sector exists. A challenge
 is the selection of fitting models, which will be made
consumption of transport
easier by the model overview provided in the project
mode i and fuel (for fossil fuel report.
vehicles)
 Further research should focus on the question of
Pi Number of passenger trips -
standardising carbon calculation methods and the
in time period for transport relevant indicators. This helps making project
mode i assessments easier to conduct and, additionally,
lreal Real share of load shift in % / 100 more comparable.
 A / S measures because of
capacity limits
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 Ti Vehicle kilometres of km
transportmode i in time period This research is funded under Framework 7 of the
European Union as part of the REACT (Supporting
E ifuel Fuel emissions for fuel j g/l Research On Climate Friendly Transport) project
and transport mode i with (Grant Agreement No. 233984). The Autors of this

E ijfuel  E direct
ij
 E indirect
ij article would like to thank all participants for their
as time and contributions to this research, especially the
 the addition of direct and furter authors of the report, Dr.-Ing. Susanne Böhler-
indirect emission effects. Baedeker, Frederic Rudolph, Carolin Schäfer-
Sparenberg, Lorraine Whitmarsh and Dimitrios

Loadi Load factor of vehicles in -
Xenias.
transport mode i
REFERENCES
IV. SUMMARY
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Low-Carbon Transport Research in Europe:

What is funded, why, and how?
Lorraine Whitmarsh Zoran Radmilović, Vladislav Maraš

Dimitrios Xenias University of Belgrade
School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Faculty of Transport and Traffic
Cardiff, UK Engineering
BRASS & Tyndall Centre for Climate z.radmilovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Change Research v.maras@sf.bg.ac.rs
WhitmarshLE@cardiff.ac.uk Zdravko Spirić
Dragan Čišić Oikon Ltd. - Institute for Applied Ecology
Ana Perić Hadžić Zagreb, Croatia
Edvard Tijan zspirc@oikon.hr
Faculty of Maritime Studies Rijeka Eleni Anoyrkati
University of Rijeka Coventry University Enterprises Ltd, UK
dragan@pfri.hr e.anoyrkati@coventry.ac.uk
ana@pfri.hr Konstantinos Smagas, Efstratios
etijan@pfri.hr Stylianidis
GeoImaging Ltd,
Nicosia, Cyprus
kostas@geoimaging.com.cy
Abstract— Previous research highlights some of the I. INTRODUCTION

challenges in ensuring that sustainability and climate
change policies are supported by robust, coordinated, Previous research has indicated that
policy-relevant research. Less is known about how
sustainability policy-making is often hampered by
funding decisions are made, including what research
areas are prioritised, and how projects are evaluated and lack of coordination and competing priorities [1][2].
monitored. The aim of this paper is to examine funding At the same time, energy and climate change
processes and procedures across Europe, focussing on research has tended to focus more on technological
the area of low-carbon transport research. We conducted than social solutions, despite evidence of the critical
a major review of European funding schemes, utilising a need for behavioural and institutional change in
mixed-methods approach. Analysis of funding scheme addressing sustainability challenges [3]. This
priorities showed a slight preference for technological literature highlights some of the challenges in
over social research, but our primary research found ensuring that sustainability and climate change
both transport experts and citizens consider the most policies are supported by robust, coordinated and
important priorities for sustainable transport to be modal
policy-relevant research [4]. Much less is known
shift and reduced demand measures. Analysis of
European, MS and AS research agendas suggests there about how funding decisions are made, including
are broadly consistent priorities in transport funding, what research areas are prioritised, and how projects
namely reducing environmental impact, fostering are evaluated and monitored. The aim of this paper
economic growth and competitiveness, and improving is to examine funding processes and procedures
safety. Environment, including carbon emissions, is a across Europe, focussing on the area of low-carbon
relatively important concern for most countries, being transport research. We address the following
prioritised by around 30% of schemes. Nevertheless, questions: (a) What funding schemes exist at
despite notable examples of coordination at EU-level to European and national levels? (b) What (social,
coordinate research, further efforts are needed to ensure economic, environmental) objectives are prioritised
policy is joined-up to achieve energy and climate targets.
in transport funding in different EU countries? (c)
We conclude with a proposal for six indicative guidelines
in developing and managing low-carbon transport What type of research (e.g., technological, social) is
schemes in Europe. the focus of low-carbon transport research, and how
Keywords— research funding; low-carbon transport; does this vary across Europe? (d) How are priorities
Europe; priorities; best practice and funding criteria identified? (e) To what extent is
low-carbon transport research across Europe
coordinated (i.e., where are synergies, overlaps, and

gaps)? and (f) What procedures exist to ensure the III. RESULTS
quality and utility of research, how might these be
benchmarked, and what examples of ‘best practice’ In many cases, information about national
exist? funding schemes was difficult to obtain, and some
Member States (MS) and Associated States (AS)
appeared not to fund low-carbon or transport
research per se. Information about how decisions
II. METHODS were made about funding priorities and procedures
were even harder to obtain, and often non-existent.
In order to address these questions, we conducted Nevertheless, we gained some qualitative insights
a major review of European funding schemes, into processes and procedures, and were able to
utilising a mixed-methods approach. Documentary develop a unique database of funding schemes,
analysis was complemented by a series of key which revealed trends, synergies and gaps in
informant interviews, citizen deliberative focus transport research funding. Here, we outline key
groups, expert questionnaires, and a targeted call for findings based on analysis of this database and
information. qualitative analysis of documents and interviews:
A. Documentary and data sources A. What funding schemes exist at EU and MS/AS
Key policy documents relating to low-carbon levels?
transport and research funding were identified from Analysis of the database indicates that there is
an internet and literature search. In addition, basic great variety across Europe in respect of availability
statistics on funding and R&D were gathered from and focus of funding for low-carbon research. In
several sources, including the Transport Research some countries, such as Germany, Sweden, Austria,
Knowledge Centre (TRKC), ERAWATCH, Switzerland and the UK, there are many available
European Science Foundation, Cordis and national schemes which cover a range of different priorities
websites. and approaches/disciplines. This disparity in number
B. Interviews, focus groups, survey, and email of schemes is illustrated in Figure 1.
contact
Telephone interviews, an email survey, and
questionnaires were conducted during 2010 with
representatives (N=31) of the following groups:
academia, research and development; businesses;
policy, governmental and non-governmental
institutions – including NCPs, National agencies for
environmental protection, National Ministries
(Science, Transport, Environment, etc.); National
statistical offices; and National research funders /
councils. These data collection methods aimed to
elicit details of extant funding schemes and
opportunities in the relevant country/region, and – in
some cases – to identify how these schemes are
developed, as well as to explore respondents’
experiences and attitudes to funding low-carbon
transport research.
In addition, a survey of transport experts (N=42)
and (UK) citizens (N=40) was conducted, along with
deliberative focus groups with UK citizens, to
provide further insights into perspectives of different
European groups on low-carbon transport issues and
priorities for future transport. Findings from this
primary research are discussed elsewhere [6]. This
research highlights the support across both expert Figure 1. Total number of national and EU-level
and non-expert groups for low-carbon transport, and funding schemes on low-carbon transport
particularly modal shift and reduced demand research. [Note: Despite several requests, we
measures. have not yet received information about funding
schemes in Bosnia, Portugal or Albania, so these
countries are not shown in Figure 1.]

B. What objectives are prioritised in transport

funding in different EU countries?
Analysis of European, MS and AS research
agendas suggests there are broadly consistent
priorities in transport funding, namely reducing
environmental impact, fostering economic growth
and competitiveness, and improving safety.
Environment, including carbon emissions, is a
relatively important concern for most countries,
being prioritised by around 30% of schemes (see
Figure 2). Figure 3. Research approach supported by funding
schemes for transport and energy research.
[Note: Based on analysis of 47 funding schemes
(for which information on approach was
available)]
E. To what extent is low-carbon transport research
across Europe coordinated?
There are inevitable differing preferences for
particular transport technologies and policies across
European nations, for cultural, political, historical
and geographical (e.g., available resources) reasons
(e.g., [7][8]). Yet our analysis of European, MS and
AS research agendas suggests there are broadly
consistent priorities in transport funding, namely
reducing environmental impact, fostering economic
Figure 2. Priorities of national and EU-level funding growth and competitiveness, and improving safety.
schemes for transport and energy research. Note: In several cases (e.g., UK), we found a dedicated
Based on analysis of 69 funding schemes (for function within national funding agencies to
which information on objectives was available). coordinate research funding development with
European funding activities. Elsewhere, there
appears to be a tendency to focus on national or
C. What type of research is the focus of low-carbon sector-specific priorities in transport funding, leading
transport research, and how does this vary to a more fragmented picture. Although notable
across Europe? examples of coordination exist to coordinate
Analysis of funding scheme priorities showed a research, development and dissemination, (including
slight preference for technological over social Technology Platforms, ERANET, SETIS, TRKC,
research (see Figure 3), but our primary research Structural Funds, etc.) further efforts appear to be
found both transport experts and citizens consider needed to ensure coordination across Europe, and in
the most important priorities for sustainable particular that policy is joined-up in order to achieve
(rather than undermine) energy and climate targets
transport to be modal shift and reduced demand
[9][10]. This coordination is all the more important
measures (see [5][6]). This appears to reinforce the
given the importance that transport experts place on
imbalance in funding which has been noted European leadership to achieve sustainable transport
previously [3]. Most schemes also support a [6].
combination of basic and applied research.
F. What procedures exist to ensure the quality and
D. How are priorities and funding criteria utility of research, how might these be
identified? benchmarked, and what examples of ‘best
There is little information publically available practice’ exist?
about how funding priorities have been developed. Our analysis exposed no existing guidelines on
They appear to be most commonly derived from funding low-carbon transport, but highlights a
national and EU policy priorities, but stakeholder number of common aspirations amongst funders and
and scientific perspectives are sometimes considered the wider research community in relation to how
(e.g. in the UK). research should be funded (see below).

IV. SUMMARY & INDICATIVE GUIDELINES engagement and knowledge transfer should be
applied more widely, and examples shared of best
practice in these areas. In addition, co-funding
A. Summary from public and private sectors can be used to
achieve mutually beneficial objectives, including
We found European states varied considerably in
economically-advantageous low-carbon transport.
the number of funding schemes for low-carbon
transport. This disparity could not be accounted for  Funding schemes should support a diverse range
by GDP alone, since the richest nations did not of research activities and approaches in order to
always have the greatest number of schemes. reach scientific and societal objectives in respect
Furthermore, the focus of funding for energy and of transport and sustainability. This diversity can
transport research also varied across MS/AS. In be achieved through use of interdisciplinary and
some cases, priorities were only implicit (e.g., in disciplinary approaches; basic and applied
Spain) and can be inferred from research expenditure research; quantitative and qualitative methods –
in different areas. In general, we found priorities for reflecting the multiple dimensions of transport
transport and energy funding were not only (or and sustainability.
primarily) associated with reducing environmental
impacts, but aimed to achieve economic and social  Funding schemes should develop and apply
goals as well (e.g., efficiency, safety). clearly-defined monitoring and evaluation
procedures to ensure accountability and
Recent analysis indicates that there is a bias transparency. Where the objective is to reduce
towards more technological than social-behavioural carbon emissions from transport, the use of
research within transport and energy research [3]. standardised carbon indicators (as well as other
Although our analysis of funding schemes did find a measures) can help assess the impact of funded
consistent preference for technological research over research.
social research, the disparity was not as great as
others have suggested. On the other hand, our  Funding schemes should develop and apply
primary research with transport experts and citizens transparent eligibility criteria and application
shows both groups consider the most important guidelines, including training and/or guidelines
priorities for sustainable transport to be modal shift for reviewers of proposals.
and reduced demand measures [6]. Despite notable  Funding schemes should, where possible, aim to
examples of coordination at EU-level exist to build capacity within the research community
coordinate research, further efforts are needed to (i.e., people-based activities, such as training,
ensure policy is joined-up to achieve (rather than networking, coordination), as well as
undermine) energy and climate targets. development of ideas and inventions. Related to
B. Guidelines and best practice this, training in communication of research and
engagement with stakeholders can assist
Our analysis of relevant literatures and of funding
researchers in ensuring their research has wider
schemes has exposed no existing guidelines on
societal impact.
funding low-carbon transport. However, our research
has highlighted a number of common aspirations  Funding schemes should be developed in
amongst funders and the wider research community consultation with other national and European
in relation to how research should be funded, and funders to ensure strategic coordination across
some elements which are unique to funding themes and programmes. This coordination
sustainable, low-carbon transport. Based on these should also aim to adopt a systems approach,
common aspirations, we therefore propose the which considers multiple sectors, modes, spatial
following indicative guidelines in developing and scales, and methods and tools.
managing low-carbon transport schemes in Europe:
This paper provides an overview of low-carbon
 Priorities for funding should be co-developed by transport in Europe, but our research highlighted the
scientists and societal stakeholders (industry, challenges associated with finding information about
policy-makers, publics, non-governmental how and why extant R&D initiatives are developed.
organisations) to ensure research achieves both We have developed a unique funding database
(a) scientific relevance and quality, and (b) (available from www.react-transport.eu) which
stakeholder relevance and socio-economic offers a valuable resource for researchers, funders
impact. This process of co-development should and others in society interested in transport and
be transparent and organised to enable environmental research and innovation.
substantive input from a range of differing
Further research should focus on more in-depth
perspectives. Current guidelines on public
research into how funding priorities are decided and

the barriers to achieving the best practice [3] Grubler, A. & Riahi, K. (2010). Do governments
have the right mix in their energy R&D portfolios?
aspirations outlined here. Carbon Management, 1 (1),79-87
[4] Whitmarsh, L., Turnpenny, J. & Nykvist, B. (2009).
Beyond the regime: can Integrated Sustainability
Assessment address the barriers to effective
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS sustainable mobility policy? Journal of
Environmental Planning & Management, 52(8), 973
- 991.
This research is funded under Framework 7 of the [5] Whitmarsh, L., Swartling, A., & Jager, J., (2009).
European Union as part of the REACT (Supporting Participation of experts and non-experts in a
Research On Climate Friendly Transport) project sustainability assessment of mobility. Environmental
policy and governance, 19, 232–250.
(Grant Agreement No. 233984). We gratefully [6] Xenias, D. & Whitmarsh, L. (2010). Measuring
acknowledge the ESRC Centre for Business support for sustainable transport policies and
Relationships, Accountability, Sustainability & technologies. British Psychological Society Social
Psychology Section Conference, Winchester (Sep
Society (BRASS) for additional funding for citizen 7th-9th 2010).
focus groups and questionnaires. We also thank all [7] Nykvist, B. & Whitmarsh, L. (2008). A multi-level
contacts and participants for their time and analysis of sustainable mobility transitions: Niche
development in the UK and Sweden. Technological
contributions to this research. Forecasting & Social Change, 75, 1373–1387.
[8] Whitmarsh, L. & Köhler, J. (2010). Climate change
and cars in the EU: the roles of auto firms,
consumers, and policy in responding to global
REFERENCES environmental change. Cambridge Journal of
Regions, Economy and Society, in press.
[9] Russel D, Jordan A, (2009), "Joining up or pulling
apart? The use of appraisal to coordinate policy
[1] Gibson, R.B., et al., (2005). Sustainability making for sustainable development" Environment
assessment: criteria, processes and applications. and Planning A 41(5) 1201 – 1216
London: Earthscan. [10] Green Alliance, (2007). Investing in our future: A
[2] Sheate, W.R., et al., (2008). Sustainability European budget for climate security.
assessment of future scenarios: methodology and ec.europa.eu/budget/reform/library/contributions/o/2
application to mountain areas of Europe. 0080126_O_2.pdf
Environmental management, 41 (2), 282– 299.

Scientific Papers
SESSION A
Future research priorities in
climate friendly transport
Future Research Priorities in Climate Friendly Transport
Electric vehicles integration in multi-business

vehicle sharing model: the “key-less” mobility
Giovanni Alli Sergio Savaresi
Dipartimento di Elettronica e Informazione Dipartimento di Elettronica e Informazione
Politecnico di Milano Politecnico di Milano
Milano, Italy Milano, Italy
alli@elet.polimi.it savaresi@elet.polimi.it
Abstract— The personal mobility is a key issue for the identifiers, etc.). The presence of too much
next future; one possible answer to the increasing of “hardware” represents a toughness for the user to
demand of flexibility for the personal mobility can be the join and utilize the service itself.
"last-mile" vehicle sharing. The traditional models of
car-rental are too “hardware-dependent” (rigid vehicle In this work the so called “key-less-mobility”
ownership, car keys, fuel refill, fixed take/leave locations, concept applied to vehicle sharing scenarios will be
etc.) to be a real answer to the future mobility needs.The described. It propose a model in which all the
aim of this work is to introduce the idea of “key-less- “physical keys” are removed, in order to make the
mobility”, where personal smartphones are the main tool service more easy-to-use. To fulfill this goal,
to use shared vehicles. This can radically transform the personal smartphones will be used as an “electronic
user experience: a single smartphone application
(suitably co-designed with on-board vehicle electronics) identifier” for the user to substitute any physical
can solve seamlessly all the steps of the vehicle-sharing key.
experience (Registration, Booking, Localization of This “key-less-mobility” will open to a
available vehicles, Enabling/disabling the vehicle, Lock- completely new generation of vehicle-sharing
unlock for intermediate stops, Navigation, Help and
tutoring, Re-fueling, Billing, including roaming for multi-
business models, where the distinction between
model business) The extension of a vehicle sharing model rental-vehicles and personal-vehicles will fade.
to a multi-vehicle/multi-business model can allow more Today “my car” and “my key-car” are the central
actors to be involved. One of the issues for the standard elements of personal mobility. In this new scenario
vehicle sharing model is the fact that usually the whole the “electronic identity” with wireless local/global
investment on both stations and vehicles is done by only networking will be the key element of personal
one holder. That brings non sustainable costs for mobility.
spreading the service out over a significant amount of
users. This can mean a failure in the model itself. The Moreover the integration of on-board services on
introduction of a multi-business “key-less” model can the vehicles, based on off-the-shelf, high-end
gain the number of stakeholder of the station/vehicles, smartphones, can allow a better usability of the
dividing the installation and management costs of the vehicles by the users, while also bring important
whole vehicle sharing scenario. real-time information to the orchestrating authority
Keywords— “key-less” mobility, vehicle sharing, (e.g. traffic, driving style, safety, consumption, etc.).
electric vehicle, smartphone, multi-business Therefore, in this work it will be described a
technological platform to set up a vehicle sharing
scenario which has to be flexible, interoperable
I. INTRODUCTION (multi-vehicle/multi-business) and “key-less”.
In Section II some actual car sharing initiatives
In the last decades vehicle sharing initiatives are will be described; in particular attention will be
arising in all the world. These scenarios tries to given to the technology used in these initiatives
answer to the “last-mile” mobility needs that are focusing on the “keys problem”. In Section III the
continuously increasing: people want to move faster “key-less” mobility scenario is introduced,
and more comfortably. Vehicle sharing is a way to explaining how the use of “high-end” smartphones is
set up a capillary-covered transportation service at essential to realize this concept. In Section IV it will
the lowest cost [1], [2]. be pointed out how to integrate electric vehicles in a
“key-less” vehicle sharing initiative, explaining the
However, actual vehicle sharing services are too technology platform needed to fulfill this goal.
“hardware-dependent”, due to the presence of
“physical keys” (vehicle keys, smart cards, user

II. TECHNNOLOGY IN VEHICLE SHARING  Car Tracking & Localization: only in parking
SCENARIOS: THE “KEYS PROBLEM” stations
 Energy refill: by the user, with a provided fuel
In the world there are many arising car sharing card
initiatives. As a matter of facts the car sharing (and
more generally the vehicle sharing) could be a In Fig. 1 a brief schematic of how Zipcar works is
feasible scenario for the future of urban depicted.
transportation [3].
In this Section some examples of car sharing Zipcarcontrol center 2) Local unlock (RFID card)
initiatives will be analyzed, focusing on the Data transfer
technological issues; in particular, the scenarios will 1) Reserve the car
be described poring over the following points:
 Vehicle type: ICE/Hybrid/ZEV
 “Personal key”
3) Locate keys and drive!
 “Vehicle key”
 On-board “box” and User Interface Figure 1. How Zipcar service works
 Car Tracking & Localization

Another car sharing service, similar to Zipcar® is
 Energy refill
the Swiss Mobility Carsharing [5]. This initiative has
been set up in Lucerne, CH, in 1997. As of middle
A. Advanced Car-Sharing initatives
2010 Mobility operates about 1200 stations in 450
One of the most widespread car-sharing locations in Switzerland.
initiatives is Zipcar [4], set up in the United States at
the beginning of the 2000s. This service is now As in Zipcar service, newcomers receive an RFID
available in more than 90 US cities and it recently card to open the cars, previously reserved online or
opened some stations in London, UK. via phone. The keys are put on the vehicle, not
linked to it; so the local lock/unlock procedure can
Zipcar® offers different kinds of ICE or Hybrid be done using the vehicle key itself. A simple
(only in San Francisco, CA) cars to the registered interface put on the car (see Fig. 2) allows the user to
user, who can reserve a vehicle for a trip via web or “on-line” modify the trip by extending or stopping
via phone. Once the user reach the car he can open it the reservation. The user finds a fuel card on board
by using an RFID card provided to newcomers at the to refill the car, if needed. As in Zipcar one-way trips
registration. The user finds the vehicle keys are not allowed. Finally the features of Mobility car
physically linked to the car (e.g. linked to the sharing can be summarized as follows:
dashboard with a chain), together with a fuel card, to
refill the car after the use; the user can locally  Vehicle type: ICE
lock/unlock the car using a smartphone app; notice  “Personal key”: RFID card provided to
that the interaction is not direct: the smartphone newcomers
sends a data message to the control center which acts
directly on the car. Finally, the Zipcar service does  “Vehicle key”: on the vehicle, not linked
not allow one-way trips, so the user has to bring the
 On-board “box” and User Interface: RFID
vehicle back to its original location. Summarizing
card reader, GPRS/UMTS communication
these information in the outline showed above:
with the control center, small user interface
 Vehicle type: ICE/Hybrid to allow the user modifying the trip
 “Personal key”: RFID card provided to  Car Tracking & Localization: only in parking
newcomers stations
 “Vehicle key”: linked to the vehicle itself, on-  Energy refill: by the user, with a provided fuel
board card
 On-board “box” and User Interface: RFID An example of a more flexible car sharing service
card reader, GPRS/UMTS communication is the car2go project [6], ongoing in Ulm,
with the control center, no User Interface Deutschland and in Austin, TX. This initiative is
promoted by Daimler AG.

private cars are not damaged/stolen during their

sharing the vehicles’ position must be “real-time”
known. Moreover, a control center must record
which user is using which vehicle. Therefore, a
borrower’s vehicle must have some features as GPS
positioning, GPRS communication with the control
center and some tools to identify the user.
One of the example of a “Peer-to-peer” car
sharing is Google’s Relay Rides [7].
Figure 2. Mobility Carsharing user interface
To join this service each would-be borrower has
to register its vehicle on a website. Then a specialist
As a matter of facts all the available vehicles are takes care of adding to the newcomer’s car a “box”
Smart ForTwo, equipped with an RFID card reader, containing the following components:
to unlock the car. At the registration, an RFID chip is
integrated with the driving license of the newcomer.  GPRS/UMTS communication
The car is provided also with an advanced user  GPS
interface (see Fig. 3). Every vehicle has its position
traced via GPS. That allows the user to leave/take the  RFID card reader
car in every free parking of the city. Moreover, the  A fuel card for refilling the car
reservation for a car is not needed. Some employees
are assigned to refill the cars when the fuel level
(remotely monitored) is low. Thus, this service has Each would-be user has only to register online;
the following features: then an RFID card is delivered to the newcomer.
Then the user can reserve online the nearest car,
 Vehicle type: ICE Smart ForTwo reach it and drive.
 “Personal key”: RFID chip integrated in the Summarizing this service features:
user driving license
 Vehicle type: Any type of car
 “Vehicle key”: on the vehicle, not linked
 “Personal key”: RFID card provided to
 On-board “box” and User Interface: RFID newcomers
card reader, GPRS/UMTS communication
with the control center, advanced user  “Vehicle key”: on the vehicle, not linked
interface for value-added services,  On-board “box” and User Interface: RFID
integration with the vehicle card reader, GPRS/UMTS communication
 Car Tracking & Localization: real-time by with the control center
GPS  Car Tracking & Localization: real-time by
 Energy refill: by Car2Go employees GPS
 Energy refill: by the user, with a provided fuel
card
In addition to these features, Relay Rides allow
every borrower to set both the schedule and the
charge for the use of his own vehicle. Moreover,
comments on drivers’ behavior are collected in a
social forum; this allow a borrower to avoid the most
“dangerous” users. A brief scheme of Relay Rides
Figure 3. car2go advanced user interface; example of service is depicted in Fig. 4.
value added service: navigation with traffic monitoring.
C. Electric Shared Vehicles: an answer for future
urban mobility
B. Peer-to-peer Car Sharing initiatives
In the last decade the attention on electric
In the last decade a different kind of car sharing
vehicles is growing for some reasons. First of all,
scenarios is arising, the so called “Peer-to-peer” car
electric vehicles are, almost locally, “Zero Emission
sharing. The basic idea of this concept is the fact that
Vehicles” (ZEV); the adoption of these vehicles
any private car-owner can share its own vehicle with
could help the reduction of unhealthy emissions
other users, becoming a borrower. To guarantee that

(NOx, CO, CO2, etc.), especially in urban mobility. The only way to fulfill this goal in a urban
Second, electric vehicles are more efficient with scenario (where a user covers less than 20 km per
respect to traditional ICE vehicles; this can help to day) is that these vehicles would be shared among
face the energetic problems which are well known at more users.
this time.
In the following, some electric car sharing
initiatives will be analyzed.
Connect with the
control center D. Electric Car Sharing Initiatives
One example of electric car sharing initiative is
Set up a schedule
yélomobile [8], a car sharing service which takes
and pricing place in La Rochelle, F. This service is a traditional
car sharing system, but it operates only with Zero
Emission Vehicles (ZEV), in particular with electric
cars. Thus, as in other initiatives, a user has to
Figure 4. How Relay Rides works: the borrower register online. Then, with the provided RFID card
point of view he can unlock the electric car, located in the
recharging station, and drive. Keys are linked on the
vehicle. Then the main features of this initiative can
A widespread doubt with respect to this kind of be summarized as:
vehicle is the energy storage; as a matter of facts  Vehicle type: ZEV, electric
battery pack are really expensive. It is clear that the
range of the vehicle is proportional to the battery  “Personal key”: RFID card provided to
pack cost. In other words, is the vehicle’s range newcomers
sufficient to user’s needs? Will the battery pack last
as long as to be convenient?  “Vehicle key”: on the vehicle, linked
In order to answer to these questions, it can be  On-board “box” and User Interface: RFID
assumed that: card reader, GPRS/UMTS communication
with the control center
 The range of electric vehicles is typically
around 80-120 km  Car Tracking & Localization: only in
recharging stations
 The life of a battery pack is around 2000
discharge/recharge cycles  Energy refill: Recharging stations
 The break-even point of a battery pack is Recently, another electric car sharing service has
around 80% of his lifetime (1600 cycles) been set up in Milano, the e-Vai project. This
initiative is basically an integration of the railway
service provided by the Ferrovie Nord group; thus it
This tradeoff is represented in Fig. 5: this x-y plot can be seen as a “last-mile” car sharing. While
represents the vehicle lifetime with respect to the registering, the user owns an identity card which is
range of the vehicle itself. It can be seen that, in the same for both the railway and the car sharing
order to be economically sustainable, an electric services. Then he can access to the electric vehicles
vehicle must cover at least 128000 km. as a standard car sharing initiative. The main features
of this project are:
300.000
Maximum battery life (2000 cycles)
 Vehicle type: ZEV, electric
 “Personal key”: identity card (same as the
Brake-even battery life (1600 cycles)
240.000
200.000 railway id. card)

Vehicle Life [km]
128.000
 “Vehicle key”: on the vehicle, linked
100.000
 On-board “box” and User Interface:
50.000 GPRS/UMTS communication with the
0
control center (lock/unlock the doors)
0 50 80 100 120 150
 Car Tracking & Localization: GPS

Vehicle Range [km]
Figure 5. Tradeoff between range of the vehicle and  Energy refill: Recharging stations
cost of the battery pack

Despite only a few electric car sharing initiatives  the presence of two different physical keys:
have been implemented up to now, there are many the so called “personal key” and the
service ideas which are based on ZEV sharing. For “vehicle key”
instance the autolìb service, set up in Paris, is
planning to substitute the ICE vehicle with more  The integration of the technological features
sophisticated and appealing ZEV vehicles, based on cited above on the vehicle
the Bluecar Bollorè. These vehicles will integrate
RFID card reader, GPS localization, GPRS/UMTS In the next section it will be pointed out how to
connectivity and an advanced user interface to access radically reduce the complexity due to the “keys
value-added services for the user. Moreover, the problem”, while in section IV it will be discussed
recharging stations will be “smart stations” which how to provide the vehicle with all the needs to be
will interact with the user checking his identity, integrated into a vehicle sharing.
locking/unlocking the cars, sending information to
the control center.
 Vehicle type: ZEV, electric III. THE “KEY-LESS” MOBILITY
 “Personal key”: RFID card provided to
newcomers In this section it will be discussed how physical
keys can be removed in a vehicle sharing scenario;
 “Vehicle key”: on the vehicle, not linked
as a matter of facts the existing vehicle sharing
 On-board “box” and User Interface: RFID concepts are too “hardware dependent”, due to the
card reader, GPRS/UMTS communication presence of different physical elements which the
with the control center, advanced user user can handle. This brings to a concept called
interface for value-added services “Key-Less” mobility, where physical keys are
removed and the user’s “electronic identity” is used
 Car Tracking & Localization: GPS to be the key to access the services.
 Energy refill: Recharging stations
A. The smartphone as the “universal” key
E. Technological issues: the “keys problem” In order to provide an “electronic identity” to the
There will now be discussed the main user without involving external elements, a personal
characteristic needed to set up a flexible, multi- item has to be used.
vehicle, multi-business electric car sharing initiative. High-end smartphones are the most suitable
As it can be noticed from the analysis done above, product to be used for this application. They are
the service must have some basic features: capable of wide connectivity (GPRS/UMTS, Wi-Fi,
 A personal key, provided to newcomers Bluetooth, GPS) and they have the best
computational power at the lowest cost. Thanks to
 A vehicle key, placed on the vehicle the flexibility of these items, and ad-hoc application
 On-board “box” to recognize the user, can be designed for making the smartphone interact
communication with the control center. both with the vehicle and the car sharing control
system. Finally, thanks to the application itself, the
smartphone become the “key” also for the vehicle,
Moreover, some value-added services must allowing ignition, door lock/unlock, etc.
require other technological features such as:
Moreover, this item is personal so it can be used
 Advanced user interface to identify the user in the accesses to the services. In
the world there are some examples of using
 GPS for car localization
smartphones for accessing some services, e.g. “pay-
 Ease in refilling the vehicle (no fuel card) by-smartphone” systems, based on Near Field
Communication technology (NFC).
The attention will be focused on electric car
sharing services, due to what explained in subsection B. Technological issues: global/local networking
III.C. That implies the employment of recharging
station which makes the refilling process easier from One of the great advantages of using smartphones
the user point of view. as “electronic identifier” for the user is the fact that
this items are capable of both local and global
By the technological point of view, two main connection (as depicted in Fig. 6)
issues can be highlighted for these initiatives:

Control center Internet In table 1 a brief comparison between Bluetooth

WWAN access point and NFC technologies is shown.
TABLE I. COMPARISON BETWEEN NFC AND

BLUETOOTH TECHNOLOGIES
NFC Bluetooth
ISO
RFID compatible active
18000-3
Standardization Bluetooth
ISO/IEC
body SIG
ISO 13157 IEEE

User Vehicle Recharging station Network Standard
etc. 802.15.1
Figure 6. “Key-less” concept: smartphone ~10 m

Range < 0.2 m
connectivity (class 2)
Thus, the smartphone can be connected both to Frequency 13.56 MHz

2.4-
the car (using a short range connection technology, 2.5 GHz
e.g. Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, NFC) and to the control center
(via UMTS or GPRS). Although the global Bit rate 424 kbit/s 2.1 Mbit/s
connection is not critical, the main technological
issue is to provide the car with a short range Set-up time < 0.1 s <6s
connectivity.
Power < 15mA varies with
One option is to add to the vehicle a Bluetooth consumption (read) class
access point and let the smartphone connect to it.
The second option, which seems to be more In the next section the integration of electric
flexible, is to use the NFC technology to open a vehicles in a “key-less” vehicle sharing scenario will
connection between the “key” and the car. As a be discussed.
matter of facts, this communication technology is
compatible with the RFID standards. This would
yields flexibility to the car sharing initiative.
IV. INTEGRATION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN A
Moreover this technology allow a faster set-up time
MULTI-BUSINESS VEHICLE SHARING MODEL: THE
and it is less energy demanding than Bluetooth.
GREEN MOVE PROJECT
Even though only a few smartphones integrates
this technology, it is possible to buy add-on items to The Green Move project is a two year project
gift the smartphone with NFC connectivity collaboration between some departments of
Valeo, well-known manufacturer of automotive Politecnico di Milano and Regione Lombardia,
components, has developed a prototype of key-less started in march 2011. The goal of the project to set
technology, based on NFC, in collaboration with up a “key-less” multi-business vehicle sharing
Orange. It has been unveiled in Paris in september scenario based on a plurality of different electric
2010 (see Fig.7). vehicles in the city of Milano. The vehicle sharing
initiative must be:
Doors opening
 Modular: it must be easily extended in whole
the Lombardia region.
Vehicle enabling
 Open, interoperable, multi-business: it must
be possible for private or public actors to
join the project (e.g. companies, towns,
industries, hospitals, citizens, etc.)
 Multi-vehicle: in principle all types of electric
vehicles could be shared in this project.
Figure 7. Valeo NFC “key-less” prototype

 “Key-less”: no additional keys/smart cards Control center

have to be delivered to the users
These features are related one to each other: as a

matter of fact, in order to create a multi-business User
scenario which covers both Peer-to-peer and classic
vehicle sharing initiatives the shared fleet must be
“open”, that is every type of vehicle could be shared.
Wired connection
In Peer-to-peer car sharing services, as explained
in section II.B, shared vehicles (typically ICE
vehicles) are provided with a “box” which add to the
car some features as: Green e-Box Vehicle
 GPRS/UMTS connectivity with the control Figure 8. The “green e-box” interactions
center
 GPS localization
Thus, the electronic interface to be designed can
 RFID reader for the user smart card be simpler: it has to link the “smartphone” with the
“vehicle” allowing it to act on the doors, on the
However, it is not possible to set up the “key- ignition signal and to collect interesting data from
less” concept using this kind of “box”. the vehicle (e.g. State of Charge of the battery).
In the following it will be shown a way to provide Finally, a tablet could be used in place of a
any electric vehicle with the requested features to be smartphone since they have the same connectivity
placed within a key-less vehicle sharing fleet. features; nevertheless a larger screen could be a more
functional user interface.
A. The “green e-box”: hi-level user-vehicle A brief scheme for the “green e-box” is depicted
interface in Fig. 9.
In order to realize the “key-less” concept, the
shared electric vehicle must have the following
specifications: Tablet
 GPRS/UMTS connectivity with the control Electronic interface

center Vehicle
 GPS localization
 Local connectivity with the “key”
 Remote doors lock/unlock (both via control Vehicle BUS
center and via smartphone)
 No ignition key: the smartphone must be able green e-box
to send the ignition signal to the vehicle
Figure 9. “green e-box” structure
These requirements can be met by adding to the
vehicle an add-on “box”, named “green e-box”; it B. The “green e-box”: “Free” additional features
must interact with three actors: the user, the vehicle,
the control center (see Fig. 8). Due to its architecture the “green e-box” is
capable of many additional value-added services. In
Designing a flexible ad-hoc electronic to meet all fact, the Tablet is a flexible platform for developing
the requirements above would be expensive and an advanced user interface. These additional features
difficult. However this step could be simplified by does not affect the hardware of the green e-box and
the employment of smartphones. As explained in the can be divided in two layers:
previous Section high-end smartphones meet almost
all the needs explained above: they have  “Vehicle” add-on: the Tablet can be easily
GPRS/UMTS connectivity, GPS localization, Local interfaced with additional sensors put on the
connectivity (Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, NFC). vehicle (e.g. pollution sensors, cameras for

video-surveillance – typically already V. CONCLUSIONS

integrated with the Tablet itself)
 Services for the user: specific applications can In this work some vehicle sharing scenarios has
be designed to integrate some facilities for been inspected, by the technologic point of view.
the user (e.g. “live” guide, video assistance, With respect to this analysis, the “key-less” concept
information on the city’s amenities, has been introduced, highlighting the advantages to
navigation, information on the traffic, use personal smartphones as “electronic identifier”.
estimation of the user’s drive style, etc.) This concept has been contextualized into the Green
Move project vision.
C. The Green Move infrastructure The advantage of this vehicle sharing architecture
In this subsection the infrastructure needed to is that there are no physical entry barriers; the
develop the Green Move project will be briefly service can be accessed easily and quickly. In this
described. way, the vehicle can now be seen as a node of a
network, while the Control center and the docking
As typical as in vehicle sharing programs, four
station are somehow “servers” or “access point” to
main actors are involved in the system
this network.
infrastructure:
 The user(s)
 The vehicle(s) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 The docking station(s) (or dedicated parking
zone) Thanks are due to Alberto Colorni, Alessandro
Luè and all the people collaborating to the Green
 The control center Move project.
Since the shared fleet is done by electric

vehicles, the docking stations must be able to charge REFERENCES
the batteries of the vehicles themselves. This action
must be allowed by the control center, under a [1] S. Shaheen et al., “Carsharing in Europe and
registered user’s request. In addition, the control North America: Past Present and Future”, in
center monitors all the vehicle positioning and the Transpodation Quarterly, 1998 Vol. 52, No. 3, pp.
free docking station available; thanks to the green e- 35-52.
[2] Barth, M.; Jing Han; Todd, M.; , "Performance
box and to the “smartphone key” both the vehicle evaluation of a multi-station shared vehicle
and the user can easily receive this information. One system," Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2001.
example of information flux whitin the described Proceedings. 2001 IEEE , vol., no., pp.1218-1223,
2001
infrastructure is depicted in Fig. 10 [3] Katzev, Richard, “Car Sharing: A New Approach to
Urban Transportation Problems”, Journal of
Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2003
Docking station
vol. 3, Blackwell Publishers Inc
[4] http: //www.zipcar.com/
5. Free DS [5] http: //www.mobility.ch/
available [6] http: //www.car2go.com/
4. DS
Vehicle
9. Code
reading
[7] http: //relayrides.com/
activation [8] http: //www.yelomobile.fr/
6. Vehicle
parameters
7. Lock-unlock,
start
3.General
Info
Green e-Box 8. Lock-unlock,
start
Control center
2. Vehicle User
positioning
1. Info-mobility
Figure 10. Green Move infrastructure

Railway transport directed to climate friendly

transport
Ivan Belošević, Milana Kosijer, Miloš Ivić, Slavko Vesković,

Norbert Pavlović, Sanjin Milinković
Belgrade University
Belgrade, Serbia
i.belosevic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— Railway’s basic characteristics support which have almost doubled in the observed period
the consideration as the most acceptable means of of time. Electricity production, industrial activity
transport from the aspect of environmental protection. and transport dominate global CO2 emissions from
Railway can play the key role within the challenge of fuel combustion. The transport sector was
achieving emissions reduction targets. With the aim of
this state it is necessary to realistically consider
responsible for 23% of world CO 2 emissions from
characteristics of railway transport as system. Railway fuel combustion with the road sector largely
advantages are high capacities reserves, reliability and dominating [8]. The significant proportion of global
safety, reduction in specific energy consumption and emissions from transport indicates that this sector
pollution. Railway freight transport appeal can be can play a key role within the challenge of tackling
achieved within intermodal application. Apart from climate change and sustainable development. The
connecting with other transport means through highest proportion of CO 2 emissions in transport
intermodality, railway should improve the train system sector happens within road transport sector, up to
technology. 73%, while railway impact on CO2 emissions goes
Keywords— railway;intermodality; environmental up to 2%. Railway can play the key role within the
challenge of achieving emissions reduction targets.
For illustration of this we can use example of a
I. INTRODUCTION journey from London to Brussels by plane or car
produces over 3.5 times more emissions than by
Sustainable mobility has a key role in the battle train [9].
for environmental protection. Transport sector
responsibility relates to its dependency on non-
renewable energy resources and rising carbon III. RAILWAY TRANSPORT BASIC CARACTERISTICS
dioxide emission and other pollution sources.
Railway transport is considered relatively clean and With the aim of climate friendly transport
energy effective. Railway’s basic characteristics
introduction it is necessary to realistically consider
support the consideration as the most acceptable
characteristics of railway transport as system that
means of transport from the aspect of environmental
has the greatest potential in decreasing the pressure
protection. Development of techniques and new
on environment.
technology application should be continued. Also,
organisational changes and finance investments Firstly, railway transport pollutes environment
from international bank sources and sources on the much less than other transport means. Railway
country level are very important for external effects transport emits three times less CO2 comparing to
reduction. road traffic, and five times less CO2 comparing to
air traffic. In railway transport, air pollution comes
as the result of fuel combustion of diesel motor
trains. By complete railway network electrification
II. ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF direct impact on air pollution can be avoided.
TRANSPORT Substances used in exploitation and maintenance are
causes of ground and water pollution [3, 4]. Also,
In the last thirty years global emissions of green causes of air pollution in railway transport can be
house gasses (GHG’s) have risen 61% or 1.4% per toxic substances that railway transports, if
year [7]. The greatest part consists of CO2 emissions

inadequately handled. Determined level of pollution TABELE II. ENERGY CONSUMPTION

by organic and inorganic substances is a little Type of transport Consumption
higher, but in permissible concentration and equivalent
significantly smaller comparing to the road
infrastructure. train 1
Noise and vibration level is also an important ship 1
criterion from the aspect of transport means lorry 4.3
convenience. Railway transport produces less noise
plane >30
than road or air transport. In the transport of same
amounts of freight and same number of passengers,
railway transport produces even up to 50% less
noise. Maximum noise values are higher but they Disadvantage of railway transport is in high
last only 20% of total transport time. In road construction, infrastructure exploitation and
transport, the maximum values last even up to 95% maintenance costs. Such high costs demand high
of transport time. Also, noise varies with railway system exploitation and productivity. In order to
vehicles, while it is constant with road vehicles. In achieve as high as possible system exploitation,
trains are formed by the principle of freight flow
the paper [6], the noise sources review in railway
consolidation. This consolidation process brings up
transport is given. Within conventional velocities,
another railway disadvantage - inflexibility for
mechanical sources of noise (track-wheel contact)
clients needs.
are dominating. Aerodynamic noise is the most
expressed with high speed trains and it is Technical-technological improvements and
conditioned by the change of air flow around train innovations enable reserve existence in system
composition parts. capacities. Technical innovations in the area of
It should be mentioned that railway occupies locomotives and pulled wagons enable increase in
length and mass of the train. By driving system and
relatively small space given the transportation
traffic regulation modernization capacity of railway
power. Smaller space is needed for railroad
infrastructure is increased. New technology
construction comparing to the highway or fairway
concepts of transport, primarily of freight transport
construction (Тable 1).
tend to eliminate above mentioned disadvantages of
TABELE I. AVERAGE OCCUPANCY railway transport and enable its as better
exploitation as possible.
Ground occupancy by traffic infrastructure [m]
railroad 21
highway 75-80 IV. INTERMODALITY DIRECTED TO CLIMATE
FRIENDLY
fairway 20-120
Railway freight transport appeal can be achieved
within intermodal ’’door to door’’ principle
Railway is highly reliable and safe regarding application [1]. The essence of the technology of
transportation safety. This advantage relates to the combined road-railway transport is in the
characteristics of train running in separate route, combination of advantages of fast, cheap and safe
track. These advantages of railway are especially railway transport of freight in long distances and
emphasized in the process of hazardous goods advantages of fast and efficient final distribution by
transportation and manipulation [2]. lorries. This, as well, enables rational division of
The main advantage of railway is reflected in labor within transport chain.
specifically small energy consumption. Railway is
convenient for mass goods transportation or high
quantities of goods especially in medium or long
distances. Table 2 presents energy consumption per V. TRAIN’S SYSTEM DIRECTED TO CLIMATE
transport work unit (tone kilometer). Goods FRIENDLY
transportation by lorries consumes four time more
energy then by trains of ships. Comparing energy Apart from connecting with other transport
consumptions for passenger transport per distance means through intermodality, railway should
unit, it is obvious that a passenger train spends one improve the train system technology. In the
third of a plane energy or one sixth of car accordance with the climate friendly transportation
(transporting only one man) energy. concept, railway enterprises tend to improve its
technology. In the same time, modern train

organization offers the concept that is adapted to The essence is in the direct train formation,
contemporary transport market demands. Modern composed of modules. These modules can be small
train organization includes: groups of wagons, with classical locomotive or
separate motor sets, which enable direct departures
 Shuttle train direct train with fixed wagon composed even of only a few wagons. The system
composition (same wagon number in every enables train coupling of several modules in the
train) that runs between two terminals. composition that runs on long hauls, sharing one
 Y - Shuttle train, train with fixed wagon line to a certain destination where the composition is
composition composed of two groups of dismantled to separate modules. Long haul module
wagons. In the station, the train is separated compositions and module flexibility in short haul
in two groups that further function as two client servicing enable achieving full efficiency and
different trains. exploitation of the railway system.
 Block train direct train of variable
composition (wagon number) that runs
VI. CONCLUSIONS
between two terminals.
 Train Coupling and Sharing train of Further activities directed to climate friendly
variable composition with two or more realization in the area of raiway transport can be
wagon groups that have different expressed through the following activities.
destinations. Activities should be directed to reduction and
elimination of pollution sources that originate from
 Liner train a train in a determined line that exploitation of railway facilities and rolling stock. In
stops in several terminals for container or the area of transport, adequate transport distribution
other transport units’ loading and unloading. must be done, where adequate types of transport
means must be directed to railway. Railway must be
Shuttle trains have fixed composition so that the a part of transport chain that will offer the complete
wagons run in the predetermined line. This enables transport „door to door“ service. Railway can
lower costs because there is no need for maneuver, achieve this full transport service within
and turn round cycle is reduced in time, thus intermodality or through its own concept of
increasing efficiency. Shuttle trains demand huge transport with modern train technology.
and constant transport volume between two
terminals. Due to predefined departures, there is the
possibility that trains are empty. Technology
simplicity and low transport price must be in ACKNOWLEDGMENT
balance with the risk of possible low level of train
capacity exploitation. Y – shuttle trains offer This paper is supported by Ministry of Science
solutions within stabile but weaker flows than and Technological Development of the Republic of
necessary for direct shuttle trains, and when they Serbia (no. project 36012).
can be separated for two different destinations. The
characteristic is in the fact that the train is separated
and that increases the operational cost. There are
also some additional costs related to short trains’ REFERENCES
departures to end terminals.
Block trains have variable composition which [1] European Commission, “White paper – European
makes them adaptable to trade demands. They are transport policy for 2010: time to decide,” Office for
Official Publications of the Europian Communities,
used for instable and weak lines. They can also Luxembourg 2001.
represent temporary solution until trade conditions [2] G. Maksić, S. Vesković, M. Ivić, M. Kosijer, S.
for shuttle trains are fulfilled. Composition Aćimović, “Choice of influential parameters of
manipulation spot for the purpose of handling
variability enables operational adaptability to dangerous materials,” (in Serbian) Ecologica, vol.
volume and structure of transport conditions. 16,pp. 249-255, 2009.
Serious planning process is necessary for wagons’ [3] G. Rasula, M. Rasula, “Groundwater quality
monitoring system in zones of infrastructure
managing because they run in different lines and facilities,'' Engineering Geology, vol. 60, pp. 351-
whole system optimization is very important. 360, 2001.
Maneuvering operations cause additional costs. [4] M. Malawska, B. Willkomirski, “An analysis of soil
and plant (taraxacum officinale) contamination with
The system of train coupling and sharing has the heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarvonse
(PAHs) in the area of the railway Junction Ilawa
highest chances for service quality improvements on glaona, Poland,” Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, vol.
the lines that generate only a few wagons per day. 127, pp 339-349, 2001.

[5] M. Stancu, “Intermodal transport between Europe vehicles and undertaken measures for it’s reduction,”
and Asia: opportunities and challenges,” (in Serbian) Ecologica, vol. 16, pp. 261-266, 2009.
ECMT/UNECE Seminar, Kiev 2004.The [7] The International Transport Forum, “Reducing
International Transport Forum, “Reducing Transport Transport Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” OECD,
Greenhouse Gas Emissions’’, OECD, 2010. 2010.
[6] S. Graovac, A. Zlatković, S. Rusov, N. Pavlović, S. [8] www.eea.europa.eu
Milinković, M. Marković, “Noise source of railway [9] www.traintocopenhagen.org

Participation of railways in climate friendly

transport through intermodality
Ivan Belošević, Sanjin Milinković, Miloš Ivić

Slavko Vesković, Milan Marković, Norbert Pavlović
Belgrade University
Belgrade, Serbia
i.belosevic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— Transport today represents one of main the seaport. This increase productivity and capacity
pollution and climate change reasons. Implementation of at seaport. Also this concept can be stated as climate
modal split is crucial to support the transition to friendly because of reducing external environmental
sustainable mobility. This paper analyzes participation of effects in seaport's surroundings and hinterland.
railways in climate friendly transport through the dry
port concept. The dry port concept creates direct railway
linkages between seaport and inland terminal. The aim of
this paper is to present reduction in environmental II. TRENDS IN TRANSPORT
impact in seaport's surroundings and hinterland.
Keywords— dry port concept; environmental Transport represents one of economy drivers.
Analyses performed so far have shown strong
correlation between GDP and transport volume.
Today, especially in the EU economies, the process
I. INTRODUCTION
of modern economies “dematerialization” is present.
This process represents the structural changes from
Fast world population and industrialization
industrialization towards services. On the long run
growth raise question on sufficient natural resources
GDP grow with an average 2.5% a year, thus the
amounts. Transport evolves economy through
physical growth is estimated at 1% a year [6]. In
access and mobility. However, transport structures
transport, this structural economy change is
today represent one of main pollution and climate
reflected in establishing longer hauls and more
change reasons. Expressed dependence on fossil
frequent hauls. As a consequence the growth in
fuels of transport activities is responsible for
transport is over then the economy growth in
extreme pressures on energy resources and
physical term and even larger than GDP growth.
ecosystems. Due to these reasons, one of main
Some views [6] cause in improved transport
transport researcher‟s tasks is finding a way to
efficiency and eliminated barriers within global
eliminate the negative influence or decrease it to an
trade market.
acceptable level, at least.
One of the main railway advantages is low
carbon usage. Further research in the field of energy
efficiency improvements and implementation of III. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORT
modal split are crucial to support the transition to
low carbon mobility. Accomplished transport The most significant proportion of environmental
service in railway can be achieved through its own impact of transport presents carbon emission.
concept of transport via private sidings (industrial Electricity production, industrial activity and
tracks) or within intermodal transport chain which transport dominate global carbon emissions from
will be analyzed in this paper. fuel combustion [11]. The significant proportion of
global emissions from transport indicates that this
Inland intermodal terminals are important nodes sector can play a key role within the challenge of
in the transport network and have attracted tackling climate change and sustainable
considerable attention. The dry port concept is based development. The highest proportion of carbon
on creating direct railway linkages between seaport emissions in transport sector happens within road
and inland intermodal terminals where shippers can transport sector, up to 73%, while railway impact on
have the full range of customs services as directly at carbon emissions goes up to 2%. Railway can play

the key role within the challenge of achieving From the aspect of sustainable mobility, railway
emissions reduction targets. advantages are high capacities reserves, reliability
and safety, reduction in specific energy
The need for carbon emissions reduction in the
consumption and pollution. Efficient freight
transport sector can be expressed in the following
transport shift to railway can be achieved through
example. If certain measures for carbon emissions
intermodal transport chains. Intermodal transport
reduction in transport would not be taken, it would
chains consist of corridors (arcs) and variant
directly endanger the EU efforts to achieve 60% or
terminals (nodes). Arcks use multiple modes of
80 % reduction (Fig.1).
transportation rail, ship and truck to connect nodes.
Nodes are represented by terminals classified
according to transshipment facility, connected
modes and location.
Railway can strengthen its place in the transport
chain by new transport technology development that
would increase quality and reduce transport costs.
Only in that way can railway reach the target set by
the White paper - to increase its market share from
8% to 15%. Direct trains have potential to be the
basis of railway freight transport. They directly
connect terminals, and loading and unloading costs
are not covered by railway. By reducing transport
Figure 1. EU emission reduction plan1
costs, total costs in trade and industry production are
reduced. Direct trains connect two terminals without
In the industry sector, there are facilities applied intermediate stops in the most economical and
for catching emitted CO2. In the transport sector, fastest way. Direct trains can be block trains or
this technology is not possible to apply directly on shuttle trains.
road vehicles. By setting stationary facilities for
catching the emitted gas on fossil fuelled power Shuttle trains have fixed composition so that the
plants, it is possible to catch the transport emissions wagons run in the predetermined line. This enables
by shifting to electrically powered trains. In the case lower costs because there is no need for maneuvre,
of ecologically acceptable ways of electricity and turn round cycle is reduced in time, thus
production, direct negative effect of production can increasing efficiency. Shuttle trains demand huge
be reduced to an insignificant level. and constant transport volume between two
terminals. Due to predefined departures, there is the
After catching the emitted CO 2 it is necessary to possibility that trains are empty.
storage it [2]. With that purpose, geological storage
is applied. Within geological storage, CO2 is stored Block trains have variable composition which
in the existing geological carbon reservoirs. makes them adaptable to trade demands. They are
used for instable and weak lines. They can also
represent temporary solution until trade conditions
IV. MODAL SHIFT DIRECTED TO CLIMATE for shuttle trains are fulfilled. Serious planning
FRIENDLY TRANSPORT process is necessary for wagons managing because
they run in different lines and whole system
Modal shift is assumed as one of the main optimization is very important.
objectives of the EU White Paper on the Common Maritime transport is highly in accordance with
Transport Policy [4]. Considered modal shift in sustainable mobility policy. Some rough advantages
freight transport assumes the shift from road to rail are related to high reserve capacities, minimal
and inland waterways. Sustainable mobility assumes specific energy consumption and no costs for
contribution to all transport system by shifting from corridor construction. As global freight exchange
one to another, more favorable transport mode. volume increases, the container ship transport
Further research in the field of modal shift is crucial volume increases as well [16]. Trends in global
to support the transition to climate friendly container flows influence vessels, ports and
transport. transshipment facility. Improvements of vessels
follow freight volume increase. Tendency of further
1
European Environmental Agency 2008 development of vessels size is in accordance with
the increase of the need for it. Due to its
inadaptability to changes and high innovation costs,
ports do not pace with ship construction and

represent bottlenecks in transport chain. In order to V. DRY PORT CONCEPT APPLICATION ON THE
respond to demands of maritime operators, port TERRITORY OF WESTERN BALKANS
must improve their technologies. Ports face spatial
limitations in the sense of further expansion and For consideration of possibility of dry port
limitations related to transshipment facilities‟ concept application in the countries of Western
capacities. Hence, port development should be Balkans statistical data from 2008. are used. The
primarily conditioned by container flows and ships. reason for choosing 2008. data is that the data from
This interdependency should be related to volume 2009. and 2010. are not complete. There is also the
and rate of arrivals and operations. tendency to avoid still unclear impact of 2009.
One of the current concepts of intermodal economic crisis n future development.
transportation is dry port. Dry port concept Modal split in freight transport in the countries of
successfully combines railways and maritime Western Balkans [7] is presented in the Fig. 2. Road
transport from the point of view of sustainable transport trade participation is dominant with over
mobility. In the same time, dry port concept two thirds. High participation of railway, which is
successfully reduces additional infrastructure in one forth, is not the consequence of a well balanced
ports, as well as operations that are parts of transport transport flow but former economy system and its
chains, not related to container ships operations. transition in the countries of former Yugoslavia.
Dry port concept use railway corridors to connect Assessed carbon emissions from fuel combustion in
terminals (ports on coast and inland terminals). Dry the countries of former Yugoslavia is presented in
port concept has been introduced through several the Fig. 3, where the stabile trend of emissions
papers [5, 7, 12, 13, 14]. This concept is based on a increase in all countries can be seen. The biggest
seaport directly connected by rail with inland emitters are energy and transport sector (Fig. 4). The
intermodal terminal where shippers can leave and energy production, electrical companies participate
collect their goods in intermodal loading units as with over 50%, while road transport emits over 90%
directly at the seaport [14]. Main activity in dry of transport sector emissions (Fig. 5). The reason for
ports is handling with intermodal loading units. In such high percentage of emissions can be found in
addition to this activity, an array of other activities huge amounts of coal usage in energy production
necessary to realize „‟door to door‟‟ transportation and non-application of ecological standards in great
process should be made in dry ports. These number of road vehicles. Emissions reduction can
activities include customs clearance, handling of be achieved by application of new filter
information, short term storage and storage of empty technologies and CO2 catching, higher participation
containers, containers maintenance and cleaning. of renewable electrical energy resources and road
Terminal itself can be connected to one or more transport participation reduction.
ports, one port can be connected to one or more
inland terminals and dry port can be part of network
for supply chains. According to distance from the
coast dry ports are categories as close, mid-range
and distant [17].
All participants in transport chain, maritime
operators, ports, railways, road operators, local
authority and citizens have advantages of dry port
concept application. Advantage for maritime
operators is reduction of ship hold in ports. Trough
inland terminal construction, port‟s authority obtains
increased participation in transport chain and control
on hinterland. Dry port may be considered as
„‟extended gates‟‟ for seaports [5]. Increased
participation in transport scope represents advantage Figure 2. Modal split in fright transport2
of dry port concept for railway also. Road transport
has positive effect by focusing on and utilizing on
shorter hauls. Benefits for local community are
traffic intensity and pollution reduction on highway
2
network in hinterland and in city road network in Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia 2010
the seaport zones. This concept directly decrease
negative impact on environment and increases the
quality of life for the citizens.

ports towards final destinations can be realized by

road or railway within intermodal chain. Due to
underdevelopment of intermodal transport service,
first choice is road transport. Railway transport has
its advantages from the aspect of reservations and
transport planning. Contrary, flexibility and time of
transport are still advantages of road transport.
Trains are often and long late, which make railway
transport unattractive to clients.
The biggest volume of container interchange on
the territory of Western Balkans is realized in Koper
and Rjeka ports. Their work volume is of same
proportions as of biggest Adriatic ports on Italian
Figure 3. Gross CO2 emission3 coast (Table 1). Koper port is mostly oriented to
Middle Europe market.
TABELE I. ADRIATIC SEAPORTS TROUGHPUT IN TEU4

Seaport 2007 2008 2009
Koper 305648 353880 343165
Trieste 265863 335943 277245
Rijeka 145040 168761 130740
Venice 329512 379072 369403
Ravenn 206580 214324 185022
a
Biggest amounts of goods are intended for

Figure 4. CO2 emission split2 Slovenian, Austrian, Italian, Slovakian and
Hungarian markets. Rijeka port is, oppositely,
oriented to Western Balkans market. Accordingly,
Serbia interchanges the biggest part of container
flow via Rjeka port [15], and in 2008. around 10
000 TEU is transported by railway.
Intensive growth of Rjeka port throughput is
forecasted [17], and it is might be over 400 000
TEU in 2020 (Fig. 7). Exact data about total
container number that Serbia imports via Rjeka port
does not exist. For the sake of this paper, transport
experts‟ survey has been done related to the forecast
of container goods transport volume in Serbia.
According to the survey it is assumed that one third
of containers from Rjeka port have a potential to be
serviced via Serbia dry port terminal.
By dry port terminal construction on the territory
Figure 5. CO2 emission according modal split2 of Serbia, a big part of container transport would be
directed to railway. According to the survey, it is
Far East countries represent the source of biggest expected that railway takes over 40 % of road
part of freight flows on the global level. Huge container transport in first years of dry port concept
amounts of Far East goods are imported by South implementation. The takeover rate from road to
East Europe. Freight containers are transported by railway the value of 4 % is adopted. This
cargo ships to Adriatic ports. Further transport from development rate is in accordance with intermodal
3
International Transport Forum, OECD 2010 4
Port of Koper, Annual report 2009

transport development forecasts for market of 1 kWh in the countries of former Yugoslavia, in
conditions similar to Western Balkans market the previous period, amounts 320 g/kWh [10].
conditions [1,8].
Fig. 7 presents the dynamics of CO2 emission
A favorable condition for dry port concept reduction through the process of dry port concept
implementation is that there is a railway corridor implementation and modal split application. Fig. 7
that links Rjeka port with huge part of inland. presents absolute values of CO 2 emission in the case
Basicly, this corridor satisfies all necessary of classical port and distant dry port terminal on the
conditions for offering high quality of direct territory of Serbia. Fig. 8 presents savings volume in
container transport by railway. Also, hinterland CO2 emission in dry port concept application. The
offers the possibility of a distant terminal savings would be even higher if more then one dry
construction that would enable the most rational port terminals were constructed, thus attracting
railway exploitation through direct trains of variable higher transport volume.
or fixed composition.
A direct contribution of dry port concept to
reduction of carbon emission is in the possibility of
total carbon emission reduction. The reduction
represents the CO2 amount that is not emitted by
road vehicles reduced by CO2 emission in the
process of electrical energy production necessary for
train traction (1).
ΔC=Croad -Crai (1)
CO2 amount emitted by road vehicles (Croad) in

transport process depends on the specific emission
by lorries (k, assumed to amount 1 kg/km), total
number of lorry dispaches (B) and the transportation
distance (lo) (2). Figure 6. Container troughput forcast
lo
C road  k  Bdl (2)

0
Energy needed for train traction can be

calculated using mechanical work (A) for train
traction. Total mechanical work (A) for the train of
mass Gv (also considering mass factor 1+ε), total
resistance W, velocity value change between 0 and
va, and total distance la can be calculated as given in
(3).
va la
A  Gv 1    vdv   Wdl 3

0 0
Electrical energy value can be calculated

according to professor Dinic calculation [3]. Total Figure 7. CO2 emission forecast
electrical energy consumption in transport
comprises consumption for train movement with
constant speed, consumption in starting and
speeding process and consumption in operating the VI. CONCLUSIONS
train in intermediate stations. According to the
above mentioned calculation, the result obtained All participants in transport chain, maritime
shows that for transport of 45 TEU by train in the operators, ports, railways, road operators, local
existing corridor between Rjeka port and potential authority and citizens have advantages of dry port
dry port terminal, total energy consumption amounts concept application. The advantage relates to
68904 kWh. Average CO2 emission for production increasing the speed of transport flow, including all
transport modes and their efficient exploitation,

cleaning highways from heavy lorries, avoiding REFERENCES

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number of traffic incidents. Surely, an important
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learned from RECORDIT,” IMPRINT - Europe 2nd
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the contribution relates also to emission Meyer, “Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage, A
report of working grup III of the IPCC,” Framework
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catching and storage methods. [3] D. Dinić, “Train traction,” Želnid (in Serbian),
Beograd 1986.
[4] European Commission, “White paper – European
transport policy for 2010: time to decide,” Office for
Official Publications of the Europian Communities,
Luxembourg 2001.
[5] H. A. Klink, G. Berg, “Gateways and
intermodalism,” Journal of Transport Geography vol
6, pp. 1–9, 1998.
[6] H. Essen, X. Rijkee, G. Verbraak, H. Quak, I.
Wilmink, “Modal split and decoupling options;
Paper 5‟‟ EU Transport GHG 2009.
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“Dryport Emmen-Cevorden – Strengthening the
lostic hub,” ECORYS, Rotterdam 2009.
[8] M. Stancu, “Intermodal transport between Europe
and Asia: opportunities and challenges,”
ECMT/UNECE Seminar, Kiev 2004.
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transport by road traffic, Republic Serbia, 2008,”
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia (in
Serbian), Belgrade 2010.
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2005-2006,” Hrvatska elektroprivreda d.d. (in
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Niš 2010.
This paper is supported by Ministry of Science [16] Z. Radmilović, B. Dragović, “River and maritime
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Engineering (in Serbian), Belgrade 2003.
[17] http://www.portauthority.hr/rijeka/mogucnosti/ekono
mski-ucinak.html

The Role of Mobility Management Strategies in

GHG Emissions Reduction: Library - Based
Approach for Impacts Evaluation
Nataša Bojković, Snežana Pejčić-Tarle, Dragana Macura, Nebojša Bojović

Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering,
University of Belgrade, Serbia
{n.bojkovic, s.tarle, d.macura, nb.bojovic}@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— In line with the growing interest to reduce (strategies 1 that encourage more efficient operating
the greenhouse gas emissions from transport, this paper of transportation systems, primarily by reducing
explores the role of strategies that encourage more vehicle kilometers traveled - the private car usage).
efficient operating of transportation systems, called (Rienstra et al. 1999; Loukopoulos et al. 2005;
mobility management. The objective is to address one of
the main challenges in the commitment for the mobility
Erikkson et al. 2008; Mansiur et al. 2011; Litman
management strategies - evaluation of their impacts. 2011).
Combining the evidence and research on policy This classification does not imply mutual
instruments from the most comprehensive information exclusion, but rather a combination of strategic
sources, the paper develops a framework for comparative
directions since the fundamental objectives of both
assessment of potentially effective measures. In the core
of the proposed approach is the consideration of approaches are based on providing mobility while
additional benefits provided by selected mobility minimizing the associated adverse effects.
management strategies for emission reduction. Professional and scientific community, however, is
Delivering knowledge about potentials of the specific to some extent divided on this issue. Those who
measures and their overall benefits to society, allows favor cleaner vehicle technologies are of the opinion
policy-makers more accurate decision-making. that in the fight against the huge environmental
Keywords— Mobility management, Policy threat such as global warming, the application of the
instruments, Library-based approach, Decision-making so-called "soft measures" (the management and
process. control of transport operations) is not sufficiently
effective.
On the other hand, however raises the question
I. INTRODUCTION of other consequences of applying new technologies
in transport. For example, Litman (2010, 2011)
points out that efficient vehicle incentives reduce
In the core of the mobility management is
emissions from transport and energy consumption,
promoting sustainable development of transport,
but may stimulate more driving and exacerbate
through various strategies aiming at better
traffic problems. The encrament in total vehicle
controlling, reducing or redirecting transport
traffic as a result of reduced vehicle operating costs,
activities. Changing travel behavior, which is the
the so called, rebound effect is sometimes ignored.
mainstay of the mobility management concept, is
gaining more popularity due to insufficient On the other hand, since the mobility
potentials of supply-oriented strategies in coping management strategies do not reduce emission rates
with accumulated negative transport impacts. per vehicle-kilometres, they tend to be
underestimated. However, some recent studies deal
Different strategies for emission reduction are
available to transport policy makers. The rough
classification of these measures would be: 1) 1
The term ‗strategy‘ include policy instruments,
innovative technical and technological solutions programs, projects or best practices. Transportation
(cleaner vehicles incentives) 2) mobility demand management includes all of these, and can be
management or transport demand management applied at many levels and scales, from national and
regional, to local or
district level, and even at a particular site or business
(Litman 2003).

with the impact of variuos mobility management Management) Encyclopedia 3 , and KonSULT 4
strategies on reducing per-capita vehicle travel, (Knowledgebase on Sustainable Urban Land Use
potentials for GHG reductions, and cost- and Transport). Various strategies and programs that
effectiveness. A comprehensive overview of the encourage more efficient use of transport resources
examples based upon measured data or modeled are considered within Online VTPI - TDM
projections is provided by Center for Clean Air Encyclopedia. They are classified as: improved
Policy (CCAP, 2009). transport options, incentives to shift mode, land use
management, policy and institutional reforms and
Another area of interest is the problem of
support programs. Large number and variety of
evaluation and selection of specific strategies within
measures envisages KonSULT too. Besides
the mobility management concept. The purpose of
attitudinal, behavioral and informational, the
this paper is to highlight the potentials of the
following groups of measures are also included:
mobility management: the range and scope of GHG
land use, various infrastructure measures and pricing
emissions reduction policy instruments, with special
policy. Most policy instrument is by its nature
emphasis on benefits from its application such as
intended for use in cities where traffic problems are
congestion reduction, consumer savings, improving
intensified, but there are those that could be applied
safety, liveability and equity.
at the regional or national level.
The paper is organized as follows: a literature
Another concern in the application of MM
review on initiatives promoting mobility
strategies is related to potential assessment of their
management is the subject of the following section.
impacts on achieving defined goals. Since these
The proposed procedure for evaluating mobility
strategies rely mostly on behavior change,
management (MM) strategies is described in section
predicting their effects is a challenging task.
3, while the empirical example and obtained results
Therefore, it is of importance to use previous
are presented in the next section. The last section
experiences and collect information on the
contains concluding remarks.
achievements. Both research programs - TDM
Encyclopedia and KonSULT are also unique
information web portals. Besides the catalogues of
II. LITERATURE REVIEW mobility management policy instruments, they
contain information on their performance. Based on
evidence of international experience in the
One of the concerns is what is meant by mobility
application and experts‘ opinion, various impacts
management, i.e. how the concept should be
and contributions of the policy instruments are
implemented. In that sense, different possible
estimated. Transport planners and practitioners may
insights into the application principles exist.
use these estimations as useful inputs for overall
According to European 6th Framework Research
evaluation of mobility management strategies. The
Project on Mobility Management - MAX, at the core
use of existing knowledge, i.e. the determination of
of the concept is changing travelers‘ attitudes and
suitable policy instruments by referring to library of
behavior. This includes various informational and
past practice is the essence of the library-based
promotional measures, education and training as
approach. Both KonSULT and TDM analyze the
well as organizing services and coordinating
measures in a consistent manner. The general
activities of different patterns. This working
approach to the analysis in terms of types and
definition offers a somewhat limited understanding
number of mobility management measures as well
of the mobility management concept. Namely, the
as analysis procedures, in these two library-based
whole range of measures such as charging regimes,
initiatives is rather similar. However, some
or parking policy as well as many others, even
methodological differences exist - primarily in the
though "demand" oriented, are not considered,
following aspects:
except as a kind of "support" to the concept.
However, it is emphasized that the definition is Criteria for categorization of mobility
adaptive and open for change as the concept itself is management strategies- TDM classify them
still developing. according to how they affect travel, while
KonSULT consider the type of intervention.
According to another understanding, the
implementation of the mobility management The impacts of the strategies in terms of benefits
includes much wider range of measures. In relation to society are considered in more detail in TDM
to this, principally two similar initiatives stand out.
These are VTPI 2 - TDM (Transportation Demand 3
The acronym TDM will be used in the paper
2 4
Victoria Transport Policy Institute www.konsult.leeds.ac.uk

approach; each strategy is evaluated according to specifications of the desired context of

important social aspects as well. implementation. The specification includes:
TDM identifies possible barriers to First step - specification of decision makers to
implementation, but KonSULT evaluates measures identify those policy instruments that are in their
in respect to implementation possibilities and direct or indirect competence. Accordingly, three
introduces sub-criteria: legal, financial, institutional levels of decision making are provided: national,
/ political and technical barriers. regional or local. Binary code (1, 0) which is
assigned to each policy instrument indicates their
KonSULT introduces a more detailed, eleventh-
availability to decision-makers.
step scale of scores for evaluation, in relation to
TDM seven-step scale. Second step – location specification. In this step,
the location context is considered, i.e. the
TABELE I. SOME METHODOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES experiences and expert analysis of successful
BETWEEN TDM AND KONSULT application assumptions when applying a particular
policy instrument in various geographic conditions.
Criteria S Barriers Benef The efficiency is evaluated on a 0 to 5 scale, after
for core to its to which in a further analytical procedure, these values
categorizati scale implementati society
on on are normalized on a scale 0-1. The choice of a
location can be made in respect to the population
Discusses Consi size or area size.
the barriers ders
but not treate consumer Third step - ascertainment of goals, problems, or
as a criterion savings indicators. At this stage, the user first chooses
TDM
How -
they affect 3 to
for evaluating and whether to consider desired goals, the perceived
measures defines problems or indicators to describe them. Taking into
travel 3
subcriteri account the interconnection and/or overlapping of
a for these three criteria, in order to avoid the effect of
impacts "double" calculation, the choice of only one of them
on equity
is allowed. The user then selects the sub-criteria,
Evaluates Discu and assigns weights of importance from 1 to 5.
measures in sses Then, empirically evaluated instruments (on the
KonSULT
respect to social eleventh-step scale) pursuant to sub-criteria, are

-
Type of implementati issues but multiplied by the appropriate weights and added
5 to
intervention on less together, thereafter the normalization to range (-1,
5
possibilities detailed
correspondin +1) is performed.
g sub-criteria Fourth step – defining a strategy. At this stage,
the user has the ability to specify certain desired
strategic directions and their weights, according to
the relative importance. Then, the normalization is
III. METHODOLOGY performed in the same way as in the previous step.
The outcome of the procedure is a list of
The proposed methodology utilizes the potentials mobility management strategies - policy instruments
of both TDM and KonSULT information sources. with the corresponding number of points according
The KonSULT information base is enhanced by to their contribution to desired goals and objectives.
developing additional decision-making support tool. The additional features of the software tool are
It allows a sophisticated search of its own database different ways of sorting the generated set of
that, depending on the desired application context, instruments - by type, score, or implementation
identifies an ordered list of promising policy costs.
instruments. This is known as an option generation For further analyses, this paper recommends
tool. This advanced search option is developed in considering of additional impacts-benefits of the
the early stages of KonSULT creation, but was later policy instruments selected within KonSULT
improved and upgraded by expert teams (May and procedure. This means that decision-maker can
Taylor 2002; Jopson et al. 2004; Kelly et al. utilize the evaluations related to social benefits and
2009). provided by TDM Encyclopedia. In this sense, the
The procedure for selection of appropriate policy issues of importance, are impacts on safety,
instruments consists of several steps that allow congestion, consumer savings, community livability.
Besides, some equity issues are also included, such

as providing basic mobility and the question of Litman (2003) defines these strategies as ―negative
covering the costs caused by users of transport incentives‖ and they include various restrictive and
services. pricing measures. The implementation and public
acceptance of these measures requires knowledge of
social benefits that they provide, which are
sometimes overlooked. In relation to
IV. EMPIRICAL EXAMPLE
implementation costs, this group of measures may
be considered as a homogeneous set, since their
The following, to some extent simplified implementation costs are either low (mostly readily
empirical example, illustrates how to explore the implemented measures) or neutral (pricing measures
information on policy instruments in the decision- that will pay for themselves over time). The
making process. The chosen initial conditions are as following measures are considered and briefly
follows: referred (www.konsult.leeds.ac.uk):
Fuel taxes. There is a number of reports dealing
- Measures are in the direct or indirect competence
with elasticity of vehicle travel with respect to fuel
of national bodies;
price. The research indicates that only substantial
increases in price would achieve noticeable
- The location or strategy type have not been
reductions in the number of journeys made, or
specified- the options "any area type" and "any
significant shift to less polluting fuels, in the short
strategy" are chosen;
term. The effect is cumulative over time. One of the
concerns is related to revenues from levying a tax
- To determine the strategies that reduce GHG
that may induce the construction of new
emissions, the corresponding indicator infrastructure and possible increases in car use.
(CO 2 emissions) is selected and a maximum weight
is assigned. Congestion pricing. According to research
collected within KonSULT, a relatively moderate
According to these criteria and specification, the urban road charge might significantly reduce traffic
list of promising policy instruments is obtained levels (particularly travel by car) in the affected area
(Figure 1). The list consists of a large number of (by 15% to 20%). Congestion pricing encourages
measures that differ by type of intervention. people to reduce their overall level of car-use, either
by switching to public transport or by reducing the
amount they travel. This type of charging would not
usually involve any change in overall road supply.
The major concern is related to complexity of the
implementation, applicability and relocation of
congestion to non-charging areas or around toll
collection areas.
Parking charges. Reduce car usage levels but
the extent is very sensitive not only to charge level
but to the quality of the alternatives as well.
According to some studies, greater reduction is
achieved by the introduction of parking charges
where it was previously free than by increasing the
existing charge (up to 4%). The adverse impact of
this policy instrument is the possibility of diverting
traffic to other areas.
Regulatory restrictions. Two main types of
regulatory restrictions are in use: permits and
number plate restrictions, and they may be applied
permanently and often experimentally as well.
Regulatory restrictions are seen to be easier to
implement than other forms of reducing the volume
of vehicles. The demand response differs by type of
Figure 1. KonSULT score measure – in case of number plate restrictions the
high-income car users may increase the number of
In a further analysis, only those strategies that owned vehicles.
encounter resistance from users are considered.

The measures, their corresponding number of TABELE III. RESULTS OF AHP EVALUATION
points according to their contribution to emission Alternatives Overall Ranking
reduction (KonSULT score), and TDM evaluations weight
of social benefits are presented in Table 2.
Fuel taxes A 0.2564 2
1
Congestion pricing A 0.3574 1
2
TABELE II. MEASURES, CRITERIA AND ASSOCIATED
SCORES Parking charges A 0.1907 4
Parki Regulator 3
Fuel Congest
ng y Regulatory A 0.1955 3
taxe ion
charg restriction restrictions 4
s pricing
es s
KonSULT
60 60 40 40
score
Consum The outcome of the procedure is the ranking of
er -1 -1 -1 0 the selected mobility management measures,
savings according to their contribution to the objectives.
Congesti Since the example is rather simple, and a small
on number of measures have been considered, the rank
1 3 3 2
reductio can be even intuitively suggest. However, overall
n weight coefficients indicate the possibility to have
Social Benefits
Road
0 2 2 2 insight on their relative distance, too.
safety
Improve
s basic 0 2 2 2
mobility
Individu V. CONCLUSIONS
als bear
the costs 2 3 3 2
they The paper emphasizes the role of mobility
impose management strategies in reducing emissions from
Commun transport and argues that these strategies should be
ity implemented ―hand in hand‖ with incentives that
2 2 2 3 reduce emission rates.
Livabilit
y
The library-based initiatives that are considered
in the paper (TDM and KonSULT), contribute to
Additional explanation of the ratings is provided promotion of mobility management strategies by
by Online TDM Encyclopedia. These evaluations their wide selection of evidence on performance of
may be further used as input parameters for multi- specific policy instruments. Important feature of
criteria decision-making analyses. Namely, some of these library-based tools is that their databases are
the MCDM (Multi-criteria Decision Making) regularly updated and amended.
methods may be applied for ranking selected
The findings from TDM and KonSULT can also
options. Due to the hierarchical structure of the
be merged, as shown in this paper. The potentials of
model, as shown in Fig. 1, a well-known AHP
(Analytic Hierarchy Process) approach (Saaty, the KonSULT approach are used to evaluate
1980) may be utilized. Using pair-wise mobility management strategies according to their
comparisons, the decision-maker can assign the contribution to GHG reduction, while the TDM
desired importance of criteria. Since the Encyclopedia provides the information on the range
determination of importance is out of the scope of of social benefits. This helps transport planners and
this paper, we will opt for equal weighting. That is, policy-makers to consider and include broader set of
the contribution to emission reduction is of equal criteria. The procedure is applied to a four policy
importance as the group of social benefits, while the instruments – those that require public acceptance
sub criteria within this group are also equally and therefore better knowledge of associated social
weighted. benefits. As illustrated, these instruments can be
than compared to each other, to allow policy-makers
The results are shown in the Table 3. to opt for promising ones. Since it is a multi-criteria
problem with hierarchical structure, the AHP
approach has been proposed. Additionally, its

functionality is proved in the case of larger set of [3] Jopson, A., May, A.D., Matthews, B., 2004.
Facilitating evidence based decision- making — the
alternatives- facilitates the weight assignment development and use of an on-line knowledge base
through pair-wise comparisons. To illustrate the on sustainable land-use and transport. In:
procedure, all criteria and sub-criteria have been Proceedings of the 10th World Conference on
Transport Research, Istanbul.
considered as equally important, although, of [4] Kelly, C. E., May, A. D., Jopson, A. F., ―The
course, the decision-maker may assign different development of an option generation tool to identify
priorities. potential transport policy packages‖, Transport
Policy, 15, pp. 361-371, 2009.
[5] Litman, T. 2010. Sustainable Transportation and
TDM: Planning That Balances Economic, Social and
Ecological Objectives. TDM encyclopedia.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT (www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm67.htm)
[6] Litman, T., ―The Online TDM Encyclopedia:
mobility management information gateway‖,
This paper is a part of the project ―Critical Transport Policy, 10, pp. 245-249, 2003.
[7] Litman, T., 2011. Smart Transportation Emission
infrastructure management for sustainable Reduction Strategies: Identifying Truly Optimal
development in postal, communication and railway Ways To Conserve Energy And Reduce Emissions.
sector of Republic of Serbia‖ funded by the Ministry Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org)
[8] Loukopoulos, P., Jakobsson, C., Gärling, T.,
of Science and Technological Development of the Schneider, C.M., Fujii, S., ―Public attitudes towards
Republic of Serbia, Project number: TR36022. policy measures for reducing private car use:
evidence from a study in Sweden‖, Environmental
Science and Policy, 8, pp. 57–66, 2005.
[9] Mansyur, R., Rahmat R.A.O.K, Ismail, A., Kabit,
M.R., 2011. Knowledge Based Expert Advisory
System for Transport Demand Management.
REFERENCES Proceeding of the International Conference on
Advanced Science, Engineering and Information
Technology, Malaysia, January 2011.
[1] CCAP, 2009. Cost-Effective GHG Reductions [10] May, A. D., Taylor, M. A. P., 2002. KonSULT—
through Smart Growth & Improved Transportation developing an international knowledgebase on
Choices: An economic case for investment of cap- urban transport policy instruments. Presented at the
and-trade revenues Center of Clean Air Policy 25th Australasian Transport Research Forum,
(www.ccap.org) Canberra, October 2002.
[2] Eriksson, L., Garvill, J., Nordlund, ―A.M. [11] Rienstra, S.A., Rietveld, P., Verhoef, E.T., 1999. The
Acceptability of single and combined transport social support for policy measure in passenger
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Part A, 42, pp. 1117–1128, 2008. [12] Saaty T., Katz J., ―How to make a decision: The
Analytic Hierarchy Process‖, European Journal of
Operational Research, 48, pp. 9-26, 1990.

(Non)conventional Hybrid Systems
Martin Dorčić, B.Sc.; Igor Ratković, B.Sc.; Darjan Šćulac, B.Sc.

Faculty of Maritime Studies
Dept. of Logistics and Management
Rijeka, Croatia
darjan.sculac@hotmail.com
Abstract— The paper goal is to analyze conventional Electricity generated by wind turbines is now the
and non-conventional hybrid systems, their impact to largest renewable source. Wind power is expected to
environmental issues, possibilities and advantages of triple within a decade, partly because it is the least-
using this type of technology. The world energy demand expensive renewable source. Solar thermal energy
is increasing. A huge percentage of the world's energy is
still derived from ecologically unacceptable sources of
for space heating, once considered the most
energy; especially fossil fuels that are still the dominant promising alternative source, but it so far has proven
source of energy. Fossil fuels are slowly disappearing too fussy and too expensive for widespread use.
and their usage is causing more environmental threats Both the European Union and the United States
and growing energy demand. In that reason there is a
in 2002 announced research programs into using
need for more environmentally friendly transport fuels to
replace fossil ones. Today, there is a strong awareness hydrogen as a fuel. Not a source of energy but a
and orientation in transport industry to renewable energy means of storing it in convenient form, hydrogen is
sources that are sustainable and free from greenhouse produced by running an electric current through
gases like solar, wind, small hydro, bio etc. Development water (H2O) and by then separating out the
of conventional and non-conventional hybrid systems are hydrogen, which can be stored, distributed through
one step forward in achieving common goals in reducing pipelines, or used in fuel cells to generate electricity.
CO2 in transport industry. Conventional hybrid systems is Hydrogen also can be made from natural gas, and
primarily a combination of internal combustion engines technologists are currently working on other ways
and intelligent electric drive systems, while non- of producing it. However, critics argue that
conventional hybrid systems combine two or more
hydrogen actually would yield less net energy than
sources of energy for the purpose of balancing their
characteristics, and because of the greater system direct utilization of whatever fossil fuel sources are
reliability. Since they are currently in the experimental used to generate the hydrogen; they also argue that
stage, only a few systems can be found in the world, there would be no net reduction in pollution.
mainly in the automotive industry. Hybrid systems also can be a solution for
Keywords— energy, hybrid tehnology, hybrid reducing CO2. Hybrid models describe systems
systems, enviroment, ecology composed of both continuous and discrete
components.
In year 2009, we celebrated 100th anniversary of
I. INTRODUCTION the granting of the first US patent for what was
called the “Mixed Drive for Autovehicles.” Henri
Oil wells, pipelines, refineries, gas stations, coal Pieper, a German-born inventor and gunmaker in
mines, generating plants, transmission wires, and Belgium, submitted his application on November
related technologies together make up the planet's 23, 1905—and was granted a US patent on March 2,
largest and most expensive technological system. 1909.
Based primarily on oil, coal, and natural gas, energy
services structure everyday life both directly and by
enabling computing, air-conditioning,
telecommunications, and global transport. For II. HYBRID SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
nearly half a century, environmentalists and
technological innovators have been urging reduced The rapid depletion of fossil fuel resources on a
reliance on fossil fuels, but technological worldwide basis has necessitated an urgent search
momentum remains dominant. Alternative energy for alternative energy sources to cater to the present
advocates long have believed that renewable energy day demands. Alternative energy resources such as
from sun, wind, and biomass could supply the solar, wind, ocean thermal and tidal have attracted
planet's needs. energy sectors to generate power on a large scale.

However, solar and wind energy systems are being the electrical car shall become common is today not
considered as promising power generating sources a question about technology, only a question about
due to availability and the topological advantages in politics. It is today possible, based on advanced
local power generation. It is prudent that battery technology, to overcome a range of about
neither standalone wind energy system nor solar 500 km. Cars with electrical drive systems represent
system can provide a continuous supply of energy a solution for the future, and will in steadily
due to seasonal that combine solar and wind increasing degree be seen on the roads.
generating units with battery backups are
Hybrid systems are primarily a combination of
implemented to satisfy the load demand.[1]
internal combustion engines and intelligent electric
The hybrid systems are dynamical systems with drive system. Besides saving fuel and reducing
interacting continuous-time dynamics (modeled by emissions are used for better dynamics and driving
differential equations) and discrete-event dynamics pleasure.
(modeled by automata). They are important in
Hybrid technology can be effectively applied to
applications in CAD, real-time software, robotics
improve the efficiency of various engines,
and automation, mechatronics, aeronautics, air and
regardless of what it is used as fuel (gasoline, diesel
ground transportation systems, process control, and
fuel, alternative fuel or fuel cell). Hybrid vehicles
have recently been at the center of intense research
not only emit less greenhouse gases and consume
activity in the control theory, computer-aided
less fuel, they are completely silent when operating
verification, and artificial intelligence communities.
an electric motor and having an impressive
In the past several years, methodologies have been
performance.
developed to model hybrid systems, to analyze their
behavior, and to synthesize controllers that Revolutionary progress made by hybrid
guarantee closed-loop safety and performance technology is an intelligent power management that
specifications. These advances have been comes from two different sources so that each
complemented by computational tools for the dimension of driving, during acceleration, on the
automatic verification and simulation of hybrid open road, braking and stopping and starting, be
systems. done in the best possible way.
Several technologies, especially the wind energy, This highly innovative solution consists of a
small hydropower, biomass energy and solar power, gasoline engine with a minimum consumption of
are economically competitive. Other technologies fuel, combined with a completely harmless
are dependent on market demand in order to become environment, an electric motor connected to a set of
economically viable compared to conventional nickel metal hybrid batteries for extra power. Both
energy sources. of these energy sources are working together under
the supervision of a sophisticated computer to
The process of adopting new technologies is very
control power management for maximum efficiency
slow. The main problem for the installation of new
in driving.
facilities is the starting price. This raises the price of
energy obtained in the first few years at the level Currently almost all vehicle manufacturers are
higher then energy available on conventional working on hybrid technology, experts from several
methods. A large part of energy production from branches of science working on the development of
renewable sources is the result of ecological efficient hybrid systems.
consciousness of the population, which in spite of
initial economic cost install facilities for the B. Non conventional hybrid systems
production of "clean" energy. The European Hybrid systems are a combination of two or
community has a strategy for doubling the use of more sources of energy for the purpose of balancing
renewable energy sources. The plan contains a their characteristics, and because of the greater
series of measures to encourage private investment system reliability.
in facilities to convert renewable energy into usable
energy (the most part into electricity). In addition, Power systems utilizing renewable energy such
the state of the European Union (EU) have set as wind, solar and micro-hydrorequire control
another ambitious goal to increase the share of methods to maintain stability due to the real time
renewable energy sources 20% of overall energy variation of inputenergy and load, while maximizing
consumption in the EU until 2020. year. the use of renewable resources.[2]
Since they are currently in the experimental
A. Conventional hybrid systems stage, only a few such systems can be found in the
For most people hybrid technology has become world. There are several performances of hybrid
accessible whit introduction of hybrid cars. Whether systems:

 fuel cells in combination with gas turbines or  Lying of the expensive grid line,
micro turbines, transmission and distribution losses can
 Stirling engine combined with solar power beeliminated.
(figure 1.),  Eliminates any associated expensive
 wind power combined with storage tanks of electricity bills.
energy, for example, internal combustion
engines, turbines or fuel cells, The great advantage of hybrids is seen through
the growing environmental awareness of citizens.
 internal combustion engines or micro turbines Parallel with the development of environmental
in combination with storage tanks of energy consciousness scientists will have to expand the
product range of hybrid-powered systems, but also
continue to invest in new technology. For drastic
increase in the popularity of hybrids we need more
than one good model and individual tax breaks from
more advanced countries.
A. Non conventional hybrid systems in practice

Like mention in the previous section there is not
many examples of non conventional systems.
Fuel cell/gas turbine combination cycles have the
potential to achieve efficiencies over 70%, (with
intercooling and exhaust heat recovery 80%
efficiencies are possible), non-optimum arrangement
of the various components can dissipate much of
Figure 1. Stirling engine combined with solar that potential. In addition, operating over 70%
power efficiency may be prohibitively expensive. As
modeling indicates, such efficiency requires a fuel
cell operating with low power density. The low
power density means the cycle will demand more
III. ADVANTAGES OF HYBRID SYSTEMS fuel cells to produce a given amount of electric
power and adequate heat to run the CT, driving up
Some advantages of hybrid systems compared to the cost. The additional fuel cells also shift more of
conventional energy sources: the overall system power output to the more
 Optimum utilization of renewable energy expensive fuel cell, which adds to higher costs. A
sources in a remote area major thrust of this paper is to begin to define and
narrow the ranges where cost and efficiency trade-
 The certainty of meeting load demands at all offs are likely to be optimal.[3]
times is greatly enhanced bythe hybrid
systems A solar Stirling Engine (or Hot Air Engine) takes
advantage of the fact that concentrated sunlight is a
 In some hybrids, batteries are used in fantastic heat source, and as such can be used to
addition to the diesel generator, thebatteries generate electricity more efficiently than
meet the daily load fluctuation, and the photovoltaic solar panels.
diesel generator takes care of thelong term
fluctuations.
 Designed for easy to operate, service and
maintenance when required.
 Most eco friendly and clean source of
power.
 The hybrid systems provide more consistent
year round renewable energyproduction.
These systems are modular and can be
expand easily.
Figure 2. Stirling Engine

The Stirling Engine was developed in 1816 by global temperature increase on Earth. Nuclear fuel is
Robert Stirling in order to offer an alternative to the not dangerous for the atmosphere, but the
frequently explosive early steam engines. Basically compounds formed by nuclear reactions remain
a closed cylinder containing a piston and helium, radioactive for years and should be stored in special
nitrogen or hydrogen gas is heated at one end by tanks. With renewable energy sources we don’t find
concentrated sunlight, and cooled at the other end such problems.
by air or water.
Percentage use of environmentally friendly
As the gas expands and cools with the movement renewable energy is still negligible on a global scale
of the piston, a generator can be driven to produce so that the environmental problems as a result of
electricity. (If the engine is run in reverse then it excessive use of fossil fuels deserve special
produces a cooling effect acting as a 'Stirling attention not only with energy but certainly also
cooler').[4] from the ecological point of view. Different energy
sources have different impacts on the environment
With a Stirling engine combustion occurs outside
in which these sources of energy produced,
the engine which made it much safer and less likely
transported or used. Surface ozone is just one of the
to explode. Stirling Engines did not catch on in the
many problems associated with energy.
nineteenth century because of the costs of
manufacture despite exceptional efficiency of
almost 50% in some cases.
IV. CONCLUSION
The dish pictured above is manufactured by
Stirling Energy Systems of Phoenix, USA. An array
The modern lifestyle involves increasing use of
of concave mirrors focus the sun's rays onto a single
energy in order to achieve greater efficiency and
point which drives a four-cylinder stirling engine
comfort, and energy use is every day increasing.
which turns a 25 kW generator. The concentrated
Currently the majority of energy needs of mankind
solar collector is over 10 meters across and it
is produced by using fossil fuels, and in the future
currently costs 1/4 million dollars.
will have to replace these fuels with cleaner sources
Collectors can be connected together into arrays of energy in the form of renewable energy sources
in order to generate larger amounts of electricity. or nuclear energy.
There are currently proposals to erect a 20,000 dish
As you can see from the article, available energy
array somewhere in the sunny South West of the
is more than enough to cover all possible future
USA to pump out 500 MW of power - more than
energy needs, you just need to find ways to clean
many nuclear or fossil fuel power stations. Stirling
and safe utilization of various energy sources, of
engines can also be used with geothermal heat, or
course, with a gradual reduction of the oil
waste industrial heat, to generate electricity.
companies lobby.
B. Impact of hybrid systems on the environment Due to the increasing influence on everyday life
Production, transportation and energy use in a and quality of life energy has become a major
large extent affect the environment and ecosystems. strategic resource in developed countries.
Energy impact on the environment is almost always
negative, like the direct environmental disasters like
oil spills, acid rain and radiation to the indirect REFERENCES
consequences such as global warming. Since the
energy needs of mankind will continue to grow over
the next few decades, there are necessary measures [1] http://www.scribd.com/doc/52084336/2/ADVANTA
to reduce the impact of energy exploitation on the GES-OF-THE-HYBRID-SYSTEMS
[2] http://www.scribd.com/doc/52084336/2/ADVANTA
environment reduced to a minimum. GES-OF-THE-HYBRID-SYSTEMS
[3] www.worldwes.com/GateCycle/PGen97_FuelCellPa
Two basic problems of non-renewable energy are per.pdf
that we find them in limited quantities and that they [4] http://www.reuk.co.uk/Stirling-Engine-Solar-
pollute the environment. Combustion of fossil fuels Power.htm
[5] http://www.reuk.co.uk/Stirling-Engine-Solar-
releases large amounts of CO2, which is greenhouse Power.htm
gas. It is most likely reason because there has been a

Computational intelligence, and its role in

enhancing sustainable transport systems
Eric Goodyer, Samad Ahmadi, Francisco Chiclana, David Elizondo, Mario Gongora,
Ben Passow, Yinjie Yang
The Centre For Computational Intelligence
DeMontfort University
The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
eg@dmu.ac.uk
Abstract— DeMontfort University's (DMU) Centre (CCI) specialises in the application of CI techniques
for Computational Intelligence (CCI), is engaged in a to provide alternative solutions that are better able to
range of programmes applying modern Computational handle the varied multi-dimensional nature of
Intelligence (CI) techniques to provide superior analysis transport related data.
of complex real-time data sets that arise within transport
systems. Better use existing transport infrastructures can This presentation presents a range ITS systems
achieve positive sustainable outcomes, reducing that have been developed and deployed by the CCI,
congestion, improving air quality, providing real-time covering air quality improvements, congestion
travel information and supporting low carbon vehicles. management and crowd control.
This is exemplified by the following examples.
 ITRAQ, an integrated CI system that uses live
feeds to determine the optimum use of the road
system to reduce congestion and to improve air II. ITRAQ - INTEGRATED TRAFFIC
quality. MANAGEMENT AND AIR QUALITY
CONTROL USING SPACE SERVICES
 Sustainable Airport development Decision
Support Systems. A CI based model that
interfaces with a GIS system to model the iTRAQ will deliver a dynamic traffic
environmental impact of flight paths. management system for optimising use of the road
 The application of CI to solve multi-variable network balanced with the need to sustain high
systems, logistics and passenger information standards of air quality. Financed by the European
Space Agency’s Integrated Applications
 VenusSim. The use of CI to model the dynamics
Programme, the consortium of industry, academic
of customer flows in transport terminals.
and local authority partners combines expertise in
Keywords— Computational Intellignce, Artifical intelligent traffic management, applying GNSS,
Intelligence, Intelligent Transprt Systems developing air quality applications using Earth
Observation and other GMES technologies.
Consortium partners are Infoterra , Leicester City
I. INTRODUCTION Council, DMU and Leicester University.
Operational priorities for iTRAQ are to mitigate
Europe's transport infrastructure is reaching traffic congestion, improve public transportation
capacity, requiring new and innovative techniques network delivery and improve air quality. The
to maximise the usage of the existing network. system will use downstream space services from
Positive economic and environmental impacts can GNSS and GMES, integrated with intelligent traffic
be achieved without the need to invest in new management technology, to deliver real-time
systems, and capital intensive development. optimisation strategies for urban traffic flow and air
Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) are playing a quality management.
growing role in supporting the transport iTRAQ is a project to develop a dynamic traffic
infrastructure; including delivery of logistics management system for optimising use of the road
solutions, active traffic management and passenger network whilst meeting growing demands to sustain
information services. These systems however tend high standards of air quality in urban environments.
to be based on classical algorithmic solutions. De This part of the project is a one year feasibility study
Montfort's Centre for Computational Intelligence to develop a system concept around an existing

operational traffic control system in use in the City particular, near real time guidance on desirable
of Leicester, augmented with traffic flow and air traffic flows is produced which, in a fully-
quality information and near real-time data from implemented system, can be routed to either traffic
space and in situ measurements. light control systems or automated signage to
influence and optimise traffic density. The core of
Congestion within urban environments is a
the system is a computational intelligence module
significant factor in journey time, fuel efficiency,
that estimates the optimal solution which weighs up
driver frustration, total carbon emissions, and local
factors of user priorities, current and forecast traffic
air quality. Traffic densities are increasing, with
flows, and current and forecast air quality. Air
improvements in emission rates failing to provide
quality information is supplemented by both
the necessary compensating impact on air quality.
ground-based remote sensing data, background field
Therefore, systems are required to jointly manage
data from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI)
traffic flows and air quality in urban environments,
on the AURA satellite, and space-borne
to optimise the efficient movement of people and
meteorology data. These data streams are integrated
goods, while protecting the health of residents and
with traditional ground-based sensor networks for
visitors to major cities. Local air quality can be
both traffic and air quality.
significantly impacted by the spatial distribution of
congestion-related emissions, with this scheme The overall objective of this study is to establish
offering unprecedented capabilities in assessing and whether an integrated system of traffic and air
managing the impact of the position of congested quality management, strengthened through the use
traffic. Operational priorities for iTRAQ are to of GNSS, air quality and meteorology data from
mitigate traffic congestion, improve delivery from space-borne assets, could provide societal and
public transportation networks, and improve air economic benefits through implementation at the
quality. These priorities are driven by local, national local authority level. Expected benefits include an
and European level policy in the areas of air quality, increase in average speed through the road network,
local transport and climate. through improved congestion management, and an
improvement in key air quality indicators such as
The iTRAQ system provides advice in near-real-
exceeding regulatory limits for PM10 and nitrogen
time to local authorities on an integrated strategy for
dioxide.
both traffic management and air quality. In
Figure 1. The Leicester road network, overlaid with air quality data produced by the AirViro model. The region of
interest for the iTRAQ pilot study is shown in green.

and high quality routes that can accommodate

III. SUSTAINABLE AIRPORT DEVELOPMENT uncertainties in the data offer significant savings
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS and provides more environmental friendly solutions.
Our approach in providing solutions to this problem
As a hub of multiple traffic modes, an airport focus on finding high quality solutions in real time
usually attracts heavy traffic of aircrafts, vehicles using optimisation methods and methods of
and trains. The noise and emissions produced by artificial intelligence and can tackle cases with mix
the traffic raises a serious environment challenge for fleets, deliveries with time windows, mix delivery
the adjacent residence. A sustainable airport and pickups and many other variants of this
development has to consider the potential impact of problem. We also apply this problem to other
any planned increment of runway capacity, terminal application areas including waste collection and
capacity and flight operations. Computer simulation dial-a ride.
provides a feasible way to check different scenarios
before the costive investment. There have been
many models in use, such as SIMMOD, INM and B. Passenger Information Services
EDMS etc. However, an integrated model
CI is equally applicable to the analysis of data
combining flight operation together with noise and
for use in passenger information services, and good
emission models is preferred in evaluating long term
example being our information system for the
airport development. In this EPSRC project, a
quality of aerial transportation
pyramid structure in evaluating sustainability is put
forward [1] and a prototype [2-4] is developed
This project aimed at building an artificial
where flight operations, noise and emissions are
intelligence based observatory of the quality of
combined together as one model. Different from
Spanish aerial transportation. Including the
others models which are established based on a
production of a ranking of airline companies to help
standard airport with restricted weather and terrain
customer s plan their journeys, and to help
condition, our model adopt computational
companies improve services. Objective/quantitative
intelligence to localise the model into a model
criteria (prices, timetable, punctuality, etc.) and
reflecting the local conditions. Both GIS and neural
subjective/qualitative criteria based on customer
networks are integrated into the model where neural
opinions (collected via questionnaires) were
networks trained with individual airport data are
presented on websites for users to review.
applied to map noise and pollutions distribution. A
Complementing the ranking of airlines, an advisory
user friendly 3D computer aided airport design
system was developed comparing services
interface is also included as part of the system
according to their profile, characteristics of
where 3D trajectories can be easily modified. A
companies and also on opinions previously obtained
sample test against real world data has proved its
on such services by other users.
feasibility in comparison with standard models for
real world airports [5,6].
Considering our experience in developing these C. Data Mining evidence to support hydrogen fuel
models, any collaboration in modelling transport cell vehicles
pollution is welcome.
30 Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicles will be trialled in
Leicester in partnership with Riversimple and
IV. MULTI VARIABLE DATA ANALYSIS Leicester City Council from 2012. CCI will equip
USINFG CI - LOGISTICS & PASSENGER the vehicles with sensors, including GNSS location,
INFORMATION SYSTEMS occupancy, weight and a connection to the vehicles
CAN network. The ethos being that the technology
is proven; what requires examination are the
A. Logisitics economic and environmental impact of using low
Logistics management presents a complex carbon vehicles in a City. CCI will apply data
problem for system designers. CCI have mining techniques to analyse the live data captured
successfully applied Neural Networks to road based from the vehicle sensors, the vehicle's CAN
logistics scenarios, offering superior solutions to network, and subjective information provided by the
traditional algorithmic methods. users. The outcome will be a business model to
support low carbon vehicles.
Deliveries and pickups of goods from
distributions centres to customers is a problem faced D. Environmental Impact Analysis
by all retailers on a daily basis. Finding real time

The application of neural networks by The VenueSim products are based on a SaaS
DeMontfort Universities CCI Staff in transport & (Software as a Service) principle. Its unique
Engineering proposition is that it only uses information that is
currently held on the client site and no additional
In transport and environment engineering, we
hardware is required. As a result the developed
have been involved with both EU and EPSRC
model is unique to that venue site and is able to
research projects. H-Sense is an EU project under
accurately forecast consumer movement based on
FP4 Transport , and we developed the core software
currently available data.
linking artificial neural networks with Geographical
Information Systems [7]. The system had been In airports, the VenueSim Q-Alert product is a
applied in H-Sense for sedimentology prediction in unique software analysis and reporting tool that
the harbours of Göteborg (Sweden), Bergen allows airport operators to forecast (weeks and
(Norway) and Ventspils (Latvia) [8] . In addition months in advance) the flows of passengers through
to the harbour environment, we have also applied their airports and identify which factors will most
Computational Intelligence in support of airport affect these flows. The area that this has most impact
environment management and planning in an is the security zone where flow is most noticeably
EPSRC project [9]. Based on in-situ monitoring affected. By predicting when passengers will arrive
data of air traffic movements, its corresponding at security an airport is able to optimise the security
noise and emissions at Manchester airport, we resources required to meet this demand and get
developed a model to evaluate airport sustainability passengers into the departure lounge as efficiently as
under different development strategies [10]. The possible. This in turn improves customer service and
model provides a CAD facility to construct airport helps to maintain security SLAs.
runway, taxiway and terminals and to manage
Retail is the major profit generator at most
flights and their trajectories so as to reduce noise
airports around the world as airlines drive down the
and emission exposure of nearny residential areas.
landing fees to cater for cheaper air travel. However
In this model, neural networks are employed to map
the increased queues at the security gate has slowed
the planned flight trajectories and frequency into
the flow of passengers and significantly reduced the
noise disturbance and emissions. Our simulation
dwell time (time spent) in the departure lounge.
results show that the model based on Computational
Intelligence could produce a better prediction than As retail spend is directly proportional to dwell time
standard models such as INM in a specific airport the result is a marked reduction in the level of retail
[11]. In this research, we also proposed the pyramid revenues and therefore profit generated. It has been
hierarchical architecture for evaluating sustainability estimated that airports lose 34p profit for every 10
of a complex system like transport where interests minutes that a passenger spends queuing in the
from different stakeholders have to be balanced security area. An airport therefore has the
[12]. opportunity to generate between £80k and £170k
extra profit per annum for every 1 minute reduction
in the time spent queuing in security depending on
the size of the airport.
V. VENUES IM
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9&page=results pages F5-02, Summer 2001.
[8] Yang, Y. and Rosenbaum, M. Artificial neural [11] Yang, Y., Hinde, C. J. and Gillingwater, D. Airport
networks linked to GIS for determining Noise Simulation Using Neural Networks, In
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Science and Engineering, 29(3):213-220, Summer [12] Yang, Y., Gillingwater, D. and Hinde, C. A
2001. conceptual framework for society-oriented decision
support, AI & Society, 19(3):279 - 291, 2005

Railways as a climate friendly transport mode

facing the consequences of climate change and
adapting to them
Lessons from the ARISCC project
Christian Kamburow Dr. Roland Nolte

IZT Institute for Futures Studies and Technology r.nolte@izt.de
Assessment Johannes Rupp
Berlin, Germany j.rupp@izt.de
c.kamburow@izt.de
Abstract— Railways have very low specific and necessity of railway infrastructure companies to start
overall CO2 emissions due to the system inherent energy adaptation measures and activities. The paper gives
efficiency and are therefore the favourable transport an overview on the present and ongoing activities at
mode also for the low carbon and carbon free future. On European infrastructure companies from the
the other side, railway infrastructure is facing challenges
resulting from the consequences of global climate
ARISCC project (Adaptation of Railway
change, notably local and regional extreme weather Infrastructure to Climate Change).
events and changing weather patterns, resulting in
natural hazards. The paper presents ongoing adaptation
measures at European railways and introduces an
integrated natural hazards management for today’s II. THE ARISCC PROJECT
challenges and for the adaptation of railway
infrastructure to the future consequences of climate The ARISCC project – a research, dissemination
change. and implementation project funded by the UIC and
Keywords— climate change adaptation, railway carried out by IZT Institute for Futures Studies and
infrastructure, extreme weather events, integrated natural Technology Assessment in Berlin, Germany –
hazards management assesses and develops strategies for the climate
change adaptation of European railways and pools
the main railway infrastructure operating companies
in Europe in their efforts and knowledge on climate
I. INTRODUCTION
change adaptation. It is a target oriented and added
value delivering project facing today‟s railway
Railways accounted in 2005 in Europe for 1.6% operation circumstances and is not based on a
of total transport emissions of CO2 while theoretical background from a scientific point of
transporting approximately 6% of all passengers and view.
10.3% of all freight, according to the International
Union of Railways (UIC) based on the statistical The objectives of the project are to develop and
data from UIC‟s European members collected on an deliver an integrated management of weather and
annual basis [1]. climate related natural hazards such as flooding,
severe storms, landslides, rock fall, avalanches etc.
On the other side, future (local and regional) in a way that keeps and improves railway
consequences of global climate change will most infrastructure performance and avoids or minimizes
probably have impacts on the built environment and damage to railway infrastructure assets. It starts with
railway infrastructure is one part of it. Consequences natural hazard management under today‟s weather
can be extreme weather events or changing weather conditions and develops solutions and strategies to
patterns in the longer term and these can affect prepare for the changed weather and climate
railway infrastructure in various ways. Therefore, conditions of the future.
one can say that although having a low carbon
intensity, railways services are affected by extreme As mentioned, the present paper gives a targeted
weather events today and there is a risk that they will and practice oriented overview on the preliminary
be affected even more serious in the future due to the project results and the insights on railway
consequences of climate change. This increases the

infrastructure adaptation gained within the work of Past and recent events have shown that especially
the ARISCC project. extreme weather events can have major impacts on
railway infrastructures and transport services (e.g.
A preceding feasibility study to the ARISCC
flooding, damages from drainage failures, tree falls,
project assessed as a very first step the different
snow and ice etc.). The following table gives a
views of European railway infrastructure companies
compilation of such extreme weather events and
on natural hazards, climate change and adaptation,
their impacts on railways in Europe in the time frame
their actions in these fields and their needs regarding
of 1999 until 2010.
a full scale project. Based on the results, the
objectives, the overall design and the targets of the
ARISCC project were drawn. TABLE I. SELECTION OF PAST EXTREME WEATHER
EVENTS WITH IMPACTS ON RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE
AND TRANSPORT SERVICES IN EUROPE
A. Project design
There is a limited number of publications or other Date Event
sources on climate change adaptation and railways 2010, Flooding in Romania (Poland; Ukraine)
[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Due to the target June caused seriously damages and destruction
oriented approach of the project a status quo on till of rail lines and bridges
climate change adaptation at UIC member railways August
was determined using a questionnaire survey 1 2010, Flash floods caused by torrential rain in
resulting in 12 feedbacks in the first round (in 2009) 17th South Eastern France (worst downpours in
and 4 more in the second round (2010/2011), and June the region since 1827); train services along
expecting more feedbacks to be received. the coast were cut off
Additionally, a series of in-depth experts 2010, "Low Andrea“ caused wind speed up to
interviews with some of the forerunner companies in 7th 150 km/h and heavy snow fall with up to
terms of natural hazards management and climate March 60-70 cm in North Eastern Spain
change adaptation were performed to gain specific (Barcelona region with most heavy snow
information on further developed approaches fall since 25 years; also other
Mediterranean sea area); no bus transport in
towards adaptation. Third, a series of thematic Barcelona and almost no railway services
workshops focusing on single aspects were
performed. The work in the project continues and 2010, Winter storm "Xynthia“ with hurricane-
first results are being presented here. 26/28th force wind speeds up to 238 km/h and
Februar torrential rains with flooding in Western
B. Starting point – extreme weather events and y and Central France (also: South Western
Germany), caused tree felling and roads
their impacts and railway lines cut off
Railways have always been subject to the effects
of the weather and were constructed to “survive” 2010, Winter storm "Daisy" with wind speeds of
8/11th more than 100km/h, with snow fall and
natural hazards as infrequent phenomena. Since January snow drifts, freeze in North Eastern
today‟s extreme weather will be tomorrow‟s normal Germany (Eastern and Northern Europe);
weather, and because it is felt among the main caused road and railways closings
railway infrastructure companies that the
consequences of climate change are advancing 2009, Winter storm "Klaus" with wind speed up
rapidly, there is an urgent need to develop and 25th to 200km/h and torrential rains in South
January Western France, Northern Spain (Andorra
implement appropriate adaptation strategies for 216 km/h) and Italy caused forest damages
transport systems including rail [2][4][6][7][10]. The with rail traffic interrupted for 48 hours
challenge for railways is not only to survive extreme
weather conditions, but also to recover quickly from 2008, Winter storm "Emma" with wind speeds
them and to be able to run in what are abnormal 29th from 100 up to 230 km/h in Austria;
Feb. till coming from Germany with wind speed
circumstances today.
2nd between 126 till 140 km/h
March
1
ÖBB-Infrastruktur (Austria), InfraBEL (Belgium), 2007, “UK floods”: After a long rainfall period,
NRIC (Bulgaria), RFF & SNCF (France), JBV (Norway), 1st June more than one hundred flooding or bank-
RHK (Finland), DB Netz (Germany), RFI (Italy), ProRail till 28th slip incidents on the rail network in the
(The Netherlands), CFR (Romania), Banverket (Sweden, July whole United Kingdom (wettest summer
today: Trafikverket), BSL & SBB Netz (Switzerland), ever). This caused widespread delays and
Network Rail (United Kingdom); second round: MAV temporary rail line closures
(Hungary), REFER (Spain), PKP (Poland), CD (Czech
2007, Winter storm “Kyrill” with wind speed up
Republik)
18/19th to 225 km/h caused massive tree felling,

Date Event change, or have dedicated experts for this field. The
January particularly in North Rhine-Westphalia, growing interest in the topic is underlined by the fact
Germany. Coming from Northern England that 5 companies plan to establish cross department
via the North Sea to the Baltic Sea/ Baltic groups for the adaptation to climate change.
States; also other Eastern European States.
Network wide close-down of rail transport TABLE II. ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE AS A
services in Germany for several hours COMPANY ISSUE
2006, Intensive rain upstream, caused a high flow very
20th and erosion in Western Sweden (South of important
4 companies (A,
Decem Munkedal covering the E6 road and the FIN, D, CH)
in..
ber Bohus rail line; Ånn in Jämtland, washed
away a road and rail embankment) Adaptation to 6 companies
climate change is.. (BG, F, GB, I, S
2005, Winter storm "Gudrun“ with wind speed up important
and CAN as
8/9th to 150 km/h in South and Western Sweden in..
non-European
January (Ireland, UK, Norway, Finland, Russia); country)
caused storm felling of forests and a
closure of the rail network due to fallen Established (or
overhead lines, damaged or destroyed planned) task forces
pylons) in 3 companies (A, D, S)
on climate change
and adaptation..
2003, Heat wave ("High Michaela") with
1st till maximum temperatures of 35 to more than in 7 companies (A, CH, D, F,
13th 40°C (longest heat wave since 1950) in Dedicated experts..
GB, I, NL)
August Germany (France, UK etc.)
Planned cross in 5 companies (BG, D, FIN,
2002, River Elbe flooding in Eastern Germany, department groups.. GB, S)
12/13th due to heavy rainfall of up to 312 mm
August within one day in the catchment area Questionnaire survey results from ARISCC feasibility
(Czech Republic) study, 2009
1999, Winter storm "Lothar" with wind speeds of In accordance with the rising priority of the
26th more than 200 km/h in France, Switzerland
Decem and South Western Germany
adaptation to climate change the first railway
ber infrastructure companies start to develop dedicated
policies and adaptation strategies. A very first step in
(Own compilation based on publicly accessible this respect is an inventory of existing knowledge
information, news articles etc.) and experiences in this field as well as preliminary
discussions on priorities and possible targets in the
These events resulted in train delays, line closure areas where expertise is already available. Parallel to
and/ or damages to the railway infrastructure. this screening process some companies improve their
The starting point of our work is therefore today‟s monitoring activities and, thus, start the systematic
actions, strategies and efforts at European railway improvement of the information basis with respect to
infrastructure companies which deal with extreme the status of and the impacts of weather related
weather events and natural hazards. Based on such events on their infrastructure assets as well as to
in-house knowledge and experience some forerunner hazard warning. Further steps are the establishment
companies have addressed the challenge of changes of links to national climate impacts programs and to
in today‟s weather patterns and changes in return other stakeholders.
periods of extreme weather events in the future Based on these heterogeneous experiences and
caused by climate change. Other companies have approaches our aim is to deliver a generic strategy
just started to discuss the effects of climate change for climate change adaptation for railway
on their business. infrastructure companies.
C. Adaptation to climate change as a company
issue
Adaptation to climate change is an upcoming III. FIRST RESULTS
strategic issue for the railways. The majority (10 out
of 14) of railway infrastructure companies classify Railways have a very high interest not only to
the adaptation to climate change as a very important deal with and solve in a fast way events which
or important issue in the company and 10 out of 13 disturb the railway operation and service but also to
have established task forces or are planning to be prepared for new upcoming events. Therefore
establish such groups for the adaptation to climate various approaches and systems for pre-warning and

post-event assessment are in use or being developed Factor

Impact on
at European railways with the intention to be (incl. Effect
Railways/Assets
prepared before certain (extreme weather) events trends)
take place or to be able to learn from past events and Coastal
their consequences by performing detailed storms & Coastal embankments, earthwork,
sea level flooding operation
assessments. This includes the identification of raise
points and sites which showed weakness during past Lightning
events or the identification of potentially vulnerable strikes
sites or assets, such as bridges, drainage system, Overvoltag
and catenaries and signaling
tracks, catenaries, earthworks, signalling system etc. e
thunderst
orms
A. Main impacts of climate change onrailway faster plant
Vegetatio
infrastructure growth, vegetation management
n
new plants
Based on the answers and information from the
European railway infrastructure companies, N=14
questionnaire survey and experts interviews, the
following for railways relevant weather and climate
related factors, associated natural hazards and Some of these topics and problems are already
respective risks for railway infrastructures were arising today and are being addressed at some
identified (always taking into account the European companies through different systems and strategies
coverage of the project): as described in the next subchapter.
B. Areas of actions and activities: systems,

TABLE III. CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACTS OF procedures and strategies in use
EXTREME WEATHER SITUATIONS/ CLIMATE CHANGE ON
RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE FROM QUESTIONNAIRE There are various systems and processes in use at
SURVEY European railway infrastructure companies which
deal with threats and risks from natural hazards
Factor
(incl. Effect
Impact on under today‟s weather conditions.
Railways/Assets
trends) Four important topics build a basis for a strategic
Temperature (change of distribution patterns, higher and target-oriented way of handling such threats and
average and maximum temperature) risks:
High
temperatur
overheating
infrastructure equipment;  weather information, warning and monitoring
es and rolling stock equipment procedures and systems,
heat waves
Sudden  recording, documentation and assessment of
temp track buckling past weather events (event data bases),
Tension &
changes
Intense
overheating
track buckling, slope fires,  mapping of natural hazards which can
sunlight signalling problems potentially impact the railway infrastructure
Precipitation (change of distribution patterns, more (including the locations of possible impacts),
extreme events)
soil
 monitoring and documentation of the status
Intense erosion, damage to embankments, of infrastructure assets (asset data base).
rainfall land sides, earthwork 1) Weather information, warning and monitoring
flooding procedures and systems
Extended
other infrastructure assets,
rain Several systems deal with the topic of weather
slower operation
periods information, warning and monitoring procedures at
Flooding: drainage, European railways. Most railways relay today on the
coastal, soil
erosion, drainage systems, tunnels, standard weather information which is available
surface from the national weather services. Despite the fact
landslides, bridges
water, that coverage of weather stations in Europe is rather
fluvial desiccation
good, the standard services have some
Drought earthworks desiccation disadvantages. Information about weather conditions
Wind (change of distribution patterns, more extreme and developments have to be actively searched for
events) by the people who work with them within the
higher damage to installations, railways and weather information is rather general
Storm/
wind forces catenaries,
gale and not related to the line section topology of
uprooting restrictions/ disruption of
(inland) railway infrastructure. Weather warnings are very
of trees train operation

general: often the spatial and temporal resolution warnings (thunderstorms, flood events and
and/ or the reliability are rather low and pre-warning heavy snowfall), providing the forecast of
times are rather short leaving little time to act. disastrous thunderstorms using „nowcasting‟
Additionally, there is no prioritisation of those data techniques, where the track of thunderstorms
which are especially relevant for the railways. can be forecasted 20 – 60 minutes in advance
To overcome these limitations, some railways  reaching predefined warning levels results in
have introduced dedicated weather information and alert message being automatically generated
weather warning systems. A very important feature by the system and sent out
is the filtering of and focusing on those weather
2) Event data bases – recording , documentation
information relevant for the operation of railway
infrastructure and rolling stock such as expected and assessment of past weather events
gales and storms, events with heavy or prolonged One way to identify vulnerable parts of the
precipitation, sudden temperature changes or leave railway infrastructure is the detailed analysis of past
fall. Another feature of those systems is the extreme weather events and their impacts on
automatic transmission of important weather infrastructure assets as shown in Tab. I in this article
information to the relevant people within the railway on a general, Europe-wide level.
company – either by e-mail, GSM (-R) mobile
communication network or both. Thus, the number The in-depth analysis of extreme weather events
of people informed and the quality level of uses a systematic recording and documentation of
information about actual weather conditions and past events, their storage in event data bases and
projections can significantly be improved. their assessment. It collects standardized
information, such as time of the event, location (line
In regions with a pronounced topography and section) etc., information about the weather event
areas sensitive to natural hazards and thus, very (type of event, duration, intensity) using predefined
specific local weather conditions like the Alps, the criteria and a detailed description about the impact
spatial coverage of public weather stations has on the infrastructure. Post processing as the
proofed to be not sufficient for railway purposes. following step deals then with classification and
The Austrian ÖBB-Infrastruktur has established an impact analysis of the event documentation, the
own railways dedicated weather station network entered data and impact descriptions. All those
adding additional information to close such gaps events are being covered which either caused delays
especially with regard to the prediction of natural in train operation, line closure or damage of
hazards such as snow avalanches, fluvial flooding infrastructure assets.
and mud slides.
Best examples of such event databases combine
More advanced dedicated weather information the available data with graphical information
systems feature clearly defined warnings with regard systems (GIS). One example of such a system is the
to extreme weather situations such has storms and systematic event recording at SBB Infrastruktur
gales, potential flooding, heat waves, snow using an instrument (DERI NR) to record and
avalanches etc. The respective warning levels are document natural hazards at SBB as well as to enter
associated with concrete threshold values and are and store past historic events for a broader data basis
based on experiences. for analysis and the identification of long term
A very good example for this approach is the effects and main points of events.
system Infra.wetter implemented by Austrian ÖBB- Such data bases are predestinated to be connected
Infrastruktur, which features: to other information sources, such as locations,
potentially vulnerable by natural hazards with impact
 forecast models and radar techniques with
on railway infrastructure. Such a linkage is a first
which weather extremes can be forecasted on
step to an integrated natural hazards management as
a scale of 10 km, partly even lower,
described in the next main chapter.
 forecast of floods integrating the water level 3) Mapping of natural hazards with potential
of the rivers of a given catchment area and impact on railway infrastructure
the meteorological data so that the warnings
can be sent 12 hours in advance, An approach for the identification of vulnerable
parts of the railway infrastructure (in analogy to the
 snowfall forecast including the amount of analysis of past events) is the identification of
snowfall in the next 1-3 days for single areas, current and future natural hazards and their potential
 a dedicated operational warning service, impact on infrastructure assets.
which provides also real-time severe weather

An example from Switzerland are maps of IV. LEGISLATIVE AND REGULATIVE DEMANDS
potential hazards which have been developed by the
Swiss Federal Office for the Environment FOEN for There has been some first demands from national
all Swiss regions and are also being used by SBB . and/or governmental institutions and entities in some
Natural hazards, such as rock fall, landslides, debris countries on railways to deal with and to address the
flow/ mudflow and snow avalanches are included. topic of climate change adaptation more actively and
Areas of potential rock fall have been modeled with to report the ongoing processes and approaches to
a high resolution. A potential hazard is indicated on the entities. In the UK the Climate Change Act 2008
the maps if rock fall processes can impact railway established reporting power from the government to
tracks, roads and settlements and cause damage. all crucial infrastructures including railway
These data of potential natural hazards are merged infrastructure which resulted in a first official
with the digitalized railway network data and maps reporting [8][11]. Also, in Germany the Eisenbahn-
highlighting those line sections with the potentially Bundesamt EBA (the German Federal Railway
highest exposure to the different types of natural Authority) has included the question of climate
hazards are being generated. change consequences, their assessment and
4) Monitoring and documentation of the status of adaptation measures within the framework of the so-
infrastructure assets (asset data base) called Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung
(environmental impact assessment) for new lines or
Of course, the potential impact of natural hazards the upgrade and refurbishment of existing lines [12].
on the infrastructure is not only resulting from the
exposure to such hazards but also depending on This gives indications that railway infrastructure
status of infrastructure assets and – where necessary companies will not only have to address the question
– protective measures. Knowing the precise status of of adaptation from a business and operational point
these assets – age, overall status, last time being of view but also legislative and regulative demand
monitored or checked, exact location (which is not will increase and become an important driver form
always the case for old structures not directly at the climate change adaptation.
track side) – allows the assessment of the resilience Integrated natural hazards management. As a
status of a given line section. result of the different approaches, strategies and
Combining these data and information with the systems in use at European railways to cope with
potential hazards as mentioned before allows a natural hazards and extreme weather events an
precise evaluation of weaknesses of a given line integrated natural hazards management has been
section or, if applied widely, of (a part of) the developed including the different elements,
network. Such efforts are being applied only in very processes and information flows as shown in Fig. 1.
few companies at the present stage as efforts are This structure and outline of a generic integrated
rather high. Such activities can result in another step natural hazards management resulted from the
towards a broader natural hazards management: the assessment and analysis of the different approaches,
assessment of the vulnerability of railway assets with strategies and systems in use, their strengths and
respect to the different natural hazards (vulnerability weak points and their additional needs to include
maps). future oriented approaches to tackle the challenges
Further aspects which have not yet been assessed from climate change and to adapt to these changing
within the project in depth, cover: circumstances.
 assessment and management of the risks A. Addressing weather related issues
associated with different natural hazards –
Following the before described already available
risks to asset integrity, railway operation,
and used systems, the main features of dedicated
environment, railway image and safety risk
weather information and weather warning systems
(risk management),
for railways can be summarized as follows:
 assessment of future weather and climate
 Temporally and spatially highly resolved
related natural hazards by using regional
weather information related to the line
climate models,
section topology of railway networks,
 recommendations for strategies and measures
 generation of reliable weather warnings with
for the adaptation of railway infrastructures
coded warning levels,
to climate change.

Figure 1. Integrated natural hazards management for railway infrastructzure companies, including clmate change
adaptation
 provision of additional tailored weather B. Including adaptation into weather related issues
information relevant for the operation of
railway infrastructures and rolling stock, such Adaptation to climate change can be integrated
as water level in rivers, amount of local into dedicated weather information and weather
snowfall, information on leaf fall warning systems by an assessment of the current
(slipperiness) etc., warning levels and their projection into the future
taking into account the expected climate loads.
 easily accessible weather information via These can be derived e.g. from high resolution
dedicated information and communication regional climate models. The most relevant output
systems, for this purpose is the change of return periods and
 visualisation of weather data, predictions and intensity of extreme weather events. When warning
warnings using a GIS-based overlay of levels have to be adapted it has to be evaluated if the
railway tracks and meteorological data. response processes linked with the warning levels
are still appropriate under the changed conditions.

C. Assessment – identification of natural hazards, of the potential natural hazards, the assets and their
vulnerability and risk assessment status and the data on past events and their impacts.
In order to keep the effort for hazard mapping, as Work on determining applicable and working
described before, reasonable, a multi level approach approaches and guidelines to come to conclusions on
is recommended: vulnerability is still going on and no preliminary
 Screening: identification of those parts of the results are available at this time, as is the same also
network with a high exposure to natural for the topic of risk assessment.
hazards (priority areas) and investigation of Nevertheless, climate change and its
priority areas by modeling efforts, consequences and impacts can be addressed and
development of maps of potential natural integrated at each level and step of the drafted
hazards; natural hazards management, i.e. not all steps have to
 Detailed investigation of priority areas by on be performed or established before climate change
site inspections and modeling approaches, adaptation can take place through adequate
development of high resolution natural measures.
hazard maps. Work within the project continues and a detailed
1) Screening – identification of priority areas design of a generic approach to climate change
adaptation of railway infrastructure will stand as a
A first step of hazard mapping (and the final deliverable, approved by the involved
succeeding vulnerability and risk mapping and infrastructure companies and ready to be adopted by
assessment) can be carried out by using the outcome others. Results are available at www.ariscc.org.
of the analysis of past extreme weather events and
their impact on the railway network – especially on The intention of this paper was to give a status of
train delays and infrastructure damage. A second line the achieved results and findings and the developed
of assessment is the use of the output of regional integrated approach for railway infrastructure
modeling of major hazards such as flooding (flood companies to cope with the consequences of climate
maps). change on their business already today by addressing
tomorrow‟s challenges arising from these
As a result of this screening phase, a very rough, consequences.
large scale general hazard map can be produced
which shows which part of the network have a
potentially high exposure to the different natural
hazards such as flooding, landslides and mud slides, ACKNOWLEDGMENT
rock fall, snow avalanches and wind throw.
Once the priority areas have been identified, The authors would like to thank the
modern modeling techniques can be used to simulate representatives and experts of various European
natural hazards and their potential impacts. For each railway infrastructure companies for their (ongoing)
type of natural hazard a dedicated modeling help, their willingness to share and exchange
approach has to be used. knowledge and insights and to push further the topic
of climate change adaptation of a crucial
2) Detailed investigation of priority areas by on infrastructure: John Dora from Network Rail (UK),
site inspections Christian Rachoy from ÖBB-Infrastruktur AG
The maps of potential hazards from the preceding (Austria), Andreas Meier from SBB Infrastruktur
phase can be further improved by integrating (Switzerland), Matthias Mather and his team at DB
knowledge about the real situation in the relevant BahnUmweltZentrum (Germany) and Margrethe
areas including information about protective Sagevik and Alex Veitch from UIC Sustainable
measures and structures. This information can Development department (France). Also, we would
preferably be gained through dedicated on-site like to thank all the other persons from numerous
inspections. railway companies in Europe and from other
continents who participate on different levels in the
When merging this knowledge from the on-site project.
assessment with the output from the modeling of
potential natural hazards and the digitalized railway
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Automated Preform Fabrication by Dry Tow

Placement
AUTOW
Ronald Klomp – de Boer

Structures Technology Department
National Aerospace Laboratory NLR
Marknesse, The Netherlands
ronald.klomp@nlr.nl
Abstract— With the ever increasing percentage of hour. With Automated Fiber Placement (AFP) this
composites in aircraft structures aiding weight and fuel could be increased to 6.5 to 11kg/hour for complex
reduction, so is the level of automation expanding tools and for simple parts even up to more than 20kg
rapidly. One of the most notable being Automated Fiber per hour [1]. The capital investment of few hundred
Placement (AFP) offering high lay-up rates combined
with very precise ply thickness control, in-process
thousand to several millions Euro for AFP
compaction, high consistent quality, low void content, machinery can be more than compensated by this
unlimited fiber angles and low material scrap rate. increase in lay-up rate, whereas the costs of labor
Another manufacturing method being used more and will only increase in future. Combined with other
more is often referred to as Liquid Composite Molding advantages of AFP over hand lay-up such as very
(LCM). The advantages of this process are that it is precise ply thickness control, in-process compaction,
possible to use cheaper materials and simpler tooling. It high consistent quality, low void content (typically <
also enables cheaper processing, tight tolerances, part 1%), unlimited fiber angles (tow path optimization)
integration, reducing assembly costs. So far, the potential and low material scrap rate (5 to 20%). To
advantages of LCM could not be fully exploited, because summarize the above, the Boeing 787 would not
preforming is either a manual process or else an
automated process with limited scope, such as weaving or
have been built without the development of AFP. An
braiding. The aim of the AUTOW project was combining example of AFP manufacturing is shown in Fig. 1.
the best of both techniques through the development of
manufacturing technology for automated preforming with
a matching parallel development of a design capability.
The basis of this innovation is Dry Fiber Placement
(DFP) using AFP technology. This paper will inform on
the background objectives, the technical progress and the
results achieved.
Keywords— automation, composites, liquid molding,
variable stiffness, fiber steering, analysis, manufacture,
testing
I. INTRODUCTION
The percentage of fiber reinforced materials

(composites) in primary aircraft structures continues
Figure 1. Thermoplastic tape placement of skin
to grow. With this growth comes demand for
continuous improvements in manufacturing
technology. The most common manufacturing Another novel manufacturing method, often
technology for composites used today involves referred to as Liquid Composite Molding (LCM),
manual stacking of pre-impregnated sheets of uses dry fabric which is pre-formed into the
material followed by cure in an autoclave. It uses component shape, placed in a mold, subsequently
complex tooling and precludes a high level of part injected with resin and cured. The advantages of this
integration, increasing assembly effort. Hand lay-up process are that it is possible to use cheaper materials
of cut prepregs are labor intensive and a highly and simpler tooling. It also enables cheaper
trained technician can place just about over 1kg per

processing and part integration, reducing assembly  an integrated design engineering approach.
costs. An example of an advanced aerospace
composite structural component with tight As shown in Fig. 3 all aspects need to be addressed
geometrical tolerances manufactured using LCM and to achieve the final goal of cost reduction.
matched metal tooling is shown below in Fig. 2.
Figure 2. Composite beam with integrated bracket

[NLR]
Figure 3. All aspects need to be addressed to reduce
costs while meeting all requirements.
So far, the potential advantages of LCM could
not be fully exploited, because preforming is either a
manual process or else an automated process with Critical areas that were developed are:
limited scope, such as weaving or braiding. An  Advanced machine and materials expertise
innovative technology for the automated fabrication to develop a material that is compatible with
of complex preforms developed would overcome the machine, will stick to the mold or
these problems and could enable cost savings of up substrate and allow resin injection in a
to an estimated 40% in comparison with current subsequent LCM-process.
technology, due to cheaper part manufacturing, less
scrap, reduced assembly and increased accuracy. The  Aerospace expertise to determine the scope
basis of this innovation is dry tow placement using and constraints of the new fabrication
AFP technology. capability with respect to preform shapes,
fiber trajectories and processing parameters
The aim of the AUTOW project was the for relevant applications.
development of manufacturing technology for
automated preforming, with a parallel development  Expertise in materials modeling, process
of a design capability to match. The AUTOW project simulation, structural analysis and
developed the technology by adapting existing optimization to obtain an integrated design
automated deposition capability for pre-impregnated engineering approach for the design of
materials (prepregs) with the capability to deposit components to be made with the new
dry fiber tows, allowing the fabrication of complex fabrication capability.
preforms. These can then be injected with a cost- A schematic overview of the project work
efficient, automated LCM process. The complexity packages (WP) and responsible work package
of the challenge to develop this new technology is in leaders is given in Fig. 4.
the multi-disciplinary approach required to adapt,
develop and explore: The focus of this paper will be on the work done
and the results achieved in WP 1, 2, 3 and 4.
 machine capability,
Table I shows all the different partners involved
 material format, in the AUTOW project and the point of contact.
 process window,

placement and obtaining process windows for the

new preforming method by fabricating generic
preforms.
To achieve these objectives a number of issues
needed to be dealt with. Current AFP machines can
place preimpregnated fiber reinforced thermoset and
/ or thermoplastic tape, making depositing dry fiber
Figure 4. Organisation of the AUTOW project material a real novelty and challenge. The AFP
showing the 6 Work Packages and WP leaders. machines used within the consortium were not laid
out for placing dry tows and needed to be modified.
This implied the specification, conception, design,
TABLE I. fabrication, assembly and instrumentation of the
AUTOW partners adaptations to the machines.
Short
name Cou EADS-IW, DAV and NLR worked in parallel on
Partner POC
ntry their AFP machines experimenting with the dry fiber
National Aerospace Ronald The
tows supplied by Hexcel. In order to deposit the dry
NLR Laboratory NLR Klomp – Netherl fiber tows successfully on the tooling, they first need
(Coordinator) de Boer ands to the guided thru the AFP machine and head
appropriately. The partners involved have
Mourad successfully developed and implemented machine
DAV Dassault Aviation France
Chohra
modifications to enable this and overcome problems
EADS- EADS Innovation Catherin
France
encountered such as fraying at the compaction roller
IW Works e Duval and fraying and winding of the tows around the
Hexcel Henri pinch rollers. But also tuning the flow of the gas
HXL France torch to prevent the fibers from being blown apart
Reinforcements Girardy
was investigated.
Office National
Pierre
ONER d’Études et de Once the machines were properly adapted to
Beauche France
A Recherches
ne
placing dry tows, which happened in close co-
Aérospatiales operation with WP2 materials development and
Katholieke Stepan Belgiu characterization, the work started on investigating
KUL the process windows for the new capability. This
Universiteit Leuven Lomov m
implied the identification of configurations of
University of Klaus interest, and the specification of the features to be
German
IFB Stuttgart – Institute Drechsle
y investigated, such as fiber trajectories-steering
for Aircraft Design r
radius, minimum access areas, and limits for concave
The and convex curvatures, as well as the development of
Delft University of Zafer
TUD Netherl innovative lay-up tooling. Fig. 5 shows an example
Technology Gürdal
ands of dry fiber placement (DFP) trial.
Vyzkumny a
zkusebni letecky Czech
Vaclav
VZLU ustav (Aeronautical Republi
Kafka
research and test c
institute)
Herman
Israel Aircraft
IAI Leibovic Israel
Industries
h
Keilmann
Guido German
KSL Sondermaschinenba
Jaeger y
u GmbH
II. MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

A. Dry tow placement capability
The objectives of WP1 were to develop Figure 5. Dry fiber placement trial
fabrication capabilities to deposit dry carbon fibers
on a defined laying-up tool by automated tow

Only very few parts of an aircraft are flat, paths as discussed in the next chapter, but also
therefore a number of generic geometries were following variable part contours such as in the flange
created to investigate the processability of the dry of a sine wave rib as described in chapter IV. The
fiber tows for real structural parts. Basically these limitations of fiber steering and minimum radii were
generic preforms cover typical design features such also investigated for the dry fiber tow configuration.
as inner radii, outer radii and slopes. These tools
were developed by NLR, EADS-IW and Dassault in
close cooperation with KSL.
Figure 8. Example of fiber steering with AFP [NLR]
Figure 6. Dry fiber tow placing trials on outer radii

The development of the dry fiber placement
generic tool at EADS-IW / Dassault location
capability was an iterative process of dry fiber tow
placement trials and AFP machine and processing
modifications. The resulting processing window
formed an essential input for the design and
manufacture of the full scale validation part and the
analysis and simulation tool development.
B. Materials development and characterisation

The objectives of WP2 were to develop one or
more material configurations, consisting of dry tow
material suited for AFP and LCM processing. In
doing so the material properties and process
parameters also needed to be determined by
fabricating and testing specimens.
During the AUTOW project Hexcel was able to
develop and manufacture a dry tow fiber
Figure 7. Dry fiber fiber placing trial on varying configuration. The dry fiber is based on the fiber
inner radius tool at NLR HexTow® IMA 12K and combined with HexFlow ®
RTM6 resin for injection, both well-known high
performance composite constituents. The
Manufacturing trials on these generic preform performance and processing requirements were
tools revealed the processing window within which discussed with EADS-IW, DAV and NLR. These
an acceptable preform can be manufactured. Outside partners in turn investigated these dry fiber tows on
this processing window defects start to occur such as the compatibility with the machine and the tackiness.
wrinkling and shifting on concave surfaces and fiber A range of process parameters such as torch
bridging in concave sections. The process window temperature, compaction roller pressure, speed, etc.
was mainly geometrically defined, resulting in e.g. were investigated along with machine modifications
minimum radii for inner and outer contours. One of in WP1. This resulted in successfully depositing dry
the attractive features of AFP is the ability of fiber fiber tows onto a flat mandrel and injecting this dry
steering. An example is shown in Fig. 8. This allows preform using Resin Transfer Molding (RTM). Fig.
for variable stiffness design and optimizing fiber

9 shows the NDI results using C-scan revealing a

good quality laminate which was confirmed by
microscopic pictures taken from cross sections of the
test laminates.
Figure 10. Interlaminar shear strength (ILSS)

properties test at VZLU, responsible for mechanical
testing in AUTOW
Figure 9. C-scan of resin injected preform using
Resin Transfer Molding [RTM] revealing good quality
laminate (inner square is the test panel) An important mechanical property in the design
of robust aerospace composite structures is the
compression strength after impact (CAI). Coupons
This was only the first phase of the material were manufactured and conditioned and were
development. Next the architecture and mechanical impacted with an energy level of 35J. Subsequent
properties of preforms and cured composite NDI revealed that the delamination and damaged
laminates had to be determined. These provide area was sufficiently small so as not to be influenced
crucial input for design and simulation. The by the supporting structure and allowed testing the
laminates are made using LCM which involves coupons to their ultimate compression strength
injecting a resin through the dry preform. To be able impact. Also the tension and compression modulus
to understand and predict the flow the permeability were determined and combined with strength data
of the dry preforms must be determined. ONERA provided input for the design of the full scale
was responsible for determining and modeling the validation part.
permeability characteristics of the dry tow fiber
preforms. ONERA developed and improved their
permeability measurement setup enabling detailed
measurement of the permeability and flow front.
Both air and silicon oil was used as test media. Here III. ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION
it should be noted that generally LCM uses dry fiber
preforms consisting of woven fabrics and the The objectives of WP3 were:
behavior of dry tow fiber preforms before AUTOW
was rather unknown. The tested dry tow fiber  To support fabrication with a design
preforms addressed manufacturing tolerances by capability
investigating the effect of gaps between and overlaps  To develop integrated design engineering
of the tows. The research at ONERA showed that the approach for dry tow placement:
dry tow fiber preforms show different permeability
characteristics than conventional dry fabric preforms, o optimize designs for compatibility
but the behavior can be predicted and successful with manufacturing constraints, as
injection using either vacuum assisted infusion or well as design requirements.
RTM is possible. o make use of new capabilities,
The permeability investigation formed part of a notably fiber steering, to improve
test matrix involving determination of preform performance.
properties, material architecture, mechanical
performance and cure characteristics. A commonly The partners in this WP under leadership of
used test method providing information on the cured TUDelft, were KULeuven, ONERA, IFB and
laminate quality and mechanical performance is the Dassault. This work package set out to support a new
short beam interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) test. fabrication capability with the development of an
An example of a test sample is given in Fig. 10. A integrated design engineering approach. For this
range of dry fiber material configurations were purpose, it was envisaged to use both commercially
tested, revealing the best version. available models and software and tools developed

in other EU-projects. The interaction between the as tensile testing accompanied by acoustic emission
different modules had to be established, with a (AE) and full-field strain mapping measurements;
structure optimization module guiding the design characterization of damage patterns and failure
process. This approach is needed to efficiently adapt mechanisms using X-ray radiography and scanning
a design to comply with manufacturing constraints, electron microscopy. The ultimate goal is to relate
while still satisfying the design requirements, and damage in the material at different loading levels to
optimizing fiber paths. microstructural features of the material and defects
of production. KULeuven has published work related
In AUTOW all design aspects are linked. For
to AUTOW in [4].
example the stacking sequence required for optimal
mechanical performance will also have an effect on As mentioned one of the most promising
the permeability. To ensure this optimal lay-up can advantages of automated fiber placement machines
also be injected, the permeability characteristics need is fiber steering. Previous research, e.g. [5] and [6],
to be simulated as well. For this purpose ONERA has shown that buckling loads of composite panels
developed a set of generic preforms and worked on can be improved significantly by allowing the
predictive models of fibrous materials (preforms) laminate stiffness to vary locally. This variable
permeability both analytical as well as 3D FE. stiffness approach results in improvement of
buckling performance in excess of 100% compared
To better understand and hereby being able to
to quasi-isotropic laminates [0, ±45, 90 deg
predict static and cyclic, dynamic behavior of
orientation]. The TUDelft was responsible for
composites, composites can basically be investigated
developing a design optimization method for steered
at three levels. Starting at the highest, the macro
composites structures. In doing so they developed a
level in relation to composites denotes the gross
two step approach. In general the structural response,
properties of a composite as a structural element but
so the deflections and strains due to loading, can be
does not consider the individual properties or
computed using equivalent stiffness values
identity of the constituents. This is the level at which
determined using e.g. Classical Laminate Theory
the mechanical properties of the designed composite
(CLT). This approach therefore starts at the macro
laminate, consisting of several plies, are used. The
level, because in terms of structural design and
micro level denotes the properties of the constituents,
optimization, it is neither realistic nor necessary to
i.e., matrix and reinforcement and interface only, as
model each tow, as an equivalent stiffness
well as their effects on the composite properties [3].
distribution is sufficient. An outline of the
The third meso level forms the important transition
optimization methodology is shown in Fig. 11.
area from the separate constituent materials fiber and
Lamination parameters uniquely define the
resin to the reinforcement architecture. The ultimate
laminate’s stiffness properties and hence allow an
strain at failure in epoxy-based carbon fiber
arbitrary stiffness distribution to be modeled with the
reinforced composites under tensile loading in the
minimum number of design variables. The solution
fiber direction is typically 1.3-1.8%. However,
of the continuous optimization provides the designer
typically the allowable strains used in designing
with a conceptual stiffness distribution best matching
composite parts are only 1/5 of the strain-to-failure.
the desired performance constraints. This conceptual
If it would be possible to increase this to 1/3, then
stiffness distribution can be translated into actual
less heavy parts could be made that in turn would
fiber paths and stacking sequences while applying
lead to reductions in fuel consumption and
manufacturing constraints such as minimum steering
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission. Reducing and
radii. Using a Genetic Algorithm (GA) to obtain an
eventually eliminating this performance gap,
initial fiber angle distribution and Cellular Automata
requires detailed insight in damage initiation and
(CA) to enforce manufacturing constraints, the true
growth which starts at the micro level. The damage
fiber architecture can be determined. Using design
initiation threshold depends on material properties of
sensitivities the optimum lay-up can be retrieved [7].
the matrix but is also sensitive to the meso- and
On the subject of variable stiffness and optimization
micro-scale geometry of the reinforcement
a number of technical papers have been published
architecture, including non-uniformity of the fiber
[7] - [9].
distribution, the presence of resin rich zones, etc.
These microstructural features of the material are
closely related to the production method. If the latter The independent modules and methods developed
can improve microstructure of the composite, the by ONERA, KULeuven and TUDelft needed to be
damage resistance of the composite and the final part integrated. To fully exploit the potential of the
made of this composite can also be significantly scientific research and results, these academic
optimized. The KULeuven was responsible for methods preferably need to be embedded in
investigating this for the dry fiber tow material. For engineering tools and software commonly used by
this various experimental methods were applied such aerospace engineers. This will greatly facilitate

implementation and acceptance of the novel complex flat-rib. The reason for this was that by
approach of variable stiffness and fiber steering. IFB reducing geometric complexity, tooling and
was responsible for connecting these separate manufacturing could be reduced while fiber steering
modules. could be used to compensate for the resulting loss of
buckling resistance. To meet all design and
manufacturing requirements as used for the sine
wave rib by IAI in WP4, the optimum flat-rib was
found to be 15% heavier than the sine-wave rib.
However, this design has the benefit of using
considerably less complex manufacturing tooling.
Additionally, it should be noted that only a reduced
area of the web was designed using fiber steering
and further weight reduction is possible if the entire
rib were to be designed using the variable stiffness
approach allowing thickness variation. Also the
variable stiffness design improves the buckling load
factor by more than 50% compared to a quasi-
isotropic lay-up for the flat rib web area showing the
Figure 11. Overview of the proposed optimization added value of variable stiffness design. In a final
process (FEA: Finite Element Analysis, GA: Genetic step it was demonstrated how fiber paths can be
Algorithm, CA: Cellular Automata) [7] generated from the obtained fiber angle design.
These fiber paths can be used as input for the tow-
placement machine.
With CATIA being a mainstay in the aerospace Although the variable stiffness approach in
industry this was the most logical choice of the combination with fiber steering has been mainly
CAD/CAE software to be used. For the FEA step investigated for buckling optimization, the same
several standard software tools were investigated. methodology can also be used for optimizing the
During the project it became clear that MSC Nastran composite structure strength wise. For this purpose
as finite element (FE) solver was the right selection the TUDelft and Dassault developed a conventional
as the familiarization and the integration during the and variable stiffness design of a tension test panel
project showed. With Nastran it is possible to representing a fuselage panel with window cut-out.
compute the necessary sensitivities for the
optimization process. IFB developed three different
software modules in Visual Basic code which is
supported from CATIA V5. The first module
CATNAS connects the CATIA design to Nastran
and the TUDelft optimizing module. The second
module CATVIS is necessary for the visualization of
the calculated fiber orientation for each element in
CATIA V5. By visualization of the fiber orientation
by a line over the actual part geometry it is possible
for the designer to look at the fiber orientation
optimization result. The designer will be able to
connect the result to a global fiber layout which can
be manufactured afterwards on the AFP machine.
Finally the program CATADC links the tow path
generation in CATIA V5 with the machine software
named Fiber Placement Manager (FPM).
To test and demonstrate the potential of the
integrated design approach and optimization tools in
WP3 an alternative design of a beam with a flat web
was created using the above described approach,
whereas in WP4 the more conventional lay-up
orientations [0, ±45, 90] and engineering tools were
used to design, manufacture and test a sine wave Figure 12. Test panel with central hole to be tested
beam. The first challenge for TUDelft and IFB was at Dassault
to develop an equivalent but geometrically less

Ideally a laminate is created with a variable IV. FULL SCALE VALIDATION

stiffness (VS) resulting in a strain distribution with
each location in the panel being equally critical. The In WP4 the objective was to validate the new
stress concentration normally found at the holes’ technology, by performing the complete cycle of
edge and causing initial failure can hereby be design, analysis, fabrication and testing for a
avoided. The effect is illustrated below in Fig. 13 as representative component – a component which is
the failure index distribution. Note that the values of generic, but “full-scale” and sufficiently detailed to
the failure index are normalized such that a critical illustrate the new automated dry fiber placement
value of 1 is reached for the baseline quasi-isotropic capability. Changing to AFP offers advantages, but
plate. The research on optimizing in terms of the there are some hurdles to overcome before it can be
failure index was presented in another paper [10]. successfully integrated. Besides the investment cost,
there is a learning curve. Designers will have to learn
to design composite structures that work and
integrate or in other words are compatible with AFP
software, requiring engineers to learn the
fundamentals of automated fiber placement and how
it works with the design, while machine operators
must be trained to use the new equipment [1]. In
WP4 this learning curve is part of the validation of
the new technology.
QI VS WP4 started out by performing a trade-off study
versus traditional technology for five structural
Figure 13. Failure index distribution for the quasi- components to qualify the new capability. To focus
isotropic (QI) plate and the optimal variable stiffness this trade-off study, five components were already
(VS) plate defined in the Description of Work each of which are
envisaged suitable candidates to be fabricated with
the new technology, and incorporate features which
Taking into account the manufacturing
are specifically achievable with dry tow placement.
constraints such as a minimum fiber steering radius,
These components are: a center wing box fitting, a
the optimal variable stiffness distribution can be
sine-wave beam with access hole, an angled wing
translated to a fiber angle distribution. An example is
panel, a landing gear component and a lattice wing
shown in Fig. 14. Several designs were generated
nose rib. All partners evaluated these components on
and compared to the baseline constant stiffness,
several issues such as manufacturing (AFP, LCM),
quasi-isotropic lay-up. All constraints considered,
design and optimization, testing using their expertise.
applying variable stiffness is predicted to improve
After a joint meeting and evaluation, the sine wave
the failure index by 70 to even 100%.
beam was selected as the full scale validation part.
The tests of both the baseline and optimal
variable stiffness panel, both made using the dry tow A. Design
fiber material, are planned at Dassault the week IAI designed and stressed a concept composite
before the presentation of this paper at the REACT sine-wave rib with a central hole being
conference in Belgrade and could not be reported representative for a rib of a business jet wing, with a
machined aluminum rib as benchmark. Fig. 15
shows the sine wave rib location and FEM model
from IAI. This concept design provided a good
starting point for discussions on manufacturability
and design/stress. One of the major issues is the
definition of the fiber orientation. What is defined in
the Patran-Nastran model certainly does not always
match with what can be programmed in FPM and
can be placed using the AFP machine. For example
very basically the partners need to agree on the
definition of 0deg orientation in the rib flange. Also
the wave length and depth are partly determined by
the capabilities of the AFP machine and need to be
considered in the design. The central hole was later
Figure 14. Two ways of representing fiber angle deleted to allow a design fully critical on buckling
distribution for one ply and not failure around the edge of the hole. This

allowed WP3 to try and develop an alternative The resulting sine wave rib design is shown in
design of the rib with a flat web and using variable Fig. 17. The rib consists of a central web area with a
stiffness through fiber steering and comparison thickness of nearly 2mm surrounded by almost twice
between these two concepts. as thick a laminate extending into the ribflanges. The
general dimensions of the rib are 1370mm length
and approximate height of 400mm.
Figure 17. Final design of sine wave rib full scale

Figure 15. Sine wave rib location and overall FEM validation article
model from IAI
IAI further detailed the design supported by NLR, As there were some concerns on the structural
DAV and EADS-IW, on topics related to tow performance of the flange to web corner area under
placement requirements and limitations. For the tensile loading, radius fillers (throat washer) were
design several load cases were represented through a designed for the full scale test article. Compared to
Nastran/Patran FEM model, such as continuous up the original I-shape aluminum rib the weight was
gust, pratt up gust, crushing loads and fuel tank reduced by 10%, taking into account the aluminum
pressure. An example is shown in Fig. 16. radius fillers. The weight would be further reduced
by 25% if these were eliminated.
B. Manufacture
As IAI designed the rib in close cooperation with
NLR, DAV and EADS-IW, NLR could translate the
design into a program for AFP manufacture of the
dry preform without undue delay and major
difficulties. Parallel to this KSL developed the sine
wave tooling supported by NLR, DAV and EADS-
IW. Fig. 18 shows the manufacture of the sine wave
dry preform using the AFP machine at NLR. Here it
is of interest to note that manual lay-up of sine wave
ribs is complex and time consuming, requiring a
trained technician two days for the rib size
considered. With further AFP process and machine
improvements the preform can be made in a matter
of hours or less.
The dry preform was shipped to IAI. IAI
developed the metal tooling and used resin infusion
Figure 16. Example of FEM model representing for injecting the dry preform with HexFlow ®
crushing load RTM6 resin. Resin infusion involves a single sided
tool, with the dry preform covered by auxiliary
materials and a vacuum bag. The resin is drawn

through the dry preform using vacuum only.

ONERA supported IAI in simulating the resin flow
during resin infusion. Combined with IAI’s
extensive knowledge and experience infusion and
curing of the sine wave ribs proved to be feasible.
Figure 18. Manufacture of sine wave dry preform

with AFP at NLR showing fiber steering in the ribflange
Three dry preforms were manufactured and

injected. In general it can be concluded that even
though the sine wave rib is a challenging shape to
manufacture, good laminate quality can be Figure 19. Full scale testing of sine wave rib at
manufactured especially for less complicated VZLU
geometries such as skin and fuselage panels. Further
machining of the cured sine wave rib revealed no
problems and two injected ribs were shipped to
VZLU for testing.
C. Testing
IAI in close cooperation with VZLU setup the
test plan and performed the static analysis of the sine
wave rib in the test configuration. Two injected ribs
were shipped to VZLU. One rib was provided with
front and rear brackets and upper and lower skin
sections to represent the location in the wingbox.
From the other rib four sections were cut for tensile
and compression testing with and without the radius
filler. Fig. 19 shows the full scale test setup of the
sine wave rib at VZLU. The rib was tested by global
bending to ultimate values of load, which it
withstood successfully.
Figure 20. Test segments with radius fillers (throat
The test rib segments with radius filler are shown washer)
in Fig. 20. The test rib segments without radius filler
are basically the same and tested in a similar way. Although the strengthening influence of the
radius fillers was obvious, rib segments both with
A special guide was designed to eliminate and without radius fillers withstood the ultimate
transversal forces on load cell and actuator as shown tension and compression loads. In case future cyclic
in Fig. 21. behavior shows similar acceptable structural
response, this can further simplify and reduce the
weight of the composite rib.

The described research performed in the

AUTOW project will contribute to realizing a
validated fabrication technology for automated
preform manufacture with advanced dry fiber
placement machines, which, in combination with
ever increasing automation of liquid composite
molding and curing, enables building composite
components for aircraft and other transport vehicles
in a fully automatic way. This will result in
considerable cost and time savings. The possible cost
reduction will strengthen the competitiveness of the
European aerospace and transport industry.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Instrumental to the success of this project was the

team effort and great technical pleasure shown by all
partners involved. Although there was no room for
mentioning all the authors, they made this project
and paper possible, for which I as coordinator
heartily thank them. The AUTOW project is co-
funded by the EU as part of the European Union’s
6th Framework Programme.
REFERENCES
Figure 21. Testing of a rib segment using guides to
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machine process control.” High-Performance
Composites, September 2008, pp.41-47
[2] H.G.S.J. Thuis, "Developments of Resin Transfer
Moulding Technology at NLR", 2003, NLR-TP-
V. CONCLUSIONS 2003-567.
[3] Composite Materials Handbook, Department of
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Lomov (KULeuven), G. Morren, H. Sol, I. Verpoest
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Gürdal. Design of variable stiffness panels for

Market uptake of transport research

Transport‟s innovation system and trends towards climate friendly mobility in
Europe
Jonathan Köhler Chiara Frencia

Fraunhofer-Institut für System- und Inova+
Innovationsforschung (ISI) Porto, Portugal
Sustainability and Infrastructure Systems chiara.frencia@inovamais.pt
João Vieira Gabor Szendro
TIS Budapest University of Technology and
Lisbon, Portugal Economics
joao.vieira@tis.pt Department of Environmental Economics
Karlsruhe, Germany Budapest, Hungary
J.Koehler@isi.fraunhofer.de szendro@eik.bme.hu
Daniela Carvalho
TIS
Lisbon, Portugal
daniela.carvalho@tis.p
Abstract— This paper presents the results of the first The recently published White Paper on Transport
work package of the MARKET-UP project, focusing on Policy [1] puts forward objectives which
the analysis of the theoretical framework for the achievement will imply a substantial uptake of new
innovation system in the transport sector and how it can technological mobility solutions. For the intention to
influence the market uptake of innovative solutions to
tackle transport emissions. It provides an overview of
halve the use of „conventionally-fuelled‟ cars in
existing literature on innovation in the transport sector urban transport by 2030 and phase them out in cities
and analysis the fundamentals for success of transport by 2050, the achievement of a share of 40% low-
R&D efforts, concluding on the need for the involvement carbon sustainable fuels (…) in aviation by 2050 and
of the public sector. The theoretical review provides reducing also by 2050 EU CO2 emissions from
evidence on the particular need to address the “Valley of maritime bunker fuels by 40% will certainly require
death”, the phase around demonstration and the use of new technological solutions.
commercialisation where many technologies fail. It also
proceeds to an initial discussion on innovation trends in However, it should be noted that the achievement
the transport sector and presents the methodological of the overall aim of reducing EU transport CO2
framework for the subsequent phases of MARKET-UP. emissions by 60% until 2050 will also require a
Keywords— Transport Innovation Systems; Market substantial effort. According to a project prepared for
uptake; Innovation trends the European Commission ahead of the publication
of the White Paper, if a reverse of the current upward
trend in transport emissions is to occur it is essential
that both technical and non-technical options are
I. INTRODUCTION taken up. The project estimates that technical options
could promote GHG savings of 36% on 1990 levels,
This paper provides a general overview of the showing the importance of the market uptake of new
innovation system in the transport sector and transport technologies to achieve EU climate targets
identifies important innovation trends that might [2].
shape transport‟s future. The work presented is the Within this framework MARKET-UP aims to
final result of the first technical Deliverable of the create the necessary tools to facilitate market
Market-up project, a Commission funded research utilization of research results and to ensure that
support action that aims to identify barriers (both European research support cover all actors, including
social and technical) and drivers for the market the weakest ones. This paper presents findings from
uptake of transport research results and, via this the first Work Package of activity. The work
identification process, to contribute to the increased completed is centred on the understanding and
role of the transport sector in delivering a low carbon creation of theoretical foundations for the system of
economy. innovation in each transport sector, establishing the

basic framework for the full assessment of actors and This approach has been formalised using a
regions in funding activities. The next chapter system diagram [9] (see [10] for an application in the
provides an overview of the results of the literature energy sector).
review on Innovation Systems with application to
However, this system structure does not provide a
Transport that was performed as a starting point.
clear methodology for assessing the performance or
Chapter 3 will focus on the theoretical fundamentals
“strength” of an innovation system. The
for success of transport research Initiatives and the
Technological innovation System (TIS) approach has
following chapter identifies Innovation Trends
been developed to address this limitation. It is
within the various modes of transport. Before the last
described in [11] [12]. They introduce the idea of
chapter (conclusions) the methodological framework
seven “functions” of an innovation system:
for the subsequent phases of MARKET-UP is
discussed.  Knowledge creation: how the technology can
be applied to develop marketable products,
performance of the technology, new
production processes
II. LITERATURE REVIEW ON INNOVATION
SYSTEMS  Guidance of search: what external factors
promote or inhibit innovation and which
The Oxford Handbook of innovation is a first aspects – e.g. performance, safety and
survey of the original literature on systems of environmental impact are externally imposed
innovation [3]. The original idea was that of a on innovators?
„National System of Innovation‟, defined by  Entrepreneurial experimentation: innovation
Freeman as “the network of institutions in the public activities in firms to develop the new
and private sectors whose activities initiate, import technologies.
and diffuse new technologies” [4]. Edquist argues
that this approach has the following strengths: it  Resource (financial, human) mobilisation:
focuses on innovation and learning processes, it is a application of investment capital and human
holistic approach, it uses historical and evolutionary resources in innovation and product
perspectives (so optimisation is irrelevant), it development.
emphasises interdependence and non-linearity, it can  Legitimation: acceptance in society, adoption
address both product and process innovations and it of suitable legislation and standards.
emphasises the role of institutions. However, the
Systems of Innovation approach is often not clearly  Market formation (strength of demand):
defined e.g. the definition of “institutions” and it is development of new markets or presence of
not a formal theory that can be used for hypothesis the new technology products in existing
testing. markets.
The idea was also developed to apply to  Development of externalities or knowledge
“Regional systems of Innovation” [5] [6] and diffusion through networks: the strength of
sectoral systems of innovation and production [7] sharing the knowledge that has been created
[8]. The sectoral system of innovation approach in innovation networks.
argues that innovation systems have important sector
specific features. Malerba identifies the following These provide a framework for assessing how
basic elements [8]:
effective a TIS is. R&D policy can then usefully
 Knowledge base and learning processes; address weaknesses in these functions.
 Basic technologies, inputs and demand, with These ideas have led to an extensive literature on
key links and dynamic complementarities; systems of innovation and TIS applications and
development. We now consider the literature on
 Type and structure of interactions among systems of innovation in the transport industry.
firms and non-firms organizations;
There is an extensive literature on the
 Institutions; engineering, economics and policy of emissions
 Processes of generation of variety and of mitigation in transportation (see [13] for a
selection. comprehensive review). The literature on processes
of environmental innovation is more limited. [14],
[15] and [16] have analysed environmental
innovation in the automobile industry and found that
environmental innovation within the automotive

industry has largely been in response to government both for reducing costs and for winning
regulation. [17] and [18] survey the different auto public acceptance.
firms‟ strategies in respect of environmental
innovation. Different firms adopted different  Reducing uncertainties about the
strategies with respect to different fuel and vehicle performance of a technology before it is
technologies and so no one firm can be readily adopted on a large scale increases the option
categorized as a „leader‟ or „laggard‟ with respect to value of a policy.
environmental innovation. [19] is the only previous  Reducing costs to future investors and
application of the sectoral system of innovation consumers, and enabling environmental
concept to the automobile industry. They undertake a problems to be solved sooner has appreciable
patent and policy analysis of the French automobile positive external benefits.
industry and find that the mix of environmental
policy was not sufficient to shape innovation itself or
the technological trajectory. It also discusses other forms of policy support for
innovation, notably the creation and development of
Another important source of information niches by strategic niche management. This involves
considered in the literature review was the EU the creation of protected markets for infant
framework research projects. There is a considerable technologies, with protection from competition from
number of projects that consider technological established technologies. This is however mostly
development and R&D potential for transport. The within the competence of Member State legislation
INNOSUPPORT and INNOSUTRA projects have rather than EU legislation. They also identify a
written a guide to support innovation in SMEs, further rationale for policy intervention. In the area
relevant to all sectors. In the transport sector, the of environmental technologies, innovation support is
TRANSNEW project looked at research potential in required in addition to policy to correct the negative
the New Member and Associated States of the EU external externalities from harmful emissions.
and the TOSCA project investigates the potential for
technologies and fuels to reduce the environmental Fig 1 shows a widely used depiction of the
impact of transport within the EU to 2050. However, process of technology development. While it does
the only project to explicitly apply an innovation not have the detailed assessment of the structure of
system approach is the GHG-Transpord project. This innovation systems, it does show the necessary steps
has assessed transport R&D in the EU, including a for successful technology development. In particular,
TIS assessment [20]. This work has been used as the it is often used to highlight the so-called “Valley of
basis for the analytical framework for Market-up. death”, the phase around demonstration and
commercialisation where many technologies fail.
This is because public R&D funding often stops,
since the technology has been successfully
III. SUCCESSFUL TRANSPORT RESEARCH developed and must now be up-scaled and made
INITIATIVES commercially viable. This is regarded as an activity
for industry – bringing the new technology to
Based on the literature review described in market. However, this usually requires much more
Chapter 2 it is possible to assess the theoretical financial resources than a demonstrator
requirements for a successful policy for research in plant/application. It is also often the case that there is
the transport sector, which is the main topic of this no developed market. Then, many firms are not
Chapter. There is a particular focus on the role of willing to take the risk of large expenditure without a
SMEs. prospect of significant sales and the technology
development stops. The lesson to be drawn here is
A. Policy considerations for innovation that if a technological development (such as
emissions reduction) is to succeed, policy may have
There is a much more extensive literature on to assist in market formation. This is emphasised in
innovation in the energy sector than in the transport much of the innovation literature.
sector. [21] discuss the rationale for policy to support
innovation and investment in the context of low Overall, we can conclude that a range of
carbon energy technologies. These considerations technologies should be supported, especially if they
apply equally to the transport sector: have higher costs than current technology, if they
show promise for improved performance in line with
 Creating technology options, or bringing the goals of society e.g. lower emissions or improved
them forward in time, improve the flexibility safety.
of policy, which all studies agree is important

Figure 1. Inovation proces
necessary for the effective involvement of SMEs and

B. Particular features of R&D in SMEs and start-
start-ups in EU R&D programmes.
ups
There is extensive literature showing that, while [17] argues that R&D and innovation decisions
the overall level of resources in SMEs may be a are taken in the light of information about the market
small proportion of the total in an industry, they are environment, but limited by the firm‟s own history in
particularly effective at bringing forward new ideas building up its expertise. Therefore, it is important to
and technologies (for a recent discussion see [23]). identify the range of expertise in new technologies
This literature also emphasises that the development that may be relevant and assess whether firms in the
of new technology is a leap into the unknown i.e. an sector already have this expertise. SMEs and start-
uncertain and risky activity. Therefore, it must be ups have limited management resources to search for
understood that many projects will fail and not new markets and technologies or develop networks,
deliver useful outcomes, often leading to the failure in particular within a new industry or field of
of firms. Public financing of R&D for SMEs is activity. An important role for policy may be to
therefore similar in nature to venture capital support the identification of relevant expertise in
investment. This may require the application of other high technology areas such as ICT and
different criteria to most EU R&D funding. This is a nanotechnology. For example, [20] have the example
particularly strong contrast to most R&D activity in of the development of nanotechnology super
the transport industry, where large firms can call capacitors as an alternative to batteries for electricity
upon very large financial and lobby resources to storage for vehicles.
move onto other activities if a project fails. Mechanisms are required through which
SMEs and start-ups are, by definition, stakeholders can identify requirements for specialist
organisations with limited human and financial expertise and then pro-actively search for businesses
resources. Start-ups in particular do not have with these specialisations. Related to this is the
financial reserves to overcome delays in funding. public provision of technology platforms, which can
This is problematic in EU R&D policy, as this help firms to make technology alliances (e.g. in
operates on relatively long timescales. The process electric power train technologies in [20]).
of Framework Programme development over several
years and project proposals with a lead time of
around 1 year from proposal to contract start is not IV. INNOVATION TRENDS
compatible with the cash flow limitations of SMEs
and start-ups. Therefore, special provision for rapid
approval of projects and contract payments are In the next phases of the Market-up project a
specific analysis of the innovation system within

various transport sub-sectors is to be undertaken. For terms of lengths of trends one should distinguish
such analysis an important element will be the long-term trend, intermediate trend or a short-
consideration of innovation trends in transport, term trend. In transport a classification was
which are discussed in this chapter. The transport proposed by European Road Transport Council
field includes numerous sectors of innovation, at (ERRAC), which identifies the following trend
different innovation levels and with different periods:
dynamics. Accordingly, its detailed analysis should
be based on a thorough review of current and  2010-2015: short term trend;
plausible future trends of innovation in transport,  2015-2020: intermediate term trend;
with identification of relevant innovation sectoral
areas.  2020-2025 and +2025: long-term trend.
In the transport sector innovation trends are B. Identified fields of transport trends
particularly important to shape innovation policies, The collection of the Innovation Trends was
not only given the role of transportation in the
realized by the entire MARKET-UP consortium,
European economy and the fact the sector is one of
taking into account the transport fields identified for
the major sources for environmental concerns, but
later work on the Case study analysis. The fields
also some characteristics of the sector itself, as the listed below reflect aspects that go beyond the
long lead-times, the long term effects for the normal transport mode, with the purpose to focus on
implementation of transport policy and for the the areas where market uptake of innovations might
market uptake of new technologies. In this better contribute to a low carbon economy. The
perspective, a long-term view is therefore required in synthetic list of trends organized by transport fields
particular for dealing with issues such as climate is presented hereafter:
change, greening transport and reduction of the
Greenhouse Gases (GHG) and pollutant emission - Innovation Transport trends in Rail sector:
which achievement and results measurement
 Towards a more sustainable rail transport
required big effort from different stakeholders.
Transport trends usually derivate from deep  Enhancing the role of rail services in long
analysis of a wide range of indicators and statistical distance transport
data to illustrate longer-term trends and to help put  Addressing safety and security issues in rail
key policy targets and trends into a broader context. transport
The aim of Market-up project is to review the major
current and plausible future trends of innovation in - Innovation Transport trends in Road sector
transport, not aiming to provide the exhaustive list of  The Green Car Initiative
transport trends in the EU.
 Reliability initiative covering road transport
A. Innovation Trends: definition infrastructure
It is important to start by defining the concept of  The safety initiative covering road transport
innovation trend. In the literature, the meaning of
trend referred to transport sector is not all that  The priorities for global competitiveness
different from the general definition: a trend is the - Innovation Transport trends in Electromobilty:
general direction in which the market is headed. In
the specific case of the present review, we can  Vehicle-to-Grid vehicle interaction
observe that the trend is the general direction in  Plug-in Electric Hybrid Vehicles
which the European Industry and the EU policies
look forward. - Innovation Transport trends in Air sector:
Various types of trends and lengths of trends  Improvements in fuel efficiency for GHG
should be distinguished. Literature usually refers to mitigation
three types of trends: (1) Uptrend – It describes the  New Air Traffic Control Systems
movement of a trend when the overall direction is
upward, i.e. increasing concentration of innovation  Improved systems for Airport security
and R&D investment in a certain area; (2)
Downtrend – It describes the movement of a trend  Alternative aviation fuel.
when the overall direction is downward; and - Innovation Transport trends in Maritime sector:
Sideways/Horizontal Trends – in this case the
movement up or down in the peaks and troughs are  Innovative Marine Equipment and Systems
almost irrelevant in term of changing of direction. In  The Crashworthy Vessel

 More Effective Ports and Infrastructure importantly, they allow a vehicle, vessel or aircraft to
be supplied with a wide range of primary energy
 Low Emission Vessels and Waterborne sources – from Oil or Coal to renewable wind or
Activities solar power. For this reason it is a strong response to
 Innovative Vessels and Floating Structures both the oil dependency issue and GHG emissions
challenge.
 Accelerated Development of New Port and
Infrastructure Facilities Another common and relevant trend identified in
all the transport modes is the increasing application
- Innovation Transport trends in Inland waterways of ICT technologies to transport and the respective
sector: investment in this innovative research area and the
 River information systems use of new materials.
 Use of bigger vessels Investment in safety and security is another

important trend where innovation plays an important
 Stimulation of (renewed) use of small inland role: air transport is leading the research of both
waterways deterrence and detection systems to improve the
security in civil and military aviation.
 Naiades and Platina
Indirectly related to the environmental
 Double hull vessels sustainability as well as to the introduction of new
- Innovation Transport trends in the Intermodal material, it is possible to identify a trend in the
sector: preservation of integrity and as well as renovation of
the means of transport: especially in maritime sector
 Encouraging modal shift and decongesting and in rail many investments have been made in
transport corridors order to prolong the life and the use of vessels, of rail
tracks and of wagons.
Comparing the collected Innovation Trends with
the objectives and the challenges stated by the
European Commission transport policies, it‟s
V. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE
possible to identify a common direction towards
SUBSEQUENT PHASES OF MARKET-UP
more environmentally sustainable transport, both
from the point of view of the reduction of GHG
emission, the use of renewable energy and the The theoretical approach to be used in the
introduction of less-polluting fuel and vehicles. The subsequent phases of MARKET-UP is the Sectoral
trends identified in electromobility, air transport and System of Innovation (SSI), extended with the
rail confirm this common approach and highlight the Technological Innovation System (TIS) analysis. SSI
attention of the European Commission to analyses innovation in an industrial sector through a
environmental issues in the transport research system analysis, which main objective is the
priorities. From the perspective of European industry identification of actors and their interrelationships.
we can also observe a general commitment to The structure identifies three central sets of actors in
environmental issues mostly explained by the side a sectoral innovation system: the industrial system
benefits of the environmental policy: increase (i.e. the manufacturing firms), the education and
efficiency, reduce emission and compliance with EU research system as an important source of research
regulation. and the political system. Intermediaries are also
important, as they are organisations that specialise in
Strongly related with this, there is recognition bringing the different actors in the system together.
that the current dependency on oil as energy source Markets as drivers of demand and the „infrastructure‟
is unsustainable and there is a need to diversify for innovation – venture capital, standards setting
energy sources. All modes are looking to limit their etc. are also considered in the SSI. Framework
oil dependency, both increasing the efficiency and conditions may refer to the social and political
the use of alternative energies. For this reason one environment within which the innovation system
can consider the current move towards electric operates.
vehicles as a trend in itself (or, in a wider perspective
towards “grid-connected vehicles”, as in some An example of such a system for low carbon
formulations the engine can be hybrid or based on automobiles has been developed in the EU GHG-
fuel cells but still connected to the electric power Transport project [20]. The resulting system diagram
network). On the one hand electric engines are for low carbon automobiles is shown in the figure
generally more efficient, but, perhaps more bellow.

Figure 2. The sectoral system of innovation structure for low carbon automobiles [20]
The three central sets of actors in a sectoral [11]. They identify the following functions of
innovation system are well identified at the heart of innovation (see Figure 3):
Fig 2. It is important to underline two aspects that
are particularly common in the transport sector:  Knowledge creation
 Regarding the Political System the co-  Entrepreneurial experimentation

existence of regulators at national and  Resource (financial, human) mobilisation
international level is relevant, as they have
different constituencies and sometimes  Legitimation (acceptance in society, adoption
conflicting objectives; in addition transport is of suitable legislation and standards)
a cross-cutting issue and accordingly is also  Market formation (strength of demand)
regulated by other sectoral policy areas (e.g.
energy and environment)  Knowledge diffusion through networks (the
strength of knowledge sharing in innovation
 The Industrial System is much more reliant networks)
on big companies than SMEs, and even niche
companies tend to be relatively big.  Guidance of search (what external factors
promote or inhibit innovation and which
aspects – e.g. performance, safety,
Fig 2 provides an indication of the analysis to be environmental impact are externally imposed
developed for all the sub-sectors. However it will on innovators)
also include an assessment of the strengths and
weaknesses of the innovation system by considering
the functions of an innovation system from the These factors determine the ability of the
Technological Innovation System framework of innovation system to actually deliver innovations

and the selection of which innovations are supported stakeholders should be encouraged to develop
by the innovation environment. further the technology into new products, processes,
materials, or services to enhance the industrial
competitiveness. This will be addressed in the next
stages of Market-up, in which a detailed analysis of
the innovation system and its stakeholders will be
produced, applying both the Sectoral Innovation
System (SIS) and Technological Innovation System
(TIS) framework.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is prepared under the framework of

the Transport Research Market Uptake (Market-up)
project, with the Project ID: 265841. Project co-
funded by the European Commission within the
Seventh Framework Programme.
Figure 3. The reinforcing feedback between REFERENCES

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cars in the EU: the roles of auto firms, consumers, Elgar Cheltenham, UK, Northampton, MA, USA,
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and Society, 2010, pp. 1–15.

Does new rail service discourage car use?

Evidence from four English cities
Shin Lee Martyn Senior

School of City and Regional Planning School of City and Regional Planning
Cardiff University Cardiff University
Cardiff, UK Cardiff, UK
leess@cardiff.ac.uk
Abstract— There appears to have been little use of segregated track. The first was Greater Manchester‘s
Census data to examine transport policy impacts. Metrolink Phase 1 scheme (opened 1992) followed
Although English Census data refer only to work trips, by the openings of the South Yorkshire Supertram
they provide origin-destination information by travel in Sheffield (1994/5), the Midland Metro from
mode at reasonably small geographic scales. The
decennial interval of the Census is also suitable for
Birmingham to Wolverhampton (1999), Metrolink
examining medium-to-long-term changes in travel Phase 2 (1999 and March 2000), the Croydon
behaviour. The paper examines the impacts of four light Tramlink (May 2000) and Nottingham Express
rail schemes opened between 1991 and 2001 on car Transit (2004). Although the Ten Year Transport
ownership and travel mode along the rail corridors. The Plan published in 2000 raised the prospect of
effects of these schemes are isolated by comparing the government support for up to 25 new light rail
changes in the new light rail corridors with those in projects, this policy was soon scrapped for reasons
‘control’ areas. Control areas represent what would have discussed by Knowles (2007). Although some light
occurred in the light rail corridors if the schemes had not rail extensions have been approved, as in Greater
been built. The control areas are selected on the basis of: Manchester, and more recently in Nottingham and
car ownership, the distance from the city centre and the
relative importance of rail commuting in 1991. Despite
Birmingham, central government policy has in
two schemes achieving and even exceeding the forecast recent years increasingly favoured cheaper bus rapid
ridership, the proportion of households owning multiple transit projects (Knowles and Abrantes, 2008).
cars increased in the light rail corridors and typically by There is an opportunity to use 1991 and
more than in the control areas. Growing rail shares in 2001Census data to identify the impacts of these
the light rail corridors have mainly been at the expense of
bus trips and the evidence for light rail reducing car use light rail investments (excepting Nottingham‘s) on
is less clear. car ownership and on the usage of different
transport modes for work trips. Given the different
Keywords— light rail, travel behaviour, new rail opening dates of these schemes, the time horizon of
schemes, travel mode share, car ownership change over their impacts also differs. Thus for the Greater
time
Manchester Metrolink Phase 1 and the South
Yorkshire Supertram medium-term (5 to 10 years)
impacts will be revealed, whereas for the other
I. INTRODUCTION: URBAN RAIL POLICY AND schemes the impacts will be over the short-term (1
PRACTICE to 2 years). There appears to have been little use of
Census data to examine public transport policy
The 1968 Transport Act ushered in an era in impacts, apart from Hass-Klau et al‘s (2004; 2007)
Britain of urban rail investment partly supported by research on car ownership and Senior‘s (2009) brief
central government grants. Initially this led to investigation of the mode choice impacts of
investments in heavy rail schemes, such as the Metrolink Phase 1.
Liverpool ‗Link and Loop‘ and Glasgow‘s ‗Argyle
Line‘ and Underground modernisation schemes.
These were followed by openings in the 1980s of II. TRENDS IN PATRONAGE
two heavily engineered light rail systems totally
segregated from road traffic, the Tyne and Wear
Of the four light rail schemes Greater
Metro and the automated London Docklands Light
Railway. Tight public expenditure control in the Manchester‘s Metrolink and Croydon‘s Tramlink
1980s led to an increased emphasis on plans for have been more successful in meeting forecast
lighter and cheaper ‗supertram‘ schemes, which can patronage (as identified in National Audit Office,
operate both on-street with other traffic and on 2004, table 6, page 21) than the Midland Metro and

South Yorkshire Supertram. Phase 1 of Metrolink expected figure of 6 million passengers in 2001/2.
reached its target of 12 million passengers per Nevertheless, the combined patronage on both
annum within two years of opening (Senior, 1999) phases of Metrolink has consistently exceeded the
and subsequently exceeded it (table 1). However, joint forecast since that year. Patronage on the
the phase 2 extension attracted only about half of the Croydon Tramlink took about six years to reach, and
TABELE I. PASSENGER JOURNEYS (MILLIONS) FOR SELECTED FINANCIAL YEARS

Light Rail Scheme 1993/4 1994/5 1998/9 1999/2000 2000/1 2006/7 2007/8 2008/9
Greater Manchester 11.3 12.3 13.2 14.2 17.2 19.8 20.0 21.1
Metrolink
South Yorkshire na 2.2 10.4 10.9 11.1 14.0 14.8 15.0

Supertram
Midland Metro na na na 4.8 5.4 4.9 4.8 4.7

Croydon Tramlink na na na na 15.0 24.6 27.2 27.2
Note: na = not applicable

Sources: Department for Transport, 2005; 2007; 2008; 2009.
subsequently exceed, the forecast figure of 25 London and franchised to private operators, whereas
million. Tramlink is the most intensively used of the other light rail schemes are in areas with
these light rail schemes, with each tram unit deregulated bus services.
carrying over a million passengers per year. By
contrast, passenger journeys have grown relatively
slowly on the South Yorkshire Supertram and have
conspicuously failed to meet the initial forecast of III. RESEARCH DESIGN
22 million, while the Midland Metro has struggled
to maintain an annual patronage of around 5 million, All policy impact studies raise the problem of
undershooting considerably the 8 million forecast how to isolate the effects of the policy from other
(table 1). One factor contributing to the latter‘s influences that may be simultaneously operating
disappointing patronage is that the light rail line This is addressed here by comparing work travel
terminates on the periphery of Birmingham city and car ownership before (in 1991) and after (in
centre; the government has recently approved an 2001) the opening of these schemes in the light rail
extension into the centre. corridors with such characteristics in ‗control‘ areas.
These controls are meant to represent what would
Although these patronage statistics provide
have occurred in the light rail corridors if the light
information on the performance of these light rail
rail schemes had not been built. Thus they should be
projects, they do not capture their impacts on modal
as comparable as possible with the light rail
split or car ownership. Part of the justification for
corridors, but should not have had any light rail
these investments, and for government grants
investment during the 1991-2001 period. Three
towards their capital costs, was that car users would
attributes are used for matching of the control areas
be encouraged to switch to rail, especially at peak
to the light rail corridors. Firstly, given the
commuting times, and that road congestion might
importance of car ownership on mode choice, close
therefore be reduced. Moreover, even more
matching on household car ownership in 1991 is
substantial switching from bus to rail might also be
undertaken, but only for worker households as the
expected as the cross-elasticity between bus and rail
Census data measure only work trips. This also
is generally found to be larger than that between car
facilitates the measurement of changes in car
and rail. Census data on the means of travel to work
ownership over the ten year period as areas with
can be used to shed light on these issues and to
similar car ownership profiles in 1991 can be
identify any differences between these schemes in
compared on their car ownership in 2001. Secondly,
terms of modal impacts. In particular, the Croydon
as work trips to city centres are to be examined, the
Tramlink has operated in a transport environment
control areas should have an approximately similar
where bus services are planned by Transport for
range of distances from those city centres as the

areas within the light rail corridors. Thirdly, the IV. DATA CONSIDERATIONS
relative importance of commuting by rail in 1991
should not differ substantially between the light rail Census data have the advantage of a large sample
and control areas. of work trips for 1991 and a complete enumeration
This latter attribute reflects differences between for 2001. Data on modes of travel have been used
these light rail schemes in terms of the existence and for all the work destinations of employed residents
replacement of previous conventional rail services. from the 1991 Census Small Area Statistics (SAS)
In this respect, Phase 1 of the Greater Manchester Table 82 and from the 2001 Census Standard Table
Metrolink differs from the other light rail schemes. 119. Data on travel to city centre destinations, which
It involved the closure and conversion to light rail are the main employment locations the light rail
operation of two separate and well patronised schemes serve, have been accessed from the 1991
conventional ―heavy‖ rail lines and services. The and 2001 Special Workplace Statistics (SWS).
converted lines were also connected by new on- Because Census journey data in England refer only
street light rail operation across Manchester city to work trips, the data for car ownership has been
centre. Thus conventional rail travel within the restricted to worker households only using SAS
Metrolink Phase 1 corridor existed at the time of the Table 83 and Standard Table 118. All analyses
1991 Census (and right up to the closure periods undertaken are based on ward level data. Ward
later that year during which replacement bus boundaries changed only negligibly between the
services were provided) but, prior to conversion, rail 1991 and 2001 Censuses in the areas of Greater
travellers to and from Manchester city centre had to Manchester, South Yorkshire and the West
use stations peripheral to that centre. Hence control Midlands used in this study. Significant ward
areas for Metrolink Phase 1 should be those also boundary changes in the London boroughs of
served by conventional ―heavy‖ rail services to and Croydon, Bromley, Merton and Sutton served by the
from the periphery of the city centre in both 1991 Croydon Tramlink meant that the 1991 SAS ward
and 2001 and with similar levels of rail use to the data and the 2001 Standard Table data for work trips
city centre in 1991 as the rail services which were to all destinations and for household car ownership
converted to light rail. could not be directly compared. However, the1991
SWS journey-to-work data have been re-estimated
By contrast the other light rail schemes involved for the 2001 wards and are available from CIDER.
mainly new light rail services rather than the Car ownership for worker households in 1991 for
conversion of existing rail services, although some the Croydon Tramlink study area was derived by
use was made of existing rail alignments. Thus, matching 1991 enumeration districts (EDs) to 2001
Greater Manchester‘s Metrolink Phase 2 investment wards in a GIS, thus allowing the 1991 ED car
provided a new light rail alignment in a corridor ownership data to be aggregated to the same areas as
where there was little local rail travel previously. the 2001 car ownership data.
Similarly, the South Yorkshire Supertram serves
areas of Sheffield where there was very little prior Defining spheres of influence for rail schemes is
rail use, although the section from Sheffield city necessarily somewhat arbitrary because of the
centre to the out-of-town shopping centre at various means of access to stations. While walk
Meadowhall does partly parallel (but not replace) a access implies geographically restricted corridors
conventional rail service. The Midland Metro route (for example the 600 metre corridors used by Hass-
connects Birmingham and Wolverhampton city Klau et al, 2004), access by car suggests wider
centres and for most of its length was built along a catchments. Sample survey data for the Metrolink
disused railway alignment. So it too did not replace Phase 1 lines in November 1993 revealed that car
any active rail service along that particular and walking were equally important (45% each of
alignment, but rather provided an alternative light those travelling to work) for accessing the light rail
rail route to the existing conventional rail services (reworking of data reported by Knowles
connections between Birmingham and and Fairweather, 1994). Here wards along the light
Wolverhampton. Croydon Tramlink was built partly rail alignments, which are usually large enough to
on new routes and partly on conventional rail capture nearly all those walking to stations, were
alignments. Admittedly, it did replace an infrequent identified to define the light rail corridors. City
rail service between West Croydon and Wimbledon centre wards served by light rail (in 2001) were
which was closed in 1997 (Steward, Gent and excluded from these corridors because their
Stannard, 2000) but that service was relatively associated control areas could not include the same
poorly patronised. Levels of rail use in 1991 in the city centre wards. Each light rail corridor‘s profile
areas to be served by these light rail schemes were of worker household car ownership and rail use in
thus lower, in some cases much lower, than in the 1991 was compared with values of the same
Metrolink Phase 1 corridor. variables for potential control area wards. By a

process of trial and error, a final set of control area missing information was imputed using known
wards was identified which had a similar car information for similar households and persons.
ownership profile and similar rail use in 1991, and a Additionally, the available 1991 SWS data for ‗not
similar range of distances from the relevant city stated‘ responses have been combined with those for
centre, as the corresponding light rail corridor . In ‗other‘ modes of travel and confusingly they are all
practice some compromises had to be made in labelled ‗not stated‘. Consequently ‗not stated‘,
matching light rail corridors and their control areas ‗taxi‘ and ‗other‘ mode data are all included under
on these various characteristics, but virtually all of an ‗other‘ mode label in the tables presented in this
the 1991 car ownership percentages for control areas paper. This ‗other‘ category in 1991 is typically
differ by less than 1% from those in the larger than that in 2001 because of the imputation of
corresponding light rail corridors (tables 2 to 6). The modes of travel for ‗not stated‘ responses in 2001.
control areas for Metrolink Phase 1 used here differ
It should further be noted that, while the 2001
from those defined by Senior (2009) who restricted
Census statistics cover all persons aged 16 to 74 in
them to just two conventional rail corridors used in
employment and all worker households, the 1991
associated household and rail user surveys. He also
figures are a 10% sample of workers aged 16 and
did not seek to match light rail and control corridors
over and a 10% sample of worker households and
on 1991 car ownership levels and included
are thus subject to sampling error.
Manchester city centre in the Metrolink corridor.
There are specific problems with the
categorisation of rail modes of travel in the Census.
On the 1991 Census form a distinction was made V. IMPACTS ON THE CAR OWNERSHIP OF
between conventional train services (then operated WORKER HOUSEHOLDS
by British Rail) and other rail services defined as
‗Underground, tube, metro‘. Very small numbers of If new light rail schemes reduced or restrained
respondents in the Greater Manchester, South the need to own cars, it would be expected that the
Yorkshire and West Midlands study areas did state proportion of households owning no cars would
―Underground, tube, metro‖ even though no such increase more (or decrease less) in the light rail
rail modes existed there in 1991; these responses corridors than that in the control areas. Conversely
were added to those stating ―British Rail train‖. In the proportion owning two or more cars would be
2001, conventional train services were again expected to decrease more (or increase less) in the
distinguished from other rail, now defined as light rail corridors than that in those controls. The
‗Underground, metro, light rail, tram‘. The inclusion proportion owning just one car could decrease,
of Underground and light rail/tram in the same increase or remain unchanged depending on the
category causes problems for identifying the number of one-car and two-car owners who reduced
impacts of the Croydon Tramlink as one London their car ownership.
Underground line connects with the Tramlink at its
Except for the Croydon Tramlink the evidence
western terminus at Wimbledon and another line
(tables 2 to 6) shows that multiple car ownership
nearby (to Morden) serves areas near the western
increased in the light rail corridors and typically by
end of the Tramlink route. It is not, therefore,
more, not less, than in their associated control areas.
sensible to examine modes of travel to work to all
So ownership of two or more cars has increased by
destinations for the Croydon Tramlink as local tram
6.1% points in the Metrolink Phase 1 corridor
trips in 2001 could not be distinguished from trips
(compared with 4.62% points in the control areas),
by Underground to the rest of London. However, the
by 3.98% points in the Phase 2 corridor (3.62%
London Underground routes serve south–north trips
points in the control) and by 7.34% points in the
to and from central London, whereas the orientation
Midland Metro corridor (6.12% points in the
of the Tramlink routes is predominantly east-west.
control). Only in the South Yorkshire Supertram
Thus, if only journey to work flows to Croydon
corridor has the increase (6.48% points) been less
town centre within that east-west corridor and trips
than in the control areas (7.38% points). The
to the same destination from suitable local control
percentage of worker households with no cars has
areas are studied, then the Census data on tram use
decreased in these areas and, in the Metrolink Phase
is very unlikely to include trips by the Underground.
1 and Midland Metro corridors, by more than in
Other problems, albeit relatively minor because their control areas. By contrast multiple car
numbers are small, include the identification of ownership decreased slightly and non-car ownership
‗taxi‘ as a separate mode in 2001 but not in 1991 increased slightly in the Croydon Tramlink corridor
(when taxi trips were captured in the ‗other‘ mode compared with equally small changes in the
category) and the use of a ‗not stated‘ category for opposite directions in the control areas.
mode of travel in 1991, but not in 2001 when

It is clear that the light rail schemes outside light rail corridors the rail share of work trips to all
Greater London have been able to reverse neither the destinations in 1991 was about one per cent or less
increase in multiple car ownership nor the decline in except for the well patronised rail services in the
no car ownership. With the possible exception of the Metrolink Phase 1 corridor where 4.14% of trips
South Yorkshire Supertram, the evidence suggests were by train (table 2). By 2001 in the latter corridor
that the increase in multiple car ownership has often the rail share had increased by about 2% points to
been more in the light rail corridors than in their over 6% (5.61% tram plus 0.71% train) assuming
control areas. Furthermore, there is no consistent that most of those stating ‗train‘ actually meant light
evidence that the declining proportion of no-car rail. In the Metrolink Phase 2 corridor rail use
households is less in light rail corridors than in the increased from just less than 1% to about 4%
control areas. While the trends in the Croydon (3.37% tram plus 0.89% train) (table 3). The largest
Tramlink area differ from those elsewhere, the percentage point increase in rail use of 5% to 6%
changes are less than 1%. So it is unlikely that the was for the South Yorkshire Supertram (table 4)
Tramlink is having any marked effect on car while a more modest increase of over 2% points was
ownership. Rather, as White (2009, page 206) recorded in the Midland Metro corridor (table 5). It
argues, the extent of the public transport systems in is notable that the share of work trips by
Greater London and their frequency of service may conventional train services declined slightly or
well discourage car ownership growth. Tramlink remained virtually unchanged in all the control areas
may thus be seen as contributing marginally to the of these four schemes, although there were small
wider effect. percentages of tram use even in these areas. Hence,
all these light rail schemes were able to increase
rail‘s share of the commuting market against a
background of stagnation or slight decline in the
VI. IMPACTS ON WORK MODE CHOICE TO ALL conventional rail shares in their control areas.
DESTINATIONS
The growing rail shares in the light rail corridors
have mainly been at the expense of bus trips.
Unsurprisingly, the rail shares of trips are much
Calculating the differences in bus shares between
lower when examining all destinations rather than
1991 and 2001 reveals: a decline of 4.26% points in
just city centres as many workplaces are not
the bus share in Merolink‘s Phase 1 corridor, twice
accessible by rail, although commuting to
the 2.14% point decrease in the
destinations in the light rail corridors will be
included in these figures (tables 2 to 5). In these
TABELE II. GREATER MANCHESTER METROLINK PHASE 1: MODE SHARES (%) FOR THE JOURNEY-TO–WORK AND
HOUSEHOLD CAR OWNERSHIP (%) IN 1991 AND 2001
MODE ALL DESTINATIONS MANCHESTER CITY CENTRE

DESTINATIONS
Metrolink Phase 1 Control rail areas Metrolink Phase 1 Control rail areas
corridors corridors
1991 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001
Light rail tram na 5.61 na 0.22 na 28.92 na 0.72
Train 4.14 0.71 3.46 3.01 20.37 1.35 23.33 21.46
Bus 12.08 7.82 12.43 10.29 23.69 16.61 23.40 28.29
Car Driver 56.97 58.92 56.82 58.89 45.04 42.85 43.74 40.73
Car passenger 7.06 6.13 7.51 6.70 7.64 6.10 5.33 5.28
Walk 10.16 8.52 10.76 9.05 0.78 1.46 1.05 1.35
Bicycle 2.35 2.10 1.95 1.86 0.98 1.17 1.50 1.04
Motorcycle 0.76 0.73 1.05 0.83 0.59 0.70 1.05 0.74
Works at 4.07 8.29 3.88 8.14 na na na na
home1
Other2 2.41 1.17 2.14 1.01 0.91 0.84 0.60 0.39
CAR OWNERSHIP3
No car 17.23 13.48 17.08 14.45
1 car 48.45 46.10 48.56 46.8
2 or more cars 34.32 40.42 34.35 38.97
Notes: na = not applicable.

1. City centre employed residents are excluded from the corridors and control areas so ―works at home‖
is not applicable for city centre destinations.
2. ‗Other‘ includes the Census categories ―other‖ and ―not stated‖ in 1991 and ―other‖ and ―taxi‖ in 2001.
3. Car ownership percentages are calculated from counts of households with at least one employed person.
Sources: 1991 Census: Small Area Statistics (England & Wales) and Special Workplace Statistics (Great Britain)
2001 Census: Standard Area Statistics (England & Wales) and Special Workplace Statistics (England, Wales &
Northern Ireland)
TABELE III. GREATER MANCHESTER METROLINK PHASE 2: MODE SHARES (%) FOR THE JOURNEY-TO–WORK AND
HOUSEHOLD CAR OWNERSHIP (%) IN 1991 AND 2001
ALL DESTINATIONS MANCHESTER CITY CENTRE
DESTINATIONS
Metrolink Phase 2 Control areas Metrolink Phase 2 Control areas
MODE
corridor corridor
1991 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001
Light rail na 3.37 na 0.84 na 13.89 na 2.36

tram
Train 0.90 0.89 0.96 1.06 3.69 2.33 2.94 3.30
Bus 19.06 12.13 21.3 15.6 41.94 32.91 50.00 45.41
7 5
Car Driver 45.33 48.71 44.4 48.8 36.40 32.91 31.99 31.76
6 9
Car 8.50 7.43 9.75 9.16 10.14 6.85 7.72 8.47
passenger
Walk 15.93 14.01 13.8 12.1 3.23 6.49 1.47 4.91
0 0
Bicycle 2.96 3.22 2.37 2.44 1.84 2.08 3.31 1.20
Motorcycle 0.95 0.86 1.14 0.83 0.00 0.71 1.47 0.89
home1
Other2 3.02 2.33 2.78 2.34 2.76 1.83 1.10 1.70
3
CAR OWNERSHIP
No car 29.35 26.30 29.4 24.7
0 6
1 car 51.27 50.34 50.6 51.6
2 4
2 or more 19.38 23.36 19.9 23.6
cars 8 0
Notes and Sources: see table 2
associated control areas; a decline of 6.93% points The evidence for light rail reducing or restraining
in the Phase 2 corridor, compared with one of 5.72% car use is less clear. For the Metrolink Phase 1
points for the control areas; and, for South scheme increases in the car driver share and
Yorkshire‘s Supertram, a 10.61% point decline decreases in the car passenger share are very similar
compared with one of 6.53% points in the control in the light rail and control areas (table 2). In the
areas. The exception to this trend is the Midlands Metrolink Phase 2 and South Yorkshire Supertram
Metro where the declining bus share of 3.06% corridors the car driver share has increased by a little
points was slightly less than that in the control less, and the car passenger share has declined by a
corridor. Here it is more notable that the share of little more, than the corresponding figures for the
walking trips has decreased by 5.22% points in the control areas (tables 3 and 4). Whilst a 4.31%
light rail corridor compared with a 3.68% point increase in the car driver share in the Midland Metro
decline in the control areas.

corridor is over 2% points less than the increase in city/town centres by 2001 compared to only small
the control areas (table 5). changes in such shares in their control areas. The
extent of such increases in rail shares appears not to
be related to the time scales since opening of the
schemes. For example, the Croydon Tramlink
VII. IMPACTS ON WORK MODE CHOICE TO recorded the largest increase although it had been
CITY/TOWN CENTRE DESTINATIONS opened for just less than a year before the 2001
Census, while the second largest increase was for
Rail commuting is at its most competitive, and the South Yorkshire Supertram which had been
hence rail shares in 2001 are much higher, when open for about six years.
trips to city/town centre destinations are examined.
It can be consistently and more confidently
The rail shares in 1991, however, reflect the
claimed with these city/town centre statistics that
different transport contexts of the light rail schemes.
increases in the rail shares of work trips were
Hence, over 20% of workers in the Metrolink Phase
primarily at the expense of bus trips. This is most
1 corridor used conventional train services to
clearly demonstrated by the 18.2% and 7% point
Manchester city centre in 1991, but only 3.69% did
declines in the bus shares in, respectively, the
so in the Phase 2 corridor. Rail use to Sheffield city
Croydon Tramlink and Metrolink Phase 1 corridors
centre was negligible (allowing for sampling error
compared with the 2.73% and 4.89% point increases
associated with the 0% in table 4) from the South
in their respective control areas. For the other
Yorkshire Supertram corridor. In the Midland Metro
schemes the declining bus shares in the light rail
corridor the rail share of commuting to
corridors were notably larger than the corresponding
Wolverhampton city centre was also very small, but
decreases in their control areas. This was
that to Birmingham city centre exceeded 11% (table
particularly so in Sheffield where a 17% point
5). The rail share to Croydon town centre was a
decline in the bus share of commuting to the city
modest 3% in 1991 (table 6), partly reflecting the
centre from the Supertram corridor far outstripped
limited rail service between West Croydon and
the 5% point decline in the control area. Likewise a
Wimbledon which existed in 1991.
9% point decline in the bus share to Manchester city
By 2001, the rail share in the Metrolink Phase 1 centre from the Metrolink Phase 2 corridor was
corridor had increased by nearly 10% points to twice the decline in the control areas. For the
about 30%, but it was the Croydon Tramlink Midland Metro corridor the bus share to
corridor which had experienced the largest increase Birmingham city centre fell by 10.57% points
of over 20% points to a light rail share of 23.48% or compared with a decrease of 2.46% points in the
more if some of the 4.26% of ‗train‘ trips were control areas, while that to Wolverhampton city
actually by tram (table 6). By contrast the Croydon centre reduced by 5.79% points compared with a
control areas witnessed an approximate 6% point decline of 1.89% points in the control areas.
increase in combined tram/train share. In Sheffield
The evidence for net abstractions of car
there was a 17% point increase in the rail share of
commuters to light rail is far less clear cut. Both the
work trips to the city centre from the Supertram
Croydon Tramlink and South Yorkshire Supertram
corridor compared with a 2% increase from the
corridors experienced similar declines of over 3%
control areas (table 4). Metrolink Phase 2
points in the car driver share of work trips to their
experienced an increases in rail share to Manchester
respective centres. However, while the Supertram
city centre of 12.53% points (combined tram and
control areas recorded an increase of 2.1% points in
train figures), compared with an increase of 2.72%
the car driver share, the Croydon control areas
points in the control areas largely because of some
witnessed a greater decline (of 4.31% points) of this
tram use there (table 3). The share of conventional
share than in the light rail corridor. So the evidence
train use to Birmingham city centre from the
is consistent with a net relative loss of car driver
Midland Metro corridor declined by 4.5% points,
trips to light rail in the South Yorkshire Supertram
but this was more than offset by new tram trips
scheme, but there is no such evidence for this in the
representing a 14.91% share (table 5), while the rail
Croydon Tramlink case. Neither is there such
share increased by less than 1% point in the control
evidence for the Midland Metro corridor, where
areas. The rail share to Wolverhampton city centre
increases of about 5% points in the car driver shares
from the Metro corridor increased by about 9%
to Birmingham and Wolverhampton city centres
points compared with negligible change in the
exceeded the increases in the control areas.
control corridors. Thus all the schemes had led to
notable increases in commuting rail shares to

TABELE IV. SOUTH YORKSHIRE SUPERTRAM: MODE SHARES (%) FOR THE JOURNEY-TO–WORK AND HOUSEHOLD
CAR OWNERSHIP (%) IN 1991 AND 2001
ALL DESTINATIONS SHEFFIELD CITY CENTRE DESTINATIONS
Supertram Control areas Supertram corridors Control areas

MODE corridors
1991 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001

tram
Train 0.39 0.61 0.88 0.84 0.0 0.03 0.21 0.27
Bus 28.2 17.6 26.1 19.6 48.16 31.00 45.29 40.27
1 0 6 3
Car Driver 46.8 50.2 46.9 50.9 35.56 32.34 36.58 38.68
2 6 8 2
Car 7.93 6.79 7.04 6.81 8.43 5.75 6.86 6.01
passenger
Walk 10.2 10.5 12.3 11.4 5.43 11.32 8.50 9.68
3 6 1 8
Bicycle 0.89 0.93 0.72 1.23 0.83 1.32 0.92 1.99
Motorcycle 0.79 0.70 0.81 0.79 0.67 0.51 0.82 0.57
home1
Other2 2.11 0.73 1.95 0.77 0.92 0.70 0.82 0.51
3
CAR OWNERSHIP
No car 24.2 20.3 24.5 20.0
8 5 7 4
1 car 53.8 51.2 52.8 49.9
4 9 2 7
2 or more 21.8 28.3 22.6 29.9
cars 8 6 1 9
There is tentative evidence of light rail gaining at the control areas. For the Metrolink Phase 1 and
the expense of car commuting in the Metrolink South Yorkshire Supertram corridors car passenger
Phase 2 corridor, where the car driver share to shares of commuting to city centres have declined
Manchester city centre declined by about 3.5% more than in their control areas. For Croydon
points compared with a decrease of only 0.23% Tramlink, however, the declines in the car passenger
points in the control areas. However, this situation is shares have been almost identical in the light rail
not repeated in the Phase 1 corridor where the and control areas. And in the Midland Metro
declining car driver share is less than that in the corridor the car passenger share of work trips to
control areas1. Birmingham city centre has actually increased more
than in the control areas, while that to
The trends in car passenger shares are not
Wolverhampton city centre has declined by far less
consistent across all schemes either. The strongest
than the 4.45% points in the control areas.
evidence for light rail capturing former car
passenger trips comes from the Metrolink Phase 2 One reason for the different experiences of these
corridor, where a decline of more than 3% points in light rail schemes may be the relative importance of
the car passenger share of commuting to Manchester walking trips.
city centre contrasts with a 0.75% point increase in

TABELE V. MIDLAND METRO: MODE SHARES (%) FOR THE JOURNEY-TO–WORK AND HOUSEHOLD CAR OWNERSHIP
(%) IN 1991 AND 2001
ALL DESTINATIONS SHEFFIELD CITY CENTRE DESTINATIONS
Supertram Control areas Supertram corridors Control areas

corridors
1991 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001
MODE
tram
Train 0.39 0.61 0.88 0.84 0.0 0.03 0.21 0.27
Bus 28.2 17.6 26.1 19.6 48.16 31.00 45.29 40.27
1 0 6 3
Car Driver 46.8 50.2 46.9 50.9 35.56 32.34 36.58 38.68
2 6 8 2
Car 7.93 6.79 7.04 6.81 8.43 5.75 6.86 6.01
passenger
Walk 10.2 10.5 12.3 11.4 5.43 11.32 8.50 9.68
3 6 1 8
Bicycle 0.89 0.93 0.72 1.23 0.83 1.32 0.92 1.99
Motorcycle 0.79 0.70 0.81 0.79 0.67 0.51 0.82 0.57
home1
Other2 2.11 0.73 1.95 0.77 0.92 0.70 0.82 0.51
3
CAR OWNERSHIP
No car 24.2 20.3 24.5 20.0
8 5 7 4
1 car 53.8 51.2 52.8 49.9
4 9 2 7
2 or more 21.8 28.3 22.6 29.9
cars 8 6 1 9
Despite the research design excluding city/town small decline and a slight increase in their respective
centres from the light rail corridors and control areas control areas. By contrast the walk share of work
because of the numbers of their employed residents trips to Sheffield city centre actually increased by
who walk to workplaces in these centres, some light nearly 6% points compared with only a 1.18% point
rail corridors still have significant proportions of increase in the Supertram control areas (table 4). Part
commuters who walk. This is most notable for the of the large decrease in the share of bus trips to
smallest centre, Croydon, with 17% of walk trips in Sheffield city centre mentioned above may well have
1991 (table 6). Tramlink may have captured some of resulted from commuters switching to walking rather
these trips as the walking share to Croydon town than light rail. The Metrolink Phase 1 and 2 corridors
centre fell a little, while that in the control areas also experienced increases in their walk shares to
increased a little. The evidence for the light rail share Manchester city centre, but these were similar in size
growing at the expense of walk trips is stronger for to those in their control areas.
the Midland Metro corridor which witnessed more
pronounced declines in walk shares to both
Birmingham and Wolverhampton city centres of
more than 6% points (table 5), compared with a

TABELE VI. CROYDON TRAMLINK: MODE SHARES (%) FOR THE JOURNEY-TO–WORK AND CAR OWNERSHIP (%) IN
1991 AND 2001
CROYDON TOWN CENTRE DESTINATIONS
Tramlink corridors Control areas

MODE
1991 2001 1991 2001
Light rail tram na 23.48 na 3.45
Train 3.02 4.26 3.75 6.42

Bus 39.73 21.53 36.21 38.94
Car Driver 30.43 27.10 30.77 26.46
Car passenger 7.01 4.44 6.38 3.76
Walk 17.03 15.70 16.89 17.92
Bicycle 1.33 1.33 1.50 1.40
Motorcycle 0.60 0.69 0.75 1.15
1
Other 0.85 1.47 3.75 0.50
2
CAR OWNERSHIP
No car 17.90 18.43 17.97 17.62
1 car 50.59 50.91 50.75 50.39
2 or more cars 31.51 30.66 31.28 31.99
Notes
1. ‗Other‘ includes the Census categories ―other‖ and ―not stated‖ in 1991 and ―other‖ and ―taxi‖ in 2001.
2. Car ownership percentages are calculated from counts of households with at least one employed person.
Percentages for 1991 are based on enumeration district data matched to 2001 wards.
Sources: see table 2
The Census results show that the bus shares of

VIII. COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSION OF MODAL work trips, especially to city centres, declined in the
IMPACTS light rail corridors faster than in the control areas.
The sample survey results support this finding as
To check and compare these Census findings use light rail often attracts at least half its passengers
is made of results from ‗after‘ sample surveys which from bus (table 7). PTEG (2005, Appendix B4.8)
asked light rail users their modes of travel before the attempt to question the effects on existing bus
light rail service opened (table 7). services by presenting evidence of increasing bus
and light rail patronage in five American cities, but
this does not disprove that the bus shares of trips
Unfortunately, only the Metrolink Phase 1
decline when light rail is introduced. In Croydon‘s
survey records work trips; the rest consider all trips.
case London Buses reorganised some services to
Such surveys provide gross changes in mode (the
minimise competition with Tramlink, although
column of ‗X‘s in figure 1) as compared with the net
public pressure led to the retention of a cheaper,
changes in modal shares which can be deduced from
parallel bus service from the deprived area of New
tables 2 to 6 (the row and column totals of ‗B‘s and
Addington to Croydon (R. Carr, personal
‗A‘s in figure 1). Unlike the sample survey
communication). Outside London, bus deregulation
respondents, the ―after‖ commuters identified in
means that re-routing buses to serve light rail cannot
Census data will partly comprise different people
be planned. Indeed Metrolink Phase 1 faced
from the ―before‖ commuters because of residential
competition from express bus services between
mobility and entrants to and leavers from local
Bury and Manchester (Knowles, 1996, page 7). By
labour markets between Censuses.
contrast restructuring bus services as feeders to rail
stations is common in France, Germany and even

the USA. Richmond (2004, page 44) notes this for statistics for car users, unlike the survey data on
the Los Angeles Blue Line and Denver‘s light rail former modes of light rail users, will reflect any
system and Walmsley and Perrett (1992, page 69) congestion reduction and re-congestion effects.
observe the same for the San Diego Trolley. The
latter‘s first light rail route opened in 1981 and IX. COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSION OF IMPACTS
provided services to and from the Mexican border, ON CAR OWNERSHIP
where it attracted Mexican workers who had
previously relied on buses.
Attractive light rail services might, through their
Differing local contexts, however, may produce influence on car use, be able to reduce car
rather different results. Thus Metrolink Phase 1 had ownership or at least restrain its growth. So how do
only about a quarter of riders switching from bus. the impacts of British schemes compare with those
This is partly because, unlike other schemes, it elsewhere and what possible reasons are there for
involved the conversion of well patronised any similarities or differences?
conventional rail services and a substantial
The worker household car ownership trends found
proportion of former train users switched to light
here are consistent with those for all households
rail. Indeed this train share may have been even
examined by Hass-Klau et al (2004, pages 157-164)
larger if it were not for the six to eight month
who studied the impacts of light rail schemes in
closure periods during the conversion process and
France, Britain (Manchester Metrolink, Midland
the provision of replacement buses for former train
Metro, Tyne and Wear Metro) and Germany. They
users (Senior, 1999). By contrast, the Croydon
defined tram corridors as census areas lying within
Tramlink had a very small share of former train
600-metre (300 metres in German cities) buffer
users (table 7) because the former rail service was
zones and compared them with all areas in each city
poorly patronised and was closed three years before
outside this zone. Their evidence indicated that
Tramlink opened (Steward, 2000). Additionally,
French and German schemes restrained growing car
former car users were as numerous as former bus
ownership whereas the British ones did not, except
users on Metrolink Phase 1, which is partly
possibly for the increase in 2+car households. These
explained by the affluent suburbs served by this
findings were largely confirmed by a later study
light rail route.
using 300 metre corridors (Hass-Klau et al, 2007).
The Census results show modest declines in the However, their results for Greater Manchester‘s
car driver and passenger shares of work trips to city Metrolink suggest that findings are sensitive to
centres (except Birmingham and Wolverhampton) in corridor widths used, as car ownership growth
the light rail corridors. For work trips to all within 300 metres of light rail stations, but not
destinations car driver shares actually increase in conventional rail ones, was less than in the
these corridors, although a little less than in the comparator areas unlike the previous findings for a
control areas, and this may indicate increasing 600-metre corridor. Their British case studies also
decentralisation of jobs beyond the reach of light include the Croydon Tramlink corridor, which has
rail lines of limited extent. Despite PTEG‘s claim lower car ownership growth than the comparator
(2005, page 31) of ‖… impressive evidence of area of eight South London boroughs (Hass-Klau el,
passengers being attracted from other modes, 2007, page 16). This again is consistent with the
particularly the car‖, table 7 reveals that the share of findings for car ownership in worker households
former car users does not usually exceed 30%, with presented in table 6.
occasional exceptions like Nantes‘s 37% in the
Hass-Klau et al (2004) suggest that differences
1990s and San Diego‘s 50% following the opening
between the French and British experiences result
of its second light rail line. Indeed, Hass-Klau et al
from less on-street operation, higher fares and the
(2003, page 84) quote an average of only 11%
relative paucity of complementary measures in the
former car users from a survey of light rail in 14
British schemes. On-street operation gives a
European cities, and 22% from their survey of South
stronger sense of access than services on segregated
Yorkshire Supertram users. Caution should be
alignments. Most British schemes made some use of
exercised about inferring significant reductions in
existing rail alignments to reduce costs and in some
road congestion based on the extent of switching
cases as an aid to regeneration, but this may limit
from car to light rail for two reasons. First, although
opportunities for strategic route design such as
say 22% of light rail passengers may be former car
serving areas with relatively high density.
users as in Sheffield, given light rail‘s share of trips
Loukaitou-Sideris and Banerjee (2000) note the
is 17% (table 4), then 22% of 17% is only 3.74% of
same for the Blue Line in Greater Los Angeles.
all trips in the light rail corridor. Second, reduction
Hence there is relatively little on-street operation in
of car traffic in congested urban areas is likely to
Britain, with the exception of the South Yorkshire
stimulate re-congestion effects. The Census

Supertram with 60% on-street routes in Sheffield. recent light rail facilities in French, British and
However, the data for Sheffield imply only a weak North American cities (Hass-Klau et al, 2002, page
effect of light rail restraining car ownership growth, 11). This finding does not, however, take account of
suggesting the importance of on-street operation conventional rail routes. Thus Manchester Metrolink
should not be overstated. The different car and Croydon Tramlink each serve residents of four
ownership trends found for the Croydon Tramlink local authorities with a combined population of
area may reflect a wider London effect, where the about one million, but these residents are also served
attractions of dense public transport networks are by conventional rail operations and interchange
complemented by the deterrent effect of high to/from light rail is possible if not always
parking charges. convenient. Sheffield, however, has relatively little
local conventional rail operation and its 29
Another influence on light rail use, and thus
kilometres of light rail route serves a city population
potentially on car ownership, is ease of walking
of 513,000 (in 2001). This ratio of route length to
access to light rail services. Such access reflects
city population size is similar for French cities like
both residential densities and the density of the light
Nantes (36.5 kilometres for 545,000 residents) and
rail network. Some continental European cities,
Strasbourg (25 kilometres for a regional population
notably those with older established tram systems
of about 450,000) with more recently established
(for example Zurich and Basle in Switzerland;
light rail services.
Cologne, Hannover and Dusseldorf in Germany),
have more light rail route per resident than the more
TABELE I. PREVIOUS MODES (%) OF SAMPLES OF USERS OF SOME LIGHT RAIL SCHEMES
Previous Greater Croydon Tramlink Midlan Baltim Los San Calgar Nantes
mode Manchester ( all trip d ore Angele Diego y (France
Metrolink Phase purposes) Metro s Blue Trolley (Canad )
1 Line a)
(work trips
only)
Includi Exclu Includin Exclu 1981/1 Mornin 1980s
ng new ding g new ding new 990 g peak [1990s]
trips new trips1 trips surveys period surveys
trips1
Car 18.8 25.5 12.5 16 10 22 21 29.8/50 16 17 (car
driver .0 (approx &
Car 2.0 2.9 2.3 3 4 5 6 ) other)
passenge [37]
r or car
pool
Bus 19.7 26.8 53.9 69 50 63 56.4/24 49 (S) 67
.7 79 (public
(NE) transpo
74 rt)
(NW)
Train 32.1 43.5 5.5 7 na na na
Other 0.9 1.2 3.7 4 (walk) 6 na 3
modes (walk) 1 (other) (walk) (approx
0.8 )
(other)
Trip not 26.4 na 21.9 na 30 4 10.0/na 30 (S) 16
previousl 4 (NE)
y made 8 (NW)
Notes: na = not applicable/available; S. NE, NW = South, North East and North West Lines in Calgary
1. Percentages in these columns have been recalculated from data given in the sources.
Sources: Knowles (1996) for Greater Manchester; Transport for London (2002) for Croydon Tramlink;
Walmsley and Perrett (1992) for San Diego in 1981, Calgary and Nantes; PTEG (2005) for Midland Metro;
Richmond (2004) for Los Angeles, San Diego in 1990 and Baltimore; Hass-Klau et al (2003) for Nantes

TABELE II. A DATA MATRIX STRUCTURE FOR IDENTIFYING MODAL CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH A LIGHT RAIL
INVESTMENT
Mode After Policy
Light Train Bus Car Car Walk Bicyc Moto Other TOTAL
rail Drive passe le rcycl Before
Mode tram r nger e
Before Train X B
Policy Bus X B
Car Driver X B
Car passenger X B
Walk X B
Bicycle X B
Motorcycle X B
Other X B
TOTAL After A A A A A A A A A
However, these ratios compare unfavourably neighbourhood change, particularly the migration of
with 63 kilometres in Bremen and 114 in Hannover, households with different levels of car ownership
which have similar population sizes, and the 28 into and out of light rail corridors. Unfortunately the
kilometres in Freiburg with a population of about British Census records only one-year migration and
201,000. Hence the limited extent of British light the data are not disaggregated by car ownership.
rail schemes may well inhibit their impacts on car Hass-Klau et al (2007, page 5) did find that
ownership and use, but this argument is not valid for professional and managerial workers tend to be more
the French cities Hass-Klau et al (2004) studied. In prominent in rail corridors in British and French
French cities it appears to be residential densities in cities compared with comparator areas. However,
light rail corridors, not route length, which may they could not investigate changes over time in
explain their stronger impacts on car ownership. Britain because of changes in socio-economic
classifications between 1991 and 2001. Research is
Walmsley and Perrett (1992) note that residential
thus needed on the nature of residential mobility and
densities tend to be higher in French cities than
the extent to which it is influenced by changing
British ones of comparable size. This is further
transport environments. Hass-Klau et al (2004) had
emphasised by estimates of the numbers of residents
earlier suggested that the higher proportion of
living within light rail corridors per track kilometre
owner-occupied houses in Britain may inhibit
by Hass-Klau et al (2002, page 87) which show that
households rapidly adjusting their residential
Strasbourg and Rouen in France, followed by the
locations to new transport opportunities as compared
German cities of Cologne, Essen and Bremen and
to French or German cities where renting is more
the Swiss city of Zurich, have the highest densities.
important. London may be an exception to this.
Although Croydon Tramlink‘s corridor densities are
similar to Bremen‘s, Greater Manchester has
significantly lower densities although not as low as
those of the North American cities (San Diego, X. CONCLUSIONS
Portland, Sacramento and Calgary). Hass-Klau et al
(2002) rate Strasbourg‘s light rail as one of the most
While Census data are limited to work trips and
successful schemes and quote (page 47) estimates of
cannot measure gross changes in travel mode, they
66% of Strasbourg‘s residents and almost half of its
do allow a comparison of ‗before‘ and ‘after‘ modal
employees having ―easy access‖ to light rail
shares which capture the net effects of all mode
services. Higher densities may thus contribute to the
changes between Censuses. Moreover, the
impact and success of some light rail schemes, but
geographic coverage of the Census permits the
this is not guaranteed. The German city of Freiburg
identification of control areas. Results for the four
has a very successful light rail system, although its
English schemes indicate that light rail gains modal
corridor residential densities are slightly less than
share mostly at the expense of bus shares, a finding
those for the Midlands Metro (Hass-Klau et al,
that is largely supported by sample surveys of light
2002, page 87) which has failed to meet its forecast
rail users. Car driver shares to all destinations still
patronage.
increase in the light rail corridors, but a little less
Another factor affecting car ownership changes than in control areas. Car driver shares to city centres
between 1991 and 2001 is the extent and nature of usually decline, but with notable exceptions and not

always by more than in control areas, suggesting that and North America. Brighton: Environmental and
conditions specific to each city are important. Transport Planning.
Finally, there is only weak evidence that some, but [9] Kain, J. F., Liu, Z., 1999. Secrets of success:
certainly not all, of these English light rail schemes assessing the large increases in transit ridership
restrain or reduce car ownership, although achieved by Houston and San Diego transit providers.
households in rail corridors may make less use of the Transportation Research A, 31(4), 601-624.
cars they own. [10] Knowles, R. D., 1996. Transport impacts of
Greater Manchester‘s Metrolink light rail system.
Journal of Transport Geography 4: 1-14.
[11] Knowles, R. D., 2007. What future for light rail in
the UK after Ten Year Transport Plan targets are
ACKNOWLEDGMENT scrapped? Transport Policy 14: 81-93.
[12] Knowles, R. D., Abrantes, P., 2008. Buses and
We thank our colleagues Richard Carr for his light rail: stalled en route? Chapter 5 in Shaw J and
helpful comments and Dr Narushige Shiode for his Docherty I (Eds.), Traffic Jam: ten years of
help with GIS. Neil Georgeson (Transport for ‗sustainable‘ transport in the UK. Bristol: Policy
London) kindly supplied a report on the Croydon Press.
Tramlink Impact Study. Census output is Crown [13] Knowles, R. D., Fairweather, E. A., 1994. The
Copyright and is reproduced with the permission of ‗After‘ Rail User Survey and the impact of Metrolink.
the Controller of HMSO and the Queen‘s Printer for Metrolink Impact Study Working Paper 12,
Scotland. The Census data are provided by the Department of Geography, University of Salford.
[14] Loukaitou-Sideris A and Banerjee T (2000) The
Census Dissemination Unit, MIMAS (University of
Blue Line Blues: why the vision of transit village may
Manchester) and by the Centre for Interaction Data not materialize despite impressive growth in transit
Estimation and Research (Universities of Leeds and ridership, Journal of Urban Design 5 (2): 101-125.
of St Andrews). Census services are funded by the [15] National Audit Office, (2004) Improving public
ESRC with the support of the Joint Information transport in England through light rail. Report by the
Systems Committee. Comptroller and Auditor General HC 518 Session
2003–2004. The Stationery Office, London.
[16] PTEG (Passenger Transport Executive Group)
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PTEG
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London: Department for Transport 187-197
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rail. Brighton: Environmental and Transport Planning. Publishing
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V., 2003. Bus or light rail: making the right choice: a Impact Study: summary report. London: Transport for
financial, operational and demand comparison of light London
rail, guided busways and bus lanes. 2nd edition. [22] Walmsley, D., Perrett, K., 1992. The effects of
Brighton: Environmental and Transport Planning. rapid transit on public transport and urban
[7] Hass-Klau, C., Crampton, G. Benjari R, 2004. development. London: Stationery Office.
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[8] Hass-Klau, C., Crampton, Ferlic A (2007) The effect
of public transport investment on car ownership: the
results for 17 urban areas in France, Germany, UK

Energy saving design and materials in road

transport
Matej Lufčić, B.Sc.; Marina Maras, B.Sc.; Mario Vukelić, B.Sc.

Rijeka, Croatia
mario.vukelic@net.hr
Abstract— Energy efficiency is one of major

functions in modern road transport development. The Wider use of materials that will meet their
problem of environmental pollution, lack of energy functional role with the environmental acceptability
resources and energy efficiency requires research, is a necessary prerequisite for transport planning,
production and implementation of energy efficient
materials that would be the foundation of
geared to the preservation of nature and human
environmentally sustainable transport infrastructure in health with the financial, economic and
road traffic. The application of new materials and environmental acceptability.
technologies in the production of infrastructure elements
would lead to significant energy savings, reduced
pollution and noise, and finally the economic viability of
using inexpensive and renewable energy sources. Various
research projects have provided insights how the use of II. RELEVANT FEATURES OF ENERGY SAVING
energy efficient materials brings very good results and is DESIGN AND MATERIALS
an essential prerequisite for sustainable development of
the transport system. This article emphasizes the
importance of energy saving design and materials in road
Transportation allows the movement of people
traffic by presenting some of the latest achievements in and goods, trade development and job creation.
construction of sustainable transport infrastructure. Roads around the world are used by about 700
million motor vehicles, which is ten times more than
Keywords— sustainable development, enviroment, it was in the half of the last century. [1] Despite the
ecology, energy efficiency, road traffic large numbers, they are not available for
approximately 80% of world population. According
to the representation of the most popular means of
I. INTRODUCTION motorized vehicles, first is the car, followed by a
bus, train, express train and plane. Besides being a
symbol of progress, motor vehicles are major
Road transport is the industrial sector with a
polluters of the environment. A quarter of the total
huge impact on the environment and with high
world's oil needs are provided for motor vehicles.
energy consumption. Modernization of transport
Motor vehicles contribute to climate change,
system using sustainable design and energy-efficient
environmental noise, air pollution and greenhouse
materials will achieve significant energy savings,
gases while transport infrastructure has a great
less environmental pollution, and ultimately better
influence on the shaping of relief. In recent years the
profitability. The problem of energy efficiency is
automobile industry, social institutions and
becoming a more common theme of scientific
governments are working to enact new policies that
meetings and conferences aimed at developing and
would transform road transport into ecologically
promoting new ideas related to environmentally
acceptable form of transport. In order to reduce the
friendly technology in road traffic. New
environmental impact, the ecological approach to
technologies are mainly related to the development
transport planning and selecting materials to be used
of sustainable infrastructure and use of renewable
in construction is essential. Such a sustainable
energy sources. Some innovative technology has
construction is a significant segment of adaptation to
already been applied in various road construction
global warming and climate change, including the
projects in Europe and the USA.
use of materials which are not harmful to the
environment and are energy efficient, providing
quality design, durability and quality construction.

A. Sustainable design etc. Once the raw material for processing into a
The design is practiced and promoted as an building material are extracted from the soil, they
activity that is an intermediary between users and were finally exhausted and can not be renewed and
subjects and between individual and community, as such should be found alternative solutions. In
and also as a cognitive technique in relation to users addition, excavation of these materials has a
and objects. It is an intellectual and creative significant negative impact on the environment.
interdisciplinary activity that operates within society Converting raw materials in the construction
in order to encourage the mediation of individual material or product requires extensive manufacturing
identity in the community and identify the processes, some of which are energy intensive, while
individual with the community, within the cultural others require varying degrees of technological
system. [2] As for sustainable design, it’s a intervention. In addition, production of materials
philosophy of designing the material objects, while usually takes place at the source of raw materials,
respecting the principles of social, economic and which requires the transport of materials and
environmental sustainability. products to the construction sites.
Architectural and engineering design must deal Sustainable building materials have less impact
with climate change and the availability of less on the environment, require less energy and
conventional forms of energy and gradually adapt to technological process, are procured from local
the use of renewable energy sources. This approach sources to reduce use of transport, they are
is a feature of sustainable design, which is of renewable by origin or are highly recycled.
paramount importance to planning a system with a Sustainable materials should also have superior
strong influence on the environment such as road properties in terms of stability, thermal performance,
traffic. The principles of sustainable design are often maintenance, etc.
in conflict with economic principles, hence the need Some examples of sustainable building materials
to harmonize the relationship between ecological include recycled denim or blown fiberglass
and economic aspects of sustainable construction in insulation, timber, trass, linoleum, sheep's wool, a
order to achieve efficiency and viability of the special kind of concrete panels from paper flakes,
project. baked earth, clay, vermiculite, sisal, cork, wood fiber
The foundation of every construction project is boards, sand with calcium, local materials and stone
in concept and design stages. Concept phase is one walls, bamboo, which is one of the strongest and
of the major steps in the project lifecycle, as having fastest-growing woody plants, and non-toxic glues
the greatest impact on cost and performance. In and paints.
designing the optimal ecological project, the goal is The use of environmental and energy-efficient
to minimize overall environmental impacts materials in construction has resulted in the
associated with all phases of the project lifecycle. appearance of architectural structures that conserve
Construction projects such as road infrastructure and energy in increasing proportions. From electronic
superstructure are very complex tasks which consist products, through housing, to industrial plants,
of the use of many materials and components whose energy saving is increasingly present parallel with
design variables are to be decided at various stages technological progress and spread of awareness
of design. about the excessive use of nonrenewable energy
In the construction of roads is necessary to sources. In accordance with that, materials that have
satisfy the factor of efficiency in order to avoid minimal impact on the environment and minimize
cases of congestion of some parts of the road while waste and energy consumption are used. Choosing
other parts remained unused after their already busy the right materials can make a significant
the area in the human environment. In building the contribution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions
entire infrastructure, it is desirable to use energy and energy use, without adding any significant
efficient materials, which are the result of recent additional construction costs of the project. This can
technological developments, aimed at reducing be achieved by using recycled materials, minimizing
emissions with less consumption of fossil fuels and waste, using materials that do not require much
reduce noise and inefficient energy consumption. maintenance once they are installed, and informing
about the origin of materials. In selecting the
B. Energy saving materials components used in the construction of a project,
care should be taken of the choice of materials
Sustainable building materials are those that have
during installation and make sure they do not emit
the least environmental impact, while still offering
toxins and harmful substances or product
the highest level of technical properties. Most
unnecessary noise. The installation of materials itself
construction materials are products of the mining
is very important because improper installation and
industry: steel, aluminum, cement, clay, sand, stone,

use of materials reduces their duration and 6900 dollars. However, each solar panel produces
functionality. 7.6 kWh per day and a mile of this road can supply
500 households with electricity which is great in
long terms savings.
III. EXAMPLES OF ENERGY EFFICIENT SOLUTIONS Currently more acceptable project of collecting
IN ROAD TRANSPORT energy from the road surface is transforming heat
energy absorbed by the asphalt surface into
Great road surfaces so far have been unused for electricity through a power transformer installed
the purpose of collecting solar energy. But beneath the road surface. The concept of solar
that will soon change by using panels to energy absorbed in the asphalt offers an inexpensive
collect solar energy made of solar cells and glass way to collect energy as most of the necessary
which will replace the pavement on the infrastructure already exists. The concept is
roads and parking lots. The project entitled based on highly conductive water pipes beneath the
“The Solar Roadway” is the invention that could road surface. Water heated in these tubes could be
transform roadways into solar power plants. Turning partly used for heat supply of residential and
roads into solar path by installing solar panels would industrial buildings, and in part to transform energy
reduce the dependence on diminishing supplies of into electrical energy in thermoelectric generators.
fossil fuels. Key to the success of this technology is finding the
optimal material for the efficient absorption of heat
Specifically, with this new technology,
energy. Currently, experiments are made with
through the use of renewable energy sources, the
different types of asphalt and specially designed
future road would not provide electricity just for
devices for collecting heat and maximum utilization
itself, but also for its surroundings like villages,
of thermal energy.
towns and cities Panels designed by the organization
“Solar Roadways” contain embedded LED lights
A. Solar Serpents in Paradise – Project of Swedish
that make a smart system while forming the guiding
architect Mans Tham
line on the road and having the ability to provide
visual information to drivers. At the same time The idea of the Swedish architect Mans Tham is a
embedded materials for heating panels can prevent highway converted to a solar power plant so its
the retention of snow and ice on the road. operation could supply the cities and its structure
could receive an additional purpose. In order to
A large increase in the production of electric cars accomplish such a project and become a source of
is expected in near future, which favors the idea that energy, it is necessary to cover the space above the
is developed in the Solar Roadways Company, vehicle with solar panels. In author’s opinion, if the
where batteries of electric cars could be recharged project could be implemented on the Los Angeles
from electric road. freeway system it would provide energy for the most
In technical terms, solar road would be of the city. Implementation of the project at Santa
constructed of three layers: [3] Monica freeway, which connects Los Angeles with
the mainland, could receive up to 150 GW hours of
 The surface layer is solid, durable and electricity annually. This way the cities would be
transparent glass that lets the suns rays to the provided with more efficient and rational use of
solar collector. Protects sensitive electronic energy.
technology, and at the same time serves as a
route by which vehicles and the heaviest
traffic could pass.
 The electronic layer consists of solar cells
and a large number of LED lights that can
turn into a smart road, by providing visual
information. This layer plays the role of
storing electricity.
 The base layer conducts
electricity, and serves as a network for
transmission of signals an data including Figure 1. The projection of possible look of
highway covered with solar panels
television, telephony and internet.
Winding road layout would indeed reminiscent of

Viability of the project is questionable due to the
a snake, so it is not surprising that Mans Tham
fact that a panel size of 3.6 square meters cost about

named his project "Solar serpents in paradise". In D. Energy efficient road lightning
addition to significant shifts in the ecological High quality street lighting at night provides a
approach to architecture, author emphasizes the safer traffic flow and smooth operation of various
economic component - creating new jobs. activities. Outdoor lighting can be divided into road
lighting (lighting of roads), urban lighting (light on
B. Finnish project of Green highway squares and pedestrian zones) and reflector lights
Green Highway is a Finnish highway project that (lighting facades and prestigious buildings). There
would support environmentally friendly modes of are two ways of generating artificial light: thermal
transport. The project is based on providing stations radiation and luminescent radiation which form the
for recharging electric cars and stations for the cars basis of division of the light sources. The basic
using bio-fuels. Environmental lighting system principle of thermal radiation is passing of electric
would be used along the highway and plants for current through a material until it is heated to a
producing pure energy would be built in the area. temperature at which we obtain a visible spectrum
The project would be carried out on the section of of light. As for the discharge lamp, the light is
the European highway E18, which is the main generated by principle of luminescent radiation.
border crossing and customs of the EU towards
High pressure sodium lamps on gas discharge
Russia. The first phase began in early 2010 and was
principle proved to be the best solution for efficient
presented at a public forum in August that year. The
road lighting. Lamps on the gas discharge have a
project is of great importance because it wants to
higher luminous efficiency, and are mostly used for
examine the government's model named Sustainable
street lighting. They provide a luminous efficiency
development corridor, that would unite economic
of 150 lumens per watt and are used as an
development, transport and the environmentally
economical light source in lighting, because their
friendly principles. The idea is that the project
long lifespan significantly reduce the cost of system
involved local economy through the production of
maintenance. The 95% of these light bulbs and after
ethanol from waste and other resources. Solar and
4 years of use in lighting systems. The primary
wind energy would be used as a power source for
function of road lighting is providing the minimum
cars and the necessary infrastructure. Plans also
required value of light traffic, uniform illumination
contain advanced lighting systems and geothermal
and to reduce the effect of headlight glare. Modern
heat pumps. The project aims to use intelligent
street lighting greatly reduces the headlight glare
technology that could contribute to the efficient and
and provides 70% greater uniformity of
safer transport. The project involves leading energy
illumination.
companies: Fortum and Neste Oil, cities of Loviisa,
Porvoo and Hamina and technology company Enste. An important element of environmental
The preparatory phase of the project is until April sustainability associated with the public and road
2011. Implementation of the project, whose cost is lighting is light pollution. Light pollution stands for
estimated at 700 million, could begin as early as any useless scattering of artificial light into the
April 2011 and should be completed by 2016. space outside the zone that needs to be highlighted
(roads, streets, squares, monuments, advertising). It
C. Italian solar road is caused by improper installation and design of
Along with other European countries that try to lighting fixtures and results in pollution of the sky
lead in the use of energy efficient solutions in and surrounding creating the disappearance of
transportation, Italy aims to become one of the first night. Light pollution can be avoided by using
countries with a highway that uses solar energy. A18 environmental lighting fixtures that do not scatter
road from Catania to Siracusa, 30 km long branch of light outside the area which should be highlighted.
Sicilian motorway network, will be equipped with 80 Environmental lighting fixtures are those that satisfy
000 photovoltaic cells installed along the highway. the following three conditions: [5]
Road construction was taken over by company  reduced power consumption compared to
named Pizzarotti & Co. They will use photovoltaic conventional lighting body and therefore
cells which will supply 100% of highway needs, reduced emissions and other greenhouse gas
including ventilation systems in tunnels, lighting, emissions,
road signs, emergency telephones, etc. The project
value is 60 million Euros and it will produce 12  appropriate designed lights,
million kWh per year, reducing CO2 emissions up to  proper installation of lights.
10 000 tons per year. [4]
Non-ecological lighting fixtures are designed to

emit light in virtually all directions, and utilization

of light emitted to illuminate the where electricity is sold to the public distribution
desired area is only 10-30%. These are all those network. Inside the steel arch structure similar to the
lights where the glass bowl or hemisphere tunnel, the vertical part will be filled with aluminum
is “thrown out” of the lightning fixture’s body. panels for protection from noise, while the curved
Unlike them, the environmental lighting fixtures are part of the roof is to be installed with 1155 units of
completely obscured, and have the ability to control solar panels which will be 196 cm long and 998 cm
light emission and do not allow scattering of light in wide. The total area will amount to 2,300 square
the environment. Such lighting fixtures on the meters. Annual plant capacity will amount to 248
underside have flat glass on the underside and 000 kWh, and it is estimated that the annual energy
cheaper versions are without glass. gained would be about 217 000 kWh, in which are
included losses due to shadowing, etc. One of the
most important conditions in building a solar power
plant is its location, because efficiency is directly
dependent on the factor of total daily insolation,
IV. SOLAR POWER PLANT ON RIJEKA BYPASS which in Croatia ranges from 0.9 to 1.7 in winter and
5.8 to 7.4 in summer. For example, by the power of
Solar power plant project in Rijeka highway is the sun, the Northern Adriatic is evaluated favorably,
becoming one of the first European environmental but the Middle and Southern Adriatic have even
projects which combine planning of road transport better results. On the sunny islands the factor is even
infrastructure with energy production. Company higher, so it is estimated that the Croatian coast in
Autocesta Rijeka-Zagreb (ARZ) adopted a pilot the future has very good qualities to build solar
project to build solar power station on the motorway power plants similar to one on the Rijeka bypass.
in which is planned to install solar panels on the
special section of the bypass between Mihačeva
Draga and tunnel Katarina. It is planned to set up
solar panels on the noise barriers construction, which
formed an artificial tunnel on bypass that runs close V. CONCLUSION
to residential skyscrapers. This part of the highway
covered with solar panels is 330 meters The usage of fossil fuels has become an
long. Permission to generate electricity is one of the inefficient energy source that has a large negative
conditions on which project could be completed and impact on the environment. For these reasons, should
the solar energy from the road turned into electricity the use of alternative energy sources and
and continues to transform into the Croatian public development of technology that will enable energy
electric power system. efficiency be encouraged. Energy efficiency is a set
of actions and measures intended to use the
minimum possible amount of energy so that the
comfort level and production rate remain preserved.
Simply put energy efficiency is to use a smaller
amount of energy to perform the same job or
function.
The negative impact of road transport on the
environment and inefficient energy consumption has
forced scientists to make appropriate arrangements
that will enable the improvement of road
infrastructure and its use in gathering the energy
needed for the operation of transport services, and
wider use. Implementing these solutions requires the
Figure 2. Solar power plant on Rijeka bypass
use of sustainable design and energy efficient
materials so the environmental impact was kept to a
The solar power project is worth about 1.2 minimum.
million euros, of which 0.3 million euros waste at the Projects listed in the paper, most of whom are
expense of noise barriers construction, which is still at the stage of research, show results that
already placed on the site. The nine million should indicate that the roads are great potential for
be paid-off in the first 10 years of manufacturing and environmentally friendly way to collect energy. The
selling of electricity, after which the electricity most attention is given to ways of collecting solar
produced represent pure profit. This is actually a energy so as to effectively utilize the vast areas of
pioneering project on such an infrastructure facility roads throughout the world.

Some EU countries have already started

REFERENCES
implementing the latest technological advances in
energy efficiency-related road traffic, while also [1] Sustainable consumption and production, Brochure
of Croatian Ministry of Environment, Physical
making the decisions related to environmental Planning and Construction , 2004, pp. 20
pollution. These projects are not yet spread to the [2] http://www.dizajn.hr
area of Croatia, but with accession to the European [3] http://cromalternativemoney.org
Union, Croatia will have to adjust its traffic system [4] http://inhabitat.com
with EU standards and thus move into a new era of [5] Brochure of Regional Energy Agency of Northwest
road traffic based on ecological and sustainable Croatia, pp. 5
mode of transport whereas the project of solar power
plant on Rijeka bypass is the first step towards
energy efficient road transport.

Is the utilization of methane gas, the solution of

air pollution in difuse sectors?. The case of Port
of Castellón
Francesc Xavier Martínez de Osés José María Gil Aizpuru
Dpt of Nautical Science and Engineering General Manager of Commercial Dpt.
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Gas Natural, S.A.
Barcelona, Spain Barcelona, Spain
fmartinez@cen.upc.edu
Abstract— Within an scenario of highly sensitivity on for ships berthed at port during more than 2 hours,
environmental questions, followed by an international below to a 0.1% in mass content. At a first glance
regulation body, that is restricting the emission levels the most immediate solution is to use gas oil with
from ships in ports with the future possibility of more low sulphur content, but its cost is not negligible
stringent local regulations; the challenge for the world’s
fleet are not only technical but economic and logistical.
above the IFO or MDO prices. [1]
From one side, there are different technical alternatives
affording to accomplish the nowadays international
regulations. Even avoiding on board modifications, the
owner can decide to use low sulphur content fuels, II. SCENARIO
together with slight changes in engines to reduce the
levels of nitrogen oxides. But the question posed in this
paper is how to support the decision to use high quality In a highly environment conscious scenario, with
oil derivatives, because environment questions, but with a an international regulation restricting the emission
favorable economic balance. That superior cost will be levels from ships at member part ports, but possibly
translated in a higher transport chain cost. Additionally existing a more restrictive local law. The concern of
regarding coastal navigation, it is possible in the future fleet adaptation to the new requirements is not only
that some new regulations could penalize elevated rates technical but also economical and logistics. From
of CO2 emissions, not yet considered by MARPOL one side there are different technical alternatives,
convention. This paper will analyze the availability of the
use of methane as ideal fuel to get compliment of the
affording to comply with the regulations in force.
nowadays and even future, local and international Without major changes on board, the owner can
regulations of CO2 and NOX, regarding the fuel decide to use low sulfur content fuels, and can carry
derivatives and no emissions of sulphur oxides and ashes. out slight and inexpensive modifications in the main
engine, to reduce the levels of nitrogen oxides.
Keywords— formatting; style; styling; insert (key
words) But what is posing this paper also, is the balance
between the need to use oil derivates with an
everyday better quality, due to environmental
questions, and at the same time that the economic
I. INTRODUCTION balance would be positive. In the long term the
environment factor has an elevated cost for the
This paper is going to describe the proposal of an producer (now the owner), and finally that cost will
assessment model to validate the economical and be charged in the following commercial chain step,
operational viability to provide methane gas to ships the costumer. In the other hand and mainly in
berthed at port. The proposed model is going to be coastal navigation, maybe in the future it would be
checked in Castellón port (Spanish Mediterranean possible the establishment of new regulations
coast) which is an example of regional size port, controlling and penalizing high rates of CO2
with traffic figures exceeding the 11 millions of emissions, question not dealt in MARPOL yet, but
metric tons. that is the base on which different protocols for
climate change are based. In 2008, the expert group
The present state of the art regarding the from the International Maritime Organization,
regulation scenario, due to the entrance of the modified their previous estimations on the world
European directive 99/32, is mainly concerned on merchant fleet, fixing them in 1,120 millions of tons
the limitation of the sulphur quantity in fuels, used of CO2 per year, produced by the worlds fleet, what

means the 4.5% of the planet emissions. In the is going to put a superior pressure on the owners to
opinion of this working group, this figure is three begin to use cleaner fuels and more efficient engines.
times the contribution that was initially estimated, In the other hand it is possible that EU could include
and of course those were not accounted in the the shipping industry within the CO2 emissions
objectives to fight against the climate change. The market. [3]
report “Maritime transport and the climate change
challenge TD/B/C.I/MEM.1/2 [2], from United A. Contribution of Maritime Transport to
Nations, pointed out that other pollutants coming Greenhouse Effect Gases
from the transport activity, and specifically CO2 emissions from ships are directly
navigation, are increasing quicker than the expected proportional to the bunker consumption, for all uses,
CO2 growing (estimated in an additional 30% in id est propulsion, auxiliary services, heating or
2020), like the soot and sulfur oxides, that would others [4]. The consumption estimates and then the
increase more than the 30% in the next decade. Both emissions of greenhouse effect gases, varies in the
pollutants, contribute to the acid rain and to a wide time, because the better definition of scenarios and
variety of breath diseases, including the lung cancer. the improvement on the modeling techniques [5]
In fact the World Health Organization (2005) has [6]. In the graphic 1, it is showed that the
established in 60,000 the number of deaths every estimations on the greenhouse effect gases coming
year due to the pollution derived from the world‟s from maritime sector represent from the 1.6% to
merchant fleet. 4.1% of the world CO2 emissions coming from
Despite this situation, most of the world bunker burning. IMO estimations for the
administrations have sub estimated up to now, the international maritime transport from 2007 to 2050,
marine traffic contribution to the greenhouse effect. are pointing an increase from 2.4% to 3%.
European Union, has minimized this fact confirming Maritime transport represented in 2005, the 10%
that this one, contributes to less than 2% of the total of the greenhouse gases emissions of the transport
CO2, emissions, a reason because those never have sector, which were headed by the road transport
been contemplated in the national estimations. In this with the 73% of total contribution (IEA 2005).
sense we should keep in mind, that recently there are
exploring initiatives to correct the previous situation, In absolute figures the greenhouse gases
being one example the recommendations contained emissions coming from maritime transport are very
in the proposal of report “On the strategic objectives important, in relative terms show that ships are much
and recommendations for the maritime transport more efficient than other transport modes, implying
policy in the EU towards 2018” (EU Parliament a specific consumption per ton of freight carried
2010), complaining that the Copenhagen Summit on much lower than the other modes. CO2 is created in
Climate Change could not agree conclusions to all the combustion processes and thus is produced in
reduce emissions of maritime navigation, but big quantities in the maritime transport, being those
introducing valid criteria to reach that objective. So directly proportional to fuel consumption. Maybe the
we can conclude that the contribution of Maritime best way to reduce CO2 emissions would be to
transport on the greenhouse gases emission, has been improve the energetic performance of ships.
recognized by the worlds‟ administrations, and this
Figure 1. Graphic 1: Range of typical CO2 efficiencies for various cargo carriers in g CO2 per Ton and kilometer.
Source based on IMO study on greenhouse gases emissions from maritime traffic 2008 (OMI 2008).

 Goal setting: This part is voluntary, it‟s not

III. GUIDANCE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SHIP necessary to announce the results of the plan
ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT PLAN to the public, and neither there are external
inspections. So, the purpose of goal setting is
IMO has established the Shipboard Energy to serve as signal of reference to be conscious
Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP), a document and to improve the measures for the energy
to improve a ship‟s energy efficiency through four efficiency.
steps: planning, implementation, monitoring and
self-evaluation and improvement. This Plan will In order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
become an increasingly valuable tool but now it is from international shipping, the Marine
just a voluntary application. A performance baseline Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) from
is necessary to make SEEMP effective and can be IMO proposed take some measures involving the
used to help learn and improve. The success also design phase of the new ships and helps to improve
depends from the crew using the new technology or their fuel efficiency too. The measures had been
deploying new working practices. Crew bonuses reviewed in a number of sessions from the MEPC
based on improvements fuel consumption can pay and almost approved in the last one, the 61st session
off. The final element of the energy strategy of the MEPC, celebrated on September 2010 in
management using SEEMP is the understanding of London. In the 59st session (July 2009) of the
how the carbon markets work (The Motorship IMO‟s Marine Environment Protection Committee
2010). (MEPC) a package of interim and voluntary
technical and operational measures was agreed as
The purpose of the Ship Energy Efficiency one of the first steps of the implementation of the
Management Plan (SEEMP) is to establish a Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) for the
mechanism for a company and/or a ship to improve objective to reduce emissions. These measures were
the energy efficiency of a ship‟s operation. SEEMP used as trial purpose until they were refined in the
should be adjusted to the main characteristics and new session of the MEPC (60st session on March
need of individual companies and ships in order to 2010). The measures include interim guidelines on
develop the performance of ongoing environmental the method of calculation and voluntary verification,
of its vessel, in the way that any onboard of the Energy Efficiency Design Index for new
administrative burden will be minimum. (Many ships:, guidance on the development of a Ship
companies will already have an environmental Energy Efficiency Management Plan, for new and
management system (EMS) in place under existing ships and a guidelines for voluntary use of
ISO14001). Its application seeks to improve a ship‟s the Ship Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator for
energy efficiency through four steps, beginning with new and existing ships, which enables operators to
its planning: This is the most important stage of the measure the fuel efficiency of a ship.
SEEMP that includes the current status of the ship
energy usage and the future improvement of ship The Committee agreed that a vessel‟s attained
energy efficiency. EEDI shall be equal or less that the required EEDI.
The required EEDI shall be taken account based on
 Ship – specific measures: The method to EEDI baselines and reduction rates not yet
improve ship efficiency depends of the ship approved.
type, cargoes, routes and other factors,
Additionally an Expert Group will be established
because not all measures can be applied to all
on the subject to undertake a feasibility study and
ships or under different operating conditions.
impact assessment for the next session, MEPC 61.
In the first place, the specific measures for
The 61st session of the MEPC (September 2010)
the ship should be identified as a list to be
was due to finalize technical aspects of the EEDI
implemented.
and agree the detail of its mandatory application,
 Company – specific measures: It is along with the Ship Energy Efficiency Management
recommended that a company also establish Plan (SEEMP) across all new ships but proponents
an energy management plan for its fleet to failed to secure approval by consensus. So, the
reach the most improvement expected. And a mandatory energy efficiency rules could be adopted
good coordination between stakeholders for new ships this year (2011) and the measures
(operators, ports and traffic management would come into force in 2013. If made mandatory,
service) should exist. it would see ship owners penalized if they do not
meet minimum fuel efficiency standards for their
 Human resource development: Another vessel type.
important element to develop this plan is to
provide the necessary training to the
personnel both on shore and on board.

IV. METHANE GAS USE IN MARITIME advances the main reason is the price of fuels. The
TRANSPORT look for the energy efficiency on board ships helps to
maintain a reasonable efficiency in the marine
business, together with the reduction of pollutant and
There has been a quick evolution in the past
greenhouse effect, gases.
decade, when we are talking about the methane use
on board ships. Before 2000 we could identify ferries The fourth step would be the analysis of the
using compressed natural gas in Russia, Holland, environmental advantages provided by the natural
USA, Canada or Australia. From the year 2000 there gas use, instead of the oil derivates. The minor
are posed some environmental concerns, and begins volume of emissions associated to natural gas,
to appear a generation of freight ships using natural presents it as an ideal fuel to be used at port.
gas as fuel, like the supplier “Viking Energy” and Additionally, there will be studied the nowadays
the ship “Stril Pioneer”. In 2004 is completed the situation of gas infrastructures in Spain, its capacity
“Pioneer Knutsen”, coastal gas carrier combining of expansion and distribution in the present and in
diesel and gas, engines. In the early 2007, 5 ferries the future, along the coast. We need to know the
were built for passenger and car transport, using only technical capacity, to cover future potential demand
liquefied gas engines. Further came into operation in the Castellon port. An study of the retributive
the first coast guard boat for Norway using dual fuel system, will be done, in order to know if there is a
engines. The project “BigLNG” is running, commercial interest from the distribution companies,
participated by “Color Line”, “SeaTrans”, to develop this kind of projects. The information will
“Marintek”, DNV, “Aker Yards” and “Gas Nor”, to be get from the “Gas Natural” group and the Spanish
develop big ships with ample navigation range using Ministry of Industry and Energy.
liquefied natural gas.
Following the fifth step will be to know the state
Different engine manufacturers have developed of the art to know the utilization of natural gas as
electrical ship concepts, where the power is fuel, as kind of engines, manufacturers and
generated by LNG. Due to this fact, the consumption equipment. It will then be possible to know the
is said to be reduced approximately in 4%, because information from marine engine, providers and
doesn‟t need previous warming. GHG emissions are manufacturers; making an analysis of the dual fuel
expected to be reduced the 25%, and the ones from technology and the conversion of existing devices to
sulfur, disappear. natural gas use. The knowledge of the Castellon
coast will be needed, in order to know its
climatology, demography and mainly the traffic
figures and typology in its port.
V. METHODOLOGY OF STUDY
The sixth step would be the analysis of the air
emissions coming from merchant ships hosted at port
The analysis has begun with the study of different of Castellón. The traffic of the port will be
concepts as pollution and health, climate change and inventoried for a significant period, mainly during
social sensitivity or the impact of environment on the the year 2009. The information will be obtained from
company policy. In fact up to some years ago, the the Port Captain, regarding types of ships and time
concept of pollution was associated almost of berthing; this information has been obtained from
exclusively to the “air pollution”, and its impact was MEREP (Merchant ship report). It contains more
evaluated related to its impact on health. But lastly than 900 registers containing 4 movements each,
the idea of climate change has got important, and its what means up to 3,600 registers. A database will be
origin has been attributed to human activity. developed to identify the ship entrances and
The second step has been the location and leavings. Those registers do not provide information
identification of regulations related to air pollution on the ship‟s and engine, particulars, so that we have
and GHG emission, applicable to maritime sector. not the auxiliary engines characteristics, like power
We can classify regulations from international or consumptions. For this purpose has been needed
(MARPOL), European, national and even regional or to search in different websites and registries, the
local; ones. In our case, we are going to analyze the ships‟ particulars. Some of the sources provide full
regulations applied to ships in transit to/from details, but not all of them. In the cases in which no
Castellon port. From this analysis we have got an enough information have got, we have used data
abstract with the limits posed by the actual or future, coming from European project “Ex -tremis”, in
regulations. which the “Maritime Fuel Consumption” database,
pose the basic consumptions per ship type, length
The further step, has analyzed the energy and nationality, affording to select the type of
efficiency measures on board ships, we are of the auxiliary engine. When this last would be no
opinion that independently from the technical

possible, it will be applied the consumption ratio per sulfur contents in fuels used at port. This project
flag divided by the fleet composition figure, in order should be supported by a favorable tax and port fees
to get the unitary value. Finally we will proceed to treatment for all ships using this service. The model
evaluate the total emissions in the port of Castellón. once completed, would be adapted to different ports,
to be applied before the intention to invest in this
The seventh step will provide the hypothetical
kind of infrastructures.
reduction of emissions coming from the use of
natural gas instead of Diesel oil in the Port of
Castellón. An Economical analysis will support this
REFERENCES
step. The following step will provide the model for
evaluate the technical viability to design a
distribution gas network for ships in the port, that [1] Chengfeng, W. et al. “The costs and benefits of
will be also accompanied by an economical viability reducing SO2 emissions from ships in the US West
analysis of this project in the port. Coastal waters”. Transportation Research: Part D 12,
2007.
This last step will keep in mind the different [2] European Parliament. Transports and Tourism
stakeholders like the gas distributor, the commercial Commission, doc. 2009/2095(INI), 4th January
2010.
gas agent and the owner. Then keeping in mind the [3] Endresen, O. et al. “A historical reconstruction of
rules on activity retribution, the minima project ships„ fuel consumption and emissions”. Journal of
investments and returns, minima demand for the Geophysical Research D. Vol. 112, D 1230:1-17,
2007.
viability of the project or the project internal ratio of
[4] Floedstroem, E.. “Energy and emission factors for
benefits. ships in operation”. KFB Rep. Swedish Transport
and Commerce Res. Board. Swedish Maritime
Administration and Mariterm AB. Gothenburg.
Sweden. 1997
VI. CONCLUSIONS [5] Mulligan, R. Et al. “Short Sea Shipping. Alleviating
the environmental impact of economic growth”.
WMU Journal of Maritime Affaires. Vol. 5, Part 2:
181-194. 2006.
The analysis proposed, has been almost finally
[6] Martínez de Osés, F.X & Castells, M. “The external
tested. It pretends to develop a model of viability cost of speed at sea: An Analysis based on selected
analysis for port conversions in natural gas providers Short Sea Shipping routes”. WMU Journal of
for ships berthed. This last, would be a quick Maritime Affaires. Vol. 8, Part 1: 25-43. 2009.
solution to comply with the European directive on

Transport Aspects of Local and Regional

Energy Autonomy
Findings from a Modelling Study of Liechtenstein
Hans-Martin Neumann, Dieter Genske & Peter Droege

Institute of Architecture and Planning
University of Liechtenstein
Vaduz, Liechtenstein
Abstract— A growing number of regional and local Large-scale efforts like the proposed photovoltaic
communities in Europe aim towards “energy autonomy” plants in the deserts of Africa, or the extensive fields
(Scheer 2005). These communities try to cover their of energy crops that can be found in many southern
energy demand for electricity, heating and cooling to countries, are also associated with big risks in terms
100% by renewable energies from local and regional
sources. Is this approach also useful and viable for
of ecological impacts and project funding [9,10].
transport? Should the European institutions support such Projects that provide renewable energy at the local
strategies? In this paper we will present and discuss and regional level seem to be more successful. Thus,
modelling results for Liechtenstein as well as provide an a whole European movement of local and regional
overview of ongoing research project focusing on the communities aiming at energy autonomy has
cross-border region around Lake Constance. evolved. Many of these communities are very
Keywords— energy autonomy, renewable energies, successful in terms of electricity and heat generation,
sustainable transport, Liechtenstein, BAER and efficiency gains in the building stock, but only
few focus on transport energy [11,12].
I. BACKGROUND
II. METHOD
The socio-political, economic and environmental
stability of the European Union is at great risk, due Can the concept of regional energy autonomy
to its reliance on highly polluting, low-resilience and also be applied in the field of transport? Is it
non-renewable energy sources and distribution technically possible to cover a region`s transport
networks. Regional strategies for rebuilding energy demand by renewable regional sources
renewable supply systems are essential in alone? To answer these questions this paper presents
eliminating this nexus of threats (Droege 2011). As the results of a regional study for Liechtenstein that
long as oil was abundant and cheap, the dependence analysed renewable energy generation potential as
on fossil fuels was no problem. However, today well as regional transport energy demand.
there is little doubt among energy experts that “the The study analyses renewable energy potentials
day of cheap and easy oil is over.” [1]. Recent by using the Space Type Energy Model (STEM).
studies strongly suggest that the world oil production This model allows for a quantitative assessment of a
capacity is either close to its peak or has already region’s potential to cover its own energy demand.
passed it [2]. Based on a region-specific typology of built-up and
The dependence on fossil fuels is particularly open spaces, STEM calculates the energy demand
high in the field of transport. In Europe, 96.5% of and production capacity for renewable energy in a
energy demand related to transport is covered by region .
fossil fuels ([2]. As the global climate is rapidly Current transport energy demand has been
changing and oil production is peaking, many ideas calculated based on data from national energy
for post-fossil transport systems that rely on statistics reflecting fuel sales was used. In order to
renewable energy have been developed recently estimate the future energy demand of Liechtenstein,
[3,4,5,6]. These proposals can be seen as part of a scenarios that were originally developed in Germany
larger movement in favour of renewable energy. [14], were tailored to the context of Liechtenstein.
Many experts call for energy supply systems that are Based on the transport energy demand per capita of
based by 100% on renewable energy [7,8]. It is hotly 2010, the curve progression for previous German
debated, where this energy should come from:

scenarios was used to extrapolate the future fuel and live in neighbouring Austria and Switzerland. In
electricity demand per capita. In a next step, the 2010, the primary energy demand of Liechtenstein
demand per capita was multiplied by the number of amounted to 2.589 GWh or 71 MWh per capita.
inhabitants for 2050, as forecast by the national Transport accounts for a 400 GWh or about one
office of statistics. quarter of the annual final energy demand, which is
almost exclusively covered by petroleum, diesel,
Thus, two scenarios for the year 2050 have been
kerosene and natural gas, i.e. fossil fuels. The future
developed: A) A reference scenario that takes into
energy demand of Liechtenstein is strongly
account likely future improvements to energy
influenced by demographics. According to a
efficiency as well as the continued expansion of
prognosis carried out by the national office of
renewable energy along the lines of current trends.
statistics, it is likely that the country’s population
B) An innovation scenario that aims at an energy-
will have risen to 44,000 by the year 2050. This will
autonomous Liechtenstein until 2050 and explores
significantly influence the energy demand.
technical options for the optimal exploitation of
renewable energy sources and improved energy
A. Liechtenstein’s future transport energy demand
efficiency.
As far as the transport energy demand is
concerned, the reference scenario is based on the
assumption that passenger transport volume remains
stable until 2030 and then recedes slightly due to
demographic effects. Freight transport, however, is
predicted to grow by more than 80%. With regard to
the car fleet, it is assumed that the share of hybrids
will be 23% and the share of electric vehicles will
reach 13% in 2050. The car fleet of the year 2050
will only need about half of the energy that was
needed by the car fleet in 2005. However, 80% of
the energy demand of the car fleet will still be
covered by fossil fuels. The truck fleet of 2050 will
run almost exclusively by (slightly more efficient)
diesel trucks. Overall, the final energy demand in
transport will be lowered by one third until the year
2050 in the reference scenario. Rail passenger
transport is set to diminish by 4%, whilst rail freight
transport increases by 116%. Both passenger and
freight trains will be more energy efficient in the
future. Although air transport is predicted to grow
significantly, its energy consumption will remain
almost stable, due to increased energy efficiency. In
the reference scenario, the total energy demand of
transport will be 27% lower in 2050 than in 2005.
This is mostly a consequence of more efficient
vehicles [14].
TABLE I. REFERENCE SCENARIO: FINAL ENERGY

DEMAND
Figure 1. Energetic Space Types for Liechtenstein Year Reference Scenario

Total Energy Transport Share
Demand Energy of
Demand transp
ort
III. RESULTS 2010 1527 413 27,0%
2050 1216 264 21,8%
With a surface of 160 m² and 36,000 inhabitants,
Liechtenstein is the 4th smallest country in Europe. In the innovation scenario, the volume of
Liechtenstein is highly industrialized and has about passenger transport will peak in 2030 and drop
as many workplaces as inhabitants. Two thirds of slightly thereafter. This trend can be explained by a
persons working in Liechtenstein are commuters that

shift away from car use, in favour of bike trips and is used for STEM. Energy crops can be grown on
walking. Nevertheless, the proportion of trips most of the open spaces. Thus, each open space type
covered by private motorcars is almost as big as in yields a specific amount of biofuels per year. If the
the reference scenario due to demographic total area covered by each open space type is known,
influences. In freight transport, the proportion of rail the country’s potential for renewable transport
and water transport is higher and the average energy could be determined. For the study of
shipping distance is shorter than in the reference Liechtenstein, however,it was decided not to take
scenario. Petroleum-powered vehicles will be phased into account biofuels. Due to the country’s small
out between 2030 and 2050. size, mountainous terrain and high population
density, arable land is very limited. In light of these
TABLE II. INNOVATION SCENARIO: FINAL ENERGY limitations and the fact that the cultivation of energy
DEMAND crops at a large scale would compete with food
production, biofuels were not deemed to be an
Year Innovation Scenario appropriate option for an energy autonomous
Shar Liechtenstein.
Total Transpor
e of
Energy t Energy
Transpo
In the case of electricity generation, one has to
Demand Demand differentiate between two types of potentials: On the
rt
one hand, there are installations that are bound to a
2010 1527 413 27,0% specific site (e.g. a water power station at a river).
2050 859 203 23,6% This first type falls into the category of “concrete
potentials”. On the other hand, some generation
potentials are not as dependent on specific
The introduction of Diesel-powered cars is geographic features, such as a river, but rather on the
assumed to peak in 2018. In 2050, two thirds of space type they are situated in. The solar yield of a
vehicles will be hybrids and one fifth will be specific photovoltaic element, for example, might be
powered exclusively by electricity. The total energy influenced by nearby objects casting shadows, such
demand of road transport will decline by 47% until as buildings and trees. As Everding [15] has
2050. All liquid fossil fuels will be replaced by observed, these variations are related to the urban
liquid biofuels until the end of that period. Thus, the form (i.e. the space type) of the area installation site.
total transport energy demand per capita decreases to This second type of potential “diffuse potential”. In
203 kWh/a and the overall transport energy demand 2010, Liechtenstein produced 68 GWh of electricity
will decrease to 5.590 GWh/a [14]. domestically, using solar and water power. This
amounts to only about 4.5% of the final energy
demand. The electricity demand of transport was
15.88 GWh.
The more conservative “reference scenario” is
based on the Kyoto targets for Liechtenstein and the
goals of current government programs such as the
“energy concept 2013” and the “energy vision
2020”. It is very possible that these targets and goals
can be reached by the installation of photovoltaic
panels on roofs and facades along with other
measures that require limited investments. These
Figure 2. Reduction Paths of Transport Energy measures may be taken by house owners and other
Demand for Liechtenstein petty private investors with some financial support
from the government. No new power plants or other
large scale installations will be built, i.e. no
B. Liechtentenstein`s potential for the generation additional concrete potentials will be exploited.
of renewable transport energy Rising from 68 GWh in 2010 to 174 GWh in 2050,
Generally speaking, renewable transport energy the renewable electricity generation will almost
comes in two forms: Biofuels and Electricity. triple. On the demand side, moderate efficiency
Theoretically, STEM allows an assessment of gains are assumed, which lead to a decrease in the
Liechtenstein`s potential for both forms of renewable final energy demand from 1.527 GWh in 2010 to
transport energy. The generation potential for 1.216 GWh in 2050, even though the population is
biofuels is usually diffuse, i.e. not bound to a specific going to increase by roughly 25% in this period of
installation or site. It is possible to assess its time. The energy demand will lessen from 413 GWh
magnitude based on the typology of open spaces that in 2010 to 264 GWh in 2050, which is due to more

energy efficient vehicles and the increasing transport will rise from 15,88 GWh in 2010 to 25,13
proportion of electric vehicles and semi-electrical GWh in 2050. This means that 10.2% of the final
hybrids. Both require less energy than conventional energy demand of transport will be covered by
cars propelled by internal combustion engines. The renewable electricity that can be generated inside the
electricity demand of transport will rise only slightly country. The electricity needed for transport
from 15.88 GWh in 2010 to 21.16 GWh in 2050. purposes makes up only about 12% of the electricity
The contribution of electricity to the coverage of the that will be generated in Liechtenstein. So at the first
transport energy demand will be quite small in the glance, it seems very possible to cover the energy
reference scenario. It will rise from 3.8% in 2010 to demand of transport completely by renewable
6,6% in 2050. The remaining 93.4 % of transport sources in the innovation scenario.
energy demand will continue to be covered by fossil
fuels in 2050.
IV. QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
TABLE III. REFERENCE SCENARIO: ELECTRICTY
GENERATION AND DEMAND
Two problems remain, however. The first is that
Electricity Fuel there will be more than enough electricity to cover
[GWh] [GWh]
the demand of transport, but not enough to cover the
Refernence overall electricity demand of Liechtenstein in 2050.
Scenario This means that transport would compete with the
2010 15.88 400.10 private households, industry and with small business,
retail and services for the scarce resource of regional
2050 21.16 300.80 renewable electricity. Apparently, this is a problem
Innovation of timing. If we extrapolate the underlying trends for
Scenario energy demand and the introduction of renewable
energy technologies for the time after 2050, it seems
2010 15.88 400.10
that energy demand and renewable energy demand
2050 25.13 222.01 could match in the mid 2070´s even under the
difficult spatial conditions that are found in
Liechtenstein. Of course, one can speculate that
The more progressive innovation scenario aims at
enhanced technology may shorten the timeline so
the continuous reduction of energy demand as well
that electricity demand and renewable electricity
as a broad shift away from fossil and nuclear
supply would meet earlier, i.e. in the mid 21st
energies, towards renewable sources. This includes
century. The second problem is that even under the
not only the application of small scale pv
installations on rooftops, but also windpower, and optimistic assumptions taken in the innovation
the decentralized use of water power and of scenario, renewable electricity will cover only 10.2%
of the transport energy demand. According to the
geothermal energy. In this way, the technical
innovation scenario for Germany that was used as a
potential of Liechtenstein for the generation of
reference, it will be technically possible to replace all
renewable energy can be largely exploited. The only
liquid fossil fuels by biofuels until 2050. These are,
restrictions taken into account in these scenarios
of course, also renewable, and they might even be
refer to the conservation of valuable buildings and
CO2-neutral, if no fossil fuels and other oil
landscapes. It assumed that buildings and landscapes
derivatives are used for the cultivation of the energy
that are protected for reasons of conservation have
crop. However, as has been stated already, there are
no potential for the generation of renewable energy,
not enough land resources in Liechtenstein to grow
as neither photovoltaic elements nor wind or water
energy crops. This means that by 2050 Liechtenstein
turbines can be installed here. In the innovation
may have a transport system that relies to 100% on
scenario, the introduction of renewable energy
renewable energy. However, due to the big
installations at a broad scale will lead to a large
increase in the generation of renewable energy. The proportion of biofuels and Liechtenstein`s limited
domestic production of renewable electricity will rise land resources, it will be very difficult, if not
almost by the factor 4 from 68 GWh to 211 GWh. It impossible, to achieve energy autonomy in the field
of transport.
is also assumed that advanced efficiency measures
are implemented at a large scale. Thus, final energy As Wackernagel and Reese [16] have pointed out,
consumption will drop by 44%, from 1,527 GWh in land is a scarce resource, not only in the context of
2010 to 859 GWh in 2050. Simultaneously, transport Liechtenstein, but also at global scale. Biofuels, as
energy demand goes down by more than 50% from climate-friendly as they might be, have frequently
413 GWh to 203 GWh. The electricity demand of been criticized for the huge areas of cultivatable land

that are required. Growing energy crops may These two questions will (among others related to
compete with food production for land resources, the broad field of regional energy autonomy) be
reduce biodiversity and consume a lot of water. Thus addressed in the research project BAER which is
it is legitimate to ask if a transport system that relies currently being carried out as part of the BAER
to 90% on biofuels should be a permanent solution. project, funded by Interreg IV (www.baernet.org).
Many of the problems associated with biofuels could BAER looks at the cross-border region around Lake
be avoided, if electric vehicles propelled by Constance, including parts of Switzerland, Austria,
photovoltaic solar energy were to play a more Southern Germany and, of course, Liechtenstein.
prominent part: The energetic yield of one square
meter of a photovoltaic element is about thirty-five
times bigger than the yield of one square meter of
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Figure 3. Area of the Research Project BAER – Lake

Constance Alpine Rhine Energy Region

Assignment of Service Zones to Capacitated

Vehicles with Time Constraints
Inspired by “door-to-door” courier service of Serbian Post
Dražen Popović Marko Ivković

Milorad Vidović Department of Courier, Express & Parcel
Faculty of Transport and Traffic PE of PTT Communications "Srbija"
Engineering Belgrade, Serbia
University of Belgrade markivkovic@jp.ptt.rs
Belgrade, Serbia
d.popovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
m.vidovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— Distribution of parcels in city area in most can be reduced by lowering the number of used
cases relies on vehicles with internal combustion that can vehicles or by reducing total usage of vehicles in
not be described as climate friendly. In that sense it is of distribution, which is the main objective of this
great importance to minimize harmful emissions of used research. Generally, this also means minimization of
vehicles in distribution by minimizing the total travel
distance. Problem observed in this research is inspired by
transport costs of distribution companies.
the distribution of parcels in courier service of Serbian Problem observed in this research is inspired by
Post where city area is divided into service zones which distribution of parcels in courier service of Serbian
have its own expected total volume of parcels demand Post where city area is divided into service zones.
and available total time of delivery. I the system the These service zones are described with its own
problem is to assign service zones to vehicles’ capacity
and allowable working time in which all deliveries must expected total volume of parcels demand and
be realized, where the assignments must incur minimal available total time necessary for delivery. Each zone
travel distance of vehicles between given zones. has its centroid that is used for assignment of each
Therefore, this problem can be described as Capacitated zone to vehicles. Centriod represents geometrical
Vehicle Routing Problem (CVRP). To solve the problem, center of service zone. Based on preceding historical
we have developed Mixed Integer Programming (MIP) data, zones can have approximately 100 minutes of
model and proposed heuristics. Complexity of the time necessary for a delivery where this time mostly
problem allows using MIP model only in the case of depends on delivery quantities. Main idea is to
smaller problem instances which do not correspond to minimize number of required vehicles and spatial
dimensions of real case problems in courier service
dispersion of zones allocated to individual vehicles.
parcel distribution. That was the main reason why we
proposed heuristics which is used to solving the real case Travel time and distance of a vehicle from the depot
dimensions of CVRP problem. Heuristics can be to the group of assigned zones is not observed in this
described as constructive heuristic with neighborhood paper (only spatial dispersion of zones is of
search improvements of solution. importance). Also, all vehicles used in distribution
should not have great imbalance in workload. Each
Keywords— distribution; capacitated vehicle routing;
mixed integer programming; heuristics
zone must be served each day and therefore solution
of the observed problem can be applied in every day
deliveries. Based on previously mentioned, this
problem can be generally described as Capacitated
I. INTRODUCTION Vehicle Routing Problem (CVRP), which is
described in details by authors P. Toth and D. Vigo
One of the main generators of air pollution in in their book titled “The Vehicle Routing Problem”
cities are vehicles with internal combustion. Since [1]. Only difference between observed problem and
distribution activities mostly rely on those kinds of CVRP is that route does not start and finishes at
vehicles, it is of great importance to minimize depot.
harmful emissions that they produce. One method of We have developed Mixed Integer Programming
pollution reduction is a set of legal obligations for (MIP) model for purpose of small scale testing and
city distribution issued by the Government performance evaluation of heuristics which has been
(concerning vehicle types, no drive zones, higher also developed. Complexity of problem allows using
taxes etc.). On the other hand, pollution from traffic MIP model only in small case problem instances and

therefore it is not applicable to dimensions of real centroids that are assigned to each vehicle. Our
case problems in courier service parcel distribution. formulation represents modification of existing MIP
That was the main reason why we developed a models in sense that service zones are connected
heuristics which we used for solving the real case with minimal length of route which does not starts
dimensions of the CVRP problem. Heuristics can be and ends at depot (objective is to spatially group
described as constructive heuristic with service zones so that delivery vehicle has minimal
neighborhood search improvements of solution. route of visiting all zones). Objective function is
Because of confidentiality of data, we have represented by equation (1).
randomly generated different problem instances
similar to real life values. Results show that the I I J
optimal solution can be obtained in reasonable time
for less than 30 service zones and that heuristics is
MIN    D
i 1 k i 1 j 1
ikj  Rik
able to solve real life sized problems (problems with
50 and more service zone) in acceptable time while st.
preserving a good quality of solutions.
The paper is organized as follows. Description of
1  
I i 1
the problem is given in Section 2. Section 3 presents
mathematical model for assignment of zones to
X ij   
2  I  k i 1
Dikj  D kij


i  I , j  J
k 1 
vehicles. Proposed heuristics is presented in Section
4. Results obtained from MIP model and heuristics
are given in Section 5. Finally, Section 6 gives some I i 1
concluding remarks. X ij  
k i 1
Dikj  D
k 1
kij i  I , j  J
II. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION I
All deliveries are spatially grouped in service

X
i 1
ij 1 j  J
zones where each zone i[1, 2, …, I] has its

centroid. Service zones are given in advance and are
taken as input data, where each zone is determined I J
by the maximum available time necessary for  X

i 1 j 1
ij I
delivery and by housing structure. Based on
preceding historical data, zones should be based on
approximately 100 minutes of delivery time (Ti≈100
min) where this time mostly depends on number of I I J
deliveries Zi. Centroids are used for assignment of   D

i 1 k i 1 j 1
ikj I
zones to vehicles j[1, 2, …, J] where centriods
represent geometrical center of all points of delivery
in zone. Vehicles are restricted by available capacity
I i 1
(cargo space) V and working time W and these
values represent two capacity restrictions. Main idea 
k i 1
Dikj  D
k 1
kij 2 i  I , j  J
is to minimize number of required vehicles and
spatial dispersion of zones allocated to individual
vehicles. Travel time and distance of a vehicle from I
the depot to the group of assigned zones is not
observed in this paper (only spatial dispersion of X
i 1
ij  Zi  V j  J
zones is of importance). Each zone must be served

on each day and therefore solution of observed
problem can be applied in every day deliveries. I
X i 1
ij  Ti  W j  J
III. MIP MODEL
Dikj , X ij  0,1
Mathematical model that defines assignment of
i  k , i, k  I , j  J
zones to available vehicles is formulated as Mixed
Integer Programming (MIP) model and tries to
minimize total travel distance between zone where:

I – total number of service zones recent paper that describes application of various
heuristics in vehicle routing is done by U. Derigs et
 J – total number of available vehicles al. [2]. Authors presented applications, modeling and
 i, k – service zones i, k  [1,2,..., I] heuristics in vehicle routing with compartments. We
followed the main ideas presented in their paper and
 j – vehicle used for delivery j  [1,2,..., J] developed heuristics for problem observed in our
 Dikj – binary decision variable which takes research.
value 1 if zones i and k are assigned to Starting point of proposed heuristic is
vehicle j, otherwise it takes value 0 construction of feasible solution that respects all
 Xij – binary decision variable which takes constraints. Feasibility of solution is constrained by
value 1 if zone i is assigned to vehicle j, maximal available service time and maximal volume
otherwise it takes value 0 of deliveries of all zones assigned to single vehicle.
Also, it is not allowed for one vehicle to serve less
 Rik – travel distance between centroids of than three zones (great imbalance in vehicle usage is
service zones i and k (i<k) not allowed). Simple constructive heuristics was
developed where service zones have different
 V – available volume of vehicles capacity
priorities of insertion into solution. Main idea is that
 W – available working time of vehicles zones with highest service time and deliveries
volume have higher insertion priority. First step is to
 Zi – average volume of deliveries in zone i determine percentage of volume PZi and service time
 Ti – average time that is necessary to deliver PTi of each zone compared to maximal value of all
parcels in zone i zones, using equations (11) and (12). Insertion
priority level Ci for each zone is determined by
product of these two measures, given by equation
Constraints (2) and (3) define the value of (13), where higher value means higher priority.
decision variable Xij (if there is any travel from or to
zone i with vehicle j than Xij equals 1, otherwise Xij
equals 0). Constraint (4) restricts assignment of each Zi
PZi 
zone i to one vehicle j. To be able to satisfy demands Z MAX
of all zones we introduced constraint (5) where we
defined that number of served zones must be equal to
total number of observed zones. Constraint (6) Ti
defines that number of travels between zones must PTi 
TMAX
also be equal to total number of observed zones.
Constraint (7) defines that number of travels from
one zone must be equal to 2. Latter two constraints Ci  PZi  PTi
assure that all zones assigned to one vehicle are
connected with single Traveling Salesman Problem
(TSP) route. TSP route is used as approximation of
spatial distortion. Also, this means that all routes Zone with highest Ci is taken as first zone in new
must have more than two zones and by that we route. Then we need to find a zone that will not
eliminate great imbalance in vehicle usage (e.g. it is exceed, in sum with first zone, 65% of available
not possible for one vehicle to serve four zones and capacity and total working time (this value is
another to serve only one). Capacity restriction is obtained through model testing). From remaining
defined by constraint (8) and restriction of available zones we add zone by zone to route until there is free
working time is given by constraint (9). Binary capacity of time and volume. When there is no
nature of variables is defined by constraint (10). remaining zones that can be inserted into route, route
is finished and we start to construct new route from
first step. This phase is represented in algorithm as
method called Routes_construction().
Second phase of proposed heuristics is
IV. HEURISTICS deterministic improvement that includes three
consecutively actions: (P2-1) interchange of most
Heuristic introduced in this paper can be isolated zone in largest route with zone of different
described as constructive heuristic with route that incurs best positive benefit; (P2-2)
neighborhood search improvements of solution. This interchange of most isolated zone in each route with
basic heuristic approach of construction and zone of different route that incurs best positive
improvement is used intensively in VRP. Most benefit; (P2-3) for each route interchange of pair of

zones with a pair of zones from different route that 45 UPDATE SOLUTION
incurs best positive benefit. Purpose of this phase is 46 GOTO „SECOND PHASE’
to improve solution by local search methods of zones 47 IF ITERATION=1:
interchange and zone relocation between routes. 48 BEST_SOLUTION= SOLUTION
49 ELSE:
50 IF VALUE(BEST_SOLUTION)>
ALGIRITHM – CONSTRUCTION AND VALUE(SOLUTION):
NEIGHBOURHOOD SEARCH HEURISTIC
51 BEST_SOLUTION= SOLUTION
1 STOPING_CRITERION=FALSE 52 ELSE:
2 SOLUTION=EMPTY 53 STOPING_CRITERION=TRUE
3 BEST_SOLUTION= EMPTY „FOURTH PHASE’
4 ITERATION=0 54 ROUTES_REMOVAL()
„FIRST PHASE’ 55 ROUTES_CONSTRUCTION()
5 ROUTES_CONSTRUCTION() 56 UPDATE SOLUTION
6 UPDATE SOLUTION
7 UNTIL STOPING_CRITERION: Third phase is stochastic neighborhood search
8 ITERATION= ITERATION+1 that includes four consecutively actions: (P3-1)
„SECOND PHASE’ interchange of two random zones from different
9 WORK=TRUE random routes; (P3-2) relocating random zone from
10 WHILE WORK DO: one to another random route; (P3-3) random
11 FIND_LARGEST_ROUTE() interchange of four different zones. In this phase,
12 APPLY P2-1 TO LARGEST ROUTE improvement is searched in wider neighborhood
13 IF BENEFIT>0: compared to previous phase and therefore not all
14 EXECUTE INTERCHANGE possibilities can be explored. This is the reason why
15 UPDATE SOLUTION we randomly search neighborhood for predetermined
16 ELSE: number of attempts, denoted as Rep_Num in
17 WORK=FALSE algorithm.
18 FOR ALL ROUTES: Final phase represents large neighborhood search
19 WORK=TRUE where we delete some routes from solution
20 WHILE WORK DO: (represented in algorithm as method called
21 APPLY P2-2 Routes_removal()), and return to first phase of
22 IF BENEFIT>0: proposed heuristic with purpose of construction of
23 EXECUTE INTERCHANGE routes for zones that were deleted from solution. Idea
24 UPDATE SOLUTION is to delete number of routes, starting from routes
25 ELSE: with lesser number of zones. If we have multiple
26 WORK=FALSE routes that have same minimal number of zones, than
27 FOR ALL ROUTES: we remove the route with maximal length.
28 WORK=TRUE
29 WHILE WORK DO:
30 APPLY P2-3 V. COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS
31 IF BENEFIT>0:
Proposed MIP formulation and heuristics were tested
32 EXECUTE INTERCHANGE
on randomly generated examples. Volume of
33 UPDATE SOLUTION deliveries Zi can take value between 0.7 and 1.2 m3.
34 ELSE: Service time Ti depends on value of Zi and can take
35 WORK=FALSE value from 90 to 110 minutes per 1 m3 of delivery
„THIRD PHASE’ volume. Spatial coordinates of zone centroids can
36 NGBD=0 take value from -50 to 50. Capacity of vehicle cargo
37 UNTIL NGBD<=3: space is V=4 m3, while each vehicle can spend up to
38 NGBD = NGBD +1 W=420 min for servicing zones in one route.
39 COUNTER=0 Complexity of problem allows using MIP model
40 WHILE COUNTER<REP_NUM: only in small case problems that were used to
41 COUNTER= COUNTER+1 evaluate the quality of proposed heuristics. We set
42 APPLY P3-NGBD total number of zones in small case problem
43 IF BENEFIT>0: instances to I=22. Example of input data (for
44 EXECUTE CHANGE instance 1) of small case problem is shown in table I.

Obtained results from MIP and heuristics approach Tables II and III presents values of objective
are presented in Table II for 10 randomly generated function (Obj. f.), number of required vehicles (J),
instances of small case problem. Figure 1 shows average length of single route in the solution (Avg.
heuristic and optimal solution for instance 3 and 4 of R) and computational time of PC (CT). Heuristic
small scale problem (each group of connected zones approach has two parameters that need to be set: (1)
is serviced by one vehicle). number of routes to be deleted in large neighborhood
search is set to half of all routes in solution; (2)
Rep_Num takes value 500 for small case problem
Real life scale problems in Post of Serbia have
instances and 2000 for real life case problem
close to 50 service zones and based on that we have
instances.
generated 10 instances with I=50. Obtained results
from heuristics approach are presented in Table III.
TABLE I. INPUT DATA FOR INSTANCE 1 OF SMALL SCALE PROBLEM

Zones i x coord. y coord. Ti [min] Zi [m3]
1 37.4 -45.7 87 0.82

2 -24.4 25.1 81 0.80
3 24.2 28.8 71 0.77
4 14.4 -6.6 103 0.96
5 -6.0 -40.8 80 0.77
6 49.7 2.8 116 1.06
7 -10.0 36.1 68 0.75
8 29.9 -21.4 102 1.04
9 30.5 -9.4 75 0.83
10 15.9 10.6 97 0.98
11 -3.5 -11.5 97 1.06
12 -20.8 9.6 107 1.14
13 -19.1 -20.8 105 1.13
14 3.7 26.3 112 1.16
15 15.4 -26.5 89 0.87
16 42.6 36.5 114 1.07
17 5.1 -44.7 104 0.98
18 -33.9 -11.3 81 0.88
19 -40.1 -30.7 109 1.11
20 -45.6 5.5 68 0.74
21 39.4 -6.3 96 0.97
22 38.6 -49.1 73 0.72

TABLE II. RESULTS FOR 10 RANDOM INSTANCES OF SMALL SCALE PROBLEM OBTAINED FROM MIP
MODEL AND HEURISTICS
Optimal solution Heuristics solution
Instances Obj. f. J Avg. R CT Obj. f. J Avg. R CT
1 473.86 6 79.00 280 476.07 6 79.33 112

2 435.66 6 72.67 2359 435.66 6 72.67 41
3 459.37 6 76.67 2885 482.93 6 80.50 45
4 401.48 6 67.00 486 457.20 6 76.17 43
5 451.23 6 75.33 137 460.01 6 76.83 98
6 403.01 6 67.00 459 417.83 6 69.67 88
7 459.50 6 76.33 319 481.76 6 80.50 58
8 359.26 6 59.67 15 359.26 6 59.67 88
9 430.44 6 71.83 1362 445.47 6 74.17 45
10 430.95 6 71.83 298 449.67 6 75.00 64
AVG. 430.48 6 71.73 860 446.59 6 74.45 68
TABLE III. RESULTS FOR 10 RANDOM INSTANCES

OF REAL LIFE SCALE PROBLEM OBTAINED FROM
HEURISTICS
Heuristics solution
Instanc Obj. f. J Avg. C
es 1 787.06 13 R 60.62 T 2
2 548.83 13 42.15 7 2
3 671.09 13 51.69 02 5
4 583.98 13 45.00 142 5
5 619.48 13 47.85 627 7
6 811.01 13 62.23 957 1
7 626.66 13 48.15 727 7
8 653.21 13 50.23 614 8
9 636.18 13 49.00 069 1
10 681.42 13 52.38 027 4
AVG. 661.89 13 50.93 188 5
265
Figure 1. Two instances of small scale problem with 91
largest gap between heuristics and optimal solution 0
VI. CONCLUSIONS
MIP model was implemented through the
CPLEX 12 on desktop PC with 2.0 GHz Dual Core Results in table II show that proposed heuristic
processor and 3 GB of RAM memory. Heuristic gives solutions close to optimal (in average less than
model and all input data needed for MIP model 5% higher value of objective function). On the other
were implemented in Python 2.6. hand, heuristics algorithm has significantly lower
computational time (heuristic is more than 12 times
faster than MIP model). Quality of solutions in short
computational time allows application of proposed

heuristics to real life problem of zones assignment to of Serbia, through project 36006 for the period 2011-
vehicles in parcel distribution. Further research 2014.
should concentrate on finding better neighborhood
search that would be able to find better routes for
cases similar to ones showed in figure 1. Secondly, REFERENCES
it would be of interest to explore implementation of
meta-heuristics that would be used for the control of
algorithmic process. [1] P. Toth and D. Vigo, “The Vehicle Routing
Problem”, SIAM monographs on discrete
mathematics and applications, Philadelphia, 2002.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT [2] U. Derigs, J. Gottlieb, J. Kalkoff, M. Piesche, F.
Rothlauf and U. Vogel, “Vehicle routing with
compartments: application, modeling and heuristics”,
This paper was supported by the Ministry of OR Spectrum, In press, Published online February
11, 2010.
Science and Technological Development Republic

Application Effects of GPS Technology

in Fleet Management of State Owned Enterprises
Inspired by Application of GPS Technology in Public Utility Company “Water
Supply and Sewage of Belgrade”
Gordana Radivojević, Bratislav Lazić Dražen Popović

Institute Mihailo Pupin Faculty of Transport and Traffic
University of Belgrade Engineering
Belgrade, Serbia University of Belgrade
gordana.radivojevic.@pupin.rs Belgrade, Serbia
bratislav.lazic@pupin.rs d.popovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— The main purpose of the fleet management control center. The control center has insight on the real
is the satisfaction of transport demands between locations time position of vehicles, traveled mileage, fuel level in
in a given network. Depending on the characteristics of vehicles tank, fuel consumption etc. Operators in control
the demand which can be represented as passengers that center make device to task decisions based on the current
need a ride, goods that need to be transported for latter status of vehicles (type of vehicle, free capacity, current
production or sales, or different equipment that is needed position, working time) and type of task, all obtained
on some location, the fleet can have vehicles of various from SPIDER BVK. So far, the application of SPIDER
features. The control and management of a given fleet BVK system has shown a number of positive effects and
have purpose of achieving high level of efficiency of PUC BVK plans to expand this system by implementation
vehicles exploitation without negative impact on the of GPS devices in all vehicles in ownership and
service quality. The efficiency of the fleet can be development of decision support system for the real time
generally measured by the number of realized demands. vehicle route construction. With certain level of
Usually companies neglect negative effects of customization, SPIDER BVP system can be easily applied
transportation activities on environment, unless they are to wide set of companies that have their own vehicles and
restricted by government legislations. But, in recent years objects that need to be serviced, especially if fleet
more and more companies try to find technologies and consists of vehicles with special purpose.
solution that will minimize environmental pollution,
Keywords— Fleet Management System, Automatic
mainly because they realize the importance of the
company reputation in public. In that sense, the fleet Vehicle Location, Global Positioning System
management must also reduce number of used vehicles
and traveled empty and especially full load mileage with
intention of reduction the emission of greenhouse gases.
I. INTRODUCTION
Modern fleet size management systems usually relay on
computer aided systems that are based on state of the art
information and communication technologies. The world The basic function of fleets is realization of
market offers large number of Fleet Management System requests for transportation on a transport network.
(FMS) that combine characteristics and functions of Depending on the type and purpose of the fleet,
modern Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) systems and requests for transportation can be passengers who are
Global Positioning System (GPS) technology. In this transported, goods which are transported or
paper we present effects of the SPIDER system (the
System for real time PosItioning, Data Acquisition, transportation of staff and equipment with the aim of
Automatic Control, SurvEillance, and MonitoRing) that providing certain services on a specific relation. The
was firstly implemented and used since 2003 in Public basic aims of fleet control and management are
Utility Company “Water Supply and Sewage of improving the quality of service provided and
Belgrade” (PUC BVK). The main activities of PUC BVK rational exploitation of the fleet. Rational
are construction, regular and emergency maintenance of exploitation of the fleet means that the available fleet
Belgrade water supply and sewage infrastructure. They realizes as many requests for customer service as
have the fleet of different types of special vehicles and possible with the best quality of service provided. In
mechanization. Significant effects from SPIDER BVK modern conditions, when ecology and environmental
were obtained in the vehicles utilization, reduction of protection become imperative, rational exploitation
traveled mileage and fuel consumption. SPIDER BVK
system is based on GPS technology and is used for the of fleets includes minimization of passed mileage
fleet management. In this system, vehicles are equipped and emissions of harmful gases.
with GPS devices by which they are monitored in the

Modern fleet management systems are widely emergency interventions are received in a call center
applied in all areas – everywhere where it is where all characteristics of requests are recorded
necessary to track, manage and control vehicles and (location, type and kind of intervention). These
drivers. These systems are based on the most requests are automatically entered in a database and
innovative information and communication forwarded to dispatch centers.
technologies and their application provides many
User requests are shown in a tabular form in
positive effects for all users. There is a great number
every dispatch center and vehicles are sent so as to
of FMSs (Fleet Management System) at the global
perform intervention. Decisions on sending vehicles
market, which combine all good characteristics and
of certain type to perform a task are made by
functions of modern AVL (Automatic Vehicle
dispatchers. In the previous way of work, every
Location) systems based on the application of GPS
vehicle performed only one task on its route. After
(Global Positioning System) technology.
issuing a work order, a vehicle leaves a depot, goes
There is a great number of different systems in to the intervention place, and after performed work,
cities which have their own fleets and realize many it goes back to the depot. During the intervention,
transportation requests on a daily basis. Application there was no contact between the dispatcher and
of appropriate fleet management systems would driver of a specific vehicle. This kind of work had
provide many positive results: users would be many disadvantages:
satisfied with efficient and quality service; business
systems rationally use their fleets; reducing passed  great number of empty drives;
mileage and time would result in reducing traffic  impossibility of reacting in cases of
jams and emissions of harmful gases. emergency interventions;
The aim of this paper is to show a fleet  misuse of vehicles and working time by
management system which is based on application of drivers;
GPS technology and its application in the Public
Utility Company „Water Supply and Sewage of  impossibility of controlling a driver;
Belgrade“. The work was organized in six parts. In  high costs, etc.
the first part, there is a description of the Public
Utility Company „Water Supply and Sewage of
Belgrade“ and its fleet performance. In the second PUC BVK had a real need for innovative fleet
part, the SPIDER system was shown. It is based on management system which would correspond to its
the GPS technology. In the third part, the application requests and needs, and would enable overcoming
of the SPIDER system in PUC BVK was shown. shortcomings.
Effects of applying the SPIDER system were shown
in the fourth part. The fifth part included possibilities
of the SPIDER system application in fleet
management of differnt city utility systems.
III. THE SPIDER BVK SYSTEM
Concluding remarks were given in the sixth part.
The SPIDER BVK system is a centralized
computer system for automatic control and fleet
II. DESCRIPTION OF PUC BVK WORK management in a real time. The SPIDER BVK
system is based on the GPS technology and in a real
PUC BVK’s main task is development and time, it enables determining position of all vehicles
regular intervention maintenance of water supply from fleet on a transportation network. Visual
and sewage infrastructure at the territory of tracking of vehicles on certain territory was enabled
Belgrade. The company has its own fleets which in a dispatch center as well as making high-quality
have different kinds of special vehicles, machines dispatch decisions in the right moment. The SPIDER
and mechanization, designed for the objects of water BVK system includes (figure 1):
supply and sewage. These fleets allow performing  Management subsystem;
planned maintenance and interventions in the city on
a daily basis.  Communication subsystem;
PUC BVK has 4 depots in which there are all  Mobile subsystem.
vehicles and 2 dispatch centers at the territory of the
city. Sectors of water supply and sewage have
separate dispatch centers according to the type of
vehicles and kind of requests. Users’ requests for

bases of the territory on which stable and mobile

objects are marked. It is possible to track other data
about vehicles in the Center: technical characteristics
of vehicles, generated working hours of special
equipment in vehicles, mileage, level of fuel in the
tank, fuel consumption, etc.
Communication subsystem is a set of links
which facilitates the complete communication within
the SPIDER BVK system. This subsystem enables
the exchange of all information between vehicles and
dispatch center through radio and GPRS network.
Mobile subsystem includes the set of all
SPIDER devices installed in vehicles which receive
satellite signals and communicate with the dispatch
center. Equipment in every vehicle allows: signal
acceptance from satellites and determining vehicle
position, gathering data from vehicle sensors,
creation of message which is sent to the dispatch
Figure 1. Main subsystems of the SPIDER center, and acceptance of management messages
system
from the dispatch center. Mobile subsystem in every
vehicle includes the following elements:
Management subsystem is the Center of system  Sensors for measuring certain sizes in
where all information is gathered and which vehicles (mileage, level of fuel in the tank,
manages the entire system. Many working positions fuel consumption, engine and equipment
of dispatchers are included into this center and they operating hours achieved in vehicles);
monitor the system work. The center of the system is
equipped with more PCs which are connected in a  GPS receiver with antenna;
unique network. PCs are placed in every working  Radio/GPRS modem with antenna.
position as well as in the Center for system
maintenance and exploitation. The equipment in the
dispatch center of the system is shown on the figure On figure 3 there is shown equipment installed in
2. the vehicle. Sensors installed in vehicles provide data
which is significant for monitoring and work control
of the fleet. Since BVK has special vehicles for
specific equipment, fuel consumption is not
proportional to mileage, and it depends on the time
of engine’s work as well as on working conditions.
Figure 2. Equipment in the dispacth center Figure 3. Equipment in vehicles
Software support to the SPIDER BVK system On figure 4, the image of SPIDER device and its
enables seeing the current vehicles schedule, review installation in the vehicle is shown.
of unrealized recorded requests for interventions and
work schedule on the transportation network.
Software support in the dispatch center is based on
the GIS technology and it enables digital geographic

currently engaged vehicle when the current route of

that vehicle is redirected. This kind of work in the
dispatch center allows better engagement of vehicles
and reducing the time of emergency interventions.
Figure 4. SPIDER device in the vehicle
Data from the vehicle are automatically

transferred in the dispatch center in certain time
intervals and they are kept in a database. According
to the statistical data analysis, a set of different
reports about system’s operation are acquired. Since
data from the beginning of system operation are kept Figure 5. GIS application of the SPIDER BVK
in the dispatch center, it is possible to get reports system
about vehicle operation, drivers operation, performed
interventions, vehicles movements in certain period The SPIDER BVK system has been used for
of time, time of vehicles position on certain tracking 56 special-purpose vehicles which maintain
locations, intervention period, vehicles routes etc. the water supply and sewage facilities. Since the
Analysis of report of vehicles and drivers operation SPIDER BVK system has brought many benefits to
is a good basis for making high-quality management the company, it is planned to install GPS devices in
decisions about fleet operations. all vehicles and to define the decision-support
system during the procedure of designing vehicle
routes in a real time.
IV. VEHICLE ROUTE PLANNING

V. EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF
Application of the SPIDER BVK system enabled THE SPIDER BVK SYSTEM
automation of dispatch center work and significant
improvement of the decision-making process which The SPIDER BVK has been developed according
will realize the new request for intervention. The to the specific user requests – PUC BVK, and it has
decision about choosing a vehicle is realized in two been used since 2003. The system is based on the
steps: most modern world technology. It is modularly
1. System automatically suggests the set of developed and it can be used in phases and it can be
potential vehicles according to the following upgraded as needed. The application of the SPIDER
criteria: current vehicle location and distance BVK system has shown a range of positive effects so
from the location of a new request for far:
intervention, and availability of vehicles from  Tracking a position and operating parameters
the aspect of current technical possibilities. of all vehicles from the fleet;
2. A dispatcher chooses the vehicle according to  Rational management of vehicles, equipment
the range of available vehicles, personal and mechanization;
experience about arranging vehicles and
insight into the current allocation of vehicles  Reducing mileage by defining routes from the
in the city (figure 5). dispatch center;
 Control and tracking of task execution of all
The dispatcher can decide to assign a new request vehicles;
to an available vehicle from the depot or to the

 Reducing the abuse of working hours and Application of the SPIDER system in all public
vehicles by drivers; utility companies in Belgrade has enabled many
benefits: reducing number of necessary vehicles,
 Reducing fuel consumption by improving reducing mileage and time of routes duration,
fleet management; reducing traffic jams especially at peak periods,
 Reducing maintenance costs by improved use improving quality of services for users of all public
of vehicles, equipment and machines; utility systems, reducing emission of harmful gases
and environmental pollution, etc.
 Possibility of relieving certain city streets
while defining vehicle routes, etc.
VII. CONCLUSION
Effects of applying the SPIDER system such as
reducing necessary number of vehicles, mileage and
fuel consumption, have additional importance in city Application of the GPS technology in the field of
conditions where traffic jams, frequent delays and traffic and transportation has great possibilities and
high concentration of exhaust gases are everyday advantages. The most innovative systems for fleet
problem. management, that are based on the GPS technology,
enables monitoring and management in a real time.
The SPIDER system is described in this paper. It has
been applied in PUC BVK for 8 years. The main
characteristics of the system are:
VI. POSSIBILITIES OF APPLYING THE SPIDER
SYSTEM  System functions have been adapted to
concrete requests and user needs;
The GPS technology is applied all around the  System is modular and it has been developed
world in different areas, but still it is the most widely in phases, and it is currently expanded and
applied in the field of traffic and transportation. The upgraded;
developed SPIDER system, with certain  Data that are transferred through the
modifications according to needs and requests of communication subsystem are maximally
users, could be used in different companies, which protected. Automatic data transfer enables
have their own vehicles or monitor vehicle and other absence of errors and human impact;
objects’ movements.
 Hardware which is installed in the system is
Due to the effects of the SPIDER BVK system
made in Serbia (the only import components
application during the previous years, application at
are GPS card, radio-station and GPRS
all city utility systems is of special importance and
modem).
their vehicles accomplish different demands on the
territory of the city on a daily basis. The system Effects of the SPIDER system application in PUC
provides designing routes for vehicles while BVK have shown many advantages and possibilities
applying different limitations, re-arrangement of of application in other public utility and business
traffic flows on the traffic network, emergency systems which have their own fleets. Flexibility and
response, etc. It is possible to use the SPIDER modularity of the system enable adjusting functions
system in the following areas: to needs of many users.
 Public transportation vehicles;
 Line taxis;
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
 Ambulance;
 Fire department; This work was partially supported by the
Ministry of Science and Technological Development
 Waste management; of the Republic of Serbia, through the projects
 Transportation of special cargo; TR36005 and TR 36006, for the period 2011-2014.
 Ministry of internal affairs; REFERENCES

 Vehicles with equipment for maintenance of
special-purpose facilities in the electric power [1] Šenborn G., Lazić B., Radivojević G., Ostojić M.:
industry, etc. SPIDER system – System for mobile objects

tracking by using GPS technologies, Institute investor Public Utility Company „Water Supply and
Mihailo Pupin, Belgrade, 1998-1999. Sewage of Belgrade“, 2002-2003.
[2] Šenborn G., Radivojević G.: GPS application in [4] Šenborn G., Lazić B., Ostojić M., Radivojević G.,
traffic, The 2nd congress on transport: Long-term Vujić S.: System for tracking vehicles of Public
Development of Transport in Yugoslavia, Utility Company „Water Supply and Sewage of Novi
TEHNIKA, no. 4, 237-240, 1999. Sad“ investor "Panos", Novi Sad, 2003-2004.
[3] Šenborn G., Lazić B., Ostojić M., Radivojević G., [5] www.bvk.rs
Vujić S.: System for tracking vehicles of Public [6] www.pupin.rs
Utility Company „Water Supply and Sewage“,

Climate friendly transport: Typology of

transport impacts on climate change – mitigation
and adaptation
Zoran Radmilović, Radovan Zobenica, Vladislav Maraš
University of Belgrade,
Vojvode Stepe 305, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
{z.radmilovic, r.zobenica, v.maras}@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— Climate change and transport are in close Natural causes and human activities, which together
mutual dependence and in the relatively unfavourable affect climate change, can not simply mark off each
mutual respect. Motorized transport affects climate other because of very complex operations and
change by impacting negatively on its environment, both mutual dependence. This interdependence refers to
globally and locally, increasing the temperature of the
air, changing the composition of the atmosphere, water
the usual hourly and daily changes of temperature,
and land. On the other hand, the feedback effects of clouds, precipitation and other atmospheric changes.
climate change act negatively on transport. These Human impacts on climate change have clearly
negative impacts are present in all transport modes, in been recorded, where the scope and heating
various and very complex ways. For example, increasing
magnitude due to greenhouse gasses effects are
temperature, rising sea and ocean levels with strong
winds and storms, increased rainfall intensity and comparable with actually observed temperature
duration of dry periods make the transportation increase [17]. From human activities, transportation
processes slower or even interrupted and cause serious is one of a major, after the production of energy,
damage to transport infrastructure. This means that the greenhouse gases emitters [8]. The main reasons for
transport must adapt to these climate changes in order to the global share of transport are significant growth
influence them as less as possible. For the time being, of transport demand and use of fossil fuels as the
there are solutions or recommendations. In policy; main fuel in all modes of transport. Transport
alternative fuel energy, design, construction, operation, demand is continuously growing due to needs for
maintenance, safety and system usage, freight and public mobility in both passenger and freight transport. All
transport and aviation, they are not serving the needs of modes of transport are spreading and the general
sustainability at the global level; therefore the problems
must be solved at the global level. For these reasons, this dependence is observed that road and air transport,
paper discusses the typology of the impact of transport on which have the fastest growth, are also the biggest
climate change with mitigation and adaptation measures causes of climate damage and the largest polluters.
and the aim to support research in climate friendly All transport modes, in general, mostly use fossil
transport.
fuels and almost 100% in relation to all types of fuel
Keywords— Climate change, Transport, Typology of in use [8]. It is believed that constant consumption
transport impacts on climate change of fossil fuels is close to its end so quick decisions
are needed to reduce the impact of transport on the
environment and save resources of fossil fuels for
I. INTRODUCTION the next generation [4, 12].
Impact of transport on climate change is a very
Natural forces make the Earth is experiencing complex problem and can not be reduced only to
climate change since its inception. However, during emissions of greenhouse gases from vehicles. For
the last three centuries, anthropogenic or human example, production and distribution of fossil fuels
activities have substantially affected the climate generates significant quantities of greenhouse gases.
change in a relatively short period [4, 9]. Climate This refers to the production of transport vehicles,
change refers to the statistically significant equipment, infrastructure, systems for fuel
variations, either on the average climate state or its supplying, etc [14]. Changes in land use and large
variability over a longer period, typically after needs for transportation infrastructure (roads,
periods of decades or longer, which can be airports, ports, stations, etc.) have a significant
attributed to natural causes or human activity. [16]. impact on climate change, which is relatively
difficult to predict explicitly.

Contribution of transport modes to climate transport and short air distance passenger transport
change is not the same and equally distributed. As [15].
mentioned, those types of transport that have the
Water transport, including both sea and inland
fastest growth (road and air transport), are in
waterway transport, is used mainly for cargo
unsustainable relationship between their growth
transport and is a significant emitter of greenhouse
rates and amounts of emissions and other adverse
gases, since the power energy is supplied from fossil
impacts on climate change.
fuels. In maritime transport, 70% of ship emissions
Road transport is the largest producer of is happening within 400 km of coastline, which
greenhouse gases. In accordance with the division of causes a change in air quality through constitution
the road transport on road freight and road of low-lying ozone, sulphur and particles in coastal
passenger transport, road freight transport is zones and ports with high traffic density [5]. The
involved with approximately 50% of total emissions polluted air is spreading several hundred kilometers
in road transport, with passenger cars and buses into the land and directly affects human health,
behind, which also have an important role in climate ecosystems, biodiversity and many economic
change. activities including shipping [13]. Inland waterway
transport is the most environmental-friendly
Adversity for the sustainable development of this
transport mode and is characterized by the least
transport mode is by far the greatest need for
needs for land compared to all other land transport
infrastructure, which is present in both the current
modes. However, inland navigation vessels
situation, and in plans for future development.
generally use fossil fuels and as such, like seagoing
Changes of land use in accordance with needs of
vessels, emit CO2 emissions, sulphur and particles,
this transport mode impact on climate change
directly polluting their environment. This transport
mostly, particularly in urban areas, compared to all
mode is geographically limited to areas with inland
other transport modes.
waterways and is subject to the effects of natural,
According to many experts, air transport is very hydro meteorological and current weather
dangerous for the environment and not due to conditions. This means that during dry years, with
induced CO2 emissions, but because it is discharged long periods of low water, ship emissions are
into the upper atmosphere, where local effects can increased and contribute to global warming [7].
be more dangerous than the consequences of CO 2 Zero carbon transport, such as cycling and walking,
[2, 10, 11]. are pushed back with the growth of road, passenger
transport, i.e. with high affordability of cars and a
Slow and traditional transport modes such as
set of physiological and sociological indicators, such
railway and water transport are recognized as
as the generally poor and underestimated the level
sustainable, energy efficient and relatively
of benefits and the impact of weather conditions [1].
environmentally friendly transport modes. However,
It is clear that changes in behaviour, at relatively
both transport modes are significant sources of
well-kept areas for these types of transport, will
greenhouse gas emissions and have an impact on
make society become healthier as a whole [4].
climate change.
According to the views of the Commission of the
European Communities White Book [3], for rail
transport the following has been written: “the II. IDENTIFICATION OF THE TYPOLOGY OF
European Commission believes that railways should TRANSPORT IMPACTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE
play a much greater role in tackling the transport
challenges facing the community” and “rail Typology of transport impacts on climate change
transport is literally the strategic sector, on which can be identified for the transport sector, including
the success of the efforts to shift the balance all transport modes, as shown in Table I. Key
[between the modes] will depend”. identifiers, or types, are divided into four groups as
follows: transport system, policy, social and
However, depending on the source used for
economic aspects and environment. They are
power energy (coal, oil, gas, renewable fuels,
common to all transport modes and in any mode can
nuclear fuel) for electric trains, the type of train
be extracted and recognized. Their interrelationships
(diesel trains) and train speed, emissions of
and impacts on climate changes and vice versa, the
greenhouse gases are significant and depend on the
effects of climate change on them, are complex and
type of energy used [6]. There is a partial consensus
require detailed research of which we can not expect
in Europe to support modal shift toward the rail
quick solutions to the level of our planet. Each
transport as a measure of mitigation to climate
identifier with basic indicators will be briefly
change in relation to the road passenger and freight
described in this paper.

TABELE I. GENERAL TYPOLOGY OF TRANSPORT IMPACTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE

Fixed typology Descriptors
Transport Main factors that determine the characteristics of the transport and hence the
impacts on climate change
Type
SYSTEM 1. Physical structure 2. Kind of transport
- Connections / Infrastructure - Passenger
- Vehicle / Transport means - Cargo
- Transport nodes (Stations, Ports, - Mixed
Airports, Cargo distribution centres,
Truck spots, etc.)
TABELE II. GENERAL TYPOLOGY OF TRANSPORT IMPACTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE (CONTINUED)

Transport Main factors that determine the characteristics of the transport and
hence the impacts on climate change
Type
SYSTEM (continued) 3. Motorized transport modes
- Road
- Rail
- Waterborne
- Air
- Pipeline
- Multimodal / Intermodal
4. Non-motorized transport modes
- Cycling
- Boating
- Walking
5. Kind of Energy and fuels
- Fossil fuels
- Alternative (combined) and new fuels
6. Design
7. Construction
8. Operations
9. Maintenance
10. Safety
11. Users
12. Transport performance measures
POLICY 1. Dissemination and awareness
2. Decision-support tools (behavioural change)
3. Mobility and management
4. Education
5. Emission permits
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC 1. Status of Region/Country 5. Pricing and taxation
ASPECTS Development 6. Legal framework and
- Gross Domestic Product control
Developed 7. Inter. conventions and
- Gross Domestic Product agreements
Developing 8. Insurance and health
2. Transport market measures
- Transport demand 9. Transport data and
- Transport supply statistical processing
3. Transport costs
4. Financial tools and investments

TABELE III. GENERAL TYPOLOGY OF TRANSPORT IMPACTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE (CONTINUED)

Transport Main factors that determine the characteristics of the transport and
Type
ENVIRO- 1. Land using and planning

NMENTAL
ASPECTS - Geographical distribution of transport space and areas
- Position and configuration of transport corridors, networks and links
2. Air using and planning
3. Water using and planning
4. Emissions
- Greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, …)
- Air pollutants (SO2, NOX, COX, VOC, PM, …)
- Others (Sulphate particles, soot particles, H2O, …)
5. Positive and negative radiative forcing
6. Formation of persistent linear contrails, contrails-cirrus clouds and
sub-component of aviation-induced cirrus clouds …
7. Water pollutants
8. Rise of sea water and air temperature
9. Gradual sea level rise and rise of tidal waves
10. Amplification of extreme weather phenomena such as storms,
precipitation and draught
11. Increased erosion phenomena
III. CASE STUDY: INSTEAD OF CONCLUSIONS -

IMPACTS OF TRANSPORT ON CLIMATE CHANGE Fixed Descriptors
typology
A. Road transport
Road – Main factors that determine the
freight characteristics of the road – freight
Road freight transport and hence the impacts on climate
change
System A – Fixed typology for road – freight
transport Type
Trucks Status of country development
1. GDP Developed (high, medium,
small)
2. GDP Developing (high, medium,
small)

System A – Fixed typology for road – freight transport (continued)

Road – freight Main factors that determine the characteristics of

the road – freight and hence the impacts on climate
change
Type
Trucks (continued) Geographic – country size
1. Large
2. Average
3. Small
4. Riparian
5. Island
6. Non-riparian
7. Others
Road space distribution
1. Urban
2. Rural
3. Regional
4. Long-distance (international)
Road altitude typology
1. High: > 800 m
2. Mid-altitude: 200 to 800 m
3. Lowland: < 200 m
Transport demand
1. Economic aspects
2. Equity and accessibility
3. Users aspects
Transport time characteristics
1. Travel times
2. Loading/Unloading spots
Technological characteristics
1. Truck size
2. Energy using and fuels
3. Connections to other transport modes and traffic
networks
Tools Decision – support tools (behavioural change)

Dissemination and awareness
Land-use planning
Financial tools
Transport policy and management
Intelligent transport systems
Pricing and taxation
Regulation/Deregulation
…

System B – Transport impacts on climate change

Road – Physical and other factors that determine the
freight characteristics of the road – freight and hence the
transport impacts on climate change
characteristic
s
Obligatory Kind of fuel
factors 1. Fossil fuels
2. Alternative (combined) and new fuels
Truck speed
1. Low
2. Average
3. High
Traffic congestion
1. Low
2. Average
3. High
Emissions from trucks
1. Fuel usage
2. Manufacturing of trucks
3. Fuel supply system
4. Urban
5. Rural
Kind of emissions
1. Greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, …)
2. Air pollutants (SO2, NOx, CO, VOC, PM)
3. Others
Noise
1. Urban
2. Rural
External marginal costs
1. Infrastructure costs
2. Environmental costs
3. Safety and accident costs
4. Congestion costs
…
Optional Average distance

factors 1. Short
2. Medium
3. Long
Meteorological changes
1. Air temperature range
2. Mean air temperature
3. Draught
4. Precipitation

System B – Transport impacts on climate change (continued)

Road – freight Physical and other factors that determine the
transport characteristics of the road – freight and
characteristics hence the impacts on climate change
Optional factors Density of traffic flows

(continued) 1. High
2. Medium
3. Low
Cargo volume typology
1. Small
2. Medium
3. Large
Position and configuration of transport
networks and links
1. Point to point configuration
2. Trunk line with collection/distribution
branches
3. Line network
Network with mixed configuration
System C – Road freight mitigations

Mitigations Measures for changes to green road-freight
Optional Encourage the shift to other transport

mitigations modes
1. Modal shift onto rail (if possible)
2. Modal shift onto sea (coastal and short-sea
shipping, if possible)
3. Modal shift onto inland waterway transport
(if possible)
Technological improvements and changes
1. Improvement of fuel using
2. New fuels as hydrogen and heavy fuel cells
Reduced transport demand
1. Regional production clusters (Just-in-time,
Material Resource Planning, Labelling of
production per distances)
2. Dematerialisation (Manufacturer
responsibilities to include the entire life-
cycle of the product)
Intelligent transport
1. Softwares for routing and scheduling
2. Pre-trip planning

System C – Road freight mitigations (continued)

Mitigations Measures for changes to green road-freight
Operational improvements
1. Combining loads with other operators to
maximise truck capacity
2. Space efficient handling systems and
packaging
B. Aviation
System A – Fixed typology for aviation
Aviation Main factors that determine the characteristics of the aviation and hence the impacts
on climate change
Type
Airplane (Aircraft) Kind of transport
1. Passenger
2. Freight
Flight distribution
1. International
2. Domestic
Country size
1. Large
2. Average
Kind of aviation
1. Civil
2. Military
Flight altitude typology
1. High
2. Mid-altitude
3. Low
Transport demand
1. Economic aspects
2. Equity and accessibility
3. Users aspects
Kind of airline company
1. Big (with intercontinental flights)
2. Small (on short or regional or local distances)
Technological characteristics
1. Airplane size
2. Airport size
3. Energy using and fuels
4. Connections to other transport modes and traffic networks

System A – Fixed typology for aviation (continued)

Aviation Main factors that determine the characteristics of

the aviation and hence the impacts on climate
change
Type
Tools Decision – support tools (behavioural change)
Dissemination and awareness
Land-use planning
Financial tools
Transport policy and management
Intelligent transport systems
Pricing and taxation
Regulation/Deregulation
…
System B – Transport impacts on climate change

Air transport character-rization Physical and other factors that determine
the characteristics of the air transport and
Obligatory factors Kind of fuel

1. Fossil fuels
2. Alternative fuels
Emissions from aircrafts
1. Fuel usage
2. Manufacturing of aircraft
3. Fuel supply system
Kind of emissions
1. Greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, …)
2. Air pollutants (SO2, NOx, CO, VOC, PM)
3. Others
Airport size and noise
1. Procedures of landing
2. Number of landings
3. Procedures of taking off
4. Number of taking offs
Travel demands and mobility

1. Travel to business places
2. Travel to tourism places
3. Others
External marginal costs
1. Infrastructure costs
2. Environmental costs
3. Safety and accident costs
4. Congestion costs

System B – Transport impacts on climate change (continued)

Air transport character- Physical and other factors that determine the characteristics
rization of the air transport and hence the impacts on climate change
Obligatory factors Kind of subsonic and supersonic emissions and effects

(continued)
1. Emissions of CO2 with a positive radiative forcing
2. Emissions of COx with a positive and negative radiative forcing
3. Emissions of sulphate particles
4. Emissions of soot particles with a positive radiative forcing
5. Emissions of H2O dominantly for supersonic aircraft with a
positive radiative forcing
6. Formation of persistent linear contrails with a positive radiative
forcing
7. Formation of contrails-cirrus clouds with a positive radiative
forcing
8. Formation of sub-component of aviation-induced cirrus clouds
with a positive or negative radiative forcing
Optional factors Average distance
1. Short
2. Medium
3. Long
Meteorological changes
1. Air temperature range
2. Mean air temperature
3. Precipitation
4. …
Cargo volume typology
1. Small
2. Medium
3. Large
Position and configuration of transport networks and links

1. Point to point configuration
2. Trunk line with collection/distribution branches
3. Line network
4. Network with mixed configuration
5. Hub-and-spoke networks

System C – Aviation mitigations REFERENCES

Mitigations Measures for changes to green
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Optional Alternative polices to optimise Journal of Transport Geography, vol. 9, pp. 1-11,
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[2] S. Cairns, C. Newson, “Predict and decide. Aviation,
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1. Increasing the price of slots at Change Institute, 2006.
airports [3] CEC, Commission of the European Communities,
“White Paper – European transport policy for 2010:
2. Pressure on airlines to maximise the time to decide“, Commission of the European
income from each flight Communities, COM (2001), 370, Brussels,
3. Right to emit a certain quantity of September, 2001,
greenhouse gases in atmosphere [http://europa.eu.int/comm/off/white/index_en.htm
(15/2/2002)].
4. Additional mechanisms to help [4] L. Chapman, “Transport and climate change:
minimise the total cost of emission review“, Journal of Transport Geography, vol. 15,
reduction activities worldwide pp. 354-367, 2007.
[5] V. Eyring, et. al., “Transport Impacts on Atmosphere
and Climate: Shipping“, Atmospheric Environment,
Encourage the shift to other vol. 44, pp. 4735–4771, 2010.
transport modes [6] M. Givoni, et al., “On the right track? The role of rail
1. Replace of short haul flights with in tackling climate change“, TRB-2009, Annual
Meeting, CD ROM, 2009.
inter-city rail travels [7] D.L. Green, et al., “Reducing Greenhouse Gas
2. Subsidised fares in inter-city rail Emissions from U.S. Transportation“, Pew Center on
links Global Climate Change, 2011.
[8] IEA, 2000. International Energy Agency, “CO2
3. Limiting air freight to essential Emissions from Fuel Combustions 1971-1998“,
perishable goods OECD, Paris, 2000. edition.
[9] T.R. Karl, K.E. Trenberth, “Modern global climate
Technological improvements and change“, Science, vol. 302, pp. 1719-1723, 2003.
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usage and CO2 emissions [11] D.S. Lee, D.W. Fahey, et al., “Aviation and global
climate change in the 21th century“,Atmospheric
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[13] PIANC, Permanent International Association of
Changes to air transport Navigation Congresses, “Climate Change and
management Navigation: Waterborne transport, ports and
1. Selection of optimum altitude waterways – A review of climate change drivers,
restriction impacts, responses and mitigation“, Envi Com –
Task Group 3, 2008.
2. Decreasing of waiting times on [14] S. Potter, Transport Energy and emissions: urban
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT 141–156, 2003.
[16] TRB, Transport Research Board, Special Report
290.
This work has been supported by FP7 project [17] R.T. Watson, “IPCC Special Report: Climate Change
REACT (Supporting Research on Climate-friendly 200 – Synthesis Report“, Cambridge University
Transport), Grant Agreement No. 233984. Press, UK, 2001.

2DECIDE: Design of a Tool to support decision

making in Intelligent Transport System
Deployment
Luca Studer Doris Bankosegger
Researcher, Politecnico di Milano, Researcher, High Tech Marketing
Laboratory for Mobility and Transport, Dep. Lothringerstraße 14/6, 1030 Vienna
INDACO (Austria)
Via Durando 38/a, 20158 Milano db@hitec.at
luca.studer@polimi.it Risto Kulmala
Giovanna Marchionni Research Professor, VTT Technical
Researcher, Politecnico di Milano, Research Centre of Finland
Laboratory for Mobility and Transport, Dep. P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, VTT
INDACO risto.kulmala@vtt.fi
Via Durando 38/a, 20158 Milano Martin Böhm
giovanna.marchionni@polimi.it Head of Unit
Elena Caprile AustriaTech – Gesellschaft des Bundes für
Researcher, Politecnico di Milano, technologiepolitische Maßnahmen GmbH
Laboratory for Mobility and Transport, Dep. Donau-City-Str. 1, 1220 Vienna, Austria
INDACO martin.boehm@austriatech.org
Via Durando 38/a, 20158 Milano Stefan Schwillinsky
elena.caprile@polimi.it ITS Deployment Project Manager
AustriaTech – Gesellschaft des Bundes für
technologiepolitische Maßnahmen GmbH
Donau-City-Str. 1, 1220 Vienna, Austria
stefan.schwillinsky@austriatech.org
Abstract—The paper describes the main objective of knowledge and a complex decision making process
2DECIDE Projects: the design of the ITS Toolkit. The for ITS deployment. Hence, the use of a single entry
aim of the Toolkit is to support authorities to best exploit ITS toolkit has been selected as the most appropriate
ITS to address problems such as congestion, accidents or solution.
environmental pollution, as well as to improve user
services, promote inter-modality, access information,
enhance safety and security aspects. 2DECIDE will
suggest different solutions via the toolkit interface, II. OBJECTIVE
depending on the problem or situation encountered by the
user. The paper illustrates the status of Reports collection
and the functionalities of the Inference Engine. 2DECIDE is an action in response to action point
6.2 of the European ITS Action Plan “Development
Keywords— Intelligent Trasport System; Evaluation of a decision-support toolkit for investment decisions
of impacts; Decision Support Systems. in ITS applications and services”. The project is
funded under the European Union’s 7th Framework
Programme for research and development.
I. INTRODUCTION
The 2DECIDE project has commenced in 2009
The use of intelligent transport systems can help and will be finalized in October 2011. It is carried
creating a more sustainable European transport out by a consortium led by Austriatech (Austria) for
system. However, due to slow and uncoordinated the European Commission (DG MOVE). The
decision making for Intelligent Transport Systems consortium includes 14 Partners from 10 different
(ITS) deployment on urban, regional and national European countries.
level, the potential benefits of ITS deployment are The aim of the 2DECIDE project is to develop an
currently not fully utilized. The ITS investment has ITS Toolkit in order to support authorities to best
been slowed down, on administration level, due to exploit ITS to address problems such as congestion,
both lack of easy and efficient access on ITS

accidents or environmental pollution, as well as to  A database of evaluation reports on ITS

improve user services, promote inter-modality, projects
access information, enhance safety and security
aspects, etc. 2DECIDE will suggest different  Information about costs, benefits and impacts
solutions via the toolkit interface, depending on the of ITS solutions
problem or situation encountered by the user.  Information on technical and legal aspects for
Solutions include the deployment of systems ITS solutions
integrating telematics with transport engineering in
order to plan, design, operate, maintain and manage  Targeted information in response to a user
transport systems, in the road and public transport query.
sectors.
The following key information will be provided III. PROJECT OVERVIEW
to the user by the ITS Toolkit:
 Best practice examples of ITS deployments Figure 1 shows the general approach of the
2DECIDE toolkit.
Figure 1. General approach of 2DECIDE
The added value of the 2DECIDE toolkit is that it  To build up the database that feeds the
contains summaries of all studies in the database in 4 2DECIDE-toolkit.
languages (English, French, German and Italian). In
addition to the already available national ITS toolkits  To collect Reports (Evaluation Reports and
in some European countries, the 2DECIDE toolkit Case Studies) around Europe (and World).
does not only select the most appropriate studies, but  To provide a broad range of structured data
it also contains calculated assessment results of the inputs into the subsequent knowledge base
relevant studies selected by the user. The 2DECIDE development which will give advice on
toolkit also contains ITS studies from the whole of impacts of different ITS applications in
Europe. different contexts. To integrate as much data
as possible from the available documented
experience.
IV. DATA COLLECTION
 To provide illustrative descriptions of
The first step for the design of the ITS Toolkit is practice in the field and in particular to give
the collection of Reports regarding ITS evaluation. detailed information on fully evaluated cases.
The main objectives of the collection phase are:

Figure 2. Improved data acquisition within decision making process with the help of 2DECIDE
As shown in Figure 2. the collection phase’s aim One of the main challenge of 2DECIDE Project is
is to collect all the experiences which will otherwise the collection and following categorization of data
remain distributed and scattered around Europe and and information included in the collected Reports
by the several subjects that implemented or studied that can be very different from each other in terms of
the ITS. methodology, boundary conditions and results
achieved. The need to use so dissimilar data for the
Each partner collected the case studies and the
purposes of the inference engine, made the collection
evaluation reports especially in his home Country
and classification phase a very tricky task. This is the
and within his network of contacts and with the help
reason why the common categorization of ITS
of the Supporting Partners. The dimension of the
implementations (see Figure 4. , Figure 5. , Figure 6.
Consortium, his expertise and the number of direct
, Figure 7. , Figure 8. ) and the definition of shared
covered Countries is a guarantee of success for the
impact indicators and unit of measurement was
Reports collection (see Figure 3. )
carried out with particular attention and in great
detail [1][3]. The classification of the ITS, the
definition of the contexts where the ITS has been
implemented, the problems that the ITS is going to
solve as well as its goals and objectives were
analyzed. Reports collection and Data entry
campaigns were carried out in several phases, on one
hand to create a data bank to satisfy the minimum
requirements in terms of quality and coverage of the
several ITS, and on the other hand to make resources
available to the Inference Engine.
First of all, a collection of high quality studies on
the part of the Partners based on their experience and
network of acquaintances; the Partners shared a
series of data banks / web sites / organizations that
may contain interesting Reports; some elementary
but essential information for each study was entered
into the “Short Reporting Scheme”; this simplified
scheme aimed at identifying each time the studies
that had the proper characteristics (regarding quality,
type of ITS, geographical coverage, etc) to satisfy
the requirements of the Project. Until January 2011
Figure 3. Geographical distribution of the 2DECIDE
around 1200 Reports were collected to be chosen
Consortium Partners

from, to enter into the database and therefore make

available with the Toolkit. The considerable use of
the resources to enter the information contained in
the Reports into the database forced the Consortium
to select the Reports. The principle governing the
selection of the Reports to enter is a good coverage
in terms of “ITS Service”, “Area of Transport” and
“Geographical Coverage”. Only those projects with
sufficiently detailed evaluation and those without
such documentation but considered of sufficient
interest are included.
Figure 5. Area of Transport Categories
Figure 4. Geographical Coverage Categories
Figure 6. ITS Service Categories

Figure 7. Problems Categories
Figure 8. Goals and Objective Categories

V. ANALYSIS OF REPORTS ENTERED IN THE represented; in particular, 27 studies occur for Major,
DATABASE secondary and rural roads and 17 for City streets.
Public Transport occurs with 43 records with a good
This analysis is carried out based on the reports frequency of Regional, intercity and local bus/coach
entered into the database until January 2011 [4]. with 14 studies (7% of the total records) and of All
public transport services with 15 studies (7% of the
The database includes 164 reports analyzed in
total records). In the histogram in Figure 12. it is
201 records. In some cases a report includes the
possible to analyze the distribution of the studies
analysis and evaluation of more than one ITS; for
collected under the category Passenger Transport,
this reason studies of this type had to be divided into
divided into its several subcategories.
several records.
A. Analysis by Type of Evaluation
The studies entered are for 59% of cases Ex-post
evaluation with 118 records entered, while Case
studies are 24% of the total with 49 studies entered
(see Figure 9. ).
Figure 10. Number of reports by geographical

coverage
Figure 9. Distribution of the number of studies per Type

of Evaluation.
B. Analysis by Geographical Coverage

The analysis by geographical coverage shows a
good coverage of urban areas in Europe (92 records
with a percentage of 46% over the total present Figure 11. Number of records per Area of transport.
records) with a higher frequency of metropolitan
areas having more than 250.000 residents (see Figure
10. ). Areas and regions in Europe also show a good
coverage, above all as far as local areas with 49
records are concerned, which represent 24% of the
total number of studies entered.
C. Analysis by Geographical Coverage
Areas of transport are classified first of all into 3
macro categories: Freight Transport, Passenger
Transport and Transport Infrastructure.Passenger
Transport represents 84% of the number of studies
collected, with a clear frequency of the subcategory
Road Transport with 114 reports, see Figure 11. In
particular the subcategory Motorways and Figure 12. Number of records per Area of Transport,
expressways (TERN) represents 24% of the number with the several subclasses highlighted for the category
of studies. All the subcategories of the section Passenger Transport.
Passenger Transport-Road Transport are well

D. Analysis by ITS Service 21% of the total) show the highest number of reports
The analysis carried out by ITS service shows a entered. The distribution of reports in the remaining
good representation of the studies referred to Traffic classes is quite even, ranging from 3 reports (1% of
Management and Operations Services (73 studies the total) for the class Enhance security to 17 reports
and a percentage with respect to the total of 36%), (8% of the total) for the category Reduce
Public Transport Service (40 records and a environmental impacts, see Figure 16.
percentage with respect to the total of 20%) and
Traveller Information Services (42 records and a
percentage with respect to the total of 21%), see
Figure 13. The presence of such a high number of
reports for the first two categories with respect to the
others is due to the necessity to favor the collection
in the three specific areas of interest in order to
finalize the construction of the inference engine; the
result therefore does not show a higher diffusion of
reports for the three classes mentioned.
Figure 14. Distribution of the number of reports for

the class Problems.
Goals and Objectives for the class Accidents has

45 reports in the subcategory Reduce Accidents with
a good distribution in the several level 2-subclasses:
Exposure to accidents risk (6 reports), Number of
accidents (21 reports), Severity of accidents (1
report) and not specified (17 reports), see Figure 4.9.
In the class Improve travel efficiency the most
Figure 13. Distribution of the number of studies per present subcategories are Reduce congestion with 24
ITS service. records and Improve traveller information with 15
studies, see Figure 17. Figure 16.
E. Analysis by Problems
The category Problems is divided into 7 The class Improve public transport service
categories shown in Figure 14. The most represented presents 21 records (10% of the total) for the
categories are three: Accidents (40 records entered subcategory Improve public transport traveller
which represent 20% of the total), Congestion (44 information and 10 records (5% of the total) for the
records entered with a percentage of 22% of the subcategory Improve accessibility to public transport
total) and Traveller Transport Services (46 records services. In particular, the most covered objectives in
and a percentage of 23% of the total). the database are the reduction of accidents or the
improvement of information to users.
In the subcategory Accidents the most present
aspect is Weather-related problems with 15 reports.
Traveller Transport Services is the most present VI. INFERENCE ENGINE AND KNOWLEDGE BASE
category of problems with a rather even distribution
in the several subcategories, and a peak for the The main contents of the ITS Toolkit lie in the
subclass Traveller information with 28 total records inference engine and the knowledge base. The
(see Figure 15. ). inference engine aims to control the way the
different documents relate to ITS services and their
F. Analysis by Goals and Objectives combinations as well as the user’s context, problems
The category Goals and Objectives is divided into and objectives. This is realized by utilizing the case
10 classes. In particular, the classes Improve travel studies, evaluation studies and other documents
efficiency (54 studies with a percentage of 27% over located in the knowledge base [1], [2].
the total), Improve road safety (51 reports which
represent 25% of the total) and Improve public
transport service (43 studies and a percentage of

Figure 15. Distribution of the number of reports for the several subclasses of the category Problems.
Figure 16. Distribution of the number of studies for the class Goals and objective.

Figure 17. Distribution of the number of reports for the several subclasses of the category Goals and objective.
Figure 18. Operation of the toolkit based on user input. [2]

The knowledge base contains the original values (% change) of the primary indicators relevant
documents or links to them in addition to the for the user’s objectives or problems or use context
relevant metadata which may be related to the for each ITS service, which could be feasible for the
contents of the documents, publication details or the user in his/her context.
type or quality of content available in the document.
The inference rules have been verified, validated
The real intelligence of the knowledge base is
and further developed and fine-tuned in manual and
contained in its inference engine – see Error!
prototype testing by the 2DECIDE consortium
Reference source not found.
members as well as external evaluation experts.
A major aspect of the knowledge base is related
to different assessment topics and their indicators. It
was described the primary, secondary and general VII. NEXT STEP OF 2DECIDE
indicators for all the different assessment topics.
These topics were the following in the ITS Toolkit: The next step of 2DECIDE Project are:
 Impact assessment (Safety, Travel efficiency,  Improve reports collection around Europe
Environment, Public transport service, with the main aim of reaching a homogenous
Freight management, Freight fleet distribution
management, Traffic operations, Revenue
generation, Security, Traffic violations – see  Finalize the roles of the Inference Engine and
also Figure 8. Goals and Objectives) test it.
 Socio-economic assessment (benefits, costs)  Define a validation phase in order to test the
first version of the on-line toolkit.
 User acceptance
 Finalize the toolkit and make it public
 Feasibility (Institutional feasibility, Legal available.
feasibility, Technical feasibility, Financial
feasibility, Business models)
 Performance (Technical performance, REFERENCES
Service quality).
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classification of ITS applications. 2DECIDE
indicator was selected as the most important Deliverable D1.1. 2010.
indicator. The results obtained for secondary and [2] Panousopoulos, G. 2DECIDE D1.2 – Software Tool
general indicators were used in estimating the Specification
[3] Öörni, R. and Klunder, G. 2DECIDE Architecture
magnitude of these most important indicators. Specification Document. 2DECIDE WP1.2 and
WP1.4, Deliverable D1.4. 2010.
The indicators usually had four different values in [4] Studer L., Marchionni G., Caprile E., Riley P.,
the knowledge or study data base: value before Kumpoštová A., 2DECIDE D2.1 - Data Collection
deployment of the ITS service(s) in question, value and Documentation, 2011
[5] Böhm M., Mans D., Studer L., Toolkit for
after the deployment of the ITS service(s), change in sustainable decision making in ITS deployment, ITS
value from before to after, and percent change (%) in World Congress, Busan South Korea, October 2010
value from before to after. Only the last mentioned [6] Bankosegger D., Kulmala R., Studer L., Marchionni
G., State-of-the-art in European ITS evaluation
was used in the inference engine for most indicators. research – where Europe has blind spots, ITS in
Europe, Lyon France, June 2011
The inference rules were developed on the basis [7] Böhm M., Mans D., Schwillinsky, First results of
of an inventory of user needs and requirements via ITS Toolkit development, ITS in Europe, Lyon
European-wide surveys. The over-reaching aim of France, June 2011.
the inference engine was to estimate the most likely

Solving the ride matching problem: clustering

approach
Milica Šelmić, Dragana Macura, Dušan Teodorović

{m.selmic, d.macura, dusan}@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— Most of the transport networks are pedestrian path, ''teleworking'' (working from home),
generally very seriously congested. Consequently, payment for participation in traffic congestion, etc).
number of stops, unexpected delays, transport costs, One of the most used strategies is the concept of ride
travel time, level of air pollution, noise and traffic matching. According to this approach, two or more
accidents are increased. Beside daily congestions, there
are also congestions and traffic jams as a consequence of
persons share a vehicle when traveling from origin to
reconstructions of the roads’ lanes. During the last destination. The common use of private cars is
decade different strategies for transport demand resulted in decreasing both the number of vehicles
management are developed, with the aim to decrease on the roads and transportation costs of participants
existing traffic congestions and negative impacts on in the program.
climate and environment. One of existing strategies is a
ride matching (sharing) concept. This strategy means that Reduction of external costs and negative impacts
several participants share only one private car when caused by traffic congestions is possible to obtain by
traveling from origin to destination. A model for applying different types of state policy. It is possible
grouping the drivers into the clusters for ride matching, to use rigor regulations, such as the so-called ''Even-
according to similarities of a place of living, working
place, working time and the car license plates is
Odd'' approach - which was very popular in the
developed in this paper. We apply the ride matching second half of last century. High traffic intensity
concept on congested traffic during the reconstruction of during Olympic Games in China 2008 caused huge
the main bridge in Belgrade, Serbia, Gazela bridge. pollution problems in Beijing. ''Even-Odd''
Proposed model is based on K-means method. regulation was used as a solution of this problem.
Vehicles with license plates ending in an odd
Keywords— ride matching, k-means, clustering
number are only allowed on the roads every other
day. On days when odd numbered license plates are
allowed, vehicles with license plates ending in an
I. INTRODUCTION even number are prohibited. Theoretically the
number of vehicles on the roads in the city can be
Reducing negative transport impact on the reduced by half.
climate, environment and congestions in the streets In this paper a model for grouping the drivers into
of world capitals during some special events or road the clusters to carry out common trips is developed.
reconstructions are issues that are very important for Grouping is done according to similarity of place of
transport authorities. Beside daily congestions, there living and working and the beginning and end of
are also congestions and traffic jams as a working hours. Additional criterion for clustering
consequence of reconstructions of the roads’ lanes. that is used in this paper is based on the car license
During the reconstructions, road capacity is reduced plates. The developed model uses the ''Even-Odd''
or completely closed for the individual trips. Serious concept and K-means method. Numerical evaluation
roads’ renewals can take several months, so it is is done on case study of the main bridge in Belgrade,
necessary to adopt a strategy that will prevent the Serbia (Gazela bridge).
potential problems. Planners, engineers and
economists have proposed and developed different The paper is organized as follows. The second
strategies for managing traffic demand (Travel section gives the foundations of the K-means
Demand Management (TDM)) to alleviate existing method. The next section presents the brief literature
traffic congestion (''park & ride'', lanes for high survey. In the fourth section, application of the K-
occupancy vehicles (HOV), improving public means method for the ride matching approach is
transportation systems, programs for ride matching presented. The aim of implementation of the
concept, increasing the number of bicycle and proposed approach is the traffic reducing across the

Gazela bridge during the reconstruction works. The k– number of clusters (i=1,2,..., k);
last section is devoted to concluding remarks.
Gi – i-th cluster.
Objective function (2) that should be minimized
represents the sum of all distances between elements
II. K-MEANS METHOD and centers of corresponding clusters. Every element
j could be in exactly one group i (constraints (3)).
Clustering is a method of elements assignment Constraints (4) assure that all elements are assigned
into different groups, clusters. Each cluster has some to all groups.
degree of similarity among elements and it is
The initial center of each group is selected in a
determined by distance. The two elements from the
random manner. After finalizing each algorithm
same group are more similar if they are closer. There
iteration, the new cluster center should be chosen.
are many known methods to calculate the distance,
Thence, the elements are assigned to these new
such as: Euclidean, Manhattan, Maximum distance,
centers. The new center, ci, for each group is defined
and so on [11].
in the following way. Coordinates values of the
The most used method that belongs to cluster previously defined members of each i-th cluster are
analysis is K-means clustering. This method was added together. This sum is then divided by the total
developed by Hartigan [11]. The improvement of K- number of members in that group:
means clustering was proposed by Hartigan and
1
Wong [12] four years later. ci 
Gi
 j , x j Gi xj (5)
K-means algorithm groups n elements into k
clusters in which each element belongs to the cluster s.t.
with the nearest mean. In this paper the distance
Gi   j 1 uij
n
between elements is a standard Euclidean norm.
(6)
Final solution is shown by binary matrix, U. Each
element of U matrix, uij, is equal to 1 if element j is where:
assigned to cluster i. Element uij is 0 in opposite case |Gi| -total number of members in the i-th group.
[10]:
Constraints (6) ensure that the maximum
2 2 allowable number of elements in each group is not
uij = { 1, if x j ci ≤ x j ci +1 exceeded.
0, otherwise
(1) The necessary steps for solving the given model
are:
where are:
• Define number of elements that should be
xj –coordinates (characteristic) of element j,
grouped, n;
(j=1,2,..., n);
• Define the number of clusters, k;
ci – center of i-th cluster, (i=1,2,..., k).
• Define the number of elements of each group
The clustering problem could be formulated in
G (this step can be omitted if the number of
the following way:
members in groups are unlimited);
Minimize
• Determine the centers of groups;
k k 2
F  ∑Fi  ∑∑
( j , x ∈Gi x j ci ) (2) • Assign all elements to centers;
• Allocate new centers;
j
i 1 i 1
s.t. • Repeat previous steps.

k
∑ uij = 1, ∀j = 1,2,...n
i =1 (3) Previous steps are repeated until a pre-defined
criterion is reached. Stopping criteria may include:
k n pre-specified number of iterations; the new obtained
∑ ∑ uij = n
i =1 j =1 objective function value is higher than the previous
(4) one; the new value of objective function has been
where are: changed compared to last one less than 20%.
F i - objective function value for i-th cluster; The main advantage of this model is its simplicity
and reasonable CPU time. Some of the

disadvantages are: the output solution quality through the use of various routing strategies. Three
depends on random initial choice of initial centers; types of complex networks structures, namely
attributes are only numeric values, etc. The Poisson random networks, small-world networks and
application of this model does not guarantee finding scale-free networks, are considered. Three different
an optimal solution. routing strategies are used on networks:
deterministic routing strategy, preferential routing
strategy and shortest path routing strategy.
III. RELATED WORK Teodorovic and Dell’ Orco [20] developed a
model for solving the problem of ride matching
using Bee Colony Optimization meta-heuristic.
The programs of common using the cars are
Suggested model is tested on the example of
widely accepted in many cities around the world.
common trips in the capital of Puglia, Trani, Italy.
Searching the Internet numerous ride sharing sites
Authors collected the data for 97 passengers’
can be easily found. Their aim is to connect mutually
demands for common trips. Also, to simplify the
unknown people that travel on the same routes. Each
model, it is assumed that vehicle capacity is four
potential participants of ride sharing program should
passengers. Results of applying the developed model
give the following information to the system’s
are pretty good.
operator: vehicle capacity; days during the week
when he/she is willing to participate in ride sharing Quddus et al. [14] research whether there is any
concept; places of departure for every day in a week; association between the level of traffic congestion
places of arrival for every day in a week; desired and road safety. The relationship between congestion
departure times; and desired arrival times [20]. and safety may not be so straightforward, however,
Based on these data, grouping the passengers into the as there are a number of other factors such as traffic
clusters is done. flow, driver characteristics, road geometry, and
vehicle design affecting crash severity. They tested
Ride matching concept is considered by
their model on data collected from the M25 London
numerous authors in the international literature.
orbital motorway between 2003 and 2006. The
Also, ride matching concept is applied in practice in
authors suggest that the level of traffic congestion
many countries around the world. Brownstone and
does not affect the severity of road crashes on the
Golob [2] promoted ridesharing on work trips such
M25 motorway.
as a possible solution for reducing the congestion
and air pollution. Their model indicates that with Blumenberg and Smart [1] are studied the
some certain types of transport policy for motivating frequency of participations of different ethic and
drivers to use ride matching concept, increasing the social groups in ride matching programs.
drive-alone commuting is possible for about 11 and
18 percent.
Zhihai X. et al. [22] consider a kind of dial-a-ride IV. APPLYING K-MEANS FOR THE RIDE-
problem (DARP) which involves scheduling a MATCHING PROBLEM, GAZELA BRIDGE CASE STUDY
heterogeneous vehicle fleet and a group of drivers
with different qualifications based at a single depot
A. General information
to cover the transportation requests of customers.
After negotiating with the agency, the customer Belgrade, Serbia is the third largest city in
specifies the pickup time window and the tolerable Southeastern Europe, with a population of over 2
extra traveling time on the trip. Authors present a millions. Capital of Serbia lies at the confluence of
heuristic, which concentrates on solving a large-scale the Sava into the Danube river. The city has six
static dial-a-ride problem bridges, from which even five are across the Sava
and one across the Danube. Gazela is the most
Tao and Chen [18] developed a model for
important bridge in Belgrade, even 40 years old. It is
common usage of taxicabs by more passengers with
332 m long and 27.5 m wide, with total road width
similar origin-destination trip. In their future
of 21.8 m. This bridge has three lanes in each
research Tao and Chen [19] suggested two heuristics
direction and connects Belgrade with Nis to the
algorithm for common using of taxicabs. These
south and Novi Sad to the north. Crossing the Sava
algorithms belong to greedy algorithms groups.
River, Gazela bridge is a part of the city highway
Algorithms are tested on the example of users who
and it lies on European route E75. Considering that
are working in Technology Park “Taipei Nei-Hu
this bridge is designed to be used by 40,000 vehicles
Science and Technology Park” in Taiwan.
per day, and today there are over 160,000 vehicles
Guo and Lu [9] investigate numerically the crosses daily, this bridge is extremely overloaded.
problem of traffic congestion in complex networks

In the next few months, the Serbian authorities Step 6: By passenger assigning to the clusters,
are planning the reconstruction of the Gazela bridge. calculate the value of the objective function
During this period, only one lane in both directions
Step 7: Define new clusters’ centers using the
will be operational. Since this is extremely important
equations (5) and (6). Back to the Step 2.
bridge, linking the business and residential part of
Belgrade, it is necessary to bring some strategies to Step 8: Repeat the algorithms steps until the
reduce traffic congestions. One of the strategies that defined iterations number is achieved.
the Belgrade authorities cited as possible is an Even-
Let us discuss Step 5 in more details. The
Odd approach.
situation when a passenger cannot be assigned to the
B. K-means and Even-Odd approach cluster occurs because of two reasons. First reason is
limited size of cluster. At the beginning analyst
Each passenger in our model is characterized by
define number of passengers in the cars (2, 3 or 4)
five attributes, i.e. with following nine
and when cluster (car) is full, passenger should be
characteristics:
assigned to the second nearest cluster.
 Coordinates of the place of living, i.e. trip The second reason is contrast to Even/Odd
origin concept. Namely, according to the Even/Odd
 Coordinates of the place of working, i.e. trip concept it is ideal to be one driver who has even
destination number and one that has an odd number of license
plate in the each cluster (car). This way, ride sharing
 Desired departure times within each cluster is ensured on both even and odd
 Desired arrival times numbered days. Let us analyze the situation when 3
passengers in the car are allowed. A valid cluster
 The type of license plate (even or odd). would be one in which passengers have a
combination of the two 0 and one 1 (001 or 010 or
All the values of passengers’ characteristics are 100) or two 1 and one 0 (110 or 101 or 011).
defined in a random manner, because questionnaire Combinations that are not acceptable are 000 and
is very expensive and unnecessary in this first phase 111. If this happens a ride sharing in a cluster would
of strategy development. The type of license plate is be possible only on even or odd-numbered days. To
a binary number which has value 1 if the license avoid this situation, we define b as a sum of types of
plate last number is even, and has value 0 if the license plates in the cluster, 0≤ b ≤ size of the group
license plate last number is odd. We assume that (2, 3 or 4). When b is equal to 0, it means that all
even/odd numbers in last position of license plates passengers in the cluster have type of license plate 0
are distributed according to normal distribution. (000). Opposite, when b is equal to size of the group
(3 in our example), it means that all passengers in the
The steps of the ride matching algorithm: cluster have type of license plate 1 (111). Values of b
Step 1: For given number of iterations, between these two marginal cases ensure Even/Odd
passengers and the size of the groups, generate input concept. When adding a new driver to a cluster came
characteristics for all passengers. out that the b = 0 or b = size of the group, then the
passenger joins the next closest cluster.
Step 2: Generate the initial groups’ centers in a
random manner. The number of the clusters is a ratio
of total number of passengers and the group size.
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Step 3: Calculate the Euclidian distance for all
passengers from all generated centers. Form the
matrix of distances, D, in which rows presents All the values of passengers’ characteristics are
passengers and columns are the clusters’ centers. defined in a random manner and it is available upon
request. Also, we assume that even/odd numbers in
Step 4: Find the minimum value in the matrix of last position of license plates are distributed
distances, D. Assign to the certain cluster the according to normal distribution.
passenger with the minimum value of distance, and
exclude him/her from further consideration. Update We considered the ride matching approach for the
the matrix of distances and repeat the procedure until connected people on their everyday home to work
all passengers are allocated to the clusters. trips over Gazela bridge in Belgrade, Serbia. In this
paper we analyzed sample of 120 passengers
Step 5: If the passenger cannot be assigned to the clustered into groups of 2, 3 or 4 in each car. We
cluster he/she becomes a part of the next nearest assumed that all considered passengers live in the
cluster. first nine zones, which are on the one side of the

river, and that they are travelling to some of the next other elements (passengers) are almost optimally
nine zones on the other side of the river. grouped to the clusters (cars).
Figures 1, 2 and 3 show the validation of the
performed clustering, in the case when number of
elements (passengers) in each cluster (car) is 2, 3 and
4 respectively. ''Silhouette'' [17] is a method of
interpretation and validation is clustered data. This
technique enables graphical representation of how
well each element fits to the center which is assigned
to. Marked centers are on the x-axis. In our case
Cluster
there are a 60, 40, and 30 centers respectively. On
the y-axis, the Silhouette value is presented, and it
can be between -1 and 1. If this value is closer to 1,
means that the passengers are grouped to clusters
well, while if this value is close to -1, the clustering
of the passengers is not well executed.
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Silhouette Value
Figure 3. Validation of clustered passengers, 4

passengers in each car
Changes in the best discovered objective function
values, in the case when number of elements
(passengers) in each cluster (car) are 2, 3 and 4, and
Cluster
are shown in Figures 1, 2 and 3 respectively.As it

can be seen from these figures in all tested examples
objective function value converge to best known
solution after only few iteration are performed.
Figures 4, 5 and 6 show that objective function
value decrease when number of elements
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 (passengers) in each cluster (car) increase. This
Silhouette Value
means that more precise clustering can be done when
Figure 1. Validation of clustered passengers, 2 groups of passenger are smaller.
800
Value of the objective function
700
600
Cluster
500
400
300
200
100
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Silhouette Value
1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 2. Validation of clustered passengers, 3 Number of iterations
Figure 4. Values of the objective function after each
Silhouette technique shows that in all cases iteration, 2 passengers in each car
dissidence exist with only few clusters, while all

Therefore, it is recommended to repeat the whole

cycle several time, and to accept as a final solution
1100 the best one in all iterations.
1000 During the reconstructions works on the main

990 bridge in Belgrade, because of the huge importance
of this bridge for everyday life of the citizens and for
980 transit through the Serbia, it was necessary to offer
970 the adequate solution for the realization of traffic
960 across the bridge during the works. Transport
authorities have proposed as one possible solution
950 “Even-Odd” approach. We propose the ride
matching concept as a solution for decreasing the
daily number of vehicles across the Gazela bridge
and reducing the congestions and traffic jams.
Practical example of applying the K-means method
1 2 3 4 5 6 is presented in this paper for implementation of the
Number of iterations ride matching approach.
Figure 5. Values of the objective function after each Future research should be directed to
iteration, 3 passengers in each car examinations of impacts and influences of applying
the fuzzy logic in the ride matching concept, i.e. to
compare the data obtained by K-means method and
fuzzy K-means method. In fuzzy K-means method
each element can belong to several groups, but with
different degree of membership.
1400 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
1200
1000 This work has been supported by Serbian
Ministry of Science and Technological
980 Development, grants No. 36002 and 36022.
960
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The Role of Urban Planning into a long-term

Climate Friendly Transport Vision
Prof. Eng. Michela Tiboni, PhD; Eng. Silvia Rossetti, PhD Candidate
Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture, Land and Environment (DICATA)
University of Brescia
michela.tiboni@ing.unibs.it
silvia.rossetti@ing.unibs.it
Abstract— How can Urban Planning help in interact and mutually amplify their self contributing
achieving a carbon reduction in the transport sector? The in enhancing the pressures on the environment.
attention towards sustainability and environmental
pollution increased a lot in the last years. This paper The aim of this paper is to highlight some
investigates the role that Urban Planning plays towards a priorities of intervention related to the reduction of
long term climate friendly transport and highlights the GHG emissions through a strategic climate friendly
need of integrated approaches gathering spatial planning spatial planning. Urban planning can highly affect
and transport management the sustainability of transport systems in a long term
Keywords— Urban Planning, Public Transport, Slow vision: for this reason it is necessary to move
mobility, Freiburg towards the implementation of integrated policies
gathering urban planning and transport, to reduce car
trips number and the level of motorization.
I. INTRODUCTION: FOCUS ON THE ROLE OF This paper will focus on the link between spatial
URBAN PLANNING planning and modal choices at urban level, with
particular regard to public transport and slow
How can urban planning help in achieving a mobility (walking and cycling).
carbon reduction in the transport sector? Which The design of the public transport network plays
territorial governance policies and measures can be a key-role in daily transports sustainability: the
applied to contribute in climate friendly transport? service has to be competitive, fast, frequent and
What should be the focus for the next years? efficient but at the same time it should provide a
According to the new White Paper of the good penetration into residential areas. Pedestrians
European Commission [1] there is “...need to are the main users of Public Transport: there is a
drastically reduce world greenhouse gas emissions, need to work on the link between public transport
with the goal of limiting climate change below and pedestrian accessibility [3]. It is also important
2°C...” and “...a reduction of at least 60% of GHGs to provide good walking and cycling infrastructures
by 2050 with respect to 1990 is required from the to improve accessibility and ensure safety [4].
transport sector...by 2030 the goal for transport will Moreover, in order to encourage non-motorized
be to reduce GHG emissions to around 20% below mobility, there is a need of a behavioural shift:
their 2008 level...”. educational and marketing activities must be
performed, with young people as main target.
Focusing on the role of urban planning, recently
lots of researches about sustainability of cities layout
demonstrates that compact urban layouts with a mix
of land uses show the highest levels of sustainability II. THE SUSTAINABLE SAFETY APPROACH TO
[2]: reduce urban sprawl and move away from URBAN PLANNING, ROAD TRANSPORT AND
functional land use zoning are nowadays MOBILITY
imperatives. As a matter of fact urban sprawl brings
several negative impacts on the environment: the A. Planning and designing cities for cars
main consequences are land consumption and traffic Since the Second World War the rate of
growth. Moreover, if we analyse sprawl motorization has shown in Europe, and not only, a
developments it is often difficult to distinguish trend of growth that is increasingly strong. The
causes and consequences because several factors massive diffusion of the car, both in the cities and in
the small centres, gradually reduces the quality of

public spaces, invaded by motor vehicles, and also time a concern so much greater than safety. The
has an impact on the behaviour of motorists, affected result was that the existing roads and new streets
by the so-called “road rage”. The road rage is not a were extended, in particular by reducing public
recent phenomenon, but a recurring theme which space available to pedestrians and cyclists.
affects motorists, as ironically evidenced by "Motor
At the end of the 50’s the road safety in urban
Mania", a short film of Walt Disney in 1950, where
areas became a pressing question. The rapid growth
Goof, animated cartoon character from Walt
of the vehicular traffic led to a growth of the accident
Disney's Mickey Mouse universe, undergoes a
rates, especially between cars and vulnerable road
metamorphosis, with a Mr. Hyde’s double
users.
personality, when he goes by car or by feet [5].
A document of the British government, in 1963,
But one the most important consequence of the
"Traffic in towns" [9] is the first official document to
diffusion of cars is the reduction of safety for
recognize that the growth in traffic is a threat to the
vulnerable road users like pedestrians and cyclists.
quality of life in the city [10]. At the heart of
Traffic accidents are a worldwide economy and Buchanan’s thinking was a belief that, in a
public health problem, strictly linked to traditionally designed town or city, there is an
environmental issues. The negative environmental irreconcilable conflict between vehicle-based
effects of heavy crossing traffic by cars, especially in movement and a high quality local urban
residential, recreational and other sensitive areas, are environment, which can be resolved only through
well known. physical separation. As a consequence he made a
fundamental distinction between two kinds of road:
So, it is important to consider safety as an
those for traffic distribution (movement) and those
interconnected issue to the environmental issues [6].
for local access to buildings and activities adjacent to
Road safety and environmental protection are the
the road, within protected “environmental areas”
two sides of the same coin and can’t be viewed in
[11].
isolation.
While this approach was intended to best serve
The dependence on the automobile is the
the needs of urban areas with high level of car
inevitable consequence of the processes of transport
owners, the practical experience derived from
planning, heavily overbalanced toward the car.
attempting to apply it has revealed a number of
In particular in the 50’s the transport planning problems. First of all, many urban streets have been
was based on a modelling process that combines redesigned as high capacity routes, with restrictions
land use and transport. The purpose of these plans on footways and the installation of pedestrians
was to anticipate the growth of the population, of the underpasses or overbridges.
activities and of the traffic flows for the following
Although part of the population and the urban
twenty years, in order to ensure a balance between
planners were getting aware that new courses of
the supply of transport and the emerging demand for
action were needed, policies focusing on car traffic
effect of the urban planning. However, these plans
were seen as “modern” and legitimated by technical
were very overbalanced toward the planning of the
progress, and went on well into the 70’s. Intentions
road transport system, rather than balancing the
were clear, as stated, for example, by French
different modes of transport. This was accompanied
president G. Pompidiu in 1971: “Cities must adapt to
by the growth of residential areas with a low density,
cars” [12].
which inevitably increases the dependence on the
car. [7]. When the accessibility of cars increases, the
B. From “separation” to “integration”: the traffic
degree of their use increases, while the level of use
calming approach and its evolution
of public transport decreases and, consequently, we
become car-dependent [8]. The rapidly increasing traffic intensity on both
traffic roads and local roads led to an increase in
It is clear, therefore, that transport system and accidents, particularly between cars and light road
urban planning are issues to be dealt with jointly, at a users and the traffic planning idea of traffic
territorial scale necessarily and not only at the local separation encountered many difficulties in its
level. application. In Holland, narrow streets in the old
In the 50’s and 60’s the number of cars in Europe towns had too little space left for the separation
grew almost exponentially, and the traffic caused a model. In Delft, residents lost patience with crossing
strong pressure on the road network. In a context of traffic and alien parking in their local streets. So, the
economic growth, many efforts to adjust the road narrow streets along the channels were reconstructed
infrastructure for the development of the vehicular for “traffic integration”. The entire road area was
traffic were made. Traffic congestion was at that designed and organised as a leisure area with tables,

benches, sand boxes, but leaving space for cars to In six German towns a 30 km/h speed limit was
travel through the area at walking speed. This imposed over large areas; local streets and collectors
solution, known as the “Woonerf design” was the were treated with speed tables, chicanes, and pinch
first traffic calming1 initiative [13]. points; and one-way streets were converted to two-
way operation. Ring roads and arterials were
narrowed in some cases. Alternative travel modes
were given higher priority. The demonstration had
these results: volumes were unchanged, speeds were
reduced, frequency of accidents was unchanged but
severity was reduced, air pollution was reduced,
noise was reduced and fuel use increased or
decreased depending on the location [15]. These
positive results helped encourage many cities across
the globe to adopt areawide traffic calming
programs.
Germany’s Green Party has argued that, even
with areawide traffic calming, heavy traffic ends up
somewhere in cities. Their view is gaining currency
and, in the late 90’s, citywide policies are being
adopted to restrain automobile use. Traffic restrain is
called the “third generation” of traffic calming,
Figure 1. The organization of the residential areas
coming as it does after the neighbourhood and
according to the dutch model of “woonerf”
areawide approaches [16].
So, first of all, traffic calming measures were

implemented in order to improve existing III. HOW TO PLAN A SUSTAINABLE CITY
neighbourhoods by reducing speed. But city centres
were also a major preoccupation in the 70’s [14].
The growth of motorised traffic in the heart of towns The objectives and achievements of studies like
where commercial activities generated heavy the French “Safer cities, accident-free
pedestrians flows produced concentration of neighborhoods” concerned safety and traffic, but
pedestrians accidents. It soon became clear that old also the quality of life and local dynamics.
city centres with their narrow streets network could Furthermore, as far as city are concerned, a common
not physically survive unless volumes of traffic were issue is the need to co-ordinate traffic planning with
reduced, and that economic and cultural survival urban planning, since the city needs to be seen as a
demanded safer and easier movements of complex and interrelated entity [3] [15] [16].
pedestrians. Urban areas form a complex, dynamic system in
Germany, which had experienced the first which various factors interrelate in many different
technical traffic calming measures at the end of the ways. What is the place of road transport safety
70’s, soon discovered that the application of such within this system and how does it link with other
measures on individual sections of road produces the system components? Several key issues, referring to
effect of shifting the problem elsewhere, perhaps on both mobility and town can be listed, such as:
roads not previously affected by traffic problems. So transport network, urban structure, traffic
they decided to experiment the application of traffic management practices, planning policies, transport
calming measures on a wider area. The same was in policies, parking strategies, employment, social
France, with the so-called “Safer cities, accident-free policies, town image, environmental concerns [17].
neighbourhoods” operation in the 80’s, with the Land-use policies are important in the long-term
application of the concepts of the “30 km/h zones” in perspective that is needed to change current trends
a wide area. and move towards sustainable cities. These policies
should include the intensification of urban land use,
1
transformation of former industrial area and derelict
Traffic calming is the combination of mainly land, and the concentration of development in public
physical measures that reduce the negative effects of transport corridors. The location of specialized types
motor vehicle use, alter driver behaviour and improve
conditions for non-motorized streets users (EWING R.,
of workspaces, regionally oriented services and
Traffic Calming. State of the practice, ITE, Washington, cultural facilities, and large traffic generating
1999. services, close to important public transport

interchanges should also be part of the land-use But these concepts have many points in common
planning policies [17]. with the “organic urban planning” vision elaborated
in Italy at the end of the 60’s [19], and afterwards
Many cities implemented plans to reduce
developed at the University of Brescia, in the
automobile dependence: the key approach of urban
researches coordinated by Busi [20]. From the
planning on road safety is really reducing the need
beginning of the 90’s, Busi and his researchers have
for cars. In the United States, the New Urbanism has
developed the theme of “Living and walking in the
become the concept around which a lot of new urban
city”: the juxtaposition of these two verbs denotes
plans have been developed to reduce automobile
the vast and qualifying dimension which the city can
dependence [7]. New Urbanism is a movement that
claim when the “life” of its citizens is enhanced by
incorporate the need to expose car-dependent
the fact that they can walk, pleasurably and safely, in
assumption in town planning rules and fashions; it
it [20].
orients instead around a transit system and attempts
to create walking environments through denser, more The organic urban planning vision is based on the
mixed land use, house fronting streets with garage analysis of technical implications arising from the
behind, and other design quality. So, New Urbanism satisfaction of individual and social human needs.
is discovering how planning and design can better Starting from the features of the technical plants of a
incorporate less automobile-dependent land use, city (house, social services, shops, markets, schools,
particularly in the layout of streets and the hospitals, urban parks and open spaces, streets,
orientation of buildings to the street, as well as in technological networks,..) the model has the
density and mix activities. objective to satisfy the specific needs of the citizen
as an individual or as a social being, through the best
Some policies are considered the basis of
use of those facilities [21]. In this model the concept
overcoming automobile dependence [7]:
of neighborhood is very important and it is based on
1) Traffic calming: to slow auto traffic and create the criterion that the system of mobility for
more urban, humane environments better suited to excellence, for moving into the neighborhood, is
other transportation modes. It has the potential not walking.
only to lessen the direct negative impacts of road
So, priorities of the work of a local government
traffic, but to foster urban environments that are
must be the enhancement of urban life through the
more human and interactive, more beautiful and
possible exercise of mobility; and this exercise is
more economically successful due to the greater
possible if, and only if, it takes place in conditions of
social vitality possible in a city’s public spaces.
serenity and safety [3] [22].The places for
2) Quality transit, bicycling and walking: to pedestrians have to be designed and realized in close
provide genuine options to the car. An integrated connection with the public transport, since the
strategy to promote sustainable transportation modes pedestrian is its main user. This is the reason for
is necessary. which the transport planning must go hand in hand
with the urban choices, providing lines where
3) Urban villages and growth management: to
citizens live, work, and spend their free time [23].
create multimodal centres with mixed, dense land
use that reduce the need to travel and that are linked
to good transit. Density emerged as a major IV. THE CITY OF FREIBURG: AN EMBLEMATIC
determinant of automobile use. Many studies CASE STUDY
confirmed the exponential relationship between
A. Local Policies
transit ridership and density (both employment
density and residential density). As well as The case of Freiburg, in Germany, is of particular
reasonable densities it is important to have a mix of interest. Freiburg is a city of approximately 220.000
activities in urban development. An urban village inhabitants that in the last decades highly invested on
approach to urban development recognizes the need an integrated management of public transport, urban
to bring more community values into new and mobility and spatial planning, obtaining consistent
redeveloping parts of every area of the city and tries results. The example of Freiburg is emblematic
to bring greater walkability. The growth of urban because the municipality has adopted a continuative
villages provides an opportunity for an increasing large-scale strategic approach to transport and
number of urban residents to live a less car- environmental issues. The focus was first on
dependent lifestyle. improving road safety and public transport
accessibility and then evolved into strategic long-
4) Taxing transportation better: to cover external term policies and into innovative planning strategies
costs and to use the revenues to help build a for the implementation of environmental friendly
sustainable city based on the previous policies. neighbourhoods.

emissions levels. Moreover, the municipality has

adopted other policies following environmental
protection aims: to give an example suburban
hypermarkets are only allowed to sell bulky goods
(like furniture) in order to ensure access to basic
supplies within walking distances from residential
streets. The aim is to ensure access to basic supplies
and services within walking distances from the
residential areas [24]. This idea is not too different
from the one proposed by Vincenzo Columbo [19],
who foresaw the need of basic shops very close to
the dwellings, to guarantee an easy walking access in
about ten minutes.
Figure 2. Freiburg: Evolution of the Public Transport

total length in the last 20 years. Data source: Amt für
Bürgerservice und Informationsverarbeitung,
First of all, the municipality in cooperation with

Freiburger Verkehrs AG, the local public transport
company, has improved the public transport service.
The total public transport length increased from 203
to 311 kilometres in the last twenty years (figure 2).
The tram network has at the moment a total length of
36.4 kilometres and further line extensions are
planned, as showed in figure 3. Moreover the city Figure 4. Verkehrs AG passengers in Freiburg - Data
provides 415 kilometres of bicycle lanes and shows source: Amt für Bürgerservice und
sensibility towards cyclists’ requests. Informationsverarbeitung, Freiburg.
Which are the results of these integrated policies

in Freiburg? Above all, it is possible to note from
figure 5 that in the last five years the number of cars
decreased from 420 to 360 passengers cars per 1000
inhabitants. This is an important result if we consider
that the average value in Germany is at the moment
of 570 private cars per 1000 inhabitants.
Figure 3. Streetcar system in Freiburg (existing and

planned lines) Source: Hildebrandt [10].
The adopted fare system has also helped in rising

the number of public transport passengers, which has
grown from 45 to 73 million per year in the last 20
years (figure 4).
Figure 5. Freiburg: Evolution of the motorization
Since January 2010 Freiburg has introduced a rate in the last 20 years. Data source: Amt für
low emission zone, a clearly delimited urban area of Bürgerservice und Informationsverarbeitung, Freiburg.
28 km2 with a ban applied on vehicles with high

B. Recent Urban Developments The results are not only a drastic reduction in cars
In the last years two new residential areas have usage (and consequently a reduction of emissions
been developed in Freiburg following ecological and pollution) but also a great improvement in the
guidelines: Rieselfeld and Vauban. High levels of quality of life. Both in Vauban and in Rieselfeld the
sustainability characterize both the settlements level of motorization is lower than the average value:
through high population densities, a mix of land uses in 2008 in Vauban there were 167 cars per 1000
and an easy access to the public transport. inhabitants, while the value in Rieselfeld was of 290
cars/1000 inhabitants.
The implementation of Rieselfeld [25], which
covers an area of 75 hectares, begun in 1994 and in
2010 the district has provided about 4200 residential
units for approximately 10000 inhabitants. The
traffic system, based on an orthogonal street grid,
gives priority to public transport, pedestrians and
cyclists. The streetcar line forms the backbone of the
mobility through three stops and dwellings that are
all located within a walkable distance of 400 meters
from the stops. The maximum speed for cars is 30
km/hours and bicycles can run against the traffic
direction. Furthermore there are several "play
streets", where car drivers must adapt their behaviour
in order to let the children play in the street. The
district is offering a mix of housing and working
places, estimated in approximately 1000 jobs, to
minimize the demand of travel. Residential units Figure 6. Aerial view of the new Rieselfeld
mainly consist of multi-story dwellings with shared settlement, juni 2010. Source: www.rieselfeld.freiburg.de
courtyards and the quality of private and public
green spaces is high. The neighbourhood also
provides several facilities, like two kindergartens,
primary and secondary schools, a meeting centre and V. SOME CONCLUSIVE REMARKS
sport facilities.
The other recent district, Vauban [24] [26], is a The paper has presented some planning
nice example of a more incisive car-free living guidelines for the construction of safer and more
concept. The underlying idea was to build a sustainable cities.
neighbourhood where cars were not necessary for
daily activities. The construction began in 1998 over In the last 20 years, there has been a clear
an area of 38 hectares in the south of the city. The tendency towards backing away from traffic priority
master plan foresaw the building of 2000 apartments in a drift towards increasingly differentiating speed
for a population of around 5000 inhabitants. limits in urban traffic. There is every reason to use
the knowledge and experience we have acquired on
Like in Rieselfeld, a functional mix of housing traffic calming and speed management.
and working places (about 600) has been realized in Developments in recent years have shown that traffic
order to minimize trip lengths and services are all calming by using physical measures and design of
located within walking distances from the street space having regard for road aesthetics will
apartments. Densities are high enough to justify result in lower speed, increased safety and security,
good public transport infrastructures, with a high and improved urban environment, which provide the
frequency tram connection to the city centre. Non basis for a higher quality of life [12].
motorized mobility is highly encouraged and there is
a no car parking policy in residential streets. But simply speeding down the traffic by traffic
Residents must sign a declaration stating if they own calming measures will often be insufficient to reach
a car or not and if they have it, they must buy a the environmental qualities that are needed in a
parking place on multi-store car parks located on sustainable city [16]. It is necessary to co-ordinate
district edges: in this way families without cars don’t traffic planning with urban planning, since the city
have to participate in the costs related to the needs to be seen as a complex and interrelated entity.
construction of parking places, contrarily to what The example of Freiburg is emblematic in this
usually happens. Vehicles are allowed to enter the sense: first, they have sharply restricted car use in the
residential streets only for pick-up someone or to city. Second, they have provided affordable,
deliver goods and must observe walking speeds. convenient, and safe alternatives to car use. Finally,

they have strictly regulated development to ensure a [8] G. Dupuy, F. Bost, “L'automobile et son monde”,
Paris, Editions de l'Aube, 2000.
compact land use pattern that is conducive to public [9] C. Buchanan, “Traffic in Towns: a study of the long
transport, bicycling and walking [27]. The case of term problems of traffic in urban areas”, report of the
Freiburg shows clearly that there is a need of Steering group and Working group appointed by the
Minister of Transport, London: Her Majesty’s
integrated planning strategies in order to obtain stationery office, 1963.
lasting results and more liveable environments. [10] R. Ewing, “Traffic Calming. State of the practice”,
Administrations and technicians should take into ITE, Washington, 1999.
[11] P. Jones, N. Boujenko, S. Marshall, “A
account environmental issues already during the comprehensive approach to planning and designing
planning process and not try to realize isolated urban streets”, Association for European Transport,
interventions after. Urban and Transport planning 2008.
[12] N. Muhlrad, “A Short History of Physical Speed
must proceed together to propose innovative and Reduction Measures in European Urban Areas”,
always more integrated solutions. Proceedings of ICTCT Workshop on Traffic
Calming, Delhi, 2000.
Vauban and Rieselfeld are not the only European [13] K. Kjemtrup, L. Herrstedt, “Speed management and
examples of neighbourhoods designed following traffic calming in urban areas in Europe: a historical
view”, in “Accident analysis and prevention”,
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Sustainable transport, Woodhead Publishing,
strategies. Cambridge (UK), 2003.
[18] G. Nielsen, “Integration or segregation –
Current car-based travel patterns are recommendation of the principles of urban road
unsustainable. It is clear that “…the imperative is not network design for the sustainable city”, Association
only to switch to more sustainable forms of transport for European Transport, 2006.
[19] V. Columbo, “La ricerca urbanistica. Organica
(which include public transport) but for a large urbanistica”, Giuffrè, Milano 1965.
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“Living and walking in cities”, Brescia, 1994.
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Intelligence voyage planning for emission

lowering
Takis Varelas–Sofia Archontaki
Danaos Research Centre
Danaos Shipping Co LTD
drc@danaos.gr
Abstract— several decision support tools for resistance due to wind mar=f(Vw,d) (VS ,Vw:
optimization of fuel oil consumption and consequently correspondingly speed vectors of vessel and wind,
energy efficiency, that suggest the optimum route based d:ship draught) applies appropriate interpolation
on weather forecasts and hydrodynamic vessel data have techniques and return the values that are combined
been developed and evaluated some years ago. Weather
routing was an EC partially funded R&D innovative
to produce the lperformance index (tones/mile) for a
projects on routing based on weather forecasting given leg retrieving the weather variables for the
simulation of ship in a seaway. Danaos being participant defined waypoint (time and spatial coordinates).. In
in the project invested to apply the results implementing a the following figures typical screenshots of the
decision support tool for voyage planning to optimize performance monitor of developed vip@sea model
bunkering cost and moreover the is presented. The speeds as vectors (value and
emissionloweringfunction. During the evaluation period direction) and the corresponding l performance
different type of vessels (containers, tankers etc), and indexes are provided and the optimum speed is
clients (owners, managers or charterers) participated. emphasized.
The useful feedback of hundreds passages was analyzed
and system has been adjusted to be feasible., Functional The model may be formulated as follows:
specifications adopted, the concept has proven, the
importance of models integration with navigation  z  pim( x(, ), t ) w  {wd, sw, ww, cur},
z
expertise is signified, the key factors are identified and
the optimality against the least cost routing is proven. , Rt  RC (V )  f ( w )  foc   ( Rt , Ehp , V )
z z z
(1)
z
Paper is also focused on the theoretical hydrodynamic
model using neural networks as it has been developed
within the scope of EU IP Flagship project Where wd, sw, vw, cur define the wind, swell-
wave wind-wave and currents parameters
Keywords— Voyage optimization; Artificial neuron correspondingly, Ehp is the Engine horse power, RC
networks; control theory, Added resistance; Multikriteria
is calm water resistance, Rtz,, focZis the total
analysis
resistance, and the fuel oil consumption (tones/hour)
correspondingly in point z.
I. INTRODUCTION
Cargo transportation crossing ocean from

science point of view is considered as a typical case
of energy transformation. From operational point of
view is considered as process producing tonmiles
consuming among the others tones of bunkers.
Bunkering is the most substantial cost factor and at
the same time is the main cause of carbon
emissions. Hereafter any decrease of fuel Figure 1. Alternative performance monitor
consumption even less than 3% is significant.
Before any attempt for bunkering saving it should
be known the required bunkers in quantity and cost. II. OPTIMIZING THE SOLUTION
A build-in technical performance module gives
the answer. Based on the required technical and
A. All models are wrong but some are useful
hydrodynamic data (propeller and Main Engine
characteristics and diagrams, sea-trial information, A sea voyage is divided into passages. Each
booljean lines etc) utilizes several functions like passage is defined form its ends. These points are
Calm water resistance cwr=f(Vs), mean added identified by its spatial-time coordinates (x(φ, λ), t).

sr@sea:Danaos Performance Monitor Draught (m) 17

Current Wind Wave Swell
Weather data V(kn) (o) V (kn) D h(m) D T h(m) D T
0.6 170 20.2 SE 1.2 SE 2.8 1.5 E 3.4
observed data 0.2 150 15.1 SE 2 S 3.0 2.5 SE 4.1
o
Range V (kn) 14.1 14.3 ( ) 220 223
Resistance (tns) Engine FOC
Real data V (kn) (o) Rs Rw Rwv Rsw Rt rpm Pkw Tn/100nm
14.1 220 84.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 93.0 85 11588 14.54
221 84.0 3.8 1.8 3.2 92.8 85 11563 14.20
222 84.0 3.7 1.6 3.4 92.7 85 11550 14.20
Performance for 223 84.0 3.6 1.4 3.1 92.1 85 11476 14.00
the specific
14.2 220 86.0 5.0 3.0 2.2 96.2 85 11987 14.40
weather
conditions per V RL:14.4(85@12000) 221 86.0 5.0 2.8 2.7 96.5 85 12024 14.20
and direction 222 86.0 5.0 2.7 2.6 96.3 85 11999 14.00
223 86.0 5.0 2.6 2.5 96.1 85 11974 13.80
14.3 220 87.0 2.0 2.0 2.4 93.4 85 11638 13.20
221 87.0 2.0 1.8 2.3 93.1 85 11600 13.00
222 87.0 2.0 1.4 2.1 92.5 85 11526 12.90
223 87.0 2.0 1.3 2.5 92.8 85 11563 13.10
Indicative cost saving from worst scenario for 500 nm 2870 $
Figure 2. Performance monitor
For a given passage, there are alternate During the last years there are several
seaworthy routes providing on time arrival that operational research algorithms for cost
constitute a Heiseberg orbital. A route rj (t=>x)is a optimization for oceangoing passages. The dynamic
mapping of t (time) to x (position). For points in a (time depended) as well as the quanta attributes are
given route a performance index should be considered fundamentals. The most suitable
calculated. The calculated fuel oil consumption per approach is based on the “principle of optimality”
mile li to cover the distance S from point xi to xI+1 which states that:
as well as any possible deviation dvi for those
”an optimal policy has the property that,
points are used for the total fuel oil consumption
whatever the initial state and the initial decision,
focin tones per route. A dynamic (time depended)
the remaining decisions must from an optimal
program based on Dijiktra model finds the route
control strategy with the respect to the state
with the minimum total foc. The optimization
resulting from the first decision”
problem can be formulated as follows:
. r j O {r j  {xij | i  1 : n}}: foc  foc (r j ) Because of this principle, the number of
min
iterations can be drastically reduced. The
i 1
  (l ix( S  dvi ) (2) appropriate algorithm has been presented from
i ECWMF (Hoffschift 1999). An alternative
algorithmic approach by best-fitted function
Where Ois the orbital set of all the alternate definition as either polynomials or Euler-Maclauren
routes rj.Each route is defined by n ordered xijnodes numerically integrated b-splines may be applied
that are linked with the shortest path. And the taking into consideration the quanta nature of the
problem is to find the route with minimum fuel oil problem. During the evaluation period it found out
consumption as the summary of the foc of each leg that the problem has some important constraints that
that links two consecutive points plus the allow the algorithm improvement. Particularly
consumption of any deviation. Consumption per leg according the navigation practice:
is calculated as the product of the performance
 Vessel speeds belongs in a small range.
index (lj consumption per mile) by the sum of the
traveling distance and the overhead of the deviation Typically there are at most only 20 different
if any.
values.
B. The optimization algorithm  Speed vector change either on direction

and/or value cannot change more than 4
If a problem has more than one solution needs times per s per time.
resolution!

Based on the above the algorithm has been sailed from [58o 16’ N 8o 20’ W] with destination
improved expanding the optimality principleand the the Canal port at [43o 0’ N 65o 18 W].. It was found
problem is formalized as follows: that the suggested route avoids high resistance
especially on head of swell and with wind wave.
“In a two-dimensional surface (time, space) The next graph compares the fuel oil consumption
with given resolution each node has a particular distribution over the propulsion and added
value that depends upon on each next and prior resistances for both cases the actual and the
node. Find the route with the minimum additive optimum suggested route.
value of its nodes”
III. REALIZATION PHASE
A. Homeostatic adaptation in the real data is

required.
Besides by winds, waves and currents the FOC

performance index is influenced by trim, pitch, rpm
of propeller(s), the condition of hull and propellers
etc. So it is usual to have fluctuations between the
theoretical calculated index and the on-board real
measurement. Vessel may submit the related Figure 3. Actual and Suggested FOC distribution
measurements either in a email or by utilizing the
vip@sea model. The measurements are validated
and the theoretical module is adjusted to real The corresponding recap comparison table
conditions using neural networks. Hereafter the between actual and simulated seaway of
adjusted module provides most reliable advice. vip@seaissummarized as follows:
Finally it is important to underline the following
axiom.
TABELE I. RECAP COMPARISON TABLE
Variable Actual Opt Saving %
B. Axiom: Artificial intelligence can not solve low
structured level problems
Distance 2580 Nm 2317 Nm 263 Nm 10.2
Algorithms to find the best seaway for calm

weather conditions between any two waypoints that Duration 292h 157h52m 134h08m 45.9
avoids lands, restricted areas, war zones, draft 00m
limitations and navigation rules are not feasible. The
passage pattern must be defined by Captain and can Propulsion 244 Mt 333 Mt -89 MT 36.5
be verified easily and rapidly and will be used as
basis for closed alternative seaways. Searoutes
research team spent a lot of time and energy to Forces 280 Mt 85 Mt 195 MT 69.4
develop an artificial intelligence module providing
the short path route between two waypoints but it
should be considered indicative and in no case can Total FOC 524 Mt 418 Mt 106 MT 20.3
replace the route pattern planned by the navigation
officer.
Taking into consideration the weather factors and
the vessel behavior the optimum route reduces
IV. PROOF OF CONCEPT
the distance about 10%, more closed to GC,
substantially minimizes the en route time about
For the purpose of the FLAGSHIP project a
45% and reduces the total consumption about
typical case of weather routing advantage is
20.3 % despite the fact that FOC consumption
presented as proof of concept. A bulk carrier with
for propulsion is increased about 36.5 because of
draft 17m Engine power 25000 HP , max 91 RPM
higher speed

With 350$/MT IFO price and 66000 $ TCE Y are predicted, training data of Y are back
(Time Chartering Equivalent) the above figures can propagated and compared with corresponding
easily interpreted in terms of money as follows predicted values and optimum weight function is
adjusted to minimize the error prediction:
TABELE II. SAVINGS SUMMARY E =  (Yi – Vi) (3)

Cost Element Saving The new weight function is used in the next
observation and the repetitive training cycles are
Bunkering cost saving 37,100 $
finished when the prediction error is small.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Time cost saving 368,500 $
Intelligent voyage planning integrates sea
Total cost saving 405,600$ weather prediction, hydrodynamic theoretical
model, sea keeping data to provide support in
decision making focused on optimization of fuel
consumption protecting the environment lowering
Provided that fuel consumption is directly emissions.
proportional of carbon emission the consequent The impressive acceptance from the market
positive impact of environmental protection is assures its advantages. Of cource the provided
substantial and be easily measured. advice guarantees the betterment for the decision in
comparison of the related conventional but is not
considered the best. Further refinements may be
V. CALIBRATION USING FF ARTIFICIAL applied improving decision even better.
NETWORKS
The innovation the simplicity and the accuracy
The implemented weather routing model seems are also considered three key factors of the produced
to be the first integrated approach for voyage service.
planning that incorporates maritime expertise and REFERENCES
provides in-time with negligible communication
cost the required support for decision making. As it
was expected the real consumption data and the [1} Ship Routeing for Optimum Performance
[2} Transactions IME, Feb 1980, www.shipmotions.nl
calculated from the hydrodynamic model differed [3} J.M.J Journee and J.H.C Meijers / Delft University of
more or less with a systematic deviation. To Technology
overcome this deviation the model has been [4} Some economical aspects of the routeing of Ships
[5} Transactions IME, Feb 1980, www.shipmotions.nl
enriched with a feed forward back propagation [6} H.C Meijers / Royal Dutch Shipowners Association
artificial network with four input and one output [7} An approximate power prediction method
without hidden layer. [8} International Shipbuilding Progess, Vol 29 July 1982
[9} Holtrop J. and Menmen, G.G.J
Input variables are S, W, SW, WW: the vessel [10} Optimal Routing Decision Supportsystems.
[11} SNAME 1st Intl. Symposium on Ship Operations,
speed and, thewind, swell and wind wave speed Management, Economics
constituents in vessel direction respectively. The [12} Theodossiou D.K. and Grigoropoulos G. (2005)
output is the C (fuel oil consumption).. [13} Fuel Optimum Consumption
[14} HELMEPA Voluntary Education Program 2007
The applied method or weight assignment is [15} Takis Varelas / Danaos Shipping
[16} “Simulating Ship Motions in the Time Domain”,
quite simple recursive procedure and is based in the [17} Nikiforos Papadakis PhD Thesis,
known as “the training the network” process. [18} Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Initially a random weight function W is applied, the Cambridge, USA
[19} Bingham, H.B (1994).
first observation feeds in network values V of output

The Role of Aircraft Maintenance in Emission

Reduction
Ljubiša Vasov, Slobodan Gvozdenović, Petar Mirosavljević,
Olja Čokorilo, Branimir Stojiljković
Department of Air Transport and Traffic, Division of Aircraft
Belgrade, Republic of Serbia
lj.vasov@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— One of the main goals of sustainable

development, which is predicted for the next decade by I. INTRODUCTION
ACARE, is to reduce emissions. The ambitious goal of
reducing CO2 emissions by 50% and NOx by 80% with Together with the increasing problem of the
new types of aircraft by 2020 gives additional impulse to
the technological development of aircraft design, and can
global warming and the known greenhouse effect,
be achieved through improving the efficiency of aircraft the question of air traffic contributions in emission of
engines, ATM, and the use of alternative fuels. However, greenhouse gases and the possibility of their
taking into account the estimated growth in air traffic, reduction, is becoming increasingly topical. The
which is predicted to be doubled by 2017 by EASA, and greenhouse effect is closely related with the
the limited abilities of companies in renewing its fleet concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in Earth's
with new aircraft, there is the necessity of applying a atmosphere, as the inevitable product of the
rapid and concrete action on reducing emissions within combustion process of fossil fuels. According to the
the existing fleet. The identification of key items in the data specified in the Intergovernmental Panel on
maintenance of aerodynamic structure and engines which Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report (IPCC
can contribute to reducing emissions is done in the first
part of this paper. Performed ranking of critical areas
AR4), total CO2 aviation emissions is approximately
and maintenance tasks in terms of reducing CO2 2% of the global greenhouse emissions, and the
emissions indirectly by reducing fuel consumption is amount of CO2 emissions from aviation is expected
based on the empirical data presented by IATA, Airbus to grow around 3-4 per cent per year. The share of
Industrie and engine manufacturers. Expansion of the aviation in CO2 emissions not clearly highlights the
tasks of aircraft monitoring and scheduled maintenance impact of aviation activities on global climate
of aircraft is proposed in accordance with operational change. Compared to the other sources of
requirements and aspects of reducing emissions. The role greenhouse gases caused by human activity, aviation
of education and extension training of personnel engaged related emissions have a disproportionate amount of
in aircraft maintenance, to create awareness of their role impact on global warming. The main part of this
and potential contribution to reducing emissions is
perceived in the second part of this paper. Finally, the
impact is associated with emission at high altitudes,
authors point out the importance of motivating the where the effect of aircraft exhaust on global
airlines to take specific measures, and the importance of warming is two to four times greater than if the
coordination and simultaneous action of a large number exhaust were CO2 alone [1].
of small improvements in the area of environmental Therefore, one of the International Civil Aviation
protection. The scope of this paper belongs to sub-theme
of evaluating policies and measures in climate friendly Organization (ICAO) major environmental goals is
transport. This paper is a part of new research project to limit or reduce the impact of aviation greenhouse
"Environment management system framework respect to gas emissions on the global climate. Also, in order to
aircraft engine emissions and risk of aircraft accidents achieve significant progress in the reduction of
around airports in Serbia", supported by Ministry of aircraft emission, Advisory Council for Aeronautics
Science and Technological Development of Republic of Research in Europe (ACARE) set ambitious goal of
Serbia. reducing CO2 emissions by 50% per passenger
Keywords— aircraft emissions, airframe, turbofan kilometer with new types of aircraft by 2020. Taking
engine, maintenance, education into account the estimated growth in air traffic,
which is predicted to be doubled by 2017 by
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), and the
limited abilities of companies in renewing its fleet
with new types of aircraft, there is the necessity of

applying a rapid and concrete action on reducing characteristics is unavoidable, and includes the
emissions within the existing fleet. effects of different airframe defects, such as:
The findings related to aviation emissions [2]  Part Missing (PM)
indicate that medium-term mitigation for CO2
emissions can potentially come from the reduction of  Control Surface Mis-Rigging (CSMR)
fuel consumption. The reduction of fuel consumption  Absence of Seal on Movable Surface
is a complex problem that should include all (ASMS),
elements of civil aviation, which can be divided into
three main sections:  Surface Mismatch (SM),
 The influence of aircraft and engine  Skin Roughness (SR),
manufacturers, where the role of operators is  Missing Door Seals (MDS), and
limited in the area of the market demands and
the competitiveness of various  Dents or Blisters (DB).
manufacturers.
 Direct influence of operators, which is Basis of the further analysis of airframe condition
determined by actions and procedures, both influence on fuel consumption are data published by
in the fields of flight planning and its the International Air Transport Association (IATA)
realization, and aircraft maintenance. [4] and data presented by the aircraft manufacturer
Airbus Industrie [5] [6]. Data provided by IATA are
 The influence of air traffic environment, related to A320/B737 airliners, while Airbus
related mostly to the problems of Air Traffic Industrie's data are related to A300 and both are
Management (ATM), which is beyond the given for a typical aircraft annual utilization. Based
direct influence of system users and air on the data of fuel consumption increase expressed
carriers. in liters per year per airplane, the corresponding
values of fuel penalty given in percent are
Obviously, all the parts of aviation industry have determined (Fig. 1).
important influences on the reduction of fuel Considering the following deteriorations: for
consumption and aircraft emission. ICAO has 5mm surface mismatch, 5cm missing door seals,
recognized the need for harmonized action of all 10mm control surface mis-rigging, 80cm2 surface
segments in the problem of aviation emissions, and damage with a 5mm depth, and 0.3mm skin
based on Circular 303, ICAO has developed roughness over 1m2, according to IATA the overall
template and guidance for establishing voluntary increase of fuel consumption is 2.91%, while
agreements between different partners involved and according to Airbus Industrie the overall increase of
interested in emissions reduction. consumption is 2.96%. Thereby a satisfactory level
Important parts of this partnership are airlines, of data correspondence between IATA and Airbus
whose responsibilities among other are acceptance of Industrie sources has been confirmed.
technically feasible and available techniques and
strategies for improving aircraft fuel efficiency [3].
One of the methods for reduction of fuel 2.0
consumption and aircraft emission is related to IAT A Airbus
Fuel penalty [%]
prevention of aerodynamic and engine performance 1.5

deterioration through airframe and engine
maintenance. Thereby, the identification of key 1.0
items of the airframe and engine maintenance,
related to the reduction of fuel consumption is done 0.5
below in this paper.
0.0
PM CSMR ASMS SM SR MDS DB
II. AIRFRAME MAINTENANCE Figure 1. Influence of airframe defects on fuel

penalty
It is known that some of the losses in fuel
consumption are caused by the increased
aerodynamic drag of the aircraft, as a result of poor According to Fig. 1, the part missing factor
airframe condition. During normal and usual aircraft influence on the fuel penalty is dominant, and it may
operations, the deterioration of aircraft aerodynamic contribute with 50-60% to the overall fuel

consumption increase due to aerodynamic 70

deterioration, in comparison to the other airframe 60
IAT A Airbus
Share in ASMS [%]

defects. However, since the missing parts are
50
generally included in Configuration Deviation List
40
(CDL) and should be installed as soon as possible,
their cumulative effect on the total annual amount of 30
fuel penalty is significantly reduced. 20
10
Taking into consideration that the most of these 0
defects during the aerodynamic airframe inspection Slat Flaps&Ailerons Elevator
can be easily detected, the starting point in the
selection of primary maintenance measures is an
assessment of the influence of certain items to the Figure 3. Share in Absence of Seal on Movable
aerodynamic drag and increase of fuel consumption. Surface (ASMS).
Regarded from an aspect of processes that lead to an
unavoidable aerodynamic deterioration (wear and
tear, accumulation of dirt, external abrasive action),
whose effects can be completely or partially 50
removed through a regular maintenance process, 4 IAT A Airbus
Share in SM [%]
primary classes of defects are selected: control 40
surface mis-rigging, absence of seal on movable 30
surface, surface mismatch and skin roughness. These
20
defects together contribute with more than 40% to
the overall increase of fuel consumption due to 10
aerodynamic deterioration. 0
Passenger Front Cargo Door Nose Landing
Analyzing the primary classes of defects, the
Door Forward Gear Door
identification of items worthy for special attention in
airframe maintenance and their mutual share in
individual classes of defects is done (Fig. 2, 3, 4, and Figure 4. Share in Surface Mismatch (SM).
5). These items are: spoiler, slat, rudder, flap,
aileron, passenger front door, forward cargo door,
nose landing gear door and upper wing skin.
40 50
IAT A Airbus
Share in SR [%]
IAT A Airbus 40
Share in CSMR [%]
30
30
20 20
10
10
0
0 Upper Wing Lower Wing T ail Fuselage
Spoiler Slat Rudder Flap Aileron Skin Skin
Figure 2. Share in Control Surface Mis-Rigging Figure 5. Share in Skin Roughness (SR).
(CSMR).
The remaining forms of defects (missing door Based on the given influence level analysis of the
seals, dents or blisters) contribute to no more than airframe condition on overall aerodynamic
1.5% in the total effect of aerodynamic deterioration, a selection of airframe defects by type
deterioration. For example, according to Boeing the and position is done (Table 1). Positions which
skin roughness is 30-40 times more important for contribute with more than 30% in individual classes
fuel consumption, as compared to dents or blister. of defects are included there.
Furthermore, the absence of seal on movable The evaluation of potential contribution of
surfaces is 5-6 times more significant for fuel airframe maintenance, as a part of further assessment
consumption, in comparison to missing door seals. of CO2 emission, is based on data given by Airbus
Industrie. Based on a relative measure of the certain
airframe defects on estimated fuel penalty, it can be

concluded that in scope of the aerodynamic  Inspect the areas where can occur leak of
deterioration there are no individual items with a some liquids and dirt accumulation.
large impact on fuel consumption, i.e. CO2 emission.
However, the combined effect of multiple factors on  Provide consistent practice of aircraft
the overall result can be significant. For example, if washing, and pay special attention to the
it is assumed that an A300 aircraft is flown for 2000 cleanliness of wing leading edges and high
hours per year, with fuel saving of 0.53% due to lift devices.
better airframe maintenance, the reduction of CO2  Inspect the condition of leading edges of
emission would be about 170 tons per aircraft per wings, slats and flaps.
year.
 Inspect fairing installation and ensure high
aerodynamic smoothness in zone of forward
TABLE I. SELECTION OF AIRFRAME DEFECTS BY TYPE
fuselage, engine cowl and pylon, upper wing
AND POSITION
surface and empennage.
Airframe defect Estimated
Item fuel penalty
[%] Considering that most of these airframe defects
(Table 1) are self evident, the scope of the proposed
Spoiler 0.06 works allows their implementation in line
Mis-Rigging
Slat 0.06 maintenance and A check, according to aircraft
maintenance requirements.
Absence of Seal Slat 0.06
on Movable Similar recommendations and a general review of
Surface Flaps&Ailerons 0.13
airframe maintenance tasks are specified by aircraft
Passenger Front manufacturers (Airbus Industrie, Boeing), as well as
0.08 aviation organizations (IATA, ICAO). The basic and
Door
essential objective of these airframe maintenance
Cargo Door 0.04 tasks is the reduction or elimination of aerodynamic
Surface Mismatch
Forward
drag increase in all its forms.
Nose Landing 0.04
Door
Upper Wing Skin 0.06 III. ENGINE MAINTENANCE
Skin Roughness
Total 0.53 The operational use of aircraft engines is

accompanied with performance deterioration, which
Based on the previous analysis, a selection of is the main cause of increased fuel consumption.
primary airframe maintenance activities that should About 80% of degradation is the result of
be implemented in order to reduce the impact of deterioration in engine performance, while the
aerodynamic deterioration on fuel consumption is remaining 20% is the result of airframe deterioration
done: [7].
 Inspect the rigging and optimal position of The gradient of engine performance deterioration
spoilers, slats, rudder, flaps and ailerons. is not constant and usually decreases with the use of
engines. It depends on the engine type, annual
 Inspect the condition of the aircraft fuselage utilization, flight hour to flight cycle ratio,
and ensure best fit and fair of all doors and environmental conditions, take-off thrust reduction
outside access panel. method, previous shop visit work scope, and other
 Inspect the rigging and ensure best fit of the factors. Engine performance deterioration can be
landing gear bay doors. classified into three types [8]:
 Inspect all the flight controls and movable  recoverable (with cleaning and washing)
surfaces for spanwise and chordwise seal  non-recoverable (despite cleaning and
integrity. washing)
 Review pilot complaints for cabin and cargo  permanent deterioration (non-recoverable
doors, ensure door seals integrity and even after overhaul)
eliminate any sources of pressure leaks.

The major work for the retention of engine emissions. Performance losses increase with the
performance is performed at shop level maintenance. amount of contamination.
Depending on the engine work scope during the shop
The most accessible part of the engine gas path
visit, engine off-wing maintenance provides different
which has a strong impact on fuel consumption is the
levels of performance and Exhaust Gas Temperature
fan. Degradations in the fan and Low Pressure
(EGT) margin restauration. Although the major part
Compressor (LPC) inlet section, such as fan blade
of efficiency, reliabillity and performance retention
leading-edge erosion, excessive fan rubstrip wear
is designed into the engine, and restored into it at
and damage to the fan blades and compressor Inlet
shop visits, only a partial but important performance
Guide Vanes (IGV) can be easily detected by visual
recovery can be achieved during on-wing
inspection. If necessary, deteriorated components
maintenance.
can be repaired or replaced by routine maintenance
Different types of problems related to engine actions without removing the engine from the
components are causing engine performance aircraft.
deterioration [9]:
The first step in the analysis of influence of
 Lining loss in the High Pressure Compressor engine degradations on fuel consumption is based on
(HPC). the estimated fuel penalty data published by Pratt &
Whitney [6]. From the listed engine gas path
 Blade rubs – HPC, High Pressure Turbine components, which are presented with data on the
(HPT), airfoil blade erosion. estimated fuel penalties in gallons per engine per
 Thermal distortion of blade parts. year due to deterioration, selected are those that can
be repaired or replaced by simple maintenance
 Blade leading-edge wear. procedures (Fig. 7):
 Excessive fan rubstrip wear.  Fan airfoils dirt accumulation
 Contamination of engine components.  Fan blades leading edge erosion
 Loss of HPT outer air seal material.  Fan blades Foreign Object Damage (FOD)
 Leaking thrust reverser seals.  Low pressure compressor inlet guide vanes
 Environment Control System (ECS) leaks. FOD
 Failed–open fan air valves / Failed–open IDG  Excessive fan rubstrip wear
air-oil cooler valves. 50

Contribution to total [%]
Faulty turbine case cooling / Faulty 11th 40

stage cooling valves.
30
The major cause of performance loss in modern
turbofan engines is erosion, which changes the shape 20
and surface roughness of airfoils. Radial clearance 10
increase (RCI) between Blades and Vanes (B&V)
and their respective sealing surfaces, as well as RCI 0
between rotating/stationary seals, also lead to Erosion B&V RCI Seals RCI All others
performance deterioration. The contribution of these
causes to Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) is shown Figure 6. Primary causes of SFC deterioration in
in Fig. 6 [6]. modern turbofan engines
The most significant aerodynamic and
thermodynamic deterioration occurs inside the According to Fig. 7 more than 40% of increased
engine Gas Path (GP) and the largest engine fuel consumption on Pratt & Whitney JT9D-59A
performance retention and improvements can be engine is the result of dirt accumulation on fan
made within this area. During normal engine airfoils. Component damages caused by ingestion of
operations the accumulation of dirt on fan and foreign objects are usually removed soon after their
compressor airfoils is unavoidable and leads to a occurrence, provided that visual inspections are
reduction of compressive efficiency, flow capacity regularly and successfully performed. In that case,
and EGT margin. In addition to performance the impact of FOD on the increase of annual fuel
deterioration, contamination has an impact on engine consumption can be neglected, resulting with higher
operation through the reduction of time on wing, life share of dirt accumulation in the increase of fuel
of components and the increase of fuel burn and CO2 consumption between other items. In addition to dirt

accumulation, the remaining long-term causes of consumption such as engine systems, nacelle and
engine gas path deterioration are fan blade erosion cowling and ground run practices.
and fan rubstrip wear.
IV. THE ROLE OF FURTHER EDUCATION AND

EXTENDED TRAINING OF TECHNICAL STAFF
1.2
Fuel Penalty [%]
1
0.8 Many operators have already implemented
0.6
0.4 comprehensive performance deterioration
0.2 management programs, which include the issue of
0 fuel savings in terms of airframe and engine
FAN FAN FAN LPC IGV FAN
Airfoils Blades Blades FOD Rubstrip
maintenance. In addition, further education and
DIRT EROSION FOD WEAR training of technical personnel about the importance
of aircraft maintenance in terms of fuel savings
Engine Gas Path Item & Condition
should be an integral part of fuel consumption
management program. Ground personnel technical
Figure 7. Effect of gas path component’s training on performance and maintenance from the
deterioration on fuel penalty aspect of increasing the efficiency of aircraft and
their motivation regarding the reduction of fuel
Operators may choose to replace eroded fan consumption is one of the key stages in the
blades and fan case, but they usually practice development of fuel consumption control and
running their engines within acceptable erosion and management program.
wear limits due to high costs of component
replacements. However, a simple procedure that can Additional technical stuff training on the
be implemented on-wing at almost no cost is engine importance of aircraft maintenance for the purpose
water wash. of reducing fuel consumption should include all
technical departments and cover topics such as:
Engine water washing addresses engine
contamination and provides the best means of  identification of the processes that lead to an
restoring engine efficiency between shop visits. increased fuel consumption during normal
Operators are advised to conduct periodic on–wing operations,
engine washing in regular time intervals which can  the elements of aircraft monitoring program
ensure them with fuel economy and may bring up to and identification of negative trends,
1.5% SFC improvement [9]. Repetitive engine water
washes also have a positive effect on the EGT  methods and techniques which can contribute
margin and consequently on engine shop visit to savings and reductions of fuel
intervals. The resulting performance improvement consumption, etc.
varies depending on the degree and type of gas path
contamination. Since the contamination levels Maintenance stuff can significantly contribute to
depend on the aircraft’s operation and operating the potential expansion of existing maintenance tasks
environment, the optimum frequency of engine water and task cards by including additional maintenance
wash is operator-specific and must be individually actions directed towards fuel savings. The
determined based on the condition monitoring recommendations given on the scope and/or intervals
program. As a starting point, water wash can be of inspection, that do not overload the content of the
accomplished twice per year or when engine trends maintenance task cards, can be one of the key factors
in EGT indicate the need [6]. in the task cards modification. Certainly, any
Assuming that previously considered A300 changes must be carried out only within the current
aircraft is powered by two JT9D-59A engines, with approved maintenance program, otherwise special
regular on-wing engine washing only, operator can permission must be requested for them.
reduce up to 2% of burned fuel per aircraft annually. The changes in assessing the feasibility of use of
This amount of fuel savings would result with the recommended and not mandatory Service Bulletins
reduction of CO2 emission about 325 tons. (SB) is another aspect of training on fuel saving
In addition to engine gas path, there are other methods. The total cost of installing the
areas of interest to maintenance activities that could recommended items that the company would have,
have a positive impact on the reduction of fuel include not only the costs of purchase and
installation, but also the additional fuel costs due to
increased Operating Empty Weight (OEW) of

aircraft. Making the decision about the installation of purchases, but to re-examine how the airline operates
various operational supplements as recommended by and look for additional ways to reduce consumption.
service bulletins thus represents a compromise According to UPS Airlines, the result of several
between the actual needs and the total cost of operational measures, such as using one engine
operating the aircraft. during taxiing, using external electrical power
instead of aircraft's Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) and
Also, the training program should include the
slowing down flights to the most fuel efficient
elements that are specific for a given company
speeds is significant reduction of fuel consumption
business environment. Organizational aspect of the
and emissions. Such experiences indicate the
training program, class size, and further motivation
economic feasibility of introduction of the airline
of stuff in terms of personal involvement in the field
fuel saving department, whose costs can be covered
of fuel savings, should be a matter of policy and
by the economic effects of fuel costs reduction.
business operations of the airlines themselves.
Following the decisions made on the introduction of Not only the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) can
additional training program, it is necessary to have an important role in enabling of such changes
perform a detailed analysis of the scope, recourses in the organizational structure of airlines and
needed and the level of training according to the creating a positive climate, but certain government
needs of the airlines. organizations as well. A part of this relationship
which should be established, is proposed in the
One of the potential problems in the application
ICAO template and guidance on voluntary measures
of fuel saving program within the company is
[3] through voluntary agreement between industry
connected to the organizational aspects of its
(which represents individual or groups of airlines)
implementation. This problem can be successfully
and governments (which represents individual States
solved by the introduction of airline fuel saving
or groups of States).
department, whose main goal is the effective
implementation of fuel conservation program, with In order to achieve a significant progress in fuel
the following tasks: reduction, many airlines show initiative and make
efforts in the field of aircraft emission reduction. For
 preparation, proposal and development of the example, in 2003 Air Transat implemented a
fuel saving program in the company, comprehensive program of fuel conservation, which
 coordination of work between various included twelve saving measures related to
departments and monitoring the engineering, ground services, flight planning, flight
implementation of adopted fuel saving operations and catering. The results of implemented
measures, measures, which included airframe and engine
maintenance, were fuel savings of approximately 5%
 preparation of the flight and ground crew per year and a corresponding annual reduction of 5%
training courses on the performance and in the greenhouse gas emissions.
maintenance from the aspect of increasing the
efficiency of aircraft,
 update of recommendations issued by V. CONCLUSION
manufacturers and aviation organizations,
 elaboration of corporate fuel saving measures The forecasted growth in air traffic shows that
related to the specific business aviation activities are the fastest growing sources of
characteristics, CO2 emission in the scope of traffic and
 the creation of reports and continual transportation. This fact indicates the necessity of
recognition of the results, taking rapid and comprehensive measures to reduce
fuel consumption in order to slow the growth of CO2
 communication with aviation organizations, emissions related to aviation activity. One of the
exchange of experience with other available measures is proper maintenance of
companies, etc. airframe and engines in order to prevent the increase
in fuel consumption due to aerodynamic
The introduction of new similar position related imperfections and engine wear. It is shown that
to fuel conservation program, is not unfamiliar for simultaneous action on a number of items, with
some airlines. For example, in order to implement a small individual influence on reducing fuel
fuel conservation program, UPS Airlines has consumption and relatively small investments in
designated an airline fuel manager. The role of UPS expanding line maintenance tasks can significantly
reduce fuel consumption and CO2 emissions.
Airline fuel manager is not only to manage fuel

A very important factor in the reduction of fuel [2] IPCC, 2007, “Climate change 2007: Mitigation.
Contribution of Working group III to the Fourth
consumption is the harmonization of a various Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
operational opportunities, where the introduction of on Climate Change”, [B. Metz, O. R. Davidson, P. R.
airline fuel saving department might have a key role. Bosch, R. Dave, L. A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and
Also, the introduction of additional training of New York, NY, USA.
technical staff in the scope of application of fuel [3] ICAO, “Template and guidance on voluntary
savings tasks within the regular company business measures”, 2004.
[4] IATA, “Guidance material and best practices for fuel
practice creates the essential basis for achieving the and environmental management”, Montreal -
strategic goal of CO2 emissions reduction. Team Geneva, 2004.
work and comprehensive approach to the emission [5] Team of Airbus specialists from the Technical
Department, “Fuel Conservation Part 1”, FAST
problem, continuous training of technical staff, clear Airbus Technical Magazine, no. 1, 1983.
company’s motivation policy and creating awareness [6] Team of Airbus specialists from the Technical
about the importance of each individual contribution, Department, “Fuel Conservation Part 2”, FAST
Airbus Technical Magazine, no. 2, 1983.
may represent the key factors in the reduction of [7] M. Fueri, “Aircraft performance degradation”, 16th
aviation related emission. Performance and Operations Conference, Paris, May,
2009.
[8] M. Naeem, “Impacts of low-pressure (LP)
compressor’s deterioration of a turbofan engine upon
REFERENCES fuel-usage of a military aircraft”, The Aeronautical
Journal, January, 2008, pp. 33-45.
[9] Flight Operations Engineering, “Fuel Conservation”,
[1] World Business Council for Sustainable Boeing Commercial Airplanes, November, 2004.
Development, “Mobility 2001 - World Mobility at
the End of the Twentieth Century and its
Sustainability”, August, 2001.

Reduction of RTG cranes CO2 emission by

using hybrid technology
Nenad Zrnić Andrija Vujičić

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Shared service Directorate
University of Belgrade Dunav Insurance Company
Belgrade, Serbia Belgrade, Serbia
nzrnic@mas.bg.ac.rs avujicic@dunav.com
Abstract— This paper deals with growing interest for emissions can cause severe strain on air quality in
sustainable logistics and environmental condition local environments and so as terminals and ports
surrounding port terminals. In the paper are analyzed the expand to meet growing demand for larger volumes
effects of implementation of hybrid technologies in port of container throughput, proactive solutions must be
container machinery, such as RTG cranes, for reducing
the fuel consumption and carbon-dioxide emissions. In
designed into new terminal construction and
order to determent the efficiency of hybrid RTGs the life operating procedures. Thus, need to combat CO2
cycle assessment is conducted. emissions is more challenging, as the port authorities
need to find way to reduce overall emissions and at
Keywords— RTG crane; hybrid technology; port same time increase total number of container
terminal; life cycle assessment;
handlings.
The environmental protection and energy saving
are the central topics when designing container
I. INTRODUCTION terminals. So, having in mind the terminal needs
(higher throughput by increasing productivity,
Emissions from transport contribute to global improving dispatching and tracking, acquiring
warming in large scale, and it is increasing more than bigger equipment) and terminal challenges
any other fossil fuel dependant industry. With wider (reduction of costs, fuel consumption and emissions)
acceptance of concept of sustainable development, the various energy saving solutions for greener
struggle for reducing emissions from transport sector transportation have been pioneered in the past years
is ever more important. On the other side container [3].
transport industry is experiencing massive growth, Although the solutions for ports in green initiative
due to the boost of container shipments from China. are treated independently, the importance of
Container cargos have increased by more than seven lowering the port emissions is undoubting and is
times in the last 20 years and are forecast to more vital in sustainable intermodal transport. Generally,
than double up to 2015 [1]. there is no sense of lowering the emission of
Consequently, the growing container shipment container vessels, trains or trucks with out
industry, affects the growth of seaports and container optimizing congestions of ports and improving
terminals and corresponding cargo handling environmental performances of cargo handling
equipment (CHE) as well. The scale of above equipment [4].
mentioned growth is expected to reach its peak after
2025, additionally increasing share of container
handling in global CO2 emissions [2]. II. ENVIROMENTAL IMPACT OF CHE AND RTG
Additional load on ports and container terminals, CRANES
often leads to congestions. In order to combat
congestion treats, many port authorities and The container handling equipment, are powered
companies are pushing their port equipment beyond mainly via internal combustion engines or feed with
original specifications, or and paying a hefty cost for electricity from terminal. There for the CHE in
new equipment, that can be measured both in ports can be divided in following form [5]:
operation expense and increased environmental
impact. Such concentrations of equipment and Handling equipment powered with electricity
from terminal grid box:

- Quay Cranes are used to (un)load different terminal operations. The movement of steel and
types of ships. These electric cranes pick up a aluminium containers loaded with as much as 30
container directly on a tractor or automatic guided tons of cargo each is an energy-intensive function.
vehicle, or make the container ready for subsequent
In ports, most of CO2 emissions from diesel
transfer to a straddle carrier [5].
powered equipment are from yard tractors, due to
- Rail Mounted Gantry or RMG travels on rails their large population and high average operating
to lift and stack containers in the yard area. The hours. On the other side number of RTG cranes is
container is lifted by a spreader attached to cables. lower, but as downside they are powered with high
These cranes are driven by electrical power. fuel consumption diesel engines.
- Automated Stacking Cranes (ASCs) are RTG cranes are the main solution for moving
electrically-driven unmanned-cranes that put a intermodal containers from (yard tractor) to stacks
container into the stacking area or pick up a and back again in terminal yards. RTG cranes are
container from the stacking area or prepare them for possibly the world’s largest rubber tyred vehicle
a straddle carrier. with height up to 20m and weight over 150 tons.
Conventional RTGs are driven by electric motors
Container handling machines powered with
powered by large on-board diesel generation sets.
internal combustion engines:
RTGs poor inherent efficiency offers a good
- Yard tractors also known as yard trucks, are opportunity for energy costs saving improvements,
vehicles designed for moving cargo containers in Fig. 2.
ports yards, in appearance very similar to heavy-
duty on-road trucks,.
- Top handlers also known as top picks, are
used within a terminal to stack containers for
temporary storage and load containers onto and off
of yard trucks.
- Rubber tyred gantry or RTGs is a very large
mobile gantry crane which runs on rubber tires. This
container hadler is used to load and unload
containers from yard trucks or from stacks at a very
fast pace. Generally are powered by diesel
generators with power ranging from 150 kW to 750
kW.
- Container fork lifters are used to hoist and Figure 1. Emissions by Equipment Type for
transport empty cargo containers or stacked or Container Terminal [6]
palletized cargo, at both container facilities and bulk
cargo facilities.
- Reach stackers are the most flexible handling
solutions since they are able to transport a loaded or
empty container in short distances very quickly and
pile them in various rows depending on its access.
- Side Handler like the top handler, are used to
lift and stack cargo containers. A side handler looks
very similar to a top handler, but instead of grabbing
the containers from the top, the boom arm extends
the width of a container to lift it from the side. Side
handlers are most often used to lift empty
containers.
Figure 2. Cost per container movement on terminal
[3]
The combustion of fossil fuels by terminals’
diesel-powered cargo handling equipment is the
single largest source of air pollution caused by

TABELE I. CONVENTIONAL 40 TON RTG CRANE EMISSIONS [7]
Conventional RTG crane emissions

Period/Impact Fuel consum. CO2 NОx SO2 HC PM
Per hour 28 l 72,8 kg 0,33 kg 0,086 kg 0,12 kg 0,045 kg
Monthly 11.760 l 30.576 kg 139 kg 36 kg 51 kg 18,9 kg
Annual 141.000 l 367 tones 1.660 kg 430 kg 620 kg 227 kg
Although diesel engine provides movement

autonomy, it is responsible for significant level of III. HYBRID ECO-RTG CRANES
CO2 emissions. With average fuel consumption of
20 to 30 l/h, and more than 14 operational hours per A recent increasing environmental concern,
day it is easy to calculate that daily emission of CO2 including reduction in energy consumption and CO2
of RTG crane exceeds 1.2 tons. Having in emission, questions the powering of cranes with
consideration that conventional RTGs engines are diesel generator sets. Instead, the port equipment
fueled with high sulphur diesel, to daily industry has developed a variety of technologies and
enviromental impact 6,3 kg of NOx, 1,7 kg of HC, systems, for lowering fuel consumption and
1,2 kg of SO2, and 0,7 kg of PM can be added emissions, from VSG (Variable Speed Generator),
(Table 1). ECO-RTG hybrid cranes with regenerative breaking
and all-electric models powered from a grid terminal
Beside the weight burden, the inefficient work of
box and also alternative fuel solutions.
conventional RTG cranes lays is fact that large on
board diesel engines (with displacement of more The use of alternative fuels such as CNG
than 12.000 ccm and power of 400 kW) works in (Compressed Natural Gas), LPG (Liquid Petroleum
constant rpm mode. Most of time, the engine works Gas), or biodiesel for RTG cranes, is not very
at speed required for achieving maximal power, common solution, although it solves problems of
when the fuel consumption and smoke production is emissions of NOx, SO2 and particles. On the other
at the highest level. On the other side the real need side, an all-electric E-RTGs could be very good
for maximal power is only when the container is solutions for port authorities, but at present is less
hoisted, while in any other operation high engine popular due to restrictions in mobility of cranes,
speed is energy waste and unnecessary engine wear amount of time and money necessary for
(Figure 3). installation, which would could stall port operations
for certain period.
Despite the fact that E-RTGs are advertised as
zero-emission handling equipment, such machines,
vehicles or device does not exist. Powered with
electricity from terminal, E-RTG cranes requires at
least 20 kWh/h, which equals of 13 kg of CO2
(Calculated over the entire life cycle of a power
plant and measured with German power supply mix
of 640 g/kWh ). In case where the power supply
comes from plant burning brown coal the score
worsens to 26 kg of CO2 per E-RTGs operational
hour. Of course, in scenario of “green-powered”
terminal where environmental conditions offers
opportunity for installing electricity-generating wind
turbines as in port of Rotterdam [9], emissions of E-
RTG would be less then 1 kg of CO2 per operating
Figure 3. RTG Power spectrum [8] hour. Despite of unquestionable advantages of E-
RTG cranes the fact that they still use diesel engine,
for block changes and maintenance, the overall CO2
reduction compared to conventional RTGs is at level
of 70%.

At present, global trend for RTGs is more on [7], and with energy recuperation device installed in
hybrid technology, rather then electrification. hybrid RTG it is stored it in uultra capacitors.
According to the experiences of ports that made
Ultra Capacitors, or super capacitors or electric
conversion from conventional to hybrid RTGs and
double-layer capacitor (EDLC), is an
data from crane companies, the hybrid crane
electrochemical capacitor with relatively high
solution enables a reduction in fuel consumption and
energy density. Compared to conventional
greenhouse gas emission of RTG cranes from 40%
electrolytic capacitors the energy density is typically
up to 70% (even 74% fuel savings during first active
on the order of thousands of times greater [10]. In
duty tests) and this is achieved by replacing the on-
comparison with conventional batteries or fuel cells,
board diesel generator power plant with hybrid
EDLCs also have a much higher power density.
crane ultra cap generator sets hybrid system.
The hybrid system will store the energy during
container lowering (traditional RTGs burn off into
the atmosphere by resistor banks the energy
generated during container lowering) and reuse it for
further efficiency. The new system is designed for
simple installation of energy storage devices such
Ultra Capacitor banks which can store the energy
released when lowering the container.
In this system diesel generator can be smaller
than conventional diesel generator and a lead-acid
equipped energy storage system. It can be used as a
replacement for existing generator set as well as
being installed on new crane equipment. RTG
traditional generator sets are usually sized much
larger than the peak power demand from the load, in Figure 4. ECO-RTG Regenerative braking [3]
order to maintain sufficiently stable voltage supply
for the electric motor drives. However, peak power
itself is sparsely used for lifts and fuel consumption
does not follow the same path.
IV. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF RTG CRANES
The hybrid RTG crane solution enables to shrink
the generator set rating to the average demand and
significantly trim down the fuel costs. During the Promises of ecological efficiency and fuel saving
load lifting the system spends energy, while during potential of hybrid ECO-RTG given from
the load lowering the system reclaims energy, Fig. equipment manufacturer were not taken for grant,
3. The hybrid crane ultra caps provide the but tested through life cycle assessment (LCA) and
complementary power that adds up to the generator life cycle costs (LCC). The purpose of this study
set power needed to achieve peak power (capacity to was to determent the environmental impact of entire
level the power provided by the prime power source life cycle of both conventional and hybrid RTG
to the average demand). This is also a reservoir that cranes.
recuperates the energy regenerated (an average of For assessment of environmental impact of diesel
70% of the energy when hoisting containers down) powered container equipment several methodologies
by the hoist drive when the load is hauled down. could be used. Although there is direct relation
Finally, the recycled energy enables the reduction of between burning 1l of diesel fuel and 2,65 kg of
fuel consumption. With this option it is possible to CO2 emission (where diesel density is 830-850
use concept of „downsizing“, at install smaller more kg/m3 at 15◦С), this approach was not used [11].
fuel efficient diesel engine. Тrend of „downsizing“,
widely accepted in automotive industry, could be More reliable method which gives exact relation
used for this purpose. between certain product and environmental impact
is LCA. Life Cycle Assessment modelling is used to
The power and requirements of RTG cranes used estimate emissions from entire life cycle, enabling
for unloading shipping containers are highly suitable comparisons of all phases of RTG cranes. Increasing
for a hybrid application, because frequent lifts attention has been paid to this technique in the field
require short bursts of power and most of the energy of estimating impact of production stage, since the
is regenerated when the container is hoisted down. hypothesis is made that environmental impact in
The gravitational potential energy of fully loaded 40 production phase of hybrid RTG cranes is
ton container and spreader is approximately 2 kWh significantly larger, then benefits in use phase,

which eventually can not compensate for initial

negative effects. This presumption is made on fact
that environmental impact of batteries (lead acid
based) in hybrid vehicles are significant, and that
this will be the case with ultra caps and hybrid
RTGs. However, since LCA is an attempt to assess
environmentally harmful effects over long periods
of time, some generalisations of certain scenarios
had to be maid. Figure 6. System borders “Gate to grave” [7]
Research using LCA method was made based on
rules of ISO 14000 standards. The assessment of
three RTG cranes is made. First assessment of With assessment “gate to grave”, the
conventional RTG with out any fuel saving or environmental impact of RTG cranes was
emission lowering devices, second of hybrid RTG determined, in which for operational life of
with standard diesel engine propelled with high equipment period of 30 years with 150.000 working
sulphur diesel, and third hybrid RTG crane with hours is calculated. In this phase impact of RTGs
exploitation was determined, where emissions CO2
downsized highly efficient diesel engine with
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system which to environment were significant point. For hybrid
runs on low sulphur fuel. RTG cranes, major reduction of green house gases
(GHG) is proven, additionally expressed for crane
The life cycle assessment was made using state- with downsizing engine and SCR catalytic system.
of-the-art software packages and base on impact
assessment method CML Centrum voor Finally, life cycle costs evaluation was made, in
Milieukunde Leiden and TRACI Tool for the order to find relation between ecological and
Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and other environmental efficiency of hybrid technology.
environmental Impacts. LCA was divided in two Also, the goal was to determent period necessary for
parts: Return on Investment (ROI) for hybrid installation.
1. „Cradle to gate“ Results were divided base on system boundaries

and impact assessment method of CML and TRACI.
2. „Gate to grave“ After, the results of “cradle to gate” and “gate to
In first part of assessment impact of pre- grave” assessment are summed up; the results of
production and production phase of RTG cranes is entire life cycle were given.
determent. Expected high impact of hybrid system In first phase of cranes production, it was
components is not confirmed. Totally opposite, determined that major impact is consequent of
impact on environment of production of crane is electrical energy consumption for manufacturing
very low and from cut-off criteria stand point can be process. In this case, impact was intermediate
disregarded. emission from power plant, and main impact was
The negative impact of production of ultra caps global warming potential (GWP).
is not determined, because this energy saving From this stage, only comparison results between
system is base on carbon rather than metal (lead, conventional and hybrid RTG cranes with standard
nickel). The dominant issues in production phase of engine are presented. Differences in environmental
hybrid installation are economical costs of device. impact of standard engine and downsized one can be
disregarded.
Results show, that impact of production of
conventional RTG is more environmental friendly
than hybrid one, but only for 5%, measured with
GWP. Other impacts such as Human Toxicity
Potential (НТР), show greater differences in favor
of conventional RTGs, but still at acceptable level.
The entire picture of environmental impact of this
container equipment, gives the assessment “from
gate to grave” (table). In this phase fuel
consumption and thus CO2 emission is main impact.
Figure 5. System borders “Cradle to gate” [7]

TABELE II. LCIA OF RTGS “CRADLE TO GATE” [7]
Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) of RTG cranes

CRADLE TO GATE
Impact assessment method: Conventional Hybrid
CML2001 Dec.2007 RTG crane RTG crane
Acidification Potential (AP) [kg SO2-Еq.] 549,16 551,52
Eutrophication Potential (EP) [kg Phosphate-Еq.] 42,73 43,01
Freshwater Aquatic Ecotoxicity Pot. (FAETP) [kg DCB-Еq.] 143,74 144,96
Global Warming Potential (GWP 100 yrs) [kg CO2-Еq.] 335.830,77 350.533,44
Human Toxicity Potential (HTP inf.) [kg DCB-Еq.] 8.373,01 14.374,16
Ozone Layer Depletion Potential (ODP) [kg R11-Еq.] 0,00 0,00
Photochem. Ozone Creation Potential (POCP) [kg Ethene-Еq.] 29,71 29,71
Terrestric Ecotoxicity Potential (TETP inf.) [kg DCB-Еq.] 290,84 1.712,00
Global warming potential is significant point, In comparison of conventional and hybrid RTG
along with acidification and eutrophication crane with downsized modern diesel engine with
potential. Also the summer smog is POCP is SCR catalytic system, GWP is lowered by 60% and
present, but at smaller scale. costs are lowered by 40%.
Finally the “cradle to grave” results were Comparing two hybrid RTGs, the trend of equal
presented, where significant point remains global ecological and economic benefits changes. The
warming potential. crane power with state-of-the-art Euro 5 diesel
engine has GWP lower for 30%, and improved
Life cycle costs show that economical benefits
emissions of NOx, and particle mater, but higher
are closely related with ecological efficiency, expect
operating const for 15% due to usage of Ultra low
in comparison of two hybrid RTG cranes. Financial
sulphur diesel (see Fig. 8).
investments in hybrid RTGs are greater than for
conventional, but ROI is approximately one year, Level of ecological efficiency is followed with
which can be rated as very good investment. economical to 55%, while for further improvements,
need for addition investments is greater, as the costs
If GWP of conventional and hybrid RTGs with
are higher. In this review economical values of
standard diesel engine is compared, СО2 emission is
environment were not taken and costs of every kg of
40 % lower, or reduction from 12.000 tons to 7.200
CO2 emitted to environment since this would
tons, with cost reduction of 53%. In this case,
significantly expand area of research.
economic benefits are slightly higher than
ecological.
TABELE III. LCIA OF RTGS “GATE TO GRAVE” [7]

"Gate ot grave"
Impact assessment method: Conventional RTG Hybrid RTG Hybrid RTG
CML2001 Dec.2007 crane crane crane SCR
Acidification Potential (AP) [kg SO2-Екв.] 156.870,85 93.808,77 62.748,34
Eutrophication Potential (EP) [kg Phosphate-Екв.] 27.027,02 16.162,16 10.810,81
Freshwater Aquatic Ecotoxicity Pot. (FAETP) [kg DCB-Екв.] 1.159,49 693,38 463,80
Global Warming Potential (GWP ) [kg CO2-Екв.] 12.003.506,60 7.178.096,95 4.801.402,64
Human Toxicity Potential (HTP inf.) [kg DCB-Екв.] 254.725,23 152.325,69 101.890,09
Ozone Layer Depletion Potential (ODP) [kg R11-Екв.] 0,00 0,00 0,00
Photochem. Ozone Creation Potential (POCP) [kg Ethene-Екв.] 16.722,87 10.000,28 6.689,15
Terrestric Ecotoxicity Potential (TETP inf.) [kg DCB-Екв.] 131,99 78,93 52,80

TABELE IV. TABLE. 4. LCIA OF RTGS “CRADLE TO GRAVE” [7]

CRADLE TO GRAVE
Impact assessment method: Conventional Hybrid RTG Hybrid RTG
CML2001 Dec.2007 RTG crane crane crane SCR
Acidification Potential (AP) [kg SO2-Еq.] 157.420,01 94.360,29 63.299,86
Eutrophication Potential (EP) [kg Phosphate-Еq.] 27.069,74 16.205,17 10.853,82
Freshwater Aquatic Ecotoxicity Pot. (FAETP) [kg DCB-Еq.] 1.303,24 838,34 608,76
Global Warming Potential (GWP 100 years) [kg CO2-Еq.] 12.339.337,37 7.528.630,39 5.151.936,08
Human Toxicity Potential (HTP inf.) [kg DCB-Еq.] 263.098,24 166.699,85 116.264,25
Ozone Layer Depletion Potential (ODP) [kg R11-Еq.] 0,00 0,00 0,00
Photochem. Ozone Creation Potential (POCP) [kg Ethene-Еq.] 16.752,58 10.029,99 6.718,86
Terrestric Ecotoxicity Potential (TETP inf.) [kg DCB-Еq.] 422,82 1.790,93 1.764,80
Figure 7. System borders “Gate to grave” [7]
Figure 8. System borders “Gate to grave” [12]

the crane and engine industry to make transition to

V. CONCLUSION
high efficiency units, already in use in road trucks.
On the other side the LCA method in era of
Increase of intensity of container industry and
sustainable development, proved to be significant
need for lowering the environmental impact of ports
tool for assessment of efficiency of modern hybrid
and cargo handling equipment, resulted in
technologies. Since focus was on hybrid RTGs
appearance of technological solutions for reducing
analysis and determination of enviromental
the CO2 emissions. From entire handling equipment
efficiency, LCA provided this study with valueble
of ports, RTG cranes, have significant share in
data that includes emissions from exhaust and
overall CO2 emission, and represent solid base for
production of fuel, (useful for comparison of high
improvement. One of these technological solutions
and sulphur diesel engines), but also includes
is hybrid system developed for RTG cranes.
emissions from the construction and crane
In cases where electrification of RTGs is not manufacturing. The LCA is applicable for furher
practical solution due to terminal configuration and comparision of RTG systems using the same
ports congestion, the best possible tool for combat criteria. Thus, to in order compare new sistems in
with CO2 emissions, are hybrid systems for handling long term the best way is to use Life Cycle
equipment. As reduction of CO2 has become more Assessement.
important and possibly regulated by law, number of
hybrid ECO-RTG cranes in use will increase. REFERENCES
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SESSION B
Policy Interventions in climate
friendly transport
Policy Interventions in Climate Friendly Transport
Optimization of trips to the university: a new

algorithm for a carpooling service based on
the Variable Neighborhood Search
Maurizio Bruglieria, Tatjana Davidovicb, Sanja Roksandicb

a
Dipartimento INDACO - Politecnico di Milano,
Via Durando 38/A, 20158 Milano, Italy
b
Mathematical Institute – Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts,
Kneza Mihaila 36
Belgrade, Serbia
Abstract— A promising policy intervention for service is to find an optimal matching between the
reducing the negative transport impact on the climate is users and their preferred routing in such a way that
given by carpooling. The carpooling consists in a shared spontaneous user matching is substituted by a
use of private cars. Typically it is organized by a large solution found by means of an algorithmic approach
company for encouraging its employees to pick up
colleagues while driving to/from work to minimize the
[1, 2, 4, 9, 11,12].
number of private cars travelling to/from the company From the matching algorithm point of view, the
site. In this work we consider the special case where carpooling problem was first proposed and studied
users are university students. The core of the efficient in [4] and later in [1]. The problem considered in [1,
management of such a service is to decide an optimal 4] consists in defining the subsets of users that will
matching between the users and their preferred routing.
The objectives are to maximize the number of served share each car and the paths the drivers should
users, minimize the total route length, maximize the follow, so that sharing is maximized and the sum of
satisfied user preferences, respecting the user time the path costs is minimized. The authors of [1, 4]
windows, possible partial pre-arranged pools and car mostly deal with online schemes, i.e. when the
capacities. To deal with this problem we propose a schedule of future arrivals of participants is not
Variable Neighborhood Search (VNS) approach and we known. Moreover, [4] discusses a few elementary
apply the method on real instances of Politecnico di schemes for choosing a driver each day, highlights
Milano and Università statale di Milano universities. their flaws in terms of fairness and/or robustness
and propose a scheduling algorithm which is fair.
Keywords— Carpooling, time windows, user
preferences, Variable Neighborhood Search Litterature also distinguishes two main ways of
operating the carpooling considering the Daily Car
Pooling Problem (DCPP) and the Long-term Car
Pooling Problem (LCPP). In DCPP, considered e.g.
I. INTRODUCTION in [2], each day a number of users (servers) declare
their availability for picking up and later bringing
Carpooling is a promising policy intervention in back colleagues (clients) on that particular day. The
climate friendly transport since it aims to decrease problem is to assign clients to servers and to identify
the number of circulating cars and by consequence the routes to be driven by the servers in order to
their total air pollution emissions. In such a way, not minimize service costs and a penalty due to
only the air pollution is reduced, but also the street unassigned clients, subject to user time window and
congestion and consequently the passenger travel car capacity constraints. In LCPP, considered e.g. in
times. [7, 9], each user is available both as a server and as
It consists in a shared use of private cars. a client and the objective is to define pools where
Typically it is organized by a large company for each user will in turn, on different days, pick up the
encouraging its employees to pick up colleagues remaining pool members. The objective here
while driving to/from work to minimize the number becomes maximizing pool sizes and minimizing the
of private cars travelling to/from the company site. total distance travelled by all users when acting as
The core of the efficient management of such a servers, again subject to car capacity and time
window constraints.

The authors of [2] propose both an exact and a possible partial pre-arranged pools and car
heuristic method for the DCPP based on two integer capacities. The university carpooling problem has
programming formulations of the problem. The been proposed for the first time in [8] and tackled
exact method is based on a bounding procedure that with a Monte Carlo algorithm in [3].
combines three lower bounds derived from different
In this work we propose a more sophisticated
relaxations of the problem. A valid upper bound is
solution approach based on Variable Neighborhood
obtained by the heuristic method, which transforms
Search (VNS). VNS [5, 6, 10] is a simple and
the solution of a Lagrangean lower bound into a
effective meta-heuristic for solving combinatorial
feasible solution. A complete system for supporting
and global optimization problems based on a
the operation of a DCPP as a prototype for a real-
systematic change of neighborhood within a
life application is described in [12]. The service is
possibly randomized local search algorithm. The
supported by a database of potential users
proposed approach is to be tested on real instances
(employees of a company) that daily commute from
of Politecnico di Milano and Università statale di
their house to their workplace. A subset of them
Milano universities arising from the PoliUniPool
offers seats in their cars. Moreover, they specify the
project [3, 8] .
departure time (when they leave their house) and the
mandatory arrival time at the office. The employees The paper is organized as follows. The second
that offer seats in their cars are named servers. The section gives the problem description and notation.
employees asking for a lift are named clients. The The third section describes our VNS approach to
set of servers and the set of clients need to be deal with the university carpooling. The forth
redefined once a day. The authors of [12] propose a section show some numerical results on small size
constructive heuristic based on the computation of a instances as an illustration of solution
regret for each client i given by the difference of the transformations to be applied to real instances
length paths between the two servers which have the arising from the PoliUniPool project. Finally, the
least and the second least ―extramile‖ when pick up last section is devoted to concluding remarks.
client i. The construction algorithm tries to assign
each client to its closest server, considering clients
in order of decreasing regrets and the solution found
is improved by the way of a local search algorithm. II. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
A. Notation and Time Windows Constraints
In [7, 9] an ant colony optimization meta-
heuristic for the LCPP is proposed. Whereas [11] For each user i, the following data/information
proposes a bee colony optimization meta-heuristic are given:
and test it in a real case with 97 traveler in Trani, a
1. The role of this user (does he/she acts as a
small attractive city in the south-east of Italy, to
driver, passenger or is available for both
Bari, the regional capital of Puglia.
roles, i.e. mixed user);
In this work we consider the special case when
2. Does this user wants participate for one way
the users are the students of a university. This case
trip only (either from home to university or
differs from the carpooling problems considered in
vice versa) or for both way trips. In the latter
the literature mainly for the following
case the user may specify that the
characteristics:
satisfaction of both ways trip is mandatory
 the users (students) can have very different for its participation to the carpooling;
timetables (depending on the classes attended); 3. User’s origin Oi and destination Di ;
 drivers are able to set partial pre-arranged crews;
 users may indicate other users they would prefer 4. A time window [Timin , Timax ] , where Ti min
to car-pool with (friends) or they don’t want to represents the earliest departure time from
(enemies); Oi, and Ti max represents the latest arrival
 besides the campus premises, users can select –
as destination of their car pooling trips – the main time to Di;
railway and subway stations (to encourage the 5. In case when user acts as a driver, it can
use of more environmental friendly means than specify a possible partial pre-arranged pool
cars). (his/hers friends that should be always
included into the same pool);
The objectives are to maximize the number of
served users, minimize the total route length, 6. A possible list of friend users and/or enemy
maximize the satisfied user preferences (e.g. users.
friendships), respecting the user time windows,

3) two enemy users cannot be in the same pool;

T min
p Tdmin T max
p T
d
max
4) car capacity is not exceeded;
5) time windows constraints of all users in the
same pool are satisfied.
B. The Objective Function

In the carpooling problem different criteria for
the evaluation of feasible solutions are involved.
Each criterion is measured by calculating some
Figure 1. Time windows for passenger p and driver d indicators associated with it. Each indicator is
usually expressed according to its own units, and
The time windows for a passenger p and a driver therefore we have to perform a normalization to
d are illustrated in Fig. 1. We say that the time associate a utility function to each of them. This
window [T pmin , T pmax ] for a passenger p, with origin utility function relates the indicator values with
dimensionless values expressed in a scale (between
Op and destination Dp, is compatible with that one two extremes, usually 0 and 1) representing the
[Tdmin , Tdmax ] of a driver d, with origin Od and corresponding level of satisfaction. The lower and
destination Dd, if the following inequalities are upper bounds respectively show the maximum
satisfied: "dissatisfaction" and maximum "satisfaction" for the
alternative with respect to that indicator.
Tdmin  t1  t2  min{Tpmax , Tdmax  t3}

Od td
(1)
t1  t2  t3  MaxLosd td (2) Dd
t1
max{Tpmin , Tdmin  t1}  t2  t3  Tdmax OP t3
(3) t2 DP
Figure 2. Detour of a driver d satisfying the request of a

where (see Fig. 2) td is the duration of the shortest passenger p
path from Od to Dd , t1 is the sum of the duration of The overall objective function OBJ, is given by
the shortest path from Od to Op with the maximum (4) and consists of the weighted sum of five utility
driver waiting time (possibly also equal to 0), t2 is functions with non negative weights λi with sum
the duration of the shortest path from Op to Dp and t3 equal to 1.
is the duration of the shortest path from Dp to Dd.
Moreover, MaxLoSd represents the maximum OBJ = λ1 KB + λ2 MC + λ3 LOS + λ4 PREF +
relative travel time (with respect to td) that we λ5 HIST
suppose acceptable by driver d.
In analogous way are obtained additional (4)
constraints to guarantee the time windows
compatibility of further passengers. We used the following five utility functions:
1. Kilometer Benefit (KB), the saving obtained on
A feasible solution for the university carpool the total length covered by the carpooling
problem is a collection of disjoint pools, where each users with respect to the total length covered
pool is a sequence of users satisfying the following without carpooling.
conditions: 2. Matching Coefficient (MC), the ratio between
1) in each pool there must be at least one driver or the total served users and the total users
mixed user; requiring the carpooling service.
2) each pool contains at least two users;

3. Level of Service (LOS) measures the average

path lengthening of all the served users with   HM
vP i , j v
ij
respect to their minimum path. HIST  (9)

4. User preferences (PREF) measures the
 n (n  1)
vP
v v
friendship preferences of the users.

where HM is the ―historicity‖ matrix for the
5. Pool Historicity (HIST) measures how many considered period of T days. The element HMi,j is
times users matched in the current pool were in the ratio between the number of times that user i and
the same pool also over a certain period. j have been inserted in the same pool over that
period and T.
The Kilometer Benefit utility function is given by The main goal is to find a feasible solution which
(5) maximizes the value of the objective function.
ni  KMCPi 

1
KB  1  
| P | iP ni  1  KMAi 
where P is the set of all pools formed, ni is the III. VARIABLE NEIGHBORHOOD SEARCH
vehicle capacity used in the i-th pool, KMAi is the APPROACH
total length covered by the users of i-th pool before
using the carpooling whereas KMCPi is the total
length covered by the same users using the
A. Variable Neighborhood Search Overview
carpooling service.
Meta-heuristics represent general frameworks to
The Matching Coefficient is given by build heuristics for solving different combinatorial
| RS | optimization problems. They represent very
MC  powerful tools for finding the good solutions within
| RT | a reasonable execution time. Its usefulness is even
(6) more significant when dealing with large size real
life problems. The problem complexity combined
where Rs is the set of satisfied user requests whereas with the size of a particular instance prevents the
RT is the set of all user requests. application of exact solution methods, i.e. solving the
The Level of service (LOS) utility function is given problem instance to optimality. Meta-heuristic
given by methods in general do not guarantee the optimality
of the obtained solution, but provide feasible
 ti  solutions of satisfactory quality within a reasonable
  MaxLoS
iRS 

ti* 
i  computation time.
LoS  (7)
 MaxLoSi  1
Variable Neighborhood Search (VNS) [5, 6, 10]
is a well known meta-heuristic method designed for
iRS
various combinatorial optimization problems. It uses
*
where ti representsdirect (minimum) travel time for local search procedure as its basic building block.
going from Oi to Di and MaxLoSi represents the Moreover, it involves systematic change of
maximum relative travel time with respect to ti* that neighborhoods in the search. Contrary to other meta-
we suppose will be acceptable for user i. heuristics based on local search methods, VNS does
not follow a trajectory but explores increasingly
The User preferences utility function is given by distant neighborhoods of the current incumbent
  PM
solution. Then, a local search routine is applied
ij repeatedly to get from these neighboring solutions to
vP i , j v
PREF  local optima. The search is re-centered around a new
 n (n
vP
v v  1) solution if and only if an improvement has been
made with respect to global best solution.
(8)
Therefore, to construct different neighborhood
where PM is the friendship preferences matrix structures and to perform a systematic search, we
whose element i,j equals 1 if users i and j are need to have a way for finding the distance between
friends, 0 if they are indifferent and –  if they are any two solutions, i.e., one needs to supply the
enemies (in this case they cannot be in the same solution space with some metric (or quasi-metric)
pool for feasibility). and then induce neighborhoods from it. In the
The Pool Historicity utility function is given by application part of the next sections we answer this

problem-specific question for each problem order of neighborhoods, and stopping condition
considered. should be defined in such a way to assure efficient
execution of the search.
The VNS algorithm can be described as follows.
For a given optimization problem (e.g. min f(x)), we
B. Implementation Details
first define the set of solutions S and the set of
feasible solutions X  S. Let x X be an arbitrary As of the best of our knowledge, there are no
solution and Nk, (k=1,…,kmax), a finite set of pre- papers describing the application of VNS to the
selected neighborhood structures. Then Nk(x) is the carpooling problem in recent literature. In order to
set of solutions in the k-th neighborhood of x. Steps implement VNS for the specific variant of
in the basic VNS are: carpooling problem, we need to define solution
representation and neighborhood structures.
Initialization. Find an initial solution x X;
Our solution of the specified carpooling problem
choose a stopping condition. is represented by two types of user sets:
Repeat 1) car pools, i.e. the sets of users within a car (the
1. Set k=1; number of such sets varies depending on how many
of them are currently included into solution and can
2. Repeat be at most the total number of drivers and mixed
a. Shaking. Generate a point x' at random users);
from the k th neighborhood of x; 2) virtual pool, i.e. the set of the unsatisfied users
( x  N k ( x)) (all users that are not included into any car pool are
collected in this set; if the driver or mixed user is
b. Local search. Apply some local search unsatisfied at one point it is assumed that they also
method with x' as initial solution; be in this set).
denote with x'' the obtained local
optimum; Note that in 1) we are considering just sets of
users rather than sequences because in each car pool
c. Move or not. If this local optimum is we always consider the best user permutation since it
better than the incumbent, move there can be computed very quickly being the car
(x=x''), and continue the search with capacities very small (generally 5 seats).
N 1 ( k  1) ; otherwise, set k=k+1.
In addition to the user’s types specified by the
until ( k  k max ) problem description (drivers, mixed and passengers),
we introduce the so called dummy users. All empty
until (the stopping condition is met). seats in all cars are considered as dummy users.
Moreover, we suppose that there is always a dummy
Usually, the initial solution is determined by user available in a virtual pool.
some constructive heuristic and then improved by LS This allows us to unify the definition of solution
before the beginning of actual VNS procedure. transformation and corresponding neighborhood.
The stopping condition may be e.g. maximum Namely, the solution transformation is performed by
CPU time allowed, maximum number of iterations, exchanging positions of two users from two different
or maximum number of iterations between two pools (two car pools or a car pool and the virtual
improvements. Often successive neighborhoods Nk pool). That means that one user can exchange place
are nested, but it is not necessary to be always the in the car with another user being assigned to some
case. Observe that point x' is generated at random in other car, or a user from a car can be put into the
step 2a in order to avoid cycling, which might occur virtual pool and an unsatisfied user placed into the
if any deterministic rule was used. corresponding car as well as any real user can
exchange place with the dummy user from some
As a local optimum within some neighborhood is other pool.
not necessarily one within another, change of
neighborhoods can be performed during the local If a real user exchanges position with a dummy
search phase too. This local search is then called user we actually move a user from one pool to
Variable Neighborhood Descent (VND) [5, 6, 10]. another one. This allows us to change the number of
cars that are engaged into car pooling system. In
Basic VNS is very simple meta-heuristic and its such a way we unified the definition of
only parameter is kmax the preselected number of neighborhoods and yet the transformation allows us
neighborhoods. Although, for each particular to move from any given solution to any other
problem the solution representation, number and selected one.

Proposition 1. The optimal solution is reachable To resolve this situation we have to move all
from any given initial solution by the finitely many users from this car pool to virtual pool and
applications of the above described neighborhood therefore generate a (potentially low quality)
transformations. feasible solution.
Proof: Let x* be the optimal solution in the
proposed representation of the carpooling problem. It The described procedure is repeated until all users
consists of a collection P* of car pools and the from the initial solution’s car pools are placed on
corresponding virtual pool. Let x be any given initial their proper positions in the optimal solution or they
solution involving a collection P of car pools with its are moved in the virtual pool. We call ~ x this
corresponding virtual pool (see Fig. 3). intermediate solution. Single pass through car pool’s
users is enough since we preserved feasibility of the
generated intermediate solutions. At that point we
init. x opt x* just move the users from the virtual pool of ~ x to the
u1 u2 u3 u4 u5 corresponding positions in the optimal solution. It is
straightforward according to the fact that both
solutions are feasible and we preserved the
P . P* .
feasibility through all the performed transformations.
. .
. .
The implementation of VNS is now
straightforward. Local search in such a neighborhood
consists of all feasible moves such that pair of users
exchange places in the solution pools.
Figure 3. Transformation between initial and optimal The size of the neighborhood is O(nl) where n is
solution the total number of users and l is the total number of
drivers and mixed users. If it is necessary the
neighborhood can be reduced, for example by
If we want to transform any initial solution x into identifying the car that contributes less to the
x* we have to perform the following steps. Starting objective function value and trying to improve the
from the first car pool of x we examine users, one at solution by changing the users in this car only.
a time, within this pool and exchange his/hers Moreover, by performing First Improvement (FI)
position with some other user (possibly dummy) if strategy within the local search procedure it is
necessary, i.e. in such a way that the first car pool possible to reduce the time required for its execution.
from the optimal solution is formed. Namely, when However, these reductions are beyond the scope of
examining each of the users the following three this paper.
cases may occur:
Shaking procedure in the k-th neighborhood is
implemented by performing random feasible
1. The user is already in a correct pool; in that transformations of a given solution k times.
case we do not apply any move on this user and
we consider the next one.
2. The user can exchange the position with IV. SOME NUMERICAL RESULTS
another user in such a way that both of them are A. Description of the instances
moved to the correct pool (including users in the
virtual pool and dummy users). We perform this An extensive experimental campaign of the
exchange and we consider the next user. proposed VNS approach on real instances of
Politecnico di Milano and Università statale di
Milano universities arising from the PoliUniPool
3. If neither 1. nor 2. are applicable or all project [3, 8], is still in progress. Here we consider a
position exchanges result in a non-feasible small size instance, called Toy1, which is similar to
solution (either requires enemies to be in the those ones arising from the PoliUniPool project. The
same car pool or violates the time windows). In user features are collected in Table 1, while the
this case we move this user to the virtual pool, i.e. locations of the origins and of the common
exchange his/hers position with a dummy user destination are depicted in Fig. 4. In this instance we
from the virtual pool. This exchange can result in consider only one way trips: homes to university.
solution non-feasibility if for example we leave a
car pool without any drivers or mixed users in it
or if we just removed the last but one passenger.

TABLE I. USER FEATURES IN TOY1 INSTANCE
User ID User Enemie

Time window Friends
type s
Alex Driver [7:00, 8:10] Michael Kate
passenge
Michael [7:30, 8:20] Alex Paul
r
passenge
Kate [7:30, 8:15] Paul, John Alex
r
Paul Mixed [7:05, 8:30] Kate Michael
Sara Mixed [7:20, 8:15] - -
John Mixed [7:45, 8:20] Kate -
20 25 18 10 32 40
 18 7 15 12 25
 
18  30 13 20 25
TTM   
7 30  28 20 30
15 13 20  30 35
 
12 20 20 30  10 
Weighting coefficients λi are selected in such a

way that all of them have equal values (0.2).
B. Numerical results
Figure 4. Locations of the origins and destination D In this simple instance of the problem we start
in the Toy1 instance from a randomly generated feasible solution. We
have three cars engaged in this particular carpooling.
Sara and John are assigned to the first car, Paul and
The historicity matrix HM of Toy1 is given by: Kate are in the second one and we have Alex and
Michael in the third car. If we assume that the
 0 0.1 0 0 0.8 0 
capacity of each car is 5, our initial carpooling could
0.1 0 0 0 0.5 0.1
 be represented as
0 0 0 0 0.2 0.2 [Sara, John, dummy, dummy, dummy];
HM   
0 0 0 0 0 0.9
[Paul, Kate, dummy, dummy, dummy];
0.8 0.5 0.2 0 0 0
  [Alex, Michael, dummy, dummy, dummy].
 0 0.1 0.2 0.9 0 0 
Sara is a driver in the first car. Since Kate is a
For the parameter MaxLos we select value 2. passenger, it is clear that her joined traveler Paul has
to be the driver in the second car. For analogous
In the following matrix TTM we collect the travel reason, it is clear that Alex is the driver of the third
times from the origins of all users to the origins of car.
all passengers and mixed users and to the common The objective function value for this solution is
destination (users are considered with the same 0.48747. After performing local search in its
sorting as in Table 1 and the travel times to neighborhood, we get feasible solutions shown in
destination are given in the last column). In general Table II.
case the TTM matrix is not symmetric (because
when the origin is swapped with the destination, the The rest of the neighboring solutions were
users may have to change their route to obey the rejected due to the violation of at least one of
street direction). This is indicated in our example by feasibility conditions described in Section II. For
different values for travel times from Kate to Paul instance, solution [J, S], [P, K], [A, M] was listed as
and from Paul to Kate. an infeasible one since the time window of the user J
was broken. The solution [P, K, S], [A, M] was

noted as infeasible since the MaxLos value of the V. CONCLUSIONS

user P was exceeded. The solution [S, J], [A, K], [P,
M] was declared as infeasible since the users A and In order to reduce air pollution, street congestion
K are enemies. The solution [S, J], [A, P], [K, M] is and passenger travel times, people commonly use
also listed as infeasible since in the third car there are the carpooling in everyday travels to/from work. In
no drivers nor mixed users. this paper we study the special case of this problem
when the users are the students of a university. The
TABLE II. FEASIBLE SOLUTIONS OBTAINED problem is defined at Politecnico di Milano and
BY LOCAL SEARCH FROM THE POINT [S, J], [P, K], Università statale di Milano universities within the
[A, M] PoliUniPool project. The real life instances will
Feasible Solutions Properties arise out of this project. We propose the application
of well known Variable Neighborhood Search
Objective (VNS) meta-heuristic to deal with this problem. All
Carpooling Instance Function
Value
problem specificities are discussed and the actual
implementation of VNS is described. The
[P, J], [S, K], [A, M] 0.56956 performance of the proposed implementation is
[A, J], [P, K], [S, M] 0.47324
illustrated by a small size instance which is similar
to those ones arising from the PoliUniPool project.
[P, K], [A, S, M] 0.47663
[P, K, J], [A, M] 0.51506
[P, K], [A, M, J] 0.47106
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
As the local search suggests, we move to the best The authors would like to thank Poliedra
solution found and activate a new search in its consortium of Politecnico di Milano for proposing
neighborhood. The solution with the highest the university car pooling problem within the
objective function value of 0.56956 is the solution PoliUniPool project.
[P, J], [S, K], [A, M]. There are five feasible
This research has been partially supported by
solutions in its neighborhood and all of them yield to
NSF Serbia, grants nos. 174010 and 174033.
the smaller value of the objective function.
Therefore, we proceed to the shaking procedure of
the VNS algorithm.
REFERENCES
For this small example we set kmax = 5. Upon
shaking in the neighborhood k = 1, the starting
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improve the incumbent, therefore we perform Method for the Car Pooling Problem Based on
Lagrangean Column Generation. Operations
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of this solution contains 8 feasible solutions but all carpooling service for universites: a case study in
Milan, In proceedings of EUROXXIV, July 11-14,
of them are of lower quality. Continuing this process Lisbon 2010.
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algorithm, IBM Journal of Research and
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search‖, in Burke, E. K., Kendall, G., editors, Search
To cover the situation when driver has a privilege Methodologies: Introductory Tutorials in
to define partial pool we prescribe that driver A Optimization and Decision Support Techniques,
pages 211-238. Springer, 2005.
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of Operational Research, 130, 449-467, 1997.

Green Move: setting up of a procedure to design

and evaluate a ZEV sharing system for the city of
Milan
Diego Ciccarellia, Alberto Colornib, Alessandro Luéab, Roberto Nocerino a, Valerio Paruscioa
a
Poliedra and bINDACO,
Politecnico di Milano
Milano, Italy
lue@poliedra.polimi.it
Abstract— Green Move (GM) is an ongoing project

financed by Regione Lombardia that involves 8 different I. INTRODUCTION
departments and research centers of Politecnico di
Milano. The objective of the project is to design and The general expectation, confirmed by the
implement a vehicle-sharing system in Milan, able to
offer to users different categories of ZEV (Zero Emission
investments of the principal car producers (i.e.
Vehicles). The system aims to be open, standardized, Volkswagen, Citroen, Nissan-Renault), concerning
interoperable, modular and multi-business in order to personal mobility in western countries is a shift from
support the spread of the service both on the territory and old internal combustion engine vehicles to electric
among new vehicle fleets owners and users. A trial will ones. This shift gives the chance to avoid the local
be carried out with a limited number of vehicles and emission in urban area, producing electric energy in
docking stations in a specific area of Milan. In order to more efficient power plants. The predicted increase
design an effective service, great attention is given to the of the quote of zero-emission energy will turn the
generation of a wide range of possible service electric network into huge collector of hydroelectric,
alternatives. Each alternative is the result of the wind power, geothermic power plants and biomass
combination of significant features, such as: technology
of the vehicle, business model, fares, capillarity of the
micro-generators spread all around the territory. If
service, number of stations, etc. Social acceptability, this prevision will be fulfilled, considering that road
innovative business models, economic and marketing traffic emissions represent in Lombardy [1] the 48%
means to promote the service diffusion will be essential of CO, the 48% of NOx (inorganic toxic gases) and
success factors of the service. For these reasons the the 24% of CO2 (the main greenhouse gas) total
involvement of significant stakeholders, belonging to both emissions, this will mean a significant fall of
public and private sectors, is important to avoid possible climate-changing emissions (on condition that the
obstacles and threats, to take opportunities and to exploit sources are zero-emission ones) and improvement of
synergies. The effects of the service alternatives, urban quality.
concerning mobility, environment, financial aspects,
customer satisfaction, etc., will be estimated using In synergy with the decrease of vehicle weight,
mathematical models, i.e. by running simulations of the the development of alternative forms of mobility
service given different future scenarios, as well as by (such as soft mobility measures, car pooling, bike-
experts estimates. The check of the feasibility of each sharing, etc.) and the spread of electric vehicles,
alternative will take into account both the technical Green Move will represent the revolution of mobility
feasibility and the institutional and bureaucratic issues. as we are used to think, a new system based on
In order to find a final proposal the alternatives will be
compared using a multicriteria method. The method small, electric and shared vehicles. Financed by
derives from multi-attribute utility theory, able to Regione Lombardia, the project aims to face both the
consider the presence of conflicting objectives. technology aspect and the business model in order to
identify a successful model of vehicle-sharing. This
Keyword—- ; vehicle sharing, electric, multi-owner, systemic approach proposed requires the
service design, social networking, environment
assessment
involvement of eight different departments and
research centers of Politecnico di Milano: DEI
(Electronic and Information), INDACO (Service
Design and Communication), Poliedra (Sustainable
Transportation and Evaluation), DIG (Economic and
Stakeholder Analysis), DIAP (Architecture and

Planning), DIIAR (Geographical Information II. SERVICE IDEA

System), Mate (Mathematics) and Fondazione
Politecnico (Administrative Management). At the beginning of the project a Service Idea is
The basic idea is to create a flexible service of not fully established and defined yet.. A project
vehicle sharing, based on electric vehicles and open vision will be created using a step-by step approach,
to a wide range of different typology of users. The starting from the key service characteristics shared
system will be made easily accessible thanks to an among the project partners: intermodality, multi-
add-on, the Green e-Box, able to allow the inclusion owner, multi-business and green mobility credits.
into the service to any vehicle and, consequently, to The Workshop for the design of the Service Idea will
any user. be followed by post-production activities in order to
systematize the ideas collected. The concept
The general scheme of the planned activities is selection will represent the starting point for the
presented in Fig. 1. After a preliminary phase Strategic Design. Following this gradual approach
necessary to design the vision and share it among the will allow to design a draft of the most flexible and
partners (I. Service Idea) and the analysis of open possible service. The worktop for the Service
territory, stakeholders and vehicle-sharing systems Idea concept is presented in Fig. 2 and follows a
already in place (II. Context Analysis), the project methodology described in [3].
faces the definition of several possible service
options (III: Strategic Design) choosing the ones As mentioned before the key characteristics of
with the highest level of sustainability (economic, the service are:
social and environmental). The fourth phase (IV.  Intermodality: the service is defined as a
Option Analysis) will select, using a multi-criteria vehicle-sharing system offering to users a
analysis, the most effective and efficient solution. multi-modal fleets. One of the more evident
The last phase concerns the implementation of the limitation of traditional sharing system is to
technology necessary to manage the physical system offer to users a single typology of vehicle
(V. Development) and a trial to test it (VI. (usually car or bike). This approach is not
Demonstrator). flexible enough to supply a wide range of
mobility needs.
 Multi-owner: an added value will be the
opportunity for single users, private
companies, associations, etc, to join the
service not only using vehicles provided by
the service itself but also sharing their
personal electric car or fleet. This is made
possible thanks to a standardized access
system, the Green e-Box, an add-on that will
represent the bridge between the user, the
vehicle and the control center. The
opportunity to install the Green e-Box
potentially to any vehicle will make easy and
efficient to join the service.
Figure 1. Green Move General Scheme. Solid line

rectangulars rappresent activities object of this paper,
dottet line rectangulars concern activities not described in
this paper.
This paper describe the planning/design activities

(phases I.-IV.), while Savaresi and Alli paper [2] is Figure 2. Service Idea Worktop.
focused on the technological aspects of the GM
 Multi-business: the standardized way to join
project (phases V. and VI.).
the system gives the chance to design

alternative services and flexible mobility C. Social networking opportunity

solutions (i.e. a mini-van used during the day The project aims to take advantage of the
as company vehicle and as collective taxi potentials of social networking to design a service
during the night). fitting the real expectations of users, to understand
 Green mobility credits: the opportunity to dynamically the evolution of user’s needs, to spread
profile the user and to link his behavior to the the service and to create solid users community and
effective consumption of energy makes clusters. A structured social network community
possible to satisfy the personal will of low could be useful also in the self-management of part
impact life style and to set up a credits of the Green Move fleet. Social networking is
system able to repay virtuous behavior. spreading out in mobility field and two different
examples about it are:
A. Formulation of service objectives  Waze: a system powered dynamically by
The preliminary phases are concentrated on the users, able to provide free turn-by-turn
formulation of specific objectives concerning the navigation based on the live conditions of the
socio-economic and environmental performance of road (Fig. 3), that represent a good practice in
the service [4]: sustainability is the reference point of terms of provision of info-mobility by users;
the service idea design. In particular the focus will be
on economic convenience, financial sustainability,  Buzzcar: an example of peer-to-peer car-
social benefit and environmental positive effects. sharing system able to allow single car
Tab. 1 shows an example of list of indicators, able to owners to join the service.
measure the level of achievement of service
D. Stakeholders and objectives analysis
objectives.
The identification of possible stakeholders such
B. Needs analysis as green energy producers, public administration,
The project has a potential wide target that shares citizens associations, pressure groups, transport
some common needs: low impact mobility, usability services providers, etc. will be essential to include a
and opportunity to earn money sharing the own car wide range of prospects and different ideas
or fleet. In order to create a service able to meet the concerning the service potentials and to avoid or
needs of commuter and occasional traveler, students mitigate possible contrasts and resistance.
and businessman, single user and companies, the
system will be designed as much flexible as possible.
III. CONTEXT ANALYSIS
TABLE I. POSSIBLE PERFORMANCE
INDICATORS A. Best Practice
Criteria Indicator In order to be really innovative, to avoid critical
and inefficient choices even in a preliminary phase
Fossil fuel Variation of use of fossil fuel and to modulate the service around effective
Degree of congestion of the experiences, the context analysis will consider the
Traffic survey of a wide number of best practices
road network
concerning traditional and innovative vehicle sharing
Level of Commercial speed of the
Service vehicles
systems. Using the metric defined in the Service Idea
and re-modulating it considering what will be
Involvement Users involvement highlighted in the mentioned survey, the most
Travel cost Travel cost for the user significant best practices will be analyzed and
ranked. In this phase the identification of key
Level of sharing of fleet performance indexes and successful recipes will help
Sharing
vehicles the eventual re-formulation of service objectives and
Investment give the essential information to design the service
Investment costs
costs itself.
Economic Best practice preliminary survey shows the
Cost balance
balance evolution of sharing services, from simple station
a. The list proposed is an exemplification of a wider and more
cars for car rental to single-operator service car-
complete indicators panel sharing to a peer to peer approach service. Currently
the spread of electric car-sharing is still limited as
well the multi-vehicle-sharing services, able to offer
different solutions in terms of vehicle fleet.

Interesting models are vehicle-sharing based on the Milano bike-sharing, BikeMi, in one of the 190
use of a vehicle among defined user-cluster (a model docking station (in Fig. 6 the map of the stations).
close to household-sharing). Possibly the Green
Move solution will be able to integrate all the
opportunities of these models.
Figure 3. Waze: example of visualization of a traffic

queue in Milano suburbs [http://world.waze.com/].
B. Territorial preliminary analysis

In this phase the analysis of strength, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats of the territory reasonably Figure 4. Users destinations for each of the nine
included in the start up phase will be carried out Milano areas [5].
(SWOT analysis). Particular relevance will be given
to identify possible barriers (i.e. a very dispersed
architecture of traffic generators and attractors),
synergies (i.e. areas with a high density of public
transport stations) and the potentially best area to be
included in the service launch and following
developments, as well as the area for the technology
field test.
According with AMAT data [5], every morning
during the time slot 7.30-8.30, more than 70.000
vehicles enter in the city of Milano from neighboring
municipalities and circa 190.000 users choose to
move from the same origin with public transport.
During the same hour more than 90.000 users choose
every day to move inside the city with their private
car and 260.000 decide to use LPT. This means that
the one-third of users coming from towns closed to
Milano decide to use their private car and one-fourth
of the ones moving within the city, cars that are for
the vast majority endowed with internal combustion
engine.
In the city of Milano the contribution of traffic to
the air pollution is much more relevant than in the
entire Lombardia region. In fact road traffic
emissions represent in Milano city the 31% of CO2
(Lombardy: 24%), 98% of CO (Lombardy: 48%)
and 73% of NOx (Lombardy: 48%) total emissions
[6]. In order to give an alternative to private
mobility, some experience of car sharing has been
implemented in Milano, such as E-vai and Guidami.
Since the end of 2008 is possible to hire a bicycle of Figure 5. Emissions of CO2, CO e NOx classified by
source in Milano in 2005 [6]

The integration of these vehicle-sharing services the dimensions identified in the Service Design, to
represents an opportunity to take care about during compare these last and to choose the most efficient
the service design. one [7]. Fig. 7 represents the steps of Option
Analysis phase.
Figure 6. BikeMi docking stations map

[http://www.bikemi.com/].
Figure 7. Phase IV. Option Analysis.
IV. STRATEGIC DESIGN A. Alternatives generation

The dimensions identified in the Service Idea are
According with the requests pointed out in the combined in order to define reasonable service
preliminary Service Idea and Context Analysis, the options [8]. As schematized in Fig. 8, the number of
Strategic Design phase is focused on the definition alternatives is the product of all the possible choices:
of specific requirements for the implementation of if we have n possibility for dimension a, m for
the Demonstrator and the design of the Full scale dimension b and p for dimension c the total number
Service. The combination of different and reasonable of options k will be the product:
options identified in this phase, concerning i.e.
business model, services provided, technology
m n p  k (1)
chosen, etc., will give the dimensions of the
alternatives to be analyzed in the Option analysis.
In particular the dimensions of the options will
concern:
 Service to users: Identification of core, extra
and customer services.
 Territorial extension: territorial extension of
the service options.
 Vehicles supply: internal combustion, hybrid
and electric engine or a combination of the
three.
 Vehicles typology: cars, bikes, scooter, etc.
 Identification of different business models
able to guarantee the economical and
financial sustainability.
V. OPTION ANALYSIS
Figure 8. Alternatives generation. In this scheme the
hypoteical Alt. 23 is generated by City as Territorial
The aim of the Option Analysis is to evaluate the extension, Citizens as Users, Public as Management and
different alternatives elaborated as combination of Electric as Vehicles.

environmental concerns and sustainability issues as

well have come to the fore [11].
The innovations of current systems are complex,
because they usually involve both administrators and
a number of stakeholders with different opinions and
interests and with a resistance to change their
“business as usual” approach. In order to enlarge the
prospective and to avoid or mitigate possible
resistances, identification and participation of
interested subject represents an important added
value to take into account.
Finally, the decision to consider a wide range of
alternatives instead of a unique possible solution
extends the project duration but it’s effective in order
to design a service that (1) fits the real needs of
potential users, (2) decreases the chances of failure,
Figure 9. Alternatives evaluation. V(k) is the total (3) contributes to decrease gas pollution and (4) has
score of the k-alternative, function of the score for each a sensible impact to alternative mobility level of
indicator indi, of the satisfaction for this score (utility service.
value) and the weigh wi of the indicator.
B. Alternative evaluation REFERENCES

In order to evaluate the alternatives generated, the
first step is to measure their performances, using a [1] ARPA Lombardia, “Regional Report on Emissions
simulation model, on the set of indicators elaborated in Atmosphere (INEMAR)” (Inventario Regionale
in the Service Idea phase delle Emissioni in Atmosfera), 2005
[2] S. Savaresi and G. Alli, “Electric vehicles integration
Thanks to a Multi-Criteria-Decision-Analysis in multi-business vehicle sharing model: the key-less
mobility”, React Conference, May 2011
(MCDA) approach [9], schematized in Fig. 9, it’s [3] C. Vezzoli and E. Manzini, “Design for
possible to rank the alternatives, assigning to each Environmental Sustainability”, Springer-Verlag,
indicator a weight that is a scaling factor between the 2008
[4] R. L. Keeney and H. Raiffa, “Decisions with
criteria, and a utility value function, which represents multiple objectives: preferences and value trade-
the level of satisfaction about the indicator score. offs”, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1976
The global value of each alternative is calculated as [5] AMAT, “Annual Report 2001 on urban Mobility”
(Rapporto annuale 2001 sulla mobilità urbana),
weighted sum of the values of the alternative as Jannuary 2002, pp. 27-49
regards to each indicator. [6] AMA Milano, “Report on Emissions in Atmosphere
in Milano Municipality” (Inventario delle Emissioni
The use of specific conflict analysis software [10] in Atmosfera del Comune di Milano), 2005
gives the opportunity to approach the choice of the [7] A. Colorni, E. Laniado and S. Muratori, “Decision
support systems for environmental impact
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rankings generated with the different logics, (2) Transportation Research, Part D: Transport and
gradual elimination of less satisfactory alternatives Environment, 4D(1):1-11, 1999.
[8] A. Colorni and A. Luè, “Conflict analysis for
and (3) sensitivity analysis, highlighting the conflicts environmental impact assessment: a case study of a
between the alternatives. transportation system in a tourist area”, Group
Decision and Negotiation Meeting GDN, Coimbra,
Portugal, June 17-20, 2008.
[9] V. Belton, “Multi-criteria problem structuring and
analysis in a value theory framework”. In: Gal T,
VI. CONCLUSION Stewart TJ, Hanne T, editors. Multicriteria Decision
Making: Advances in MCDM Models, Algorithms,
Theory, and Applications. Kluwer Academic
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multi-criteria decisions: a software tool and a case
the sustainability but also starts from the need to study”, International Congress on Environmental
decrease human impact on the natural resources. In Modelling and Software, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada,
fact economy and society have always been key July 5-8, 2010.
[11] E. Laniado, A. Cappiello, F. Cellina, R. Cerioli, K.
factors of discussion but, in the last decades, Hernandez and A. Laghi, “A decision support system
for sustainable tourism: the SFIDA project”,
ENVIROSOFT 2004, Ancona, June 2-4, 2004

Future Challenges in Motivating People to

Choose Walking as a Climate Friendly
Transportation Mode
Case study: Municipality Vracar
Assist. Prof. Aleksandra Djukic Assist. Milena Vukmirovic

Department of Urbanism Department of Urbanism
Faculty of Architecture, University of Faculty of Architecture, University of
Belgrade Belgrade
adjukic@rcub.bg.ac.rs milena.vukmirovic@arh.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— A large percent of CO2 (carbon dioxide) Keywords— CO2 emission; transport; walking;
emissions in Serbia originate from transport. In the last Belgrade; Vracar
two decades, the number of private car users in Belgrade
evidently increased, as opposed to the number of users of I. INTRODUCTION
environmental friendly modes of transport. The purpose
of this paper is to present an overview of approaches for Researches done recently show that CO2
improving the physical aspect of the urban environment, emissions have a rising trend. Taking into account
the open public spaces, which aim to increase the number the sector analysis of CO2 emissions, it was
of users of climate/environmentally friendly modes of observed that transport is in third place, with 14% of
transport, with a focus on walking. In addition, the total CO2 emissions. In the contrast to world and
second objective of the study is to activate local centres
in the Municipality of Vracar (Belgrade, Serbia) with an
European trends seen in the last twenty years, the
enhancement of the intensity of pedestrian movement situation in Serbia differed. The reason for this can
along the main streets which connect them. Research was be found in the specificities of transition, through
done using three methods. The first method was to which the Serbia has been going in the last twenty
determine the intensity of pedestrian movement in years.
relation to different periods during the day. The second
were direct surveys of citizens who live in the In this paper, special attention is devoted to the
Municipality Vracar. The aim of this part of the research transport sector, where certain characteristics of
was to determine the mood of citizens to choose walking Serbia are also identified. A positive situation which
as a form of movement. The third was the evaluation of had been noted during the two decades has
immediate pedestrian surroundings, which was reduced drastically changed at the beginning of 21st century.
to an analysis of activities and physical characteristics on The reason for this lies in the improved economic
ground floors of buildings along the observed streets situation and political stabilization in the country
connecting local centres. Given that the study used three after the changes that followed the year 2000.
research methods, we obtained three kinds of results. It
was possible to overlap and synthetically interpret above This paper will illustrate the issue of CO2
mentioned results. Results showed the trends and emissions in Serbia, with special emphasis on the
concentration of pedestrian movement along the main transport. Territorially, the study covers the area of
street lines; the attitude of citizens pertaining to reliable the Municipality of Vracar, one of the central
pedestrian movement and elements which contribute to municipalities of Belgrade.
their commitment; and the rhythm of activity units along
the street front, transparency (permeation of public and The paper consists of four parts. Its first part will
semi public space), and variety of activities in ground demonstrate circumstances related to CO2 emissions
floors of buildings. The contribution of the study is in in Serbia and Belgrade. This part will present two
combining different research methods. Interpretation of different periods: the period of the 1990s, when a
results forms the basis for directing future research and reduction of CO2 emissions was recorded, and the
campaigns on topics of climate friendly modes of
period after 2000, when increase in CO2 emissions
transport in urban areas. In addition, this could be
applied in specific areas like Vracar, as well in other was observed. Possibilities that can be used to reduce
cities in Serbia, or Europe. CO2 emissions were consider in the second part of
the paper, with a special focus on the transport
sector. In this part, the principle of green

transportation hierarchy will be explained as one of similar value world average CO2 emissions per
the possible alternatives in solving the problem of capita. [2]
CO2 emissions. Special attention is devoted to
The same source indicates that in 1998 an
walking as an environmentally and climate friendly
increase of CO2 emissions per capita in Serbia and
mode of transport, and its relationships with public
Montenegro is noticed compared to the world, but at
transport. Part three presents study results which
the same time that they are less than CO2 emissions
analyze pedestrian movement and quality of the
in Europe.
pedestrian environment on the territory of the Vracar
Municipality. The aim of those analyses is to define
elements that stimulate walking in the researched
area and enable the continuity of pedestrian
directions that connect the local centres. In this
study, three methods ware used: Space Syntax
methodology, analysis of activities and physical
characteristics on the ground floor of buildings along
the streets. The last part includes interpretation and
discussion of results in the form of references and
directions that will influence an increase of the
intensity of pedestrian movement.
Figure 2. CO2 emissions from fuel combustion –
sectoral approach. Source: IEA, 2005
II. CO2 EMISSION IN SERBIA FROM 1990 TO THE
Throughout the period from 1990 to 2008
PRESENT
different trends were noted in CO2 emissions. These
Starting from 1989, Serbia is in the process of data for fuel combustion are expressed in megatons
transition from the socialist to the capitalist political in relation to the approach by sector (Figure 2).
system. Two characteristic periods can be
recognized: the period from 1990 till 2000 with the A variable situation (Figure 3) is also present in
main denominators of war with neighbouring the transport sector. This was published in the
countries, economic sanctions, and an unstable International Transport Forum Report in 2008.
political situation, and the period from 2000 until the
present, characterized by certain political
stabilization and economic progress. [1] Based on a
thus defined period frame we can also analyze
conditions in the environmental domain and related
to CO2 emissions.
Figure 3. Relation between total CO2 emissions and

emissions from the transport sector. Source: International
Transport Forum
This report indicates that CO2 emissions in

transport sector in 1990 were 7.8% of total CO2
Figure 1. CO2 emissions per capita. Source: Climate emissions in Serbia. From that period, a decreasing
and Atmosphere – Serbia and Montenegro, Earth Trends trend is noticed until 2000 (1995: 6.4%; 2000:
2003 5.6%). After that, a growth trend was present until
2008, with CO2 emissions from transport in 2008
Data from the earlier periods demonstrate the amounting to 13.4% of the total. [3]
growing trend in CO2 emissions. According to the A. Period from 1990 to 2000
research of the World Recourse Institute, during the
1950s, Yugoslavia has two times less CO2 emissions The period from 1990 to 2000 is characterized by
relative to world emissions (Figure 1). In the next 25 a difficult economic situation and political instability
years, more precisely in 1975, CO2 emission had the in the country. The most important events that
growing trend per capita. During the mentioned marked this period are war with neighbouring
period total CO2 emissions in Yugoslavia had countries, economic sanctions and a complicated

political situation. In accordance with the above there is again a decreasing trend, reaching its
mentioned, as opposed to other Eastern European minimum value in 2000 (Figure 4).
countries, there was little regard for the
environmental aspect. However, this period is
characterized by a decline in CO2 emissions. [4]
This situation is not characterized by raised
awareness about the negative influences of CO2. It
was the bad economic situation instability that
brought about a reduction of industrial production, a
low level of road transport, and a decline of
construction activities.
These defined circumstances are reflected in the
Figure 4. CO2 emissions during the period from
transport sector. During this period a decrease in 1990 to 2008. Source: International Transport Forum
CO2 emissions until 1996 can be noted. From 1996
the incensement in CO2 emissions is registered, Values that were recorded by the International
reaching its maximum value in 1997. After that, Transport Forum are presented in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Country Profile – Serbia. CO2 emissions. Source: International Transport Forum
During the period from 1990 to 2000, the highest B. Period from 2000 until the present
CO2 emissions, expressed in Mt were recorded in The period from 2000 until the present can be
the domain of the road transport subcategory. In roughly characterized as a stabilization phase. This is
1990 it was 4.42Mt, 1995 – 2.7Mt, 2000 – 2.3Mt. mostly reflected in orientation toward democratic
values, the termination of conflicts and war
operations in the country and the region, political
stabilization, etc. The general situation related to
environmental aspect and CO2 emissions is variable.
This can be seen in the table (Figure 6). However,
with respect to the transport sector there was a trend
of increase, which had a linear character.
This is evident in 2001 when this amounted to
8.5% of total CO2 emissions. The growing trend in
the transport sector continues until 2008 when its
share was 13.4% of total CO2 emissions (Figure 6).
According to data from the International
Transport Forum, in 2008 the transport sector was in
Figure 6. Country Profile – Serbia. CO2 emission.
3rd place compared to the other sectors (energy,
Source: International Transport Forum
manufacturing, and other). That year CO2 emissions
were 6.6Mt per capita.
Throughout that period, the use of public
transport in Belgrade increased. The reason for this
When this situation is analyzed in relation to the
is the decrease of use of private automobiles. This
distribution of CO2 emissions from transport by
resulted from the fact of economic sanctions,
type, road transport contributes with 85%.
resulting in lack of fuel.

along directions that pass near the centre of the city.

Research shows that 11,000 lorries and trucks enter
the city every day.
Figure 7. Share of traffic in overall emissions, and

distribution of the share of traffic according to types of
transport. Source: International Transport Forum
III. CO2 EMISSIONS AND TRANSPORT IN

BELGRADE
Figure 8. Green City Index Ranking European cities
According to a most recent study, entitled according to ecological parameters, 2009.
European Green City Index, Belgrade, the capital of
Serbia, is in 27th place by the state of key
environmental parameters (score 40.3/100) [5] One
of the included parameters are CO2 emissions.
According to that criterion, Belgrade is in 28th place,
and according to transport criteria it is in 29th place.
Cities were evaluated based on eight
environmental categories. The categories include
CO2 emissions, energy, buildings, transport, water,
land use, and air quality.
The best ranking for Belgrade was for the energy
parameter (17th place). The reason for this lies in the
decline and reduction of heavy industry, as a
consequence of the situation in the 1990s.
The worst result for Belgrade was in the field of
transport and water. In these categories Belgrade
ranked 29th (Figure 8) of 30 European cities
(transport 3.98/8.81; water 3.90/9.21).
CO2 emissions per capita are 3.9t compared to
the average CO2 emissions of 5.2t. Considering this
subcategory Belgrade is ranked 7th in the overall
Figure 9. Diagram of values for ecology parameters
ranking and 1st in the category of mid size cities. The (groups). Source: Europe Green City Index, 2009.
reason for this is reflected in the
fact that the majority of electricity production in When it comes to public transport Belgrade has
Serbia comes from hydropower. very good results. The study shows that 40% of
people go to work using public transport while
However, a poor result was achieved in the the remaining 35% walk or use bikes. This is 75%
subcategory in which CO2 emission is measured per which is more than the 63% of using a non motor
unit of GDP. Here, Belgrade's result which is three transport as the average value for European cities.
times above the average. Considering this situation, This result was achieved thanks to the extensive
this is one of the key national goals relevant to CO2 public transport system. However, public transport
emissions. Relevant to traffic, the main reason for vehicles (buses, trams and trolleys) are in very bad
such a poor rating lies in the high intensity of freight condition, so work is needed to modernize them. The
transport. Nonexistent bypass routes result in the traffic control and management system is outdated:
situation that freight vehicles enter the city and move

there is no adaptive control, bus priority or traffic In addition to city institutions that implement
response signal timing. [6] measures to improve transportation, organizations
from the NGO sector and professional associations
A. Initiatives and measures for improving the state
are also dealing with these issues. Those
of transport and CO2 emissions
organizations promote certain forms of sustainable
The general result of Belgrade in the domain of transport. Using social marketing instruments they
transport could change primarily by are trying to change peoples’ awareness about the
displacing freight traffic, which is planned by linking need to improve the environmental situation and the
main routes E70 and E75. Another way of greater use of sustainable modes of transport in the
improvement is seen in promoting and more use of city.
environmentally and climate friendly transport. Thus
will also result in decrease of CO2 emissions in this The City of Belgrade Development Strategy from
sector. 2009, in the topic area related to traffic, provides for
the construction and development of the transport
The strategic approach of Belgrade in this domain system of Belgrade. This will allow sustainable
is defined in the General Plan of Belgrade 2021, mobility of citizens, still supporting the rapid
Transportation Model of Belgrade 2007, Traffic development of the city and its competitiveness in
Master Plan of Belgrade: Smart Plan 2021 and the the region of Southern Europe. [8] One of the
Development Strategy for the City of Belgrade 2012. operational goals is the implementation of a transport
In accordance with these documents, the system that will contribute to the environmental
Secretariat of Transport of the City of Belgrade and optimization of the city. This will be achieved by:
other institutions implement various initiatives and  Construction of the first line of the high
projects in order to resolve these problems. The aim capacity public transport system in Belgrade;
is to increase the use of public transport to a level of
50%, and in addition to encourage other forms of  Stimulating the use of Beovoz trains in
sustainable transport, i.e. walking and cycling. commuter transport (shorter but more reliable
intervals) in the public transport system of
One of the projects of that kind, which showed the City;
good results, is the implementation of parking zones
in the centre of the city (Figure 10). This project  Reorganization of public city transport in the
restricts the duration of parking to 1h, 2h and 3h vicinity of the Beovoz train corridor as well
depending on the zone. When the time expires, the as within the whole network;
driver is required to move the car to another location.
 Introduction of river passenger transport;
This measure led to the reduction in the number of
cars in the central city area. [7]  Increased level of transport safety;
 Development of new technologies (traffic
management and control, ITS);
 Development of bicycle transport;
 Stimulating pedestrian transport;
 Rehabilitation and modernization of city
streets in all urban centres in line with
transport demands and standards;
 Modernization of local roads. [9]
The Strategy envisages the retaining of the level

of passenger car travel, amounting to 25-30%. The
use of public transport must reach the level of 45-
50% of daily trips and ensure a high level of service.
Walking is planned at a level of 20-25% in intercity
movement. Paratransit (cycling, taxi and other types
of collective transport) must reach the level of 5-10%
Figure 10. Parking zones with time limitations in of daily trips. [10]
central Belgrade. Source: Parking servis company, City
In accordance with these goals pedestrian and
of Belgrade http://www.parking-
servis.rs/media/images/editor_uploads/Image/mape/MAP bicycle transport should be significantly improved.
A.sa.3.5.pg.jpg The main tasks related to this are: freeing public

space intended for pedestrians from parked vehicles local centres in an attempt to create a multicenter
and other barriers, increasing attractiveness of public territory that would provide steady development of
transport, and creating conditions for realization of the city as a whole. Local authorities were also very
attractive pedestrian and cycle spaces and routes. interested in this study and its results, because they
share the same goals.
Regarding territorial and demographic
characteristics of the territory, one of the directions
of research was evaluation and improvement of
pedestrian links between the local centres. According
to this, there is a tendency in improving the quality
of life and achieving environmental goals relating to
reduction of the CO2 emissions and enhancing the
intensity of use of climate friendly modes of
transport. In relation to the principle of the green
transport hierarchy, the main goal to stimulate
walking and the utilization of public transport on the
territory of Vracar.
Figure 11. Figure 1: Green transport hierarchy Additional causes for this study are the results of
Source: http://thenewgay.net/wp-content surveys of citizens of Vracar conducted in 2010 by
the NGO "5km/h" within the project Make a step –
Along with the general aims of the City of Improve the environment. [11] This research showed
Belgrade related to the improvement of transport and that 46% of examiners always use their private car,
decrease of CO2 emissions, this paper also deals and that 36% of examiners use their car when going
with measures which would stimulate pedestrian to work. Another result of the study showed that
movement in the central area of the city. A 37% of citizens do not take care about the distance of
commitment to pedestrian movement in Belgrade is their travel when they use their private car. A third
considered more practical in relation to bicycle result showed that 44% of the examiners spend about
traffic. We found the reason for this in the 10 minutes to find a parking place in Vracar, and
characteristic morphology of the terrain and actual 38% spend form 10 to 20 minutes.
street profiles that do not include bicycle paths.
Taking into account the size of the territory of
The other reason is in the promoting of the Vracar, 15 minutes of walking are required for
principle of the green transport hierarchy (Figure covering much of the study territory (Figure 12).
11). In this hierarchy priority is given to pedestrian These results represent a good starting point for
movement, followed by bicycle traffic, and then determining measures that would stimulate greater
public transport. After those three, considered as intensity of pedestrian movement in Vracar.
sustainable modes of transport, come service
This study also aims to determine the advantages
vehicles, and on the last level, the private car.
and disadvantages related to the quality of the
pedestrian environment. In accordance with this
information, guidelines would be provided which
IV. ANALYSIS OF PEDESTRIAN MOVEMENT AND can be used for motivating pedestrian movement and
QUALITY OF THE PEDESTRIAN ENVIRONMENT IN improvement of the quality of public spaces in
VRACAR Vracar .
The research site was the territory of the
Municipality of Vracar, City of Belgrade. Vracar is
one of 17 municipalities which constitute the City of
Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. It is situated close to
the central and historical core of the city and it is one
of three central municipalities of City of Belgrade
Vracar occupies an area of 292ha, with 69,680
inhabitants. Thanks to its small area, Vracar is the
most densely populated municipality of Belgrade,
with 19,659 inhabitants per square kilometer.
This research forms part of a broader research Figure 12. Cvetni trg, Vracar. Distances within the
territory at 5, 10 and 15 minutes. Source: Make a Step –
aimed at defining recommendations for the revival of Improve the Environment project

A. Methodological framework of the study sidewalks. This research has been done by
Considering that one of the aims of the study to NGO "5km/h" in 2010.
establish of territory polycentricity, streets that B. Presentation of results of research of the
connect the local centres on Vracar were analyzed. current situation along studied routes
These are at the same time the main streets on the
The analysis of the quality of public spaces in
study territory: Njegoseva Street, Milesevska Street
Vracar incorporated all public spaces in the study
and Maksima Gorkog Street.
territory. They were processed according to quality
The first part of the research includes analysis of criteria. Each catalogued sheet, related to the specific
the quality of the pedestrian environment by using a public space and criterion, had a section for
system of criteria that are related to: safety, evaluation (ranging from 1 for the worst condition to
accessibility, legibility, comfort, attractiveness and 5 for the best condition) (Figure 13).
liveability [12]. Research was done on the Faculty of
In addition to the estimate of the state of public
Architecture, University of Belgrade, within the
spaces by using a set scale, a detailed analysis of
course of Public Space Design, coordinated by
open public spaces, was conducted one by one. The
Professor Dragana Bazik.
aim of this part of research was to evaluate positive
A hierarchy was established among the set and the negative features of the observed area.
criteria; this meant that if basic criteria are not Results of this broader study were used to examine
fulfilled, above all safety and accessibility, it would the state of the selected paths that were our object of
not be possible to accomplish other characteristics interest. Following facts resulted.
which contribute to the liveability of a certain space.
The second part of the study aimed to examine in
more detail the situation along the observed paths.
Primarily this relates to the analysis of the current
intensity of pedestrian movement and the
establishing of a casual relationship with consequent
content and physical characteristics of the ground
floor of buildings along the streets.
For the need of this research, three methods were
used:
 Space Syntax methodology, defined by Bill
Hillier [13]. This method was used to
evaluate the intensity of pedestrian
movement along the studied paths in different
periods of the day. Research has been done at
the Faculty of Architecture, University of
Belgrade, within the master studio
UrbanLAB, coordinated by Assist. Professor Figure 13. Public space quality in the territory of
Aleksandra Djukic. Vracar according to safety criteria. Source: Faculty of
Architecture, 2010.
 Method of detailed analysis of ground floor
activities. The aim of this study was to Based on the set criteria, from the aspect of safety
establish the relationship between the Milesevska St. was characterized most positively,
intensity of pedestrian movement and the and Maksima Gorkog St. most negatively; from the
character defined by activities and contents in aspect of accessibility Njegoseva St. was
the ground floor of buildings along the characterised most positively, and Cara Nikolaja II
streets. This research was been done within St. most negatively; from the aspect of legibility
the master studio UrbanLAB coordinated by Njegoseva St. was characterised most positively (no
Professor Djukic. negative comments), and Cara Nikolaja II St. most
negatively; from the aspect of attractiveness
 The method defined by Jan Gehl [14] [15], Njegoseva St. was characterised most positively (no
and related to the study of physical negative comments), and Maksima Gorkog St. most
characteristics of the pedestrian environment. negatively (no positive comments); from the aspect
This method includes the analysis of the of liveliness Njegoseva St. was characterised most
physical characteristics of the ground floor of positively (no negative comments), and Cara
buildings (especially rhythm and scale) and Nikolaja II St. most negatively (no positive

comments). It is assumed that the basis for such come back from work; and from 7pm to 8pm, in the
results is the recent reconstruction of Njegoseva St, so-called evening hours.
which provided for wider sidewalks, lower
Results show that, if we observe the entire
frequency of vehicle transport, activation of contents
polygon where measurements were conducted,
in the ground floors of buildings. On the other hand,
pedestrian movement is most frequent from 4pm to
Maksima Gorkog and Cara Nikolaja II Sts. have
5pm. On the other hand, from 7pm to 8pm there was
extremely frequent vehicle transport, with narrow
least pedestrian presence. Another conclusion is that
sidewalks, intense pollution, discontinued sections of
there are differences along paths in intensity of
street fronts, both vertically and horizontally.
pedestrian movement or the phenomenon of
This part of research pointed out the general discontinuity.
condition by which we can define guidelines and
A continuation of research led toward
recommendations. Continued research examined in
determination of correlation between pedestrian
more detail the situation along the observed streets.
movement and characteristics of the pedestrian
The next part of research had the aim to environment. [17] Therefore, further investigation
determine the actual use of identified paths by encompassed an analysis of activities in ground
analyzing the frequency of pedestrian movement on floors of buildings in the observed path, with a focus
a daily basis. [16] This analysis was conducted by on the diversity of activities, their density on certain
using the Space Syntax method. Results of this parts of the path, and characteristics of shop fronts
research revealed certain unevenness in frequency of and entrances, i.e. transparency.
pedestrian movement, both with respect to different
times at which measurements were conducted, and
with respect to concrete parts of the identified path
(Figure 14).
Figure 15. Segment of street fronts in Maksima

Gorkog and Milesevska streets. Source: Association
5km/h Belgrade
Content analysis provided for certain correlations

between frequency of pedestrian movement in the
observed period, content attractiveness and its
disposition along the paths.
The analysis demonstrated that the frequency of
pedestrian movement is proportionate to the number
activities, i.e. their density and diversity in specific
segments of the investigated streets. Besides, a
greater frequency is observed during the afternoon,
from 4pm to 5pm. This period is considered as the
most frequent, when the employed are coming back
Figure 14. Intensity of pedestrian movement from from work, while other inhabitants spend their time
4pm to 5pm. Source: Faculty of Architecture, 2010
in the open. Important differences with respect to
certain segments of the paths are observed in the
Measurements were conducted on workdays, four early morning and evening hours. This is especially
times a day. In the morning period from 8am to 9am, so in areas characterised by density of cafes and
when local inhabitants perform activities such as restaurants on one hand, and zones with contents that
going to work or school or for grocery supplies; from are closed in the evening hours on the other. From
11am to 12 noon, which coincides with end of 11am to 12 noon there is more frequency of
school hours for elementary school students, breaks pedestrian movement in areas close to schools.
for high school students and the lunch break for the
employed (this period also coincides with the start of The continuation of this activity concerned the
working hours of cafes and restaurants); in the analysis of shop windows and entrances, i.e.
afternoon, from 4pm to 5pm, when local inhabitants transparency and direct linkage between content in
ground floors of buildings and open public space.

Same as above, the intensity of pedestrian movement Based on the analysis and assessment of the
is more frequent along fronts in which shop windows current situation in the territory of Vracar, elements
are less distant and occupy larger surfaces. This is have been identified which encourage intense
particularly visible during evening hours, when the pedestrian movement in the study area. In addition,
transparency of protective curtains was observed. problems and obstacles have been recognized that
negatively affect the choice to walk as a mode of
In relation to characteristics of sidewalks, the
transport.
width and quality of pavement was analyzed along
the paths of interest. Along Makisma Gorkog St., In order to improve this situation and to motivate
having in mind the greatest intensity of pedestrian more people to walk, following types of
movement, sidewalk width varies from 1.5m to interventions are suggested:
2.0m. The conclusion is that it does not match the
actual and expected intensity of pedestrian  determination of new street regulation along
movement. Makisma Gorkog St. is not reconstructed paths that citizens have characterised as
yet and the state of the pavement is very poor. Along unsafe and inaccessible;
Milesevska St., the sidewalk width was around 1.5m.  establishment of continuity with respect to
This width was measured between the parked cars vertical and horizontal regulation along the
and the facade of buildings. Sidewalks are not identified paths;
reconstructed and they are in very poor condition.
Njegoseva St. was reconstructed in 2008, with its  anticipation of measures for stimulation of
total transformation. Sidewalks were extended; new attractive activities and their even distribution
pavement with an informative character was created. along the paths, which would allow for
The width of the sidewalks varies from 3.0m to proportional use of space during all periods
6.0m. In relation to the physical aspect, this of the day;
condition can be characterised as positive, but the  enlargement of shop window surfaces in
lack of activities along the street contributes to the order to achieve greater contact between
low intensity of pedestrian movement. activities in buildings and open public spaces,
C. State of public transport in the territory of and
Vracar  providing of new and more transparent types
The Municipality of Vracar is well connected of protective curtains to stimulate pedestrian
with other parts of the city by public transport. There movement during evening hours.
are all forms of transport vehicles: buses, trams and
trolleys. The above measures and recommendations would
result in:
However, the situation observed in the city as a
whole reflects also in Vracar. In relation to public  increasing the intensity of pedestrian
transport there is a need for modernization, both in movement as a way of transport;
terms of vehicles and in terms of signalization. The  increasing the intensity of pedestrian
latter is of great importance for pedestrians, because movement along the main streets which
they can be informed about the timetable, the length connect the local centers of the Vracar
of the waiting time, and the time needed to reach a territory;
specific destination.
 providing polycentricity of the territory and
In accordance with the motivation to use public enabling equality in development of the area;
transport in Vracar some measures have been
undertaken. One of them is the implementation of  raising awareness about the need to use
parking zones, which include limitation of parking environmentally and climate friendly modes
time to 2h and 3h. of transport, especially for short distances;
After this intervention, the Secretariat for  improvement of the quality of life in Vracar.
Transport has recorded benefits reflected in reduced
use of private cars, stimulation of use of public
transport and better conditions for parking. REFERENCES
[1] Krstić-Furundžić, Aleksandra, and Aleksandra

V. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS IN THE FORM Đukić. “Chapter XV: Serbia.” In European Carbon
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Tweed, 156-170. Cardiff: The Welsh School of
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[2] Earth Trends. "Climate and Atmosphere_Serbia and [12] Bazik, Dragana. Kvalitet javnih gradskih prostora.
Montenegro." Earth Trends. 2003. Lična karta I dela predmeta Oblikovanje gradskih
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“Unplanned Settlements, (Un)expected Problems: [13] Hillier, Bill, and Julienne Hanson. The social logic of
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ISOCARP, 2009. [14] Gehl, Jan, Lotte Johansen Kaefer, and Solvejg
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Index. Munich: Siemens AG, 2009. [16] Đukić, Aleksandra, and Milena Vukmirović. "Alati i
[6] Economist Intelligence Unit. European Green City postupci u očuvanju identiteta i podizanju
Index. Munich: Siemens AG, 2009. vibrantnosti javnih gradskih prostora. Studija slučaja:
[7] Grad Beograd. Sekretarijat za saobraćaj. 2011. Gradska opština Vračar." Edited by Radomir Folić,
(accessed 2011). Vlastimir Radonjanin and Mirjana Malešev. iNDiS
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Strategy. Belgrade: PALGO Centar, 2008. graditeljstva. Novi Sad: Departman za
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Saobraćajnog master plana (SmartPlan). Beograd, Stimulator for Movement of Pedestrinas." Edited by
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[11] Vukmirović, Milena. Projekat: Napravi korak - Cities for Everyone: Liveable, Healty, Prosperous.
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Vračara. Beograd, 2010.

Transport and Low-Carbon Governance: A city-

regional perspective.
Stephen Hall
PhD Researcher
Department of Geography: White Rose Scholarship
University of Hull
stephen.hall@2004.hull.ac.uk
Abstract— This preliminary research examines the I. INTRODUCTION

disparate governance landscapes of transport and carbon
across English city-regions. How carbon control (or The Yorkshire and Humber region is in the
„climate friendly‟) regimes come to ground at the city and northeast of England, has a population of just over
regional level is likely to differ dependant on the
divesting of carbon responsibilities by nation states both
5m and covers 22 local authorities/municipalities
outwards to non-state actors and downwards to (ONS 2005). The wider research agenda driving this
municipalities (While, Jonas & Gibbs 2010). This will paper centres on investigating modes of governance
ultimately affect the wider governance capabilities and compatible with transition to low carbon city
paradigms across space (Bulkeley 2005). The sites and regions within Yorkshire and the Humber. Since the
scales at which power and agency are able to be election of a new coalition government in May
deployed deeply affect the governance objectives and 2010, the governance landscape in England has
methods for both transport and carbon control. In changed both conceptually and territorially. This
looking towards a low carbon as opposed to „sustainable‟ paper investigates the reterritorialisations and
transport research agenda, this paper draws on changing priorities that governance actors are
multilevel governance analysis to compare the
responding to, and asks „what are the likely
historically disparate disciplines of carbon governance
and transport governance to suggest a novel treatment of emissions trajectories for cities over the next five to
transport policy analysis in English city-regions. The ten years, given existing carbon and transport
recent and continuing devolution of transport policy to governance?‟ The rationale for thinking about the
UK constituent countries has marked a divergence in the city-region as a coherent scale for sustainability and
delivery and development of low-carbon transportation environmental governance can be traced back to the
(Docherty & Shaw 2011). This is also true to varying 1992 Rio Conference which generated Agenda 21
degrees within English regions (MacKinnon and Vigar (specifically chapter 28) wherein municipalities
2008). In parallel the governance of carbon emissions in were recognised as important actors playing a vital
the UK has developed into a myriad of shifting role in sustainable development (Bulkeley & Betsill
responsibilities which do not necessarily match up to
deliver low carbon transport interventions on the ground
2003). Since then a host of research has addressed
(Docherty & Shaw 2008). By developing a comparative the problem of sustainable cities and regions, see:
multilevel governance analysis for transport and carbon Marcotullio & McGranahan (2007), Ravetz (2000),
this chapter outlines mismatched priorities at different Jonas (2011). As such, researching environmental
institutional and territorial scales and situates this governance at the city, city regional, or regional
research within the literature, making the case for scale is a rich starting point for explaining, and
research on transport and carbon governance structures potentially multiplying, spatial environmental
across US and European city-regions on the basis of a governance „fixes‟. In 2003 Bulkeley & Betsill
„carbon/capital fix‟. proposed that sustainable development had become
the „common currency‟ through which
Keywords— Carbon/Capital fix, governance, city-
region, low carbon, transport and spatial planning.
environmental issues were being contested and
constructed. While, Jonas & Gibbs (2004) propose
that the machinations over environmental
governance at a city regional scale produce a
„sustainability fix‟ drawing on Harvey‟s 1982
insight “that the geographical reproduction of the
capitalist mode of production depends on uniting

territorially-based class interests and factions regulation across 11 environmental arenas such as
behind a coherent line of action (or state strategy) air, water, land etc (NetRegs 2011). Each piece of
in the form of a `spatial fix', which is capable of legislation was analysed for its origin (EU or UK
holding for a time, though not necessarily resolving, based), carbon control element, scale and sector of
tensions between capital and labour, and economic enforcement and scale and sector of compliance.
development and collective consumption.” (ibid Carbon related legislation which was enforced or
p551). More recently however While et al. suggest complied with at the municipal scale was then
that “the management of carbon emissions holds tabulated (appendix 1) and the „scope‟ of emissions
some prospect for challenging sustainable the legislation pertained to classified. Scope 1
development as the organising principle of socio- emissions arise directly from processes carried out
environmental regulation.” (While, Jonas & Gibbs within the organisation. Scope 2 emissions arise
2009 p.77). This research suggests the current outside the organisation but are linked to energy
reterritorialisations and reconceptualisations of consumption by the organisation. Scope 3 relates to
municipal governance underway in England (and all emissions from products and services used by the
the rolling back of the state), are being reconfigured organisation WBCSD/WRI (2001). In this context
to such a degree that if any significant emissions (for municipalities) scope 3 also refers to the
reductions are to be achieved they will be on the cumulative emissions from the territory of the
basis of a „carbon/capital fix‟. municipality. The results were cross referenced with
the responses to carbon practitioner interviews. In
The governance of carbon or „carbon control April 2011 a „diagonal slice‟ of five carbon
measures‟ are outlined below in relation to the city practitioners across Yorkshire and the Humber was
scale and the sectors to which these carbon control taken. The interviewees ranged from officers
measures apply. The status of quantifying the implementing carbon compliance measures in public
effectiveness and scale of carbon control at a sub bodies and municipal climate strategy officers to
state level is also discussed. regional level climate strategists including the Chair
of the Core Cities Climate Change Group and
Given the „rise of carbon‟ as an „organising Director of Sustainable Development in a major
principle‟ and the scale of cities and regions as Yorkshire and Humber city. The results of this study
functional units of governance, these preliminary are the first to arise from a wider research agenda on
findings begin to illustrate the mismatched governing the transition to low carbon cities in
institutional arrangements that often serve to Yorkshire and the Humber region. This in turn
frustrate as opposed to enable low carbon enables a comparative multilevel governance
intervention in transport systems. Hull (2008) analysis of carbon and transportation in English
advocates specifically devolving transport finance municipalities.
and governance to a city regional scale to achieve
greenhouse gas reductions from surface
transportation. The current snapshot or „moment in
time‟ of transport and carbon governance III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: LOW CARBON
represented below expands upon how this agenda is TRANSPORT POLICY AND GOVERNANCE.
progressing in the face of a change of Government.
The discussion presented below is drawn from
the responses of interviewees and the review of
policy documentation, academic literature and
II. METHODS legislation analysis. Initially the policy and
governance landscape for both carbon and
Initially a literature review was undertaken to transportation is outlined. The discussion then
investigate past and present iterations of moves to investigating the particular responses of
transport/carbon governance. This included a review the diagonal slice of „carbon practitioners‟ within
of the headline transnational and national transport the Yorkshire and Humber region and the
strategies/plans. Next, 226 pieces of environmental implications of this picture for low carbon city
regulation were reviewed from across 11 sectors transport towards 2020.
searching for specific carbon emission legislations
that are somehow enacted at a municipal scale. This Carbon
was undertaken utilising the „NetRegs‟
environmental legislation tool. NetRegs is a Despite a proliferation of literature on the
partnership between the UK environmental enactment of specific carbon control measures such
regulators and provides an online environmental as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme
regulation tool mapping all environmental see: Böhringer, and Rosendahl (2009), Rogge, K. S.

and M. Schneider, et al. (2011), Sandoff, A. and G. stern‟), the consultancy Deloitte (2009), focused
Schaad (2009), other carbon control mechanisms, primarily on sectoral legislation (Figure 1). Little
such as the UK‟s Carbon Reduction Commitment attention was paid to the capacity of the governance
Energy Efficiency Scheme, have received less actors in Manchester City region to materially affect
attention. Equally, though urban governance and the proposed policy frameworks.
climate change have received some attention:
Below (Table 1) is a breakdown of the current
Bulkeley and Betsill (2003 & 2008), While, Jonas &
main carbon control measures applicable across the
Gibbs (2010) and most notably Schroeder &
UK economy that bear some relation to municipal
Bulkeley (2009), few attempts have been made to
governance and the „carbon footprint‟ of specific
investigate the nested territorial governance of
municipalities. A more comprehensive picture is
carbon in UK city regions. The section below on
presented in appendix 1. Below the terms „local
transport culminates in an updated version of
authority‟, „municipality‟ and „council‟ are used
Marsden and Rye‟s 2009 multilevel governance
interchangeably on account of interviewees‟ similar
framework. Yet an early finding of this research was
treatment of these terms. Schroeder & Bulkeley
the impossibility of constructing such a model for
(2009) suggest that local authorities in the UK have
carbon governance. This is primarily because carbon
partial financial and operational autonomy from
is not a „sector‟ of the economy (though see Bumpus
central government and in the case of climate
& Liverman 2008). Whilst energy, construction,
governance: “During the 1990s and early 2000s,
waste or minerals are governed by a shifting but
this partial autonomy was evident in relation to
nonetheless coherent institutional framework,
urban climate change policy. Despite the lack of any
carbon governance cuts across and is nested within
explicit statutory duties to address climate change,
such sectors. Indeed, when conducting an analysis
local authorities in the United Kingdom had various
of domestic and European climate policy, legislation
duties that related to climate protection.”
and drivers for the Manchester city region (a „mini
(Schroeder & Bulkeley 2009 p320).
Figure 1. Key Drivers-Policy instruments in the UK and their effect on different sectors

Schroder and Bulkeley discuss the carbon control (Interview with Yorkshire and Humber based
measures available to municipalities in the UK in carbon practitioner, April2011)
2009 prior to the May 2010 elections. This research
adds to Schroder & Bulkeley‟s analysis. Those In fact much of the perceived drive to act on
measures are summarised in Table 1 below. The carbon emissions was reported to arise from
shaded areas outline the measures which are either engagement with the resource efficiency agenda. In
under review or have been removed already. The some authorities this is enacted through engaging
new coalition Government has repealed the duty for with business and householders promoting the
local authorities to report on standards of housing financial and business benefits of reducing
stock in the Energy Act 2011 (LGA 2011). The emissions. There is however no specific duty or
entire planning system is currently being reviewed legislation urging municipalities towards this agenda
in the UK and currently there is a great degree of beyond powers in the Local Government Act 2000,
uncertainty surrounding areas such as planning for allowing local governments to pursue any activities
climate change. This includes the effect of regional which they consider will promote the economic,
re-territorialisation on municipal spatial planning. social, or environmental well-being of their areas.
Interviewer: How well integrated do you think “...apart from the target side of things, there‟s a
carbon strategies are regionally... huge amount around resource efficiency. We know
that peak oil is going to be an issue so the cities that
Carbon Practitioner: Well... regions don‟t exist are kind of, early movers are much more likely to be
anymore. Yeah... how well integrated are they, not resilient and successful in the future.
brilliantly I‟d say.... I think we were beginning to
get some sensible integration up until all the That‟s an argument we are making quite strongly
changes that have happened.... We don‟t have the at the moment. The other big one is around low
integrated regional strategy anymore, we do have carbon recovery and low carbon future growth,
regional planning policy but the status is really trying to have green growth out of the recession.”
questionable. It‟s a difficult picture....
(Interview with Yorkshire and Humber based
(Interview with Yorkshire and Humber based carbon practitioner, April2011)
carbon practitioner, April2011)
The emerging picture of carbon control at the
National indicators are also in the process of municipal scale therefore is one of diminishing
being abandoned along with the reporting function responsibility from a targets or legislative
of the Home Energy Conservation act 1995. perspective towards a more economically driven
collaboration agenda, wherein municipalities take
Interviewer: What are the main drivers both the role of facilitating actions of the private sector:
legislative and organisational that work on carbon
In reality, if you just take Sheffield as an
within the city?
example, our Council is probably responsible for
Carbon Practitioner: Legislative, directly on a direct emissions that probably equate to about one
local authority, very very few now. The one that or two percent of the city‟s emissions as a whole.
used to be worked around was the Home Energy So our ability to influence the city‟s emissions is a
Conservation Act. That‟s been done away with in lot less than people ever imagine. Even if you took
the Energy Act. So the one left are the national a fairly broad view of our influence in planning,
indicators which are certainly not legislative but transport, housing, it‟s still leaving a hell of a lot of,
they are targets we go for which are NI185 and NI you know, responsibility to others.
186.... (Interview with Yorkshire and Humber based
Interviewer: So these targets still exist?
Whilst the removal of prescription and
Carbon Practitioner: They are sort of, it‟ a bit legislation at the local level does characterise a shift
unclear as government have taken the focus away away from government towards governance, all
from indicators but actually they do still exist, which interviewees felt this was unlikely to deliver scale of
possibly doesn‟t make an awful lot of sense. So carbon reductions being proposed in municipal
really for a local authority there‟s nothing that says strategies such as 34-40% reductions on 2005 levels
that we have to [act on carbon emissions]. by 2020. The Climate Change Act 2008 was
mentioned by all interviewees as a national driver.
However where this Act is operationalised at a local
authority level is mainly in Municipalities having transport system‟ (hereafter the Roadmap). This
regard for the headline emission reductions in white paper sets out key interventions within the
climate change strategies. power of the European Union under the auspices of
several articles of the Treaty for the Functioning of
Transport the European Union (TFEU). The white paper
includes a headline carbon emissions reduction of
“The responsibility for urban mobility policies 60% on 1990 levels by 2050. This is below the 80%
lies primarily with local, regional and national by 1990 levels agreed upon for the territory as a
authorities.” whole, on account of the significant growth in
transport related carbon emissions across the EU
(EU Comission on Urban Mobilities 2009 p2) meaning even a 20% cut from 2008 levels would
still place emissions 8% over 1990 levels. In short,
As the EU concedes above, much of the
transport has a long way to go. As regards urban
governance of transport in city regions is at national
mobility:
and sub national level. There are plenty of examples
however of cooperation and interlocution between “Developing efficient transport systems in urban
city regions across state borders (Bulkeley 2005). It areas has become an increasingly complex task with
is important however to outline the major policy both congested cities and greater urban sprawl.
levels at which transport is governed and the key Public authorities have an essential role in
policies and strategies which characterise transport providing the planning, the funding and the
governance. regulatory framework. The EU can stimulate
authorities at local, regional and national level to
EU
adopt the long-term integrated policies that are very
In 2011 the European Commission published much needed in complex environments..” (EU
„Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Action Plan on Urban Mobility 2009 p4).
Towards a competitive and resource efficient

The Roadmap seems to suggest that everything 1. Deliver the Coalition‟s commitments on
can get better everywhere, freight and air travel can high speed rail
grow whilst mobilities increase for all. In fact on 2. Secure our railways for the future
Page 5 a single sentence makes up the fourth 3. Encourage sustainable local travel
paragraph under „A vision for a competitive and 4. Tackle carbon and congestion on our roads
sustainable transport system.‟ This sentence reads 5. Promote sustainable aviation
simply: Curbing mobility is not an option. (EC 2011
P5). Of 133 measures proposed in the document 1 and 5 are beyond the scope of this research in a
only 14 directly relate to reductions in CO2 city regional context. This is not to suggest aviation
emissions (10.5%). Whilst the rest specifically aim and high speed rail are not significant factors in
to increase either the speed, volume or efficiency of carbon control/city regional governance and
movement from air travel to maritime freight. The competitiveness; but they are currently a long way
assessment of impacts of this white paper tests four from being within the purview of municipal
policy packages from the 133 options and out of 25 administrations in the UK.
criteria ranging from biodiversity to economic
growth finds only the climate change element to Under the priority of securing railways for the
show strong improvement across all packages. future, the business plan aims to identify the current
Clearly there is scope for investigating the carbon issues and “change rail franchise terms to give
modelling methodologies that arrive at this operators the incentive to deliver better services,
conclusion and the inherent assumptions made. better stations, longer trains and better rolling stock”
Though this research lies outside the scope of this (DFT 2010). This will be accompanied by support
paper, the wider research driving this study will for capacity improvements and electrification of the
engage with the quantifiable elements of this work. rail network. Under „encourage sustainable local
Within the Roadmap it is acknowledged that the two travel‟ the business plan is more prescriptive.
main market based instruments operated at EU level Essentially plans consist of the removal of
controlling CO2 emissions are fuel taxation and significant amounts of funding currently under the
emissions trading. Vehicle emissions standards are control of municipalities in favour of centralisation
also within the purview of the EU and are included of grant funding to be operated under a competitive
in the analysis. bidding process. This is also the case for public
transport improvements. Some devolution and
UK simplification of powers is also carried through from
the Local Transport Act 2008. With regards to
The institutional policy landscape governing „tackling carbon and congestion on our roads‟ the
transport in the UK has become increasingly plan is primarily focused on speeding up the
complex in recent years as various intermediate adoption of plug in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs)
levels of governance between local authorities and via a mix of infrastructure investment and vehicle
central government have acquired new prominence subsidy. This broadly fits with the technocentric
(MacKinnon and Vigar 2008). Within the transport approach adopted by the EU Roadmap, and might
governance landscape there is an explicit be considered unsurprising as it entails continuing
requirement to account for the environmental public subsidy to the automotive industry, with
impacts of transportation. Indeed the Department for which the UK government is familiar and
Transport‟s (DFT‟s) overarching vision in their comfortable. There are also some location specific
2011-2015 business plan begins with the following: schemes alongside targeted capacity improvements.
Our vision is for a transport system that is an Both the headline EU and UK documents are a
engine for economic growth but one that is also demonstrable attempt at „carbon/capital fixes‟. The
greener and safer and improves quality of life in our prioritisation of subsidising the uptake of PHEVs (to
communities. By improving the links that help to the tune of up to £5000 per vehicle) is an example of
move goods and people around, and by targeting perpetuation of current personalised automobility
investment in new projects that promote green and industrial subsidy, albeit legitimised by the
growth, we can help to build the balanced, dynamic carbon element of the carbon/capital fix. In this case
and low-carbon economy that is essential for our purchases of PHEVs costing upwards of £10,000
future prosperity. including subsidy are clearly only making low
(DFT Business plan 2011-2015, p2) carbon automobility available to those on higher
and/or dual incomes. Equity issues in subsidising
Within this policy document there are five eco-boutique middle class lifestyles may be a rich
„structural reform priorities‟ set out:

avenue for researching the legitimacy and class priorities and undertaking activities to drive
stratification of low carbon governance in the city. economic growth and the creation of local jobs.”
(DCLG 2010). This removal of regional agencies is
Cities and Regions already showing effects on the material
infrastructure of Yorkshire and Humber cities and
The main mechanisms through which marks a significant reterritorialisation of governance
municipalities govern transport infrastructure are affecting two key governing strategies and their
Local Transport Plans and Local Development associated partnerships, officers and norms. This has
Frameworks (spatial planning). effects on existing governance structures (such as
current local strategic partnerships or LSPs) and is
Local Transport Plans (LTPs) are developed by causing some anxiety over the scope and power of
municipalities or Integrated Transport Authorities what is intended to be a private enterprise led
(ITAs) and are required (outside London) under The partnership:
Transport Act 2000, as amended by the Local
Transport Act 2008. LTPs set out the authorities‟ Once a LEP gets up and running I can see for
strategy, implementation plan and targets for example if you‟ve got groups that are looking at
improving transport in their communities. Typically environment, transport, culture whatever. „Oh
LTPs can cover reasonably large schemes such as tourism‟ from the culture bit, „Oh surely we should
the implementation of citywide park and ride be doing something on that in the LEP‟. „Oh natural
facilities or light rail down to small scale environment, that provides services that the
neighbourhood and individual capacity economy needs, surely we should have a group like
improvements. The assessment of the inherent that‟. When LEPs become more important and start
carbon trajectories inferred by these strategies will to have a bit of funding, people are going to drift
form a key element to this research and is discussed away from the LSP because the LSP‟s got no money
in the analysis section of this paper. LTPs are no clout, basically nobody‟s ever heard of an LSP
required to be produced with regard to the Local outside of a council. So I think potentially LEPs will
Strategic Partnership‟s Sustainable Community overtake LSPs and LSPs will become completely
Plan. redundant, or be left with basically work that is
public authorities working together on certain
Local Development Frameworks (LDFs) must be things maybe like healthcare or adult social care or
developed by municipalities under the Planning and things like that.
Compulsory Purchase Act 2004. Planning Policy
Statement 12 outlines the expected structure of (Interview with Yorkshire and Humber based
Local Development Frameworks that must include carbon practitioner, April 2011)
information on the locations of strategic
developments (including transportation I think the very fact that they [LEPs] are
infrastructure) (PPS12 2008). Currently there are business led has changed things. The LEPs have a
plans for a new National Planning Policy business chair to them so that immediately changes
Framework intended to consolidate much of the the emphasis. I‟m not sure how actually.... the
current guidance (such as PPS 12) into a single practicalities of.... you have got to be democratically
national framework. However, as outlined above the accountable, there has got to be a balance
status of current planning guidance is questionable somewhere, but how that plays out.... I‟m not that
in light of a thorough review of the planning system. clear in my mind how that will work.
LTPs and LDFs are statutory plans governing (Interview with Yorkshire and Humber based
transport and land use in Yorkshire and Humber city carbon practitioner, April 2011)
regions. Prior to the election of the Coalition
Government in 2010 both of these documents (in Previous attempts to characterise the governance
particular the LDF) were expected to be in „general landscape of mobility and carbon in the UK are few,
conformity‟ with the Regional Spatial Strategy or however Marsden and Rye (2009) offer a treatment
„RSS‟ (Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act of the governance of transport and climate change in
2004). As the entire layer of regional governance is the UK. The analysis is broken down into three
now being repealed a significant change has questions:
occurred in the governance landscape in English
regions. Currently the formation of Local Enterprise 1) What type of policy problem is climate
Partnerships or „LEPs‟ is being proposed to “take change?
control of their future economic development” and
“play a central role in determining local economic
2) What policies and actions are required 2) That the identification of discrete or
to achieve a substantial shift to a nested territorial levels of decision
lower carbon transport system? making is becoming more difficult in
the context of complex overlapping
3) What is the environment in which such networks.
policies are formulated and
delivered? 3) That in this changing context the
role of the state is being transformed as
The methodology adopted is a multi level state actors develop new strategies of
governance analysis. Ian Bache, a main protagonist coordination, steering and networking
and proponent of multilevel governance as an to protect and in some cases enhance
analysis methodology, describes the central areas of state autonomy.
agreement within the discourse:
4) In this changing context the nature
1) That decision making at various of democratic accountability is being
territorial levels is characterized by the challenged.
increased participation of non-state
actors. (Bache and Flinders 2004, p197, in Bache 2008,
p28)
Figure 2. Simplified industrial relationships in England and Scotland
Using this framework to articulate environmental 2009 p6) above offers a simplified diagram of
governance of transport in England and Scotland institutional relationships. Type 1 institutions are
Marsden and Rye used a key figure to illustrate the multi task, statutory jurisdictions whose territories
governance landscape. Figure 2 (Marsden & Rye do not overlap. Type 2 institutions are either single
task, such as the highways agency, or issue specific proposes a current multilevel governance
and overlapping at territorial levels such as Friends representation for England. The emerging
of the Earth, or informal groupings. relationships around the Local Economic
Partnerships will differ in each LEP dependent upon
The above institutional relationships in figure 2 the makeup of the private sector in each area and the
have changed markedly since this research was relative importance assigned to transport. Marsden
published and the arrangement of institutional and Rye (2009) outline the potential interventions at
governance even varies across Yorkshire and the local, sub-regional, regional and national levels with
Humber. With a current lack of any institution to some treatment of international (European)
replace Government Offices for the regions, interventions. Appendix 2 shows Marsden and
Regional Development Agencies and the scrapping Rye‟s account of where individual powers lay at the
of Integrated Regional Strategies there is a stripping time of writing regarding local arrangements.
out of a tier of governance. Furthermore the Appendix 2 also comments on the use of these
emergent Local Economic Partnerships are all either powers.
in their infancy or not yet approved. Figure 3
Figure 3. Established institutional relationship

Though the Local Transport Act 2008 adds more undertake similar modelling exercises to inform
powers regarding the operation of the bus network their respective climate change strategies and to be
much of the analysis in appendix 2 still stands. Hull used to lobby transport, housing and land use policy.
(2008) investigates the organisational and A key element of the modelling stage is the
institutional issues of policy integration for parameters chosen to effect measures. In 2008 the
sustainable transport using a case study analysis for now dismantled Yorkshire and Humber Regional
which local authorities are selected as the subjects. Assembly (YHRA) published „Achieving low
Hull finds that a mismatch of policy aims, carbon and sustainable transport systems in
institutional agendas and territorial scales hinders Yorkshire and Humber‟ The report is similar to the
the adoption of sustainable transport interventions at LCC 2010 report above in that carbon emission
the city regional scale. Arguably this research shows reduction projections are modelled over a defined
this scalar and institutional mismatch is increasing. territorial scale (this time Yorkshire and the
Humber) to assess potential emissions reductions for
different policy packages. The parameters selected
Governing across scales, governing across
for emissions reductions drive the output of the
sectors.
model. For example the light rail maximum
emission reductions were drawn from the best
Since much of the carbon control measures in the practise case studies of London, Tyne and Wear,
transport sector that are based at a municipal scale Manchester, Sheffield, Birmingham and
are either weakly applied or have little effect on Nottingham. The report very explicitly does not
overall carbon emissions, the question arises. „What entertain more ambitious parameters from
are the measures that will contribute to a substantive international examples:
reduction in greenhouse gases from transportation?‟
In answer to this one interviewee cited a recent “The evidence used within the modelling has
study on the likely carbon emissions reductions focused on measures that have a proven record
from a whole range of policy packages across the within a context broadly similar to the Yorkshire
city. and Humber region, that is to say, can be delivered
within the UK or similar contexts. For this reason
“... when you look at the modelling work that we many best practice examples of delivering
did. When we looked at transport the single biggest behavioural change through reducing distances
hit on carbon emissions across all sectors was travelled and promoting mode shift from the car
what‟s come out of the European Union in terms of from outside the UK have not been used unless a
their emissions targets/levels for cars. When you suitable UK source was not readily available to
multiply that up by the amount of road transport derive inputs to the modelling, as the effects in the
that there is and the scale of change that the EU is UK context may be different.” (YHRA 2008 p10)
trying to bring through it‟s the single biggest hit. So
in effect we could do absolutely nothing with our The YHRA 2008 report actively acknowledges
public transport schemes. Congestion would be still that even though the package of emission reduction
just as bad as it was but you can envisage that in ten measures arises from interventions within the scope
years time the carbon emissions will actually be a of regional policy, the cumulative interventions
lot lower. Which is interesting, but it doesn‟t help required to achieve a significant reduction in
the kind of arguments were trying to make for bus emissions is way beyond the current levels and
and public transport including active travel.” capacity of investment, governance and transport
planning in the region.
(Interview with Yorkshire and Humber based
carbon practitioner, April2011) This view was confirmed by all interviewees
answering the question, „Do you think the current
Figure 4 shows the results of the modelling in LTP, the current LDF, are likely to achieve the
question in terms of CO2 saved on 2005 levels by reductions necessary on a territorial basis?‟
2020. It is worth noting that even with full
application of all these policy packages, some of No. I just, what I know of the LTP it talks about,
which are outside of the governance scope of the uses the word sustainable a lot but doesn‟t have any
city region, the predicted reduction was 38.5% on concept really about what that means. It talks about
2005 levels, 1.5% short of the municipalities target. it and says this will be a sustainable this and a
sustainable that but it doesn‟t really give discrete
What is important about this study is that most actions and doesn‟t really quantify what that would
municipalities in Yorkshire and Humber are about to mean so it‟s notionally a part of what they are doing
and they have added the word sustainable a lot it
doesn‟t actually, it‟s not a focus of what they are LDF. From what I have seen. Other people have
doing. The focus is economic growth or providing said that as well like Strategic Environmental
better access or whatever and that carbon emissions Assessment of the LDF that have said, you know
reductions are kind of a side thing and if that „You will not deliver‟... what you said.... „this will
happens and they can mention it and it happens to not deliver what you have said it will deliver [in
do it that‟s fine but that‟s not going to be a driver terms of carbon emission reductions].
for.... and I think it‟s pretty much the same for the
Figure 4. Results of the modelling in question in terms of CO2
(Interview with Yorkshire and Humber based development to activate the „policy levers‟
carbon practitioner, April2011) available.
I don‟t think the development frameworks or the All interviewees reported that municipalities do
LTPs are going to deliver that at all. Because with not have the capacity in terms of legitimacy,
the core strategies there‟s a real issue right now, resources or drivers to bring about the levels of
about the emphasis being on jobs, and we‟ve seen change required within their respective territories.
SPDs being relaxed to facilitate this and we‟ve got Though this is not novel knowledge, all
the enterprise zones stuff coming through now interviewees reported no prospect of the situation
which is going to take more of the levers that we had improving with regard to capacity in the public
with the core strategy and the development sector. All five interviewees suggested more
frameworks away. So I think that‟s going to be a partnership working to find organisational and
real issue for us. project structures that are private enterprise
orientated will most likely form the basis of any
(Interview with Yorkshire and Humber based future low carbon interventions.
“I think it‟s just a different kind of attitude in the
An important insight was that many of the UK where on the continent there‟s a kind of
carbon control measures that are available to local acceptance that the state needs to pay for mobility,
authorities are dependent on some form of capital pay for public transport you know, make the

investment there, make the subsidies to make it Those institutions governing transport have little
attractive. Whereas here the market economy seems influence or incentive to strengthen the carbon
to be overriding everything in that were not willing control element of their capacity. In order to bring
to subsidise this, and surprise surprise it‟s difficult about substantive reductions in emissions from
to make the bus schemes work... well, anywhere.” transport, research must investigate circumstances in
which city regions have achieved a „capital/carbon
(Interview with Yorkshire and Humber based fix‟ that both delivers the low carbon agenda and
carbon practitioner, April2011) provides opportunities for private sector investment
and growth. The ramifications of municipalities
“...a lot of it really comes down to leadership. seeking to govern carbon emissions within their city
Manchester always talks a really good game but regions through this approach will most likely be
they have got lots of very very strong committees, played out within Local Economic Partnerships.
political leadership, industry leadership which I There is no clear drive from Government for LEPs
think gives potential investors the confidence to to engage in any meaningful way on emissions
come start doing work in the city. I think you have reduction. There is a lack of sufficient capacity to
got to accept that local authorities‟ roles are going act at the city regional scale should such a priority
to change dramatically over the next 5 years or so. be identified and the sheer scale of change required
We are going to be slimmed down or slashed. Our to reduce emissions to by 34% or 40% by 2020 is
capacity to directly deliver the things we know need unappreciated at the moment. Given this picture
to happen on the low carbon is generally not going there is an urgent need within English city regions to
to be there.” identify where the „carbon/capital fix‟ is going to
come from. The continuation of this research will
(Interview with Yorkshire and Humber based answer the question, „where in the developed world
carbon practitioner, April2011) are there examples of this fix that can be mapped
onto English city regions?‟
IV. CONCLUSION
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[15] Great Britain (2004) Planning and Compulsory [29] Schroeder, H., Bulkeley, H., (2009) Global cities and
Purchase Act 2004, London, HMSO. the governance of climate change: what is the role of
[16] Great Britain (2008) Climate Change Act 2008, law in cities? Fordham Urban Law
London, HMSO. Journal.XXXVI:313-359.
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London, HMSO for Leeds: Pathways to a 40% Reduction, Leeds City
[18] Hull, A., (2008) Policy Integration: What will it take Council, University of Leeds, Leeds.
to achieve more sustainable transport solutions in [31] Stead, D., Geerlings, H., Meijers, E., (2004) Policy
cities?, Transport Policy, 15: 94-103. integration in practice: The integration of land use
[19] Jonas, A.E.G., While A. and Gibbs, D. (2010) planning transport and environmental policy-making
„Carbon control regimes, eco-state restructuring and in Denmark, England and Germany, DUP Science,
the politics of local and regional development‟ in A. Delft.
Pike, A. Rodriguez-Posé and J. Tomaney (eds.) [32] Taaffe, E.J, Morrill, R.L, Gould, P.R., (1963)
Handbook of Local and Regional Development Transport Expansion in Underdeveloped Countries:
(Routledge). A Comparative Analysis, Geographical Review
[20] Local Government Association, (2011) LGA 53(4): 503-529
Briefing: Energy Bill Report Stage, House of Lords, [33] While, A., Jonas, A.E.G., Gibbs, D., (2010) From
LGA Accessed online March 2011, Website: sustainable development to carbon control: the eco-
http://www.lga.gov.uk/lga/aio/17124365 restructuring of the state and the politics of urban and
[21] MacKinnon, D., Vigar, G., (2008) Devolution and regional development, Transactions Institute of
the UK‟s new transport policy landscape. In, British Geographers, 35(1): 76-93
Docherty, I., Shaw, J., (2008) Traffic Jam: Ten years [34] While, A., Jonas, A.E.G., Gibbs, D., (2004) The
of „sustainable‟ transport in the UK, Policy Press, environment and the entrepreneurial city: securing a
Bristol. p29-48. „sustainability fix‟ in Leeds and Manchester,
[22] Marcotullio PJ, McGranahan G (eds) (2007) Scaling International Journal of Urban and Regional
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/63594.aspx Assembly.

Appendix 1. Scale, Scope, Enforcement and Compliance with UK Carbon Control Measures

Appendix 1 continued.

Appendix 2. Emissions reductions powers and enactment (transport).

Implications of EU directives for exhaust

emission in the Serbian market
Jevto Lučić, Dipl.-Ing. Prof. Dr. Nenad Zrnić Dipl.-Ing.
Department for Material Handling, Department for Material Handling,
Constructions and Logistics Constructions and Logistics
University of Belgrade, Faculty of University of Belgrade, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering Mechanical Engineering
Abstract— As transport volume continues to grow, it climate change that can have implications on life we
is more and more important to revise and evaluate know. Gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, water
measures defined and implemented in order to decrease vapour are a natural constituent of the Earth’s
emissions in road transport, to recognize characteristics atmosphere. The proportion of gases emitted in air
of different markets and to find additional alternative
measures that could, together with existing ones, help
caused by human intervention makes greenhouse
reduction of vehicles exhaust emission. One of the main effect, known as the anthropogenic greenhouse
measures implemented to reduce harmful emission in effect. The main causes of greenhouse gases are
road transport is implementation of so called EURO shown on Figure 1 [2].
standards. These mandatory standards, defined by EU In order to stabilize and reduce this effect,
directives, besides noise, limit the permitted level of CO,
HC, NOx, particles and smoke, emitted by vehicles. By United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
implementation of these standards, the permitted level of Change (UNFCCC) adopted Kyoto Protocol on 11
emitted gases decreased significantly (from EURO 1 to December 1997. Under this protocol countries that
nowadays mandatory EURO5, CO emission decreased signed it committed themselves that will reduce
for 69.39%, HC decreased for 62.6%, NOx decreased for greenhouse gases emission at a level that would
77.78%, while particle emission decreased for 95%) [1]. prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with
In developing countries, such as Serbia, decarbonisation the climate system. As of July 2010, 191 states have
process/ transport increase ratio, together with the signed and ratified the protocol (Serbia, as a
specific situation on the market and economic slowdown UNFCCC member, ratified the protocol on 24
makes EURO standards insufficient as a main tool for
September 2007) [3].
exhaust emission decrease. Average age of the vehicles is
too high, and new vehicles import is insignificant in The gases controlled under the Kyoto protocol
comparison with the total number of registered vehicles. include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
This situation needs recognition of feasible additional nitrous oxide (N2O), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and
measures, and their implementation, both at a two groups of gases- fluorohydrocarbons and
governmental and at a vehicle owner's level. This paper
will focus on EU directives introduced to reduce vehicles
perfluorocarbons (HFCs), and their effect is shown
exhaust emission and their implication on Serbian on Figure 2 [2].
market. We will try to define alternative measures, that,
together with existing ones, can help us achieve the goal
to make transport more climate friendly.
Keywords— Anthropogenic greenhouse gases, Waste; 2.8%
Energy producers;
exhaust emission, alternative measures Households; 7.9%
25.9%
Transport; 13.1%
I. ANTHROPOGENIC GREENHOUSE GASES

Agriculture; 13.5%
Industry; 19.4%
Civilization, with its progress, brings many side Forestry; 17.4%

effects. Growing population, agriculture, forestry,
industrial revolution reliance on fossil fuels and
transport increment brought us a significant increase
of pollutant emissions emitted in atmosphere and is Figure 1. The main causes of greenhouse gases [2]
responsible for global warming. This could bring us

Council Directive 70/220/EEC, with measures to be

HFCs; 1.1%
taken against air pollution by gases from positive-
N2O; 7.9%
ignition engines of motor vehicles. Since than,
CH4; 14.3% European Commission developed more than 24
Directives and amendments that treat air pollution
[1]. From beginning of 1990, European Commission
introduced EURO norms which strengthen, besides
vehicle noise, maximum permissive values of
carbon monoxide, particulates, nitrogen oxide and
CO2; 76.7%
hydrocarbons. More stringent limits are introduced
on 13 October 1998 with Directive 98/69/EC and
defined EURO 3 vehicles which became mandatory
Figure 2. Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in in 2001. Nowadays Euro 5 emission norms are
2004 [2] mandatory in most markets of Europe, not only in
European Union. By implementation, emissions of
air pollutant gases from motor vehicles are
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are the largest decreased significantly (from 69.39% for CO, to
source of greenhouse gas emissions, which 95.56% for NOx) [1], shown on Figures 3, 4, 5 and
accounted for 76.7% of the anthropogenic 6.
greenhouse effect in 2004. CO2 is used as the
reference for measuring the amount of greenhouse Of course, not all these emissions norms are set
gases. Methane (CH4) is the main constituent of out to reduce all greenhouse gases, in particular
natural gas and biogas and is released mainly in CO2. However, since CO2 emissions directly
agriculture as a result of rearing cattle, or generated correlate to fuel consumption, by these measures
by the fermentation of organic matter (manure, fuel consumption has been reduced, in a field of
wastewater sludge, municipal solid waste or any heavy trucks even for 30%, which substantially
other biodegradable feedstock). It accounts for reduced CO2 emission, too.
approximately 14.3% of the anthropogenic
greenhouse effect, but has the greenhouse potential
which is 25 times higher that carbon dioxide
(calculated or a time period of 100 years). 6
4.9
Nitrous oxide (N2O) accounts for approximately 5
7.9% of the anthropogenic greenhouse effect, but
has 298 times higher greenhouse potential than 4
4
carbon dioxide (calculated or a time period of 100
years). Fluorohydrocarbons (HFCs) accounts for
CO
approximately 1.1% of the anthropogenic 3
[g/kWh]
greenhouse effect, and their greenhouse potential is 2.1
between 1,430 to 14,800 times higher (depending of
a type of fluorohydrocarbons) than carbon dioxide 2 1.5 1.5 1.5
(calculated or a time period of 100 years). Sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) is the most potent greenhouse 1
gas, with its potential which is 22,800 times higher
that carbon dioxide (calculated or a time period of
100 years), but due to its low concentration in the 0
EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO
atmosphere, it has a minor affect on global warming 1 2 3 4 5 6
[4].
Figure 3. Permitted values of CO in EURO norms
Independently of EU Directives, emission

II. EURO EMISSION NORMS standards were established in USA and Japan with
aim to reduce air pollutant emissions from motor
In order to reduce air pollution by motor vehicles. Since these standards are developed
vehicles, on 20 March 1970, European Economic separately, different test procedures and limits
Community (European Union at present) introduced makes them non-comparable with EU standards.

vehicles grew for 53%, from 96.890 to 148.252

1.4 units, shown in Table I and Figure 7 [5].
1.23
1.2 1.1
1 0.45
0.4
0.4
0.8
0.66 HC 0.35
[g/kWh]
0.6 0.3
0.46 0.46
0.4 0.25 Particles
0.2 [g/kWh]
0.2 0.13 0.15
0.15
0.1
0 0.1
EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO
1 2 3 4 5 6
0.05 0.02 0.02 0.02
0
Figure 4. Permitted values of HC in EURO norms EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO
1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 6. Permitted values of particles emissions in

10 EURO norms
9
9
8 Due to economic situation, renewal of the vehicle

7 market in Serbia is slow and is based mainly on used
7
vehicles import. Due to that, the share of new vehicle
6 sales in total number of registered vehicles through
5 NOx years vary from 2.58% to 3.54% for passenger cars,
5
[g/kWh] and from 1.1% to 4.52% for commercial vehicles
4 3.5 [6].
3
2
2 2.000.000
1.800.000
1 0.4
1.600.000
0 1.400.000 Special commercial vehicles

EURO 1 EURO 2 EURO 3 EURO 4 EURO 5 EURO 6 1.200.000 Commercial vehicles
Buses
1.000.000
Special passenger cars
800.000
Passenger cars
Figure 5. Permitted values of NOx in EURO norms 600.000 Motorcycles
400.000
200.000
0
III. CONDITIONS IN SERBIAN MARKET 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Long period of international economic sanctions Figure 7.Number of registered vehicles in Serbia through
years [5]
in the last decade of 20th century and NATO
bombing in 1999 halved the Serbian economy in
comparison to 1990. Serbia entered in 21st century From 2006 till end of 2009 only 189.159 new
with old and outdated vehicle fleet. Significant passenger cars were sold in Serbian market, which is
vehicles sales started in 2002, after the change in 11.52% of total number of passenger cars registered
local regulations, which enabled financing from in 2009.In order to renew the vehicle market in
banks and leasing companies. Total number of Serbia and to lower the vehicles exhaust emission,
registered passenger cars from 2002 till 2009 raised on December 2005 Serbian government adopted the
for 22%, from 1.343.658 to 1.641.351 units. For the regulation that limits the used vehicles import.
same period, number of registered commercial

TABLE I. NUMBER OF REGISTERED VEHICLES IN SERBIA THROUGH YEARS [5]

Special Special
Motorcycles Passenger cars passenger Buses Commercial vehicles commercial
cars vehicles
2004 14.824 1.455.059 16.525 9.211 110.075 28.179
2005 16.042 1.481.497 15.920 9.696 116.440 28.222
2006 20.380 1.511.837 15.109 9.312 126.045 27.498
2007 24.897 1.476.642 14.574 8.887 129.877 25.802
2008 31.803 1.486.608 13.574 8.557 139.331 24.169
2009 34.497 1.641.351 13.475 8.853 148.252 23.597
This regulation prohibited the import of used import of 11 years old vehicles since Directive
vehicles which are not produced at least according 98/69/EC started to be obligatory on 2001, and
to Euro 3 norms. In that time, this regulation vehicles that comply Euro 3 norms were entered
allowed import of used vehicles that were 5 years into production in 2000. According to the research
old and younger. This regulation, still valid, is of TGI Serbia, Mediana Adria, the average age of
allowing nowadays import of 11 years old vehicles vehicle in Serbia in 2010 was 13.8 years [7].
since Directive 98/69/EC started to be obligatory on
2001, and vehicles that comply Euro 3 norms were
entered into production in 2000. According to the IV ALTERNATIVE MEASURES THAT CAN BE
research of TGI Serbia, Mediana Adria, the average IMPLEMENTED
age of vehicle in Serbia in 2010 was 13.8 years [7].
Due to economic situation in Serbia and global
economic crisis we can not expect that in short term
TABLE II. NEW VEHICLES SALES THROUGH YEARS [6] period intermodal transport could be improved, that
necessary investment in transport infrastructure will
New take place, nor that average age of the vehicles in
New The The
Commercial Serbia will be renewed. Therefore, it is necessary to
Passenger reof reof
vehicles introduce additional measures to reduce emission
cars sales Trucks Vans
sales
levels that will, together with major investments in
2005 38.276 2.752 838 1.914 transport sector, bring reduction of exhaust
emission.
2006 41.116 3.032 1.055 1.977
2007 51.712 5.667 2.347 3.320
In general, measures that can bring reduction in
exhaust emission can be divided into two groups:
2008 52.564 6.292 2494 3.798 Governmental liabilities and individual liabilities,
2009 43.767 2.280 532 1.748 obligatory and voluntary.
2010 39.828 1.550 438 1.112 A. Governmental liabilities:
From 2006 till end of 2009 only 189.159 new  Revitalisation of existed roads
passenger cars were sold in Serbian market, which is  Investment in new roads
11.52% of total number of passenger cars registered
in 2009.  Railway electrification and revitalisation
In order to renew the vehicle market in Serbia  Public transport promoting as alternative to
and to lower the vehicles exhaust emission, on personal vehicles use
December 2005 Serbian government adopted the
regulation that limits the used vehicles import. This  Implementation of Euro zones in cities
regulation prohibited the import of used vehicles  Support alternative transportation
which are not produced at least according to Euro 3
norms. In that time, this regulation allowed import  Better fuel quality control
of used vehicles that were 5 years old and younger.  Subventions for purchase vehicles with
This regulation, still valid, is allowing nowadays alternative drive systems

 Bonus schemes for catalytic converters C. Voluntary individual liabilities:

retrofitting  Catalytic converters retrofitting to reduce
 Travel awareness campaigns exhaust emission
 Change in Style of driving through Eco-
B. Obligatory individual liabilities: driving trainings
 Periodic measures of exhaust emission for
 Use of optimum tyre type, profile and
vehicles older than 5 years
pressure
 Fuel taxes
 Use of alternative transportation
 Vehicle taxes
 Use (purchase) vehicles with alternative drive
 Parking charges systems
TABLE III. NEW VEHICLES SALES/ TOTAL REGISTERED VEHICLES RATIO [5], [6]
Total PC Thereof new PC % Total CV Thereof new CV %
2004 1.455.059 - - 109.292 1.207 1.10%
2005 1.481.497 38.276 2.58% 116.440 2.752 2.36%
2006 1.511.837 41.116 2.72% 126.045 3.032 2.41%
2007 1.476.642 51.712 3.50% 129.877 5.667 4.36%
2008 1.486.608 52.564 3.54% 139.331 6.292 4.52%
2009 1.641.351 43.767 2.67% 148.252 2.280 1.54%
Governmental liabilities are set of measures that Individual liabilities are set of measures that are
cover major investments in infrastructure, such as responsibilities of vehicle users. Obligatory periodic
revitalization of existing and building new roads and measures of exhaust emission for vehicles older than
railway revitalization and electrification to increase 5 years can raise awareness of vehicle condition and
intermodal transport. These major investments can lead to catalytic converters retrofitting, which will
significantly reduce greenhouse gas emission, reduce exhaust emission. Higher fuel taxes and
estimation is that improved traffic management can higher registration fees for vehicles with lower Euro
reduce own emission for up to 10%, and by norm emission will affect renewal of vehicle in
electrification railway can reduce own emission from Serbian market. Choosing the right tyres and
20-40% [8]. Furthermore, it is confirmed that changing the style of driving through Eco-driving
intermodal transport emits less CO2 emission in trainings can help, too. Training 1% of all drivers
general in Europe, even if we consider source of would result in a 3% reduction in fuel consumption
electricity [9]. Besides them, there are additional by 2020 [10].
measures that don’t require major investments, such
We all have to be aware that only wide variety of
as public transport promotion, alternative transport
measures together with raised awareness of this
support, travel awareness campaigns and
problem can reduce exhaust emission, and help
implementation of city zones where vehicles with
reducing global warming.
lower Euro norms emission can not enter [10]. This
can downsize number of passenger cars, which is
estimated as major potential for reducing of
REFERENCES
greenhouse gas emission [8]. Serbian government
has already set subventions for purchasing vehicles
with alternative drive systems with approx. 1.000 € [1] Regulation (EC) No 715/2007 Of The European
in local currency. Additional measures such as Parliament, Official Journal of the European Union,
2007.
promotion of catalytic converters retrofitting with
[2] Rogner, H.-H., D. Zhou, R. Bradley. P. Crabbé, O.
reduction in taxes can help reducing exhaust Edenhofer, B.Hare (Australia), L. Kuijpers, M.
emission of existing vehicles in Serbian market. Yamaguchi, 2007: Introduction. In Climate Change
2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III
to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B.

Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. [7] TGI Target Group Index Serbia, Mediana Adria
Meyer (eds)], Cambridge University Press, Institute for Market and Media Research, 2010.
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, [8] H.N. Psarafitis, AIRO 2010 Green Intermodal
USA, 2007 Logistics, Laboratory for Maritime Transport,
[3] www.wikipedia.org, accessed on 03.03.2011. National Technical University of Athens, 2010
[4] J. S. Fuglesvedt, K.P. Shine, T. Berntsen, J. Cook, [9] Kim, N. S, Van Wee, B, Assessment of CO2
Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: emissions for Intermodal Freight Transport Systems
Metrics, Atmospheric Environment 44, 2010, pp. and Truck-Only System: a Case Study of the
4648–4677. Western-Europe Corridor, Transportation Research
[5] Transport, storage and communications, 2009, Board 88th Annual Meeting, Washington DC, 2009
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, No. 534, [10] Towards a resource-efficient transport system,
2011, pp. 343-358. TERM 2009: indicators tracking transport and
[6] Regular monthly new cars sales research – in environment in the European Union, EEA Report,
Serbian, AutoPuls 2011, Auto Magazin in No.2, 2010
cooperation with the Serbian Association of Vehicle
Importers, 2011.

Stakeholders engagement in municipal

transportation programs
Comparison between Poland and Germany. Recommendations for Poland.
Kinga Mazur
Poland.
Abstract— The aim of this article is to present the Raising awareness and a sense of responsibility
stage of cycling promotion in Poland and in Germany. for the environment among people would not be
The main focus lies on projects that have been created to possible without an access to information and
influence people’s behavior and to engage them on the chances of involvement in the decision-making
communication level, in the consultation field and
cooperative participation between municipalities and
processes. Citizens’ rights of gaining information,
local stakeholders. At the first stage, after interviews with participation in decision procedures and access to
mobility experts in Poland were conducted, information courts of law in all matters connected with the
about existing Polish projects had been collected. Fields environment have been stressed by the UNECE
of cycling promotion and stakeholder engagements Convention on Access to Information, Public
needing improvement were defined. After selecting Participation in Decision-making and Access to
ongoing projects and initiatives in Germany, municipality Justice in Environmental Matters, signed in Aarhus
representatives and members of local NGOs involved in 1998. 5 EU law was adapted to the Aarhus
were interviewed. The findings were used to form Convention requirement so now EU citizens have to
recommendations for Poland. In order to achieve be informed about and involved in certain decision
progress in Poland it is necessary to intensify the efforts
on integration of stakeholders in the planning and
processes.6
realization process of cycling projects. There are three basic strategies towards
sustainable transport - avoidance of transport (by
reduction of distances, avoidance of trips), more
I. INTRODUCTION efficient and environmentally friendly transport
technologies and modal shift in favor of public
transport and other non-car based modes (walking,
A shift towards sustainable transport and mobility cycling etc.).
in cities is necessary in order to diminish the
negative impact on the environment and improve In order to achieve significant modal shifts it is
quality of life of the citizens. The importance of necessary to combine classical transport policy
sustainable development and environmentally measures – so called “hard measures” (e.g.
friendly transport has been often addressed on the infrastructure development, building of new roads,
international level by UN (Rio Declaration on bicycle lanes etc.) – with “soft measures” which can
Environment and Development1, Agenda 212), and influence individuals’ perceptions and attitudes
the European Union (White Paper: European towards more sustainable modes (e.g. awareness
Transport Policy for 2010: time to decide – 20013, arising campaigns, better access to information). 7
Green Paper on Urban Mobility, Towards a New “Soft” measures most often enhance the
Culture for Urban Mobility – 2007).4 effectiveness of “hard” measures within urban
transport.
The aim of this article is to present examples of
1
http://habitat.igc.org/agenda21/rio-dec.htm
good-practice in promoting cycling and walking in
Germany and Poland. The main focus lies on
2
http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/res_agenda21_00.s
html?utm_source=OldRedirect&utm_medium=redirect&
5
utm_content=dsd&utm_campaign=OldRedirect http://www.unece.org/env/pp/
3 6
Directive 2003/35/EG Public participation in drawing
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/strategies/doc/2001_white_p up plans relating to the environment, and Directive
aper/lb_com_2001_0370_en.pdf 2003/4/EG Public access to environment information.
4 7
http://eur- Hard measures versus soft policies – sources Thematic
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2007/com2007_05 Research Summary: “Decision Support Tools” p. 25
51en01.pdf Transport Research Knowledge Centre p.25

communication measures and cooperation between with increasing exposure (the more people cycle, the
municipality and local stakeholders. safer it becomes.)14
In order to define main areas of soft measures in
B. Promotion
cycling promoting and stakeholder engagements that
need improvement in Poland, literature analysis, Sustainable transport has been supported in
analysis of existing databases, interviews with Germany for many years. First attempts to promote
mobility experts and urban planners in Poland and bicycle use date back to 70 and 80. 15 In those
Germany have been conducted. The next step was to decades, organizations representing the rights of
identify existing programs and projects in Germany non-motorized street users started to work
that deal with those challenges. After selecting such (Allgemeine Deutsche Fahrrad Club e. V. – ADFC
projects interviews with municipality representatives established in 1979, Fußgängerschutzverein FUSS
and members of local NGOs involved in that e.V. in 1985, Verkehrsclub Deutschland in 1986).
projects had been conducted. These organizations strive to improve the conditions
for cyclists and pedestrians. The ADFC is active as
an interest group of cyclists in many German towns
particularly in traffic politics. It offers advice on all
II. CYCLING IN GERMANY topics concerning bicycle and traffic, organizes
actions (like “Cycling to work”), publishes
comprehensive cycling maps and offers guided cycle
A. Characteristics tours. The ADFC has about 125,000 members. 16
In 2008 Germany’s average cycling mobility took FUSS e.V campaigns for the rights of pedestrians.
up about 10% of the modal split.8 Compared to 2002, VCD aims to represent the interests of consumers
the share of cycling increased by 1 percentage point. 9 and those traffic user who feel committed to
There are also cities where cycling reaches a much ecological mobility. It offers road safety programs
higher level (Freiburg 26% , Münster 35%). 10 It and campaigns for children (e.g. „Walk to school“,
shows that due to well implemented cycling policy, „FahrRad“). 17 Due to lobby work of those
its level can significantly rise. organizations many German cities started to invest in
cycling friendly infrastructure. Some of them created
Additionally, the number of dead and injured a special position in municipal offices
non-motorized road users in Germany decreases (“Fahrradbeauftragte”): Cycling officers that
steadily (numbers of fatalities have sunken by 60% coordinate all matters connected to or having
in comparison to 1991, amount of injured had influence on the condition of cycling in the city.
decreased by 19%) 11 In 2008, 79,423 cyclists got
injured and 453 died in accidents (5.5 deaths for 1 In order to improve conditions for cycling and
million inhabitants).12 Those numbers are relatively change the general public behavior when selecting
small considering the share of cycling in Germany – the mode of transport, the government has
on average, Germans cycle about 300 km per year. 13 introduced the National Cycling Plan for a period of
It confirms a general trend of decreasing cycle risk ten years (2002-2012). 18 Measures that encourage
14
P. L. Jacobsen Safety in numbers: more walkers and
8
Mobilität in Deutschland 2008 Ausgewählte Ergebnisse, bicyclists, safer walking and cycling Injury Prevention,
ADAC, p. 9. 2003, Vol. 9 pp 205-209.
15
http://www.adac.de/_mm/pdf/statistik_mobilitaet_in_deut Research study: Fahrrad in Nahverkehr commissioned
schland_0810_46603.pdf for Bundesbauministerium, Model project
9
Mobilität in Deutschland. Ergebnisbericht, BMVBW Fahrradfreundlische Stadt for Umweltbundesamt in the
2004 80.
16
10
Zweiter Bericht der Bundesregierung über die Situation http://www.adfc.de/
17
des Fahrradverkehrs in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, http://www.vcd.org/
2007 , p. 31 18
“With this National Cycling Plan the Federal
11
Unfallentwicklung auf deutschen Straßen 2008. Government wishes to initiate a broad social debate over
Germany Statistisches Bundesamt (Hrsg.), Wiesbaden new directions and implementation strategies for the
2009, p.10 promotion of cycling, to recommend procedures and to
12
Ibidem p. 27 contribute generally to a cycle-friendly climate on
Germany's roads and in our urban and rural areas.”
13
National Cycling Plan 2002-2012. Ride your bike!
http://www.bmu.de/verkehr/rad_fussverkehr/ueberblick_r Measures to promote cycling in Germany, BMWBW,
adverkehr/doc/41887.php April 2002

stakeholders dialogue (public relations, confirms a general trend that countries with little
communication processes) achieve support from the cycling have the highest accident rates.24
National Cycling Plan budget. 19 The Internet page
In spite of this alarming statistic, cycling is about
makes it easier for interested stakeholders to gain
to get more popular, especially in cities that started
access to information on cycling promotion, funding
to invest in cycling infrastructure. Generally,
opportunities and a databank of good practices from
according to various surveys conducted in Polish
Germany and other countries.20
cities, most citizens consider their city as not cycle
friendly, and wish to see more cycling infrastructure,
and safe places where they could leave their bike.
III. CYCLING IN POLAND They state that they would be ready to cycle in the
city if only a good developed infrastructure were
available.25
A. Characteristics
B. Promotion
Non-motorized mobility in Poland is not as
popular as in Germany. Although, according to In Poland the support of sustainable mobility has
statistical data, there is a bike in 64% of Polish been stressed in the general transport policy
homes, bicycle usage is not widespread. Cycling regulations. In Polityka transportowa państwa na
mobility constitutes about 1% - 3% of the Modal lata 2001- 2015 dla zrównoważonego rozwoju kraju
Split.21 – (Transport Policy for 2001-2015 for Sustainable
Development, 2001), introduced by the government,
In comparison to Germany polish non-motorized priority was given to public transport and non-
road users face higher accident and fatality risk. The motorized transport: cycling and walking. 26 In a
number of deaths among pedestrians in Poland is 2.7 following document formed by the Ministry of
times higher than in Germany (Poland 1,882, Infrastructure Polityka transportowa państwa 2006-
Germany 695). Despite the relatively low level of 2025 – (Transport Policy of Poland 2006-2025)
bicycle use the amount of fatal road accidents among improvement of city transportation and conditions
cyclist is the highest in the EU. (15.8 deaths for 1 for pedestrians and cyclists is listed as a priority. The
million of citizens in 2005, European Union’s importance of improving conditions for
average is four times smaller).22 In 2008 432 cyclists “unprotected” road users – children, pedestrians,
died in Poland and about 5,000 got injured. 23 It cyclist and disabled – is stressed. This aim should be
achieved by law changes, building cycling lanes and
establishing a protection system for the children on
their way to school. 27 Additionally, education,
information and image campaigns promoting non-
motorized transport in the cities are named in the
19
Zweiter Bericht der Bundesregierung über die Situation document as instruments of state support of
des Fahrradverkehrs in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, sustainable transport development in cities. 28 Both
2007 p. 4. policies do not specify or give details of how and
20
Ibidem , p. 7. with what measures these priorities and support
21 should be implemented. There is neither national
Modal split: walking - 21%, cycling - 2%, public
plan to improve cycling conditions nor a concept to
transport - 38%, car - 39%, (in Gdańsk). Dr inż. T. Kopta
Ruch rowerowy w Polsce na tle innych krajów UE, create it.
Departament Studiów GDDKiA, Kraków- Warszawa
2009.
22
Traffic Safety Basic Facts 2007, Bicycles, European 24
P. L. Jacobsen Safety in numbers: more walkers and
Road Safety Observatory bicyclists, safer walking and cycling Injury Prevention,
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/roadsafety_library/care/doc/s 2003, Vol. 9 pp 205-209.
afetynet/2007/bfs2007_sn-swov-13-bicycles.pdf
25
23 K. Kopta Rola roweru w polityce transportowej Polski i
Number of death cyclist is just a little bit lower than UE http://www.zm.org.pl/download/prezentacje/0911-
in Germany (Poland 432, Germany 453), despite the standardy-tk1.pdf
disproportion in population and cycling intensity.
26
Unfallentwicklung auf deutschen Straßen 2008. Germany Polityka transportowa państwa na lata 2001- 2015 dla
Statistisches Bundesamt (Hrsg.), Wiesbaden 2009, p. 27, zrównoważonego rozwoju kraju, Rada Ministrów 2001
Wypadki drogowe w Polsce w 2008 roku, Komenda 27
Polityka transportowa państwa 2006-2025
Główna Policji. Warszawa 2009, p. 40 Ministerstwo Infrastruktury, Warszawa 2005, p. 12
http://www.policja.pl/palm/pol/8/43149/Wypadki_dro
28
gowe_w_Polsce_w_2008_r.html Ibidem , p. 26-27

Positive changes that are now slowly taking place Due to lack of experts on national level in 2009
in Polish cities are mainly a result of constant lobby Generalna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad
work of local cycling and environment protection (General Directorate for National Roads and
NGOs, united since 1995 under the Miasta dla Motorways 33 ) decided to create a special unit for
Rowerów (MdR - Cities for Bicycles ) network. 29 cycling lanes and employ NGO experts. The unit
The main focuses of MdR are to improve cycling creates opinions about proposed investments on the
conditions in urban and suburban areas, the safety of national level. It also offers workshops for
non-motorized road users and promotion of cycling municipalities and infrastructure designers.
as an environmentally-friendly mean of transport. Workshops have been offered in all regions of
MdR strives to foster dialogue with the local Poland. NGOs and the Police have access to them as
governments and national institutions. It cooperates well.
with media in order to influence public opinion and
disseminate knowledge about cycling-friendly
solutions within local cycling organization, local
governments and national institutions (workshops, IV. STAKEHOLDERS ENGAGEMENT
consultations, seminars etc.).30 At the moment, MdR
mainly concentrates on lobbying for more
investment in cycling infrastructure (for example A. Definitions
new cycling lanes, making sure that planned Engaging stakeholders in the planning process
infrastructure is well designed and of a good has many benefits. Firstly, on a general level, giving
quality), by promoting solutions that make cycling in the local community the opportunity to take part in
the city easier and safer (such as Speed 30 zones, the planning process strengthens democracy, fosters
good signposting). An other goal is to introduce willingness to cooperation and improves public
changes to the Polish transportation law. acceptance of the project. 34 Secondly, productive
After joining the European Union many cities partnership between the project team and
took part in various European Union programs stakeholders can provide a new perspective on issues
supporting sustainable transport. 31 A few cities and find local solutions to tackle local challenges. 35
(Warsaw 2005-2007, Wrocław, Gdańsk, Tczew) On a practical level, dialogue with concerned groups
decided to establish a special administrative position helps the administration to identify stakeholders’
– a cycling officer who should take care and concerns at an early stage, which in turn helps to
coordinate all projects that have an impact on avoid legal action against the project, delays and
cycling and be responsible for dialogues and a good additional costs. ) 36
information exchange between city authorities and Stakeholder: Any individual, group or
other stakeholders.32 organization affected by a proposed project, or who
Cooperation between city municipalities and can affect a project and its implementation. This
local organizations has improved in recent years. In term includes the general public, as well as a wide
some cities local NGOs are regularly invited to range of other groups (e.g. businesses, public
meetings where bicycle topics are discussed. authorities and special interest groups)
Representatives of NGOs are visible in media. They
contact local newspapers, form groups on facebook, 33
engage members to write letters to local politicians It is the central authority of national administration set
and municipalities, organize cycling rides through up to manage the national roads and implementation of
the state budget in Poland.
city centers to attract attention. Politicians cannot http://www.gddkia.gov.pl/1062/gddkia-website
allow themselves to ignore the influence of a well-
34
organized lobby combined with the media pressure. H. Kemming, M. Stiewe u. a. Hrsg Nachhaltige
Verkehrspolitik - Akteure und Prozesse. Ein Leitfaden.
(ILS NRW) Dortmund 2010, Citizens as Partners:
29
http://www.miastadlarowerow.pl/ Information, consultation and public participation in
policy-making. OECD (2001)
30
35
http://miastadlarowerow.pl/index_o_nas.php?dzial=2&ka Successful transport decision-making – a project
t=8 management and stakeholder engagement handbook,
Guidemaps 2004, p. 67.
31
Krakow – Civitas Caravel, Gdynia - Civitas Tellus, 36
Kielce - UR-Bike, Lódź – STREEM. Ibidem p. 68, Compare A. Bischoff, K. Selle, H.
Sinning, Informieren, Beteiligen, Kooperieren. Eine
32
Gdańsk Übersicht zu Formen, Verfahren und Methoden.
http://www.gdansk.pl/komunikacja,256,14227.html, Kommunikation im Planungsprozess, Bd. 1, Dortmund
Wrocław http://www.wroclaw.pl/_39,1.dhtml 2005.

Engagement: the process of identifying and The campaign is part of a Zero Emission Mobility
incorporating stakeholder concerns, needs and values project of the German Federal Environmental
in the transport decision-making process. It is a two- Ministry. It started in 2009 and has been conducted
way communication process that provides a in selected cities, chosen in an annual nationwide
mechanism for exchanging information and competition. 38 The winners were awarded with the
promoting stakeholder interaction with the transport campaign and they receive expert support on its
project team. The overall goal of engagement is to preparation and implementation.
achieve a transparent decision-making process with
The campaign’s goal is to reduce CO2 emissions
greater input from stakeholders and their support of
by encouraging people to cycle and walk instead of
the decisions that are taken. 37
driving a car on short distances. It prepares people
for a change in their mobility, encourage them to
B. Degrees of Engagement
implement it and then help them to keep on their
The degree of involvement can vary depending new mobility custom. Furthermore, it consists of a
on the level of influence stakeholders have in the variety of posters, banners, radio advertisements, and
decision-taking process. There are three levels of other promotion material (“coaching packs”,
engagements. postcards) with clear messages appealing to peoples
Information – stakeholders receive information emotions. In addition to it, special events like city
about a planned action or decision. Yet they have no festivals or bicycle exhibitions were organized.
influence on the actions taken. Communication is During the campaign, cycling and walking were
one-sided, from the municipality to the citizens. presented as positive, attractive and climate-friendly
acts, a way to stay fit and healthy. Car users are
Consultation – stakeholders can express their provoked to consider environmentally friendly
opinion about the respective concept. By doing so mobility alternatives while bicycle users are
they can influence the decision but the degree of rewarded for their good deeds for the climate. 39 The
impact of their opinion can vary. Communication results of the monitoring showed that it was widely
goes both ways from the municipality to noticed and led to change or reconsidering of
stakeholders and back. (For example interviews, mobility style. 40
opinion surveys, meetings with stakeholders
representatives.) Another example of an image and information
campaign is Nürnberg steigt auf (Nuremberg mounts
Cooperative participation – stakeholders have a a bike) conducted in Nuremberg. The city adopted a
right to decide (for example by round tables, new cycling strategy at the end of 2009 in order to
mediation process). The level of influence is high improve the quality of life and decrease negative
and can lead to join decision with the political effects of growing motorized mobility. The aim of
decision makers. This type of engagement is highly the strategy is to create a cycling-friendly
intensive and requires two-sided communication. atmosphere, increase the modal share of cycling
from 11% in 2008 up to 20% in 2015 and minimize
road accident rate. It combines a variety of “hard
V. GOOD PRACTICES IN POLAND AND measures” (such as building cycling lanes, more
GERMANY signposting, new bicycle parking places, public
bicycle rental system.) with “soft measures”
(information and awareness campaign). 41
A. Information
The aim of the information process is to provide a 38
clear and balanced message to help the public to http://www.bmu.de/verkehr/rad_fussverkehr/zero_emissi
understand the problems, alternatives, solutions or on_mobility/doc/42533.php
opportunities. Municipal institutions can use a 39
variety of tools to get to the target groups (for http://www.kopf-an.de/
40
example fact sheets, brochures, internet sites, S. Böhler-Baedeker; T. Koska; O. Reutter; C. Schäfer-
posters, ) Sparenberg Projektmonitoring der Kampagne „Kopf an:
Motor aus.“ im Jahr 2009 : Endbericht. - Wuppertal :
A good practice example for this category is the Wuppertal Inst. für Klima, Umwelt, Energie, 2010
German image and information campaign: „Kopf an: 41
Motor aus. Für null CO2 auf Kurzstrecken." (Brains Nürnberg steigt auf Radverkehrsstrategie für Nürnberg
on. Engines off. For zero CO2 on short distances). Konzepte und Maßnahmen für nachhaltige Mobilität
Stadt Nürnberg, Baureferat, Verkehrsplanungsamt, 2009
http://www.nuernberg.de/imperia/md/baureferat/dokume
37
Ibidem p. 39 nte/ref6/nbg_steigt_auf.pdf

The campaign has been launched in May 2010 their cycling skills, test their knowledge of road
with posters, city light boards and leaflets that safety rules and take a bicycle card test.48
showed cycling as an excellent alternative to car use
Unfortunately, safety on road and mobility
(no traffic jams, no parking problems). Cycling is
education play a marginal role in school curriculum.
inexpensive, individual, flexible, fast and helps to
Children do not receive practical instruction, do not
stay healthy and keep in shape. 42 The campaign is
have a possibility to learn the rules practically –
also a way to raise awareness among citizens about
usually, only the theoretical basis is explained. There
the planned infrastructure investments. The Internet
are no programs teaching children to ride safe in
page of the campaign informs about advantages of
their natural surroundings. Thus, effects of such
bicycle use, implemented changes and planned
incidental actions are not likely to be significant.
measures and actions.43
In Poland there were no such image campaigns as B. Consultation
in Germany yet. The first social campaign on a small Consultation with stakeholders played an
scale aiming at cycling promotion took place in important role in the preparation of a new cycling
September 2010 in Gdańsk – Rowerowe piątki - strategy and the Nürnberg steigt auf campaign. The
Cycling Fridays. 44 The organizers, Pomorskie strategy is based on an idea of the city and Mobility
Stowarzyszenie Wspólna Europa (PSWE), a local Management Department. Before the final strategy
NGO, managed to win communal support for this had been shaped, all stakeholders received
project, sponsors, and interest of local media. They information about planned initiatives and were asked
wanted to influence people’s behavior, encourage for opinion and about their willingness to cooperate.
them to use their bike to get to work and reward Stakeholders replied with interest and stated their
those who cycle by giving them small gift packages. own ideas and opinions, for example, more mobility
These packages were distributed on selected education in schools. Local groups brought up the
intersections by volunteers, among them some local idea of a bicycle map and a search engine available
celebrities and sportsmen, on three consecutive on-line. 49 These ideas had a direct influence on the
shape of the strategy.
Friday mornings. 45 PSWE noticed an increased
number of cyclists on the second and third day of the When the campaign was introduced, local groups
action. On the third Friday they gave out twice as were willing to support the campaign. Schools
much packages as on the first day.46 informed children and parents about the project. The
ADFC helped by launching advertisements and
Another example is an awareness rising campaign collecting ideas and opinions from the citizens.50
for children Rowerem bezpiecznie do celu (Cycle
safe). It was launched in 2008 by Ministry of Home An example of consultations in Poland is the
Affairs and Administration and the Police. 47 The work of Zespół Zadaniowy ds. ścieżek rowerowych i
campaign focuses on the education about road safety bezpieczeństwa niechronionych (rowerzysta, pieszy,
for cycling children and youth. The campaign takes dziecko, niepełnosprawny) uczestników ruchu
place each year in summer between June and drogowego w Mieście Krakowie, which is Krakow’s
August. During special cycling picnics organized in task group for cycling lanes and security of
eleven Polish cities, kids have a possibility to train unprotected road users (cyclists, pedestrians,
children, disabled) formed in 2000. This consultative
42
body consists of the city municipality, communal
Flyer Nürnberg steigt auf infrastructure and transport management, police and
http://www.nuernberg.de/imperia/md/baureferat/dokume NGOs representatives. It meets regularly in order to
nte/ref6/flyer_nbgsteigtauf.pdf formulate opinions on infrastructure projects. They
43
http://nuernberg.de/internet/nuernberg_steigt_auf/
44
http://www.rowerowepiatki.pl 48
Bicycle card is a document that allows underage person
45
http://www.trojmiasto.pl/wiadomosci/Rowerem-do- to ride a bike on a public roads.. To get it children (no
pracy-zwlaszcza-w-piatki-n41631.html Katarzyna younger than 10 years old) have to pass an exam
Moritz, 9.09.2010 (multiple choice test or oral exam) testing knowledge of
46 road rules. Exams are usually organized by primary
schools.
http://krakow.gazeta.pl/krakow/1,47375,8709563,Oficer_
49
rowerowy_wylapie_buble_w_projektach.html 23.11.2010
Ranata Radlowska http://www.nuernberg.de/internet/nuernberg_steigt_auf/ra
47 drouting.html
50
http://www.policja.pl/palm/pol/1/41477/Rowerem__bezp Telefone interview with Andrea Maier – Abteilung
iecznie_do_celu.html Verkehrsmanagement, Stadt Nürnberg

verify if they are up to technical and safety C. Cooperative Participation

standards. The group monitors other investments and A good example of stakeholders cooperation in
check what impact they have on cycling and design and implementation of cycling friendly
pedestrian mobility. Their work should stimulate measures is a research project Radverkehrförderung
activities and projects aimed at traffic improvement, für Quartiere in Stadt und Peripherie (Cycling
especially for non-motorized road users (traffic promotion for urban and suburban areas) in
calming, opening of one-way streets for bicycle Dortmund [2] 53 , conducted by the Dortmund
users riding in an opposite direction, parking places, Technical University. The project was designed to
bike and ride ect.). Other tasks are to seek external engage local citizens and the existing network of
financial resources for the development of bicycle local organizations (sport groups, hobby groups ect)
infrastructure and cooperate with neighboring in a series of small scale projects for the local
communities on designing tourist bike routes.51 community. At the first stage four city parts of
The activites of the group led to modification of diverse social and developmental structure have been
many projects that were not up to standards. The chosen. Then a meeting with local political and
group is an effective body to present opinions, ideas municipal representatives, the police, and the ADFC
and needs of cyclists. The NGO’s representatives has been organized to define priorities in each city
gained a better access to information about planned part and identify stakeholders. Next step was a
investments and to municipal management. workshop with stakeholders. People were asked what
types of non-investment measures could be
Still, the work of the group is not easy. NGO improved and what kind of project they would like to
representatives complain that the group may give see in their communities. A list of possible projects
them opportunity to express opinions but their was created. Participants were asked if they would
arguments are often ignored. City representatives like to help in the implementation process. If
and the police believe that NGOs represent only the volunteers were found, the projects got started.
cyclists’ lobby and do not take into account needs of Among realized projects were: cycling courses for
other road users. Especially the lobby work of NGOs migrants, a cycling route map for a selected city
for allowing cycle traffic in opposite direction on all area, a bicycle guarding service during the city
one way streets in the city center, and in the future in festival, bicycle excursions for families etc. These
all Krakow has not gained acceptance. Such were projects that did not require many financial
solutions are not yet popular in Poland – the law is resources but offered specially designed answers to
not clearly defined, there are different opinions of local needs. Projects are also a way to activate local
how to signpost such solutions. There are fears that it communities and get local organizations better
could be unsafe and lead to accidents. Arguments of known within a community.
the NGOs that such measures are very safe and exist
for years in many European Union’s countries (the Another examples of cooperation between
Netherlands, United Kingdom, Germany) did not municipalities and schools are to be found in Marl. It
convince the police and municipal management. is a city where special emphasis is put on road safety
Misunderstandings between NGOs and the task and cycling education in school. A good example
group impaired the work of the latter. The police where a target group of parents and children get
even threatened to withdraw from the task group.52 engaged in a project encouraging non-motorized
transport is Fahrradpooling (Bicycle pooling). It
started in 2000 as a model study for the EU research
project SUN - Saving Energy by Using Mobility
Management in Schools. 54 The project aimed at
changing a growing trend – parents giving their
51 children a ride to school and back home. This
Zarządzenie NR 541/2007 Prezydenta Miasta Krakowa phenomenon is not only bad for the environment and
z dnia 13 marca 2007 r.w sprawie powołania Zespołu
Zadaniowego ds. ścieżek rowerowych i bezpieczeństwa
quality of life in the city, but also has a negative
niechronionych (rowerzysta, pieszy, dziecko, influence on children’s health. Too little exercise
niepełnosprawny) uczestników ruchu drogowego w leads to coordination problems and obesity. Driving
Mieście Krakowie.
http://www.bip.krakow.pl/wladze/zarzadzenia/pliki/zp_5
53
41_07.pdf Ch. Holz-Rau, U. Jansen, G. Steinberg
52 Radverkehrsförderung in Dortmunder Stadteilen.
R. Radłowska Kłótnia fachowców z zespołu ds. ścieżek Schlussbericht. Dortmund 2010
rowerowych 20.10.2010
54
http://news.komunikacja.krakow.pl/lokalne/4256,6,artyku S. Böhler Ergebnisse zur Begleitmobilität von Kindern
l,klotnia_fachowcow_z_zespolu_ds__sciezek_rowerowyc März 2006 http://eco.psy.ruhr-uni-
h.html bochum.de/mobilanz/pdf/begleitverkehr.pdf

to school influences children’s future mobility children is being used to improve safety
behavior, make them believe that car driving is the arrangements in the area.
best and most obvious solution.55
Whereas in Germany examples of cooperative
The parents’ decision to drive their kids to school participation as described above were initiated by the
is based on primary concern about children’s safety. municipalities, in Poland grassroots organizations
They tend to consider cycling or walking as a are those that begin such actions.
dangerous mobility mode with a high accident rate.
The most important example is Gdansk Cycling
Driving is seen as a way to protect kids from
Infrastructure Project. The project started as an idea
possible dangers. This decision is often made when a
of local NGO activists joined in the MdR network.
child finishes primary school and moves to
They wished to see a model example of cycling
secondary school that is usually not any longer
infrastructure in Poland. In order to achieve their aim
within a walking distance or located in an area
they designed the whole project and found a source
unknown to the child.
of financing it. Only after that, activists attracted a
In order to break this pattern of behavior, in one municipality willing to cooperate. The application
of Marl’s high schools the Fahrradpooling project submitted to United Nations Development
has been offered to all new pupils. Parents and Programme - Global Environment Facility - was
children were invited to a meeting where the idea of accepted. As a result a core network of cycling
the project was introduced. Cycling pooling groups facilities (segregated paths and traffic-calmed
were formed from the list of interested parents and streets) was established in Gdańsk between 2002-
children. At the beginning of a new term kids rode 2006. 58 Grassroots organizations that prepared the
together to school in small groups accompanied by a project played an important role in the realization
guide (volunteering parent). An adult took care that stage. A choice of cycling routes that were to be built
all children strictly observed traffic rules. The project had been made after consultation with citizens.
was successful because after its completion most Future users had an opportunity to word their
children kept on cycling to school. 56 The feedback opinion on various stages of the project. Easy access
from parents was very positive. They were pleased to information had been secured through regular
that their concerns had been addressed and expressed meetings with city officials, information
less concern about safety of their children on the way dissemination by NGOs, internet site ect.). During
to school. 57 Cycling pooling is now offered every the project local NGOs played an advisory role and
year to interested new pupils in Marl’s secondary worded opinions about planned technical aspects of
schools. investments. 59 Cooperation between local activists
and municipality in Gdańsk has proven to be a
Another initiative within the field of safety
success and has been continued. Gdańsk and
education in Marl are children’s city maps. The
neighboring cities of Sopot and Gdynia currently
project is based on a cooperation between
expand and connect the existing cycling
representatives of the municipality and teachers and
infrastructure with the help of sources from the EU.
pupils of local primary schools. In the course of the
school year children gain practical and theoretical Another example of MdR action is a project of
knowledge about map design and road safety during changes to the polish transportation law. Aim of the
school lessons, excursions and meetings with police changes is to strengthen protection and rights of
officers and city planners. The final result of the cyclists60, precise the definition of a bicycle (to allow
project is a map of parts of the city designed by kids also the use of electric bicycles) and introduce
and for kids. It includes information which are not definitions of cycling friendly solutions (like an
available on normal city plans – zebra crossings, Advanced Stop Line at junctions that allows cyclists
traffic lights, list of playgrounds and places attractive to move ahead before other vehicles, making it safer
for children. Maps are useful not only for children for cyclists to turn left or right, new definition of
and teachers in a process of road safety education but cycling road and cycling lane). The project has been
also for city planners - information collected from sent to the Ministry of Infrastructure and the
Parliamentary Group of Transport Development and
Cycling Tourism (Parlamentarny Zespoł ds.
55
Mobilitätsbedürfnisse von Kindern und Jugendlichen
im Straßenverkehrs- und Baurecht, FE. 77.465 / 2002, 58
Schlussbericht im Auftrag der Bundesanstalt für http://www.miastadlarowerow.pl/index_o_nas.php#naj_projekty
Straßenwesen. 2002 59
Gdansk Cycling Infrastructure Project GEF Project Details
56
Udo Lutz Sichere Wege mit dem Rad – Kinderstadtteilpläne, 3 http://gefonline.org/projectDetailsSQL.cfm?projID=1279
Bremer Fahrrad Kongress 60
Activists found out that Polish Transportation Law does not abide to
57
Telephone interview with Udo Lutz – (Stadt Marl). the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic ratified by Poland in 1988.

Komunikacji i Turystyki Rowerowej). At the In the area of consultation between city

beginning of 2011 amendments have been passed in municipalities and local organizations improved has
Sejm (lower chamber of the parliament). 61 Right now been made in recent years. In some cities local
it awaits the vote of the higher chamber (Senat).62 NGOs are regularly invited to meetings where
bicycle topics are being discussed. Yet relationship
Although cycling issues start to play a more
between local groups and city representatives are
important role in Poland on a national and local
sometimes strained as to be seen in Kraków. Reasons
level, constant engagement of local organizations is
for this situation are complex.
necessary. One good recent example is Kraków. The
city has an ambitious plan to expand cycling routes Although law regulations ensuring consulation
but in the budget draft for 2011 due to the financial exist, municipalities do not have much experience in
crisis no sources had been designated for bicycle organizing this process. Such procedures are
infrastructure and projects. Money was secured in relatively new in Poland. Both municipalities and
the final version of the budget but only after stakeholders have to learn how to successfully use
intensive lobby work of the local NGO and a them. Another reason is the lack of knowledge about
newspaper that kept on informing on the topic, infrastructure standards by the designers and civic
published letters from concerned readers and officials. 65 Complicated law makes it hard to plan
collected signatures of support for budget infrastructure of good quality. Unclear regulation
amendment.63 turns investments into real challenges. Badly
designed cycling infrastructure is met with harsh
criticism from the side of NGOs. It does not
encourage the municipality to invest in something
VI. CONCLUSIONS that later can be used against them.
Cooperative participation is the highest rung of
Germany has many years of experience in
the participation ladder. It requires careful
investing in environmentally friendly transport.
preparation, dedication and experience. In Poland
Lobby work for the rights of non-motorized road
this area of engagement needs improvement. It is
users is well established. In selected cities where the
important to notice in many areas (for example road
interviews had been conducted, municipalities
safety instruction for children) Germany has
realize the need to invest in cycling-friendly projects,
acknowledged that children must be engaged in the
understood benefits and importance of good access
project process and participate actively at various
to information, consultation and cooperative
stages of the project. Poland has concentrated on
participation with the local stakeholders.
information or promotion campaigns so far.
Representatives of the local NGOs were generally
satisfied with the contacts to municipalities although In Poland pressure to change the current situation
they admitted that in the past it was not always the comes from grassroots activists and local NGOs but
case.64 not from the national or municipal level. The first big
investment project in cycling infrastructure has been
In Poland promoting cycling as an alternative to
created by the NGOs. First steps to improve cycling
motorized transport is a relatively new phenomenon.
conditions on the legal level came from citizens and
A lot of activity is necessary to make cycling as
not their political representatives.
popular and safe as in Germany.
Pressure from the local stakeholders is often
In the field of information progress has already
necessary in order to secure sources for investments
been made. Citizens have a right to get information
for non-motorized road users. In Poland NGOs focus
about planned investments. Information campaigns
on lobby work for more cycling infrastructure
are also being organized. Preparing them is relatively
(cycling lanes, parking places) and law changes
easy and their scope depends on the budget.
allowing more cycle-friendly solutions. Yet, due to a
high mortality rate on it is necessary to improve and
61
expand road safety instructions for all road users.
Website of the group.
http://orka.sejm.gov.pl/SQL.nsf/skladzesp?OpenAgent&36 Especially projects teaching children safe cycling
62
techniques, and training cycling in pupils’ natural
Voting results of 25.02.2011
http://orka.sejm.gov.pl/SQL.nsf/glosowania?OpenAgent&6&85&29 environment. Better cooperation between cities and
63 local stakeholders could lead to realization of small
participative projects (like in Marl) that will have
http://krakow.gazeta.pl/krakow/1,47375,9113699,Petycja
_rowerowa_wreczona__Radni_dadza_3_mln_zl_.html
64
Telephone interview with ADFC representative – Jens 65
Such a specialization is not offered at technical
Ott (ADFC Nürnberg). universities.

impact on local communities but do not require high

REFERENCES
costs.
Interviews conducted during the preparation of
this article with municipal and NGO representatives [1] A. Bischoff, K.Selle, H. Sinning, Informieren,
Beteiligen, Kooperieren Eine Übersicht zu Formen,
in Marl, Dortmund and Nuremberg show that good Verfahren und Methoden. Kommunikation im
relations between stakeholders and city Planungsprozess, Bd. 1, Dortmund, 2005.
representatives are possible but require time and [2] S. Böhler, T. Koska, O. Reutter, C Schäfer-
Sparenberg.: Projektmonitoring der Kampagne
systematic engagement on both sides. NGOs in „Kopf an: Motor aus.“ im Jahr 2009. Endbericht,
Poland still have a long way to go nonetheless their Wuppertal Institut für Klima, Umwelt, Energie,
lobby work starts to bear fruits. Achievements of Wuppertal, 2010
[3] .T. Bracher, H. Holzapfel, F. Kiepe, (Hrsg.) HKV -
recent years on a national and local area give rise to Handbuch der kommunalen Verkehrsplanung Für die
reasonable optimism. Praxis in Stadt und Region.
[4] F. Götz, Verkehrsinitiativen Zum Umweltschutz
Wirkungsmöglichkeiten in der Gemeinde,
Oldenburg, 1999.
[5] Ch. Holz-Rau, U. Jansen, G. Steinberg
ACKNOWLEDGMENT Radverkehrsförderung in Dortmunder Stadteilen.
Schlussbericht. Dortmund, 2010
[6] H. Kemming, M. Stiewe u. a. Hrsg Nachhaltige
The article was written during my Deutsche Verkehrspolitik - Akteure und Prozesse. Ein
Bundesstiftung Umwelt’s (DBU) scholarship at the Leitfaden. (ILS NRW) Dortmund, 2010
[7] T, Kopta, B. Lustofin, Raport Wstępny Ruch
Wuppertal Institut for Climate, Environment and rowerowy w Polce na tle innych krajów UE,
Energy. I would like to express my sincere thanks Warszawa-Kraków, 2009
and gratitude to the DBU foundation and Prof. Oscar [8] J. Krause, E. Hildebrandt, Modellvorhaben
„Fußgänger- und fahrradfreundliche Stadt“ Chancen
Reutter and Mr Thorsten Koska of the Wuppertal des Fuß- und Radverkehrs als Beitrag zur
Institute for all their help and support during my Umweltentlastung, Texte 28/05, UBA 2005.
research. [9] E. Plate, G. Steinberg, M.Haase, J. Brunsing,
Chancen des Rad und Fußverkehrs als Beitrag zum
Umweltentlastung. Leitfaden und Defizitanalyse,
Forschungsbericht UBA, 2001.
[10] Zukunftsfähiges Deutschland in einer globalisierten
Welt. Ein Anstoß zur gesellschaftlichen Debatte ;
eine Studie des Wuppertal Instituts für Klima,
Umwelt, Energie, Frankfurt am Main, 2008.

Environmental Taxes as Policy Instruments for

Sustainable Urban Transport – Results and
Dilemmas
Jelica Petrović-Vujačić1, Snežana Kaplanović2
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering
Belgrade, Serbia
1
pjelica@yahoo.com
2
s.kaplanovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— The paper analyzes the effects of Debate on ways and means of internalizing these
environmental taxes. The analysis deals with their external costs focuses on the introduction of
theoretical foundation, social and political viability and environmental taxes. Within environmental taxes
environmental effects. The special case of all of this is its transport taxes together with fuel taxes are
application in urban transport policy related to urban
transport, the relationship between public and private
recognized as possible ways to change behavior in
transport, pricing policy and decision making. Special order to encourage higher use of public
attention is given to real achievements in this area, that transportation in urban areas. Along with the
is, to identifying the advantages and disadvantages of increase of cost of private car transportation due to
different types of environmental taxes. The experience of environmental taxes, it is necessary to increase
different countries that have introduced environmental investment in public transport in order for it to gain
taxes is used for the analysis of the main effects of advantage in terms of travel time and comfort. With
environmental taxes. this goal in mind, it is possible to use the revenues
Keywords— taxes; transport taxes; transport policy; gathered through environmental taxes. The three
sustainable urban transport functions of environmental taxes are: (I) cost
covering, (II) incentive to change behavior and (III)
raising revenue. Adequate decision making through a
combination of policy measures, among which are
I. INTRODUCTION environmental taxes, could bring benefits to
sustainable urban transportation.
Pollution (e.g. CO, SO2 and NOx), noise,
congestion, increasing land use and global increase
in CO2 are some of negative external effects in urban
areas due to transportation. The internalization of II. ENVIRONMENTAL TAXES AS POLICY
INSTRUMENTS
external effects is based on the principle that the
polluter pays for the external effects of pollution.
Taxes provide one means of improving Negative externalities that are associated with
environmental amenity. The tax-transfer system can motor vehicles should be linked to the one who
also detract from environmental outcomes through creates them in such a way as to have them
the incentives it creates. compensate for them. This is the well known of the
“polluter pays approach”. Externalities represent the
An important aspect of sustainable urban
effects, positive or negative, which affect an actor
development is the decrease in transport pollution
through certain activities of another actor, whether
due to motor vehicles. Economic instruments in the
stemming from production or consumption while not
form of environmental taxes are one of the means to
being caused by the pricing mechanism. The founder
affect the change in behavior in such a way as to of welfare economics A.C. Pigou established the
lower the use of motor vehicles that pollute more and basics of the theory of externalities [1]. Due to the
to encourage the use of cleaner gas. Furthermore, lack of a market, Pigou points to the need of state
revenues from taxes can be used for investment in economic intervention in order to ensure that market
public transport oriented development and in prices reflect total social costs. In order to avoid the
technical innovation to increase efficient use of transfer of costs to society at large, it is necessary to
environmental resources.
obtain their internalization. In the case of pollution,

its costs should be included in the price of products only discourages pollution, but also increases
or activities that cause pollution. One of the ways of revenue, thus enabling the state to rely less on
internalizing externalities is the introduction of taxes distortive taxation. This double dividend approach is
per unit of physical product which would be equal to put forth mostly by those who believe that the fiscal
the costs of pollution. system causes distortions by discouraging savings
through the taxation of capital and discourages labor
through taxation of wages. Therefore taxing
pollution would increase aggregate production by
conventional measures and more importantly,
increase production that takes into consideration
pollution and degradation of the environment [3].
Environmental taxes are considered to be one of
the more attractive instruments for the policy of
environmental protection. In introducing these taxes,
one starts with the basic idea of changing the price of
natural resources in accordance with their scarcity,
this being one of the basic axioms of a market
economy. Prices have the major role in decision
making concerning production and consumption.
Figure 1. Pollution costs and benefits
However, supply and demand do not incorporate the
effect of a certain product or service on the
According to neoclassical analysis, the optimal environment. In a theoretical sense the concept of
level of pollution is reached when marginal pollution ecological tax refers to a tax that internalizes external
benefits (MPB) and marginal pollution costs (MPC) environmental costs (known as the Pigouvian tax). In
are equal. For example in Figure 1. that level is 2000 introducing a certain economic instrument its
tones of pollution. Left of the intersection of the economic efficiency is of importance. Also the social
MPC and MPB curves extra benefits from the and political viability of the instrument is highly
consumption of units of goods whose significant. The questions arises: to what extent do
production/consumption causes pollution is above taxes applied to transport, especially urban transport,
the costs that society bears for pollution. At low contribute to the goals of sustainable urban transport.
levels of pollution, the marginal benefits surpass The road tax and motor vehicle taxes are counted as
marginal costs. All of this can be represented as a transport taxes. Fuel taxes are counted as energy
problem of pollution reduction, as common people taxes and they are seen as very important for climate
can hardly understand the concept of benefits from policy. The third type of environmental taxes are
pollution. those on pollution and resources.
It may appear that the concept of marginal EU member states have introduced environmental
pollution benefits appears to be contradictory in taxes, while candidate states for EU membership are
itself. However, pollution is a side product which following them at a somewhat slower pace. The
arises with the production or consumption of goods United States applies a system of tradable permits
and services. It will suffice to imagine oil which is for pollution control, and these permits are mostly
being used or transformed into polluting gases used for air pollutant emissions. The economic
through the production of electricity or in the process recession represents a significant barrier for the
of transporting passengers or goods. These products quicker implementation of environmental taxes in
provide benefits to the consumers and there exists a the countries in transition. Countries on the way to
demand for them. Economic instruments can be EU accession like Serbia are institutionally adapting
introduced such as taxes or tradable permits in order to the system of environmental control and
to directly control pollution. In term of control or the protection. Serbia has introduced an ecological tax
reduction of pollution, economic incentives have a on motor vehicles, and leaded gas has been banned
number of advantages over direct command and as of the middle of last year.
control [2]. Firstly, it requires much less information
concerning what occurs in a unit which pollutes the III. RESULTS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF
environment. Secondly, economic incentives ENVIRONMENTAL TAXES
encourage the polluter to innovate, finding cheaper
ways of controlling pollution. The experience of specific countries in regards to
The dominant view is that the introduction of the implementation of environmental taxes is
taxes on pollution brings double dividends. This not instructive. It is possible to divide the countries into

two groups: those which were leaders in the impact. Aside of this, the consequences of ecotaxes
implementation of environmental taxes and those on distribution should be measured in relation to the
which made important, though more incremental, taxes that they substitute. For example, ecotaxes
progress in this area. Denmark, Netherlands, often substitute labour taxes which are considered
Norway, and Sweden were the first to radically regressive. The public will perceive ecotaxes
change their tax systems basing them more on depending on the way they contribute to the
“green taxes”. The countries that were leaders in the enhancement of the environment. In the case of
implementation of ecotaxes mostly had three transport policy, ecotaxes on motor vehicles and fuel
approaches: removing or modifying distortion are perceived in terms of their effects on sustainable
subsidies and tax provisions, restructuring taxes in transport and sustainable development.
order to include the effects on the environment and
There is often a conflict between the
introducing new green taxes. All of these countries
environmental and fiscal goals of ecotaxes because
are making an effort to fundamentally reform their
most ecotaxes aim to reduce or eliminate their own
national tax policy and reform of environmental
tax bases. High taxes on leaded gasoline caused this
taxes is just part of wide-ranging tax reform.
fuel to disappear from the market in many countries.
It should be noted that ecotax leaders are This shows that environmental tax may change
reforming ecotaxes in line with the common consumption is such a way as to stimulate consumers
background of the Kyoto Protocol and other to substitute products that pollute with cleaner
international conventions and agreements in order to products. Along with this the broad and stable tax
lower the emission of hazardous gases. The base is preserved in this case unleaded gasoline.
European Union and the OECD have taken
Environmental taxes have been steadily used in
important steps towards ecotax reform and these
EU. They rose by 22.8 % in the period 1999 - 2008
organizations are key in sharing information in this
in 27 EU member states. At the same time there was
area among the developed countries.
a decrease of 16.1 % in the ratio of environmental
Within the ecotax reform the taxes on carbon taxes to GDP. One cause may be reduction in the
dioxide emissions are crucial. A general consensus nominal value of environmental taxation.
was reached that the most efficient way to lower the Environmental taxes are generally based on a
emission of hazardous gases and lower their physical unit (for example, per tone of carbon
detrimental effect on global warming is through dioxide) measured in quantity terms, irrespective of
taxes targeting emissions of carbon dioxide. price [5]. Environmental taxes were 2 % to 3 % of
However, since it is difficult to measure precisely the GDP in 2007 in 20 countries. In Spain and Lithuania
emission of carbon dioxide, taxes were applied to the environmental taxes were 1.8% of GDP. In
approximated carbon content of products that emit Netherlands, Malta, Bulgaria and Cyprus
this gas. These taxes lie between those that apply to environmental taxes generate revenues that were
the product and those that apply to pure emissions over 3.4 % of GDP, while in Denmark
[4]. In introducing environmental taxes two goals environmental taxation reached 5.9 % of GDP.
were present: improving environmental conditions
and the use of revenue in order to alleviate the TABLE I. ENVIRONMENTAL TAXES IN EU-27,
shocks of other taxes, especially the ones which 2007
unfavorably affect employment.
% %
The major dilemma concerning environmental of total of total
Environmen millio %
taxes is that they could erode international environ revenu
tal taxes n euro of GDP
competitiveness. For this reason some countries went m. es from
so far as to guarantee tax exemptions to some heavy taxes TSC
emitters of gases. These exemptions are not in line 219
with the correspondence between taxes that should Energy taxes 72 1.77 4.46
244.14
be payed and the emission of gases. Aside of that as
revenues are decreased shrinking the possibilities to Transport
71 884.87 24 0.58 1.46
taxes
lower some other taxes, mostly labour taxes. In this
way the interaction between the policy which has the Pollution/Res
13 139.33 4 0.11 0.27
goal of environmental protection and the policy of ource taxes
enhancing competitiveness fundamentally affects the Total
way in which ecotaxes are to be created and applied. 304
environmenta 100 2.46 6.19
268.34
It is important to note how the public perceives l taxes
environmental taxes. Generally speaking it seems Source: Eurostat [5]
that ecotaxes do not have any major regressive

In the structure of environmental taxes, in Table In the Western Balkan countries the
1, energy taxes (72%) have the highest share, implementation of ecological taxes is relatively
followed by transport taxes (24%) and recent. Their effect on revenue and behavior in
pollution/resources taxes (4%). In 2008 transport regards to transport is much smaller in comparison to
taxes fell to 23%. These taxes are different between the developed EU countries. In Serbia, for example,
countries. Some country reports show that some the prohibition of production of leaded gasoline has
countries (Cyprus, Ireland, Greece, Norway) been recent, while the effective prohibition of its
collected over 40% of their environmental taxes consumption will be in place after the already
through transport taxes. Transport taxes include produced leaded gasoline that is at the gas stations is
taxes relating to the ownership and use of motor used up.
vehicles. These taxes may be one-off purchase taxes
(for example, related to the engine size or the
emissions of a particular vehicle) or recurrent taxes
(such as an annual road tax). IV. ENVIRONMENTAL TAXES AND SUSTAINABLE
URBAN TRANSPORT
In the majority of countries households are the
major source of revenue in transport taxes (55%-
Within transport policy environmental taxes can
75%), and in energy taxes (20%-60%). From the
affect: (i) a change in the behavior of consumers of
point of view of sustainable urban transport it is
transport by stimulating them to use public
important that public means of transportation are
transportation to a greater extent, (ii) higher
usually exempted from transport taxes.
investment in public transport on the basis of
The sharing of the tax burden between the revenue (iii) the higher utilization of more efficient
households and business sector shows marked energy and lower polluting vehicles. Taxation should
differences in the tax systems of different countries. be related to pollution and fuels. Also, the
The priorities set on the distribution side have their relationship between environmentally related
effect on the distribution of environmental taxes. taxation and innovation is critical for understanding
Environmental taxes in the future may become more the full impact of these policy instruments for
important because of the erosion of other tax bases. sustainable urban development. Innovation relates to
Also, there exist significant limitations of further cleaner types of transport and the use of cleaner fuels
taxes on labor. The governments will seek new ways etc. Political support and social acceptance are
to compensate for the shortage in revenue through needed for undertaking these measures.
taxes on capital and labor through environmental
taxes.
In regard to taxes paid by individuals, taxes for
Tax reform in the EU of shifting the tax burden the registration of vehicles are significant. As the
from welfare-negative taxes (e.g. on labor) to rate of motorization (reflected by car production),
welfare-positive taxes (e.g. on environmentally has been globally increasing over the last decade, so
damaging activities such as pollution and resource have tax revenues from motor vehicle registration.
use) is considered to have a positive effect on the Citizen of developed countries are overwhelmingly
problems of the environment and employment. the dominant users of automobiles (80% of the
world's automobiles). It is only natural that the
highest revenues on the basis of energy taxes and
100% transport taxes are collected within them. The rate of
motorization is also growing in less developed
80%
countries. There is continuous growth of car
production in spite of the recession. There were over
60%
640 million registered automobiles in circulation in
40%
2008 [6]. A significant share of the growth of car
production is attributed to the motorization of some
20%
developing countries, especially in East and
Southeast Asia. This distribution is uneven with
0% some households owning more than one vehicle.
BE** DK EE ES IT LV LT LU MT* NL AT SE* UK NO*
Nevertheless, world statistics show the dimensions
Households as consumers Business sector Public sector Not allocated
that car transportation has attained bringing along
Source: Eurostat [5], **2005, *2006 higher levels of external and environmental effects
of private car transportation.
Figure 2. Transport taxes by tax payers in European
countries, 2007 (% of transport taxes) In the years of recession many countries have
offered financial compensation schemes in order to

stimulate firms and households to scrap old cars data in 2000 [10]. The results of this empirical
because they are high polluters and to buy new ones. research concerning the impact of increased fuel
These countries have aided the automobile taxes on public transport in Germany show that:
industries. The economic and environmental impact
(1) The comparative low price elasticity to car
of these measures should be studied [7].
use (about -0.1) will lead to a small reduction in
The relationship between public and private kilometers traveled and therefore to a small
transportation could be changed if governments use reduction of pollution. These findings suggest that
revenues from environmental taxes for very small effects are to be expected in work and
environmental improvements meaning more business traffic. As opposed to this, there would be a
investments in public transportation so that public larger decrease in kilometers driven by cars for
transportation can compete with private car leisure purposes and holiday trips.
transportation in terms of time of transportation and
(2) The low elasticity will have a positive fiscal
comfort. Some analysts hold the view that a transport
effect in the short run but since the number and type
mode which saves time should be taxed less than
of cars on the roads will slowly adjust to the new
other modes even if these generate the same or
prices, the long run effect will be somewhat lower.
possibly even a higher level of atmospheric
externality [8]. They point out that time allocation (3) Public transport will gain from a price
can not be ignored. This is significant for the debate induced modal shift only in the school and work
on taxes on buses and cars. segments, i.e. peak load traffic. Since this traffic is
characterized by marginal costs above average costs
Finally, but not least important, the question of
and marginal revenues below average revenues the
politically acceptable environmental taxes remains.
additionale peak load traffic will increase the deficit
Social consciousness on the importance of
of public transport [10].
preserving the environment and consequently the
conclusion that the one who causes environmental These results question the broadly held opinion
damage should pay for it, is important. Social choice that higher fuel taxes bring a triple dividend: (1) a
depends on the dominant attitude regarding modal shift from private car traffic to public
sustainable development. As with other taxes, transport, (2) a positive fiscal effect and (3) an
environmental taxes political acceptance depends on increase in transport revenues thereby a decrease of
their “fairness”. For this reason close attention is the public transport deficit [11].
given to the effects of certain taxes on low-income
One of the ways to lower negative health effects
households and sectoral competitiveness.
of transport is through the implementation of
The EU has set its development goals till 2020, congestion charges. The impact of congestion
among which is the goal of reducing detrimental charging on vehicle emission in London and
gases by 20% as well as related goals regarding Stockholm have been studied and could be a positive
energy savings, biofuels and other renewable example for others. London congestion charging
energies. Environmental taxes are necessary for the scheme was successfully implemented in February
achievement of these targets. Suggested 2003 and has measurably reduced traffic flows in
environmental tax reform shifts the tax burden from central London. To meet the demand to travel into
taxes that negatively affect welfare (taxes on labor) central London there has been increased bus use. The
to taxes that positively affect welfare (taxes on expected increase in emission from buses have been
environmentally damaging activities). This is mostly offset by the introduction of new
considered to be the correct way to achieve two technologies. So, between 2002 and 2003, total
goals: environmental protection and employment [9]. emissions of NOx in the charging zone have reduced
The examples of tax reforms in the Nordic countries by - 12%, and PM10 emissions have reduced by -
demonstrate such a win-win impact. One of 11,9%. Reduction in emission of CO2 was -19,5%
Commission proposals introduces a CO2 dependent [12]. These evidence shows that schemes of
element in the tax base of registration and annual congestion charging can positively contribute as
circulation taxes on passenger cars. This is proposed policy instrument to reduce air pollution as well as to
because transport makes up 25% of total carbon prevent climate change. The „Stockholm Trial“
dioxide emissions. A new paradigm of transport involved road pricing system to reduce air pollution
would be based on carbon efficient travel. and traffic congestion [13].
Certain dilemmas concerning optimism in regards
to the efficiency of environmental taxes concerning
their effects on behaviour in the use of public
transport and private cars, have been raised by some
econometric studies like the one done on German

V. CONCLUSION [5] A.M. Georgescu, V. Pendolovska, C.J Cabeca,

Distribution of environmental taxes in Europe by tax
payers in 2007, Environment and Energy, Eurostat,
From the theoretical aspect, environmental Statistics in focus 67/2010, 2010.
[6] J.P. Rodrigue, C. Corutois, and B. Slack B, The
taxation should contribute to the efficient allocation Geography of Transport Systems, Rotledge, New
of environmental goods and services by imposing a York. 2009.
price on such goods equal to the marginal cost of [7] OECD, Green growth: overcome the crisis and
beyond, 2009, pp. 11-12.
their use (marginal environmental damage costs). [8] Nielsen, E.J, “Externalities, taxation and time
allocation”, International Journal of Transport
The results attained by the implementation of Economics, 34(2), 2007, pp. 179-285.
environmental taxes are larger in the several [9] The Economist, “Are taxes the best means to cut
ecotaxes leaders in comparison to other countries. greenhouse emissions?” April 23rd 2007,
http://www.economist.com/node/9063277?story_id=
The influence of common EU and OECD policies on 9063277
environmental protection and climate change should [10] K.H. Storchmann, „The impact of fuel taxes on
contribute to a wider implementation of ecotaxes public transport – an empirical assessment for
Germany“, Transport Policy, 8 ,2001, pp. 19-28.
resulting in double or triple effects (dividends). [11] E.U. Weizsacker, von A. Lovins, L.H. Lovins, Factor
Although, certain dilemmas arise concerning the four: doubling wealth – halving resource use; The
short term and long term effects of these taxes in the new report to the Club of Rome, Earthscan, London,
1997.
work of some analysts, the dominant opinion is that [12] B.D. Sean, D.C.Carslaw, „The impact of congestion
environmental taxes will be increasingly important charging on vehicle emission in London“,
policy instruments with multiple positive effects. Atmospheric Environment, 39, 2005, pp.1-5.
[13] C.Johansson, L.Burman, B.Forsberg, „ The effects
of congestion tax on air quality and health“,
Atmospheric Environment, 43, 2009, pp. 4843-4854.
REFERENCES
[1] A.C. Pigou, The Economics of Welfare, fourth

edition. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1938.
[2] D.C. Kolstad, Environmental Economics, Oxford
University Press, New York, 200, pp.45-146.
[3] J.E. Stiglitz, Economics of the Public Sector
(translation in Serbian), Faculty of Economics,
Beograd, 2004.
[4] J. Norregard, V. Reppelin-Hill, V, Controlling
Pollution: Using Taxes and Tradable Permits,
International Monetary Fund, Washington. D.C.
2000.

Pollution reduction strategy for Serbian

pushboats
Aleksandar Radonjic Danijela Pjevcevic
Waterway Transport and Traffic Waterway Transport and Traffic
Faculty of Transport and Traffic Faculty of Transport and Traffic
Engineering Engineering
University of Belgrade University of Belgrade
Belgrade, Republic of Serbia Belgrade, Republic of Serbia
a.radonjic@sf.bg.ac.rs danijela@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— The price of pollution is increasing with

all new and increased industrialization. Today, sources of I. INTRODUCTION
power or engines in automobiles, trucks, aircrafts and Serbian pushboat fleet is using diesel main
ships are examples of how modern world is breathing propulsion engines to power formation of barges.
from day to day and from hour to hour, but on the other
side, they (engines) generate atmospheric chamicals. The
The vast majority of pushboats is equiped with two
pollutants from transportation means degrade the quality main diesel engines although small number of
of life in decreasing visibility, damaging infrastructure, pushboats has three main diesel engines. Installed
natural world and society health. Today, diesel main power on the Serbian pushboats is going from 200
propulsion engines are used for main propulsion for kilowatts to 2500 kilowatts. Comparing pushboats
almost all ships in Serbian fleet including pushboats, self with tugs it can be concluded that the pushboats are
propelled vessels and many large and small auxiliary smaller with lower length and with two propellers
ships. Although economic pressures forced conversion to turning outwards and working in the zone of flow
more efficient diesel powering, it also brought production field. In that way it is possible to achieve higher
of more pollutants from ships like oxides of nitrogen ratio of the effective power to the thrust or so-called
(NOx) and sulphur oxides (SOx). Moving a cargo with
hull efficiency.
ships from one point to another point is a fuel efficient
method and certainly presents the lowest pollutant Today, there is no specified procedure by the
method of all transport systems if we consider long authorities or shipping companies to test fuel
distance movement per tonne basis. Diesel engines are consumption during the operation with fleet.
already efficient and while highly efficient, ships are not
Developing the ship operating profile (pushboat
insignificant source of carbon emissions at a global level.
A strategy for overall decrease in pollution from ships engine power and shaft RPM) involves determining
through fuel consumption is presented in this paper. time of operation at specific speed and power
Combining ship hull form characteristics and propulsion combination. The operating profile developed in this
plant parameters it is showed that there are more options paper considered steady state operation only
for reducing the carbon impacts of ships. The study is achieved in full-scale measurements.
based on self-assessment of hull powering performance
using propulsion shaft torque data from torsionmeters Hull form shape and wetted surface area
installed on ships and ship speed data obtained from determine the ship powering requirement for a given
experimental measurements. Periodic speed/power speed. Commercial pushboat engines are designed
measurements could enable ship’s crew to forecast the to provide optimum fuel economy at some convoy
appropriate time for hull maintenance in order to achieve speed. For an established speed, the shaft RPM and
the minimizing of fuel consumption, as well as to lower engine power are relatively constant. For most of
pollution from ships. The concept of speed measurements pushboats operational life their convoy speeds are
for assessing power performance is not a new concept. going from 8 to 14 kilometers per hour.
Results for Serbian pushboats are presented. Results
show that this procedure could be applied over time The goal of this paper is to provide a brief review
during the operating life of ship. of ship powering and full-scale measurements; to
Keywords—; fuel consumption; full-scale discuss the relationship of speed vs. power and to
measurements; transport efficiency; fuel efficiency; ship compare fuel consumption between two different
powering convoys with two different tests.
Two pushboats and their convoys have been selected
for study. Among the number of conducted
measurments two tests were considered in a span of

7 years. The reason why those tests were used is changed over time it is often necessary to conduct
because both pushboats had the same installed power more full-scale measurements during the life of
and the same formation of barges utilized in the ship.
measurements.
Today, accurate determination of the
speed/power relationship for a commercial
II. SHIP POWERING TESTS pushboats is normally performed. This hull
Ship propulsion plant provides sufficient power to powering peroformance assessment is accomplished
overcome ships resistance. This resistance is through standard full-scale measurements which
composed of two main components: frictional occur during the post-commissioning test, trial
resistance and residuary resistance. Although period and during the ship service life when it is
frictional resistance is the larger part of two necessary to find out new relationship between
resistance components, it is proved that residuary speed and power. For this paper full scale
resistance can contribute in more than 50% of the measurements were performed during the ship
total resistance by resistance and self-propulsion service life, or after a some period of time of ship
tests. Frictional resistance accounts for 80 to 85 operation.
percent of total resistance in slow-speed ships, while
Two full-scale measurements were conducted
in high-speed ships it can reach up to 50 percent of
and all the data are collected in table I. Two Sebian
total resistance [1]. Environmental effects, such as
pushboats took part in the full-scale measurements
wind, waves and currents do not contribute to
frictional resistance on the river ships. with installed power of 2  515 = 1030 HP.
According to [3] the following measurements were
Residuary resistance contains wave resistance and conducted:
form (viscous) drag. Residual resistance is usually
expressed as a function of Froude number but
largely depends on the ship type and dimensions. It 1. Propeller shaft horsepower (SHP) or ship
is well known that pusher-barge systems with the shaft power,
same number of barges but arranged in a row
(shorter length overall but with a larger breadth) and 2. Rotation rate or shaft RPM,
with the higher draft overall require more power to 3. Ship speed (v) in relation with propeller
operate than those that were arranged in a line [2]. shaft horsepower and shaft RPM,
Two pusher-barge systems with the same wetted
surface area, but differing in length and breadth 4. Fuel consumption on two main engines with
(barges are different arranged) will have different the various operating modes.
resistance and greater or lesser proportion of
residual resistance in total resistance.
Main dimensions of pushboats “Panonija” and
The proper determination of ship power gives the “Pinki” are:
organizers of the transport process the possibility of
creating the effective solutions in a number of Length overall: 31.27 m; Extreme beam: 9.55 m;
important production tasks. Predicted or calculated Design draft: 1.80 m; Design Displacement: 338.75
ship resistance allows selection of the best ship t; Freeboard: 0.78 m; Depth: 2.55 m
speed versus ship power, proper selection of pushed Only symmetric barges were used when
convoy on the river, accurate calculation of composing the pushed convoy. The main
transportation costs and also benefits of decerasing characteristics of symmetric barges were:
in pollution from ships.
Length overall: about 71.00 m; Extreme beam:
For predicting ship powering requirements naval about 11.60 m; Design draft: 2.50 m; Operating
architects can use scale model testing or ship displacement (Q): 15001561t
powering tests to analyze each installed system
under actual operating conditions. Ship Powering The full-scale measurements were carried out for
includes various tests regarding self propulsion and the following rigid formations of barges:
resistance taking the dimensions of displacement 1. 2-barge pushed convoy with one leading barge
hulls, barges etc both in deep and shallow water in front of the convoy and one barge at the mid
helping to track out the full scale powering section of the convoy (notation “1+1”)
performance and speed. It often happens that it is
not possible to do the ship model testing or full- 2. 2-barge pushed convoy with two leading barges
scale measurements, and the only way to determine (notation “2+0“)
the ship resistance and ship power is by application 3. 3-barge pushed convoy with one barge in front
of various empirical equations. If the ship power is of the push string, one barge in the mid section

of the push string and one barge directly ahead 1000

of the pushboat (one by one barges in formation SHP = 14.038v2 - 126.11v + 517.95
– notation “1+1+1“) 900 R2 = 0.9146
4. 3-barge pushed convoy with one leading barge 800

in front of the convoy and two barges at the mid
Total Shaft Horsepower l

700
section of the convoy (one by two barges in
formation – notation “1+2”) 600
5. 4-barge pushed convoy with two leading barges

500
in front of the convoy and two barges at the mid
section of the convoy (two by two barges in 400
formation – notation “2+2”)
300
6. 3-barge pushed convoy with three leading
barges (notation “3+0“) 200
7 8 9 10 11 12
Measurement of power and speed in both Convoy Speed (v) in kilometers per hour
propeller shafts was performed with the
torsionmeters. Transmitting and receiving elements Figure 1. “2+2” formation Speed Power curve
of torsionmeter were placed in the stern of the ship
and thus protected from the influence of engine
1200
room. Forces directly measured the propeller shafts SHP = 5.6511v2 + 24.598v - 356.66
are slightly lower in values than the actual force that 1000 R2 = 0.9179
is developed by engine, because there are some
Total Shaft Horsepower l
losses in the bearings, buckles and gearboxes. For 800

more accurate calculations these losses has to be
taken into account and they are approximately about 600
2.5% to 3.0%.
400
Convoy speed through water was determined by
hydrometric wing, which was set to the side of the 200
leading barge(s) but closer to the bow of the convoy.
During measurements the hydrometric wing was 0
submerged to a depth of approximately 0.8 meters 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
while it was away from the leading barges about 3.5 Convoy Speed (v) in kilometers per hour
meters in the same time. It can be considered that
the hydrometric wing was operated in relatively Figure 2. “1+2” formation Speed Power curve
undisturbed water in that way.
During the tests fuel consumption was measured
on the main propulsion engines for maximum From table I operating displacement, speed and
allowed charging and continuous operation. power were treated as first order variables. Data
from table I provides the relation between speed and
All full-scale measurements were performed on power. Curve fitting the measured speed and shaft
the Danube, in the test area between km 1100 and power data provides the speed vs. power graph
km 1122 and in different period of time which had given in fig. 1 (“2+2” formation) and fig. 2 (“1+2”
impacts on the water levels. It was possible to plot formation). The curve of fig. 1 is represented by
the hydrological data such as depth of water, width equation (1) while fig. 2 is represented by equation
of navigable area and average speed of the current in (2).
the test area as a function of the water level.
Test conditions were well defined and the results are
presented in table I and fig. 1 and 2. Measured data SHP = 14.038v2 - 126.11v + 517.95 (1)
were divided by formations of the barges in table I as
well as in fig.s 1 and 2. Only two types of formation
are considered: “2+2” and “1+2”. Although in table I SHP = 5.6511v2 + 24.598v - 356.66 (2)
data are divided according to pushboats, in fig.1 Correlation coefficient is 0.91 in both cases
andfig. 2 the same data are classified by barge (formations) which is quite a big coefficient if we
formations. consider that both full-scale measurements were
happened in a span of 7 years.

TABELE I. DATABASE FROM FULL-SCALE MEASUREMENTS
Total shaft power Rotation Operating

Speed (kilometers
Formation of barges (horsepower and rate or shaft displacement
per hour)
kilowatt) RPM (tonnes)
“Pinki”
977,2 719,2 270,0 13,1

1+2 First test 898,9 661,6 262,5 12,5 4453
791,4 553,0 246,5 11,4
Second 721,0 530,3 233,5 12,445

1+2 test (after 7 676,2 497,3 228,5 12,107 4395
years)
294,3 216,4 170,0 8,935
980,0 721,3 269,5 11,6
952,0 700,7 267,0 11,4
2+2 First test 754,7 555,5 248,0 10,2 5930
570,2 419,7 226,6 8,8
396,3 291,7 201,0 7,2
727,0 534,7 233,5 10,829
Second 745,9 548,6 233,5 10,919
2+2 test (after 7 701,9 516,2 231,0 10,742 5861
years)
472,4 347,5 201,0 9,313
330,3 243,0 178,5 8,213
“Panonija”
890,0 655,0 263,5 11,35

791,7 582,7 254,5 10,80
2+2 First test 660,1 485,8 241,0 9,93 5894
542,2 399,1 226,0 8,92
428,4 315,3 208,0 7,85
783,8 576,4 259 10,33
Second
2+2 test (after 7 704,5 518,1 251 9,97 5917
years) 526,2 387,0 229 9,08
281,6 207,1 185 7,20
Second 760,0 558,5 258 11,65

1+2 test (after 7 488,4 359,2 224,5 10,20 4382
years)
276,6 203,4 187 8,42
Second 772,3 568,1 259,5 12,32

1+2 test (after 7 508,0 373,6 227,5 10,87 4382
years)
275,4 202,5 185,5 8,75

the higher fuel consumption. However, the final

III. ANALYSIS OF FUEL CONSUMPTION DATA consumption rate depends on the main engine output
and working rate [4] which could be proved with the
Testing of fuel consumption has been done for shaft RPM data from the full-scale measurements.
the both of formations “2+2” and “1+2”. Measured
fuel consumption (G) on both engines and IV. RESULTS FROM DATA ANALYSIS
calculated specific fuel consumption (GS) for both
pushboats are shown in table II. Brake power is
Transport efficiency (Et) or transportation
calculated based on the losses in the shafting plus an
efficiency is one of the most important technical and
additional mechanical efficiency. Power losses
operating measures by which it can be reduced the
between engine and total shaft power are typically
cost of transport as well as to make fleet more
3% for the Serbian pushboats.
competitive.
As can be seen from table II, fuel consumption
rate depends on the engine’s output: the more power,
TABELE II.HOURLY AND SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION FOR BOTH PUSHBOATS AND BOTH FORMATIONS
Fuel Specific fuel consumption
Brake power – directly at the consumption (kg/kWh and kg/HPh)
engine (horsepower and kilowatt) (kg/h)
Pinki
1006.5 739.8 170.8 0.169660 0.230830
925.9 680.5 156.8 0.169359 0.230421
815.1 599.1 137.7 0.168948 0.229861
1009.4 741.9 171.3 0.169671 0.230844
980.6 720.7 166.3 0.169563 0.230698
777.3 571.3 131.2 0.168808 0.229670
587.3 431.7 98.7 0.168108 0.228718
408.2 300.0 68.4 0.167462 0.227840
742.6 545.8 131.5 0.177113 0.240970
696.5 511.9 123.2 0.176934 0.240727
303.1 222.8 53.2 0.175455 0.238714
748.8 550.4 132.6 0.177137 0.241003
768.3 564.7 136.2 0.177213 0.241106
722.9 531.4 127.9 0.177037 0.240866
486.6 357.6 85.7 0.176129 0.239631
340.2 250.1 59.7 0.175587 0.238894
Panonija
916.7 673.8 155.2 0.169325 0.230374
815.4 599.4 137.8 0.168949 0.229862
679.9 499.7 114.5 0.168448 0.229180
558.5 410.5 93.8 0.168002 0.228575
441.2 324.3 73.9 0.167580 0.227999
807.3 593.4 143.2 0.177365 0.241312
725.6 533.3 128.5 0.177047 0.240880
541.9 398.4 95.6 0.176340 0.239918
290.0 213.2 50.9 0.175410 0.238652
782.8 575.4 138.8 0.177269 0.241183
503.0 369.7 88.6 0.176192 0.239716
284.9 209.4 49.9 0.175392 0.238628
795.5 584.7 141.1 0.177318 0.241250
523.2 384.6 92.2 0.176268 0.239821
283.7 208.5 49.8 0.175388 0.238623

TABLE III. TRANSPORTATION AND FUEL EFFICIENCY SUMMARY
Fuel Specific fuel Transport Fuel

Total shaft power
consumption consumption efficiency efficiency
(kilowatt)
(kg/h) (kg/kWh) (tkm/kWh) (kg/tkm)
202.5 49.7508 0.23862 189.346 0.00126

203.4 49.9688 0.23863 181.399 0.00132
216.4 53.1855 0.23871 181.466 0.00132
359.2 88.6335 0.23972 124.433 0.00193
373.6 92.2306 0.23982 127.496 0.00188
497.3 123.232 0.24073 106.998 0.00225
1+2
530.3 131.53 0.24097 103.141 0.00234
553.0 138.766 0.24118 91.4061 0.00264
558.5 141.051 0.24125 95.0295 0.00254
568.1 137.716 0.22986 91.7978 0.0025
661.6 156.804 0.23042 84.1332 0.00274
719.2 170.765 0.23083 81.11 0.00285
207.1
50.8772 0.23865 205.709 0.00116
243.0 59.7362 0.23889 198.092 0.00121
291.7 68.3563 0.22784 146.37 0.00156
315.3
73.9448 0.228 146.743 0.00155
347.5 85.6995 0.23963 157.075 0.00153
387.0
95.5736 0.23992 138.828 0.00173
399.1
93.8237 0.22858 131.733 0.00174
419.7 98.7307 0.22872 124.337 0.00184
485.8
114.528 0.22918 120.476 0.0019
2+2 516.2 127.99 0.24087 121.966 0.00198
518.1
128.472 0.24088 113.863 0.00212
534.7 132.642 0.241 118.7 0.00203
548.6 136.148 0.24111 116.654 0.00207
555.5 131.221 0.22967 108.886 0.00211
576.4
143.189 0.24131 106.042 0.00228
582.7
137.77 0.22986 109.242 0.0021
655.0
155.22 0.23037 102.133 0.00226
700.7 166.267 0.2307 96.4778 0.00239
721.3 171.266 0.23084 95.3667 0.00242

With this coefficient it is taken into account not determining the travel time. Comparing the
just the power required, but also operating formations “1+2” and “2+2” in Fig. 3 it is revealed
displacement of ship and time required to move that that the formation “2+2” has the lower fuel
weight (speed of ship). It is defined as tonnes- consumption per shaft power which was expected if
kilometers per kilowatthour: the operating displacement is taken into a count. By
increasing engine power it is expected to increase
fuel consumption and convoy speed but also to
Et = Q  v / SHP (3) shorten travel time. Depending on the time of arrival
at the destination port, convoy speed will be
determined. On the basis of determined convoy
Fuel efficiency (FE) is expressed in terms of speed and by using equations (1) and (2) pushboat
consumption per ship distance per mass of cargo power is calculated which in overall results in fuel
transported (operating displacement): consumption savings.
FE = GS/Et (4)
V. CONCLUSION
Like all commercial vessels, Serbian pushboats The implementation of methodology for
also getting underway for profit and are typically calculation fuel efficiency is an important first step
operated at speed and power combinations that in improving a strategy for overall decrease in
maximize fuel efficiency [5]. Unlike the seagoing pollution from ships. The effectiveness and
vessels, river ships don’t tend to follow tracks that simplicity of this new procedure should be evaluated
minimize the distance between ports. through more full-scale measurements. After
validation of results for other Serbian pushboats,
A method presented in this paper provides an prediction methods for relationship between speed
accurate way of calculation of the range of speed and power should be developed. Fuel efficiency and
and power points at which engine is operated, and transport efficiency should be calculated for each
also be easy to use. pushboat class. Following fuel efficiency
Table III provides data comparison between two determination, comparison between different
mentioned barge formations. Fig. 3 illustrate the pushboat classes can be made for the same operating
comparison graphically. displacement. Travel time can be calculated using
information about typical distance data between
ports.
0.003
The exact fuel savings would depend on the
"1+2" route and pushboat type and could be evaluated by
"2+2" the above proposed method.
0.0025
Fuel Efficiency (kg/tkm)
The results of such a program may ultimately be

substantial fuel savings as well as decrease in
0.002
pollution from Serbian pushboats.
The savings in costs for one shipping company
could convince other companies or society to invest
0.0015 in river transport and utilize all the potentials that
have in compare to other transport modes. Ships
should improve the operational and environmental
0.001 efficiency of their engines.
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Shaft Power (kW)
REFERENCES
Figure 1. Comparison between two barge formations
namely “1+2” and “2+2”
[1] Lewis, E.V, Principles of Naval Architecture:
Resistance, Propulsion and Vibration, vol. II. Society
of Naval Architects & Marine Engineers, ISBN-10:
Comparison charts of fig. 3 show fuel efficiency 0939773015, 1988, pp.327
variation according to shaft power in kilowatts. What [2] King, K.K., Yasukawa, H., Hirata, N., Kose, K,
is not presented in the fig. 3 is the speed of convoy. “Maneuvering simulations of pusher-barge systems”,
But convoy speed is the most important value for

Journal of Marine Science and Technology, vol. 13, [4] Anastassios N. P., Athanasios D., “A survey of short
pp. 117-126, 2008. sea shipping and its prospects in the USA”, Maritime
[3] Colic, V., “Research of navigation, transportation, Policy Management, Vol. 35, No. 6, pp. 591–614,
energy and propulsion parameters of the Danube December 2008.
pushboats” (in Serbian), Faculty of Transport and [5] Stephen P.M., Alan J.B., “Naval Ship Engine
Traffic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Exhaust Emission Characterization”, Naval
Belgrade, 2006, pp 200. Engineers Journal, Vol. 108, Issue 5, , pp: 37–47,
September 1996.

Model for Selection of the Railway Agenecy

Organization with Emphasis on EU Standards for
Railway Sector in Serbia
Vera Raičević, Slavko Vesković, Milan Gordan Stojić,

Marković, Norbert Pavlović, Slaviša University of Novi Sad, Faculty of
Aćimović Technical Sciences
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,21000, Novi Sad,
and Traffic Engineering Serbia
Vojvode Stepe 305, 11000, Belgrade, Serbia gordan@uns.ac.rs
veskos@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract– The legal framework for integration of of transport markets, but it was not equally
European railways and Serbian Railways in the applicable to all types of transport.
functional unit is based on establishing a regulatory
authority of the Member States (according to Directive Because of significant differences between the
2001/14/EC) and the formation of the European Railway railway networks in Europe and character of
Agency ERA. The establishment of regulatory authorities ownership of the railways, technical and legal
in Serbia must be implemented according to the Law on prerequisites for liberalization of rail transport were
Railways and by defining the organization of the not created. At the same time, due to the
regulatory function of the railway system. This paper development of road network, its flexibility and fair
proposes a possible organization of the Railway Agency, price of energy, road traffic has experienced
based on the experience of harmonization of regulations
with EU regulations in selected countries and the railway tremendous growth.
administrations. The proposed model was analyzed and In the early nineties, due to congestion of the
tested by SWOT analysis. The European dimension is road network by road transport, energy and
very important for the railways, because when they were environmental problems, great attention is paid to
organized as national railways they were limited to small
size of individual states. With a participation in the
the policy of sustainable development in the context
transport market and the possibility of future of the revitalization of rail transport. Next phase was
development of sustainable transport conditions, the elimination of technical and legal barriers to
European market for railway transport will be much facilitate smooth trains traffic on any section of the
more important than the national framework. The EU network. Development of the technical
transport policy is the economic need for our country specifications of interoperability (TSI) and the
arising from the necessity of including our economy in conventional as well as for high-speed rail system
Europe and Eurasian economic trends. are being made to overcome the technical and
technological barriers [1].
Keywords– railways, model of organization,
regulatory functions, compliance with EU standards, By directive 91/440/EEC [2], separation of
SWOT analysis infrastructure and transport is applied. That leads to
founding of legal basis for the education of railway
transport market. Railway companies have achieved
I. INTRODUCTION status of independent carriers (operators) which
should pay fees to an infrastructure manager for
By Treaty of Rome establishing the European using the infrastructure.
Economic Community in 1957. there is also the
common transport policy as an important element of To avoid favoring of individual operators and the
the internal market, which leads to achieving the appearance of monopoly, independent regulatory
body is formed. Function of independent regulatory
primary goal - the free movement of people, goods,
services and capital on the basis of openness and body is to ensure transparent, equitable and non-
nondiscrimination. The basic principle of the discriminatory access to the railway and network for
development of common transport policy is opening all operators [10]. All member states are obliged to
establish the EU regulators. These regulators should

formed a network, so that through mutual A) In the field of safety of rail transport
cooperation and exchange they contribute to the ERA should provide necessary assistance for the
development of policy of liberalization in their own implementation of Directive 2004/49/EC, European
countries and at the European level. Parliament and Council in the field of EU railways.
However, at the national level different Agency prepares and proposes common methods
approaches in defining the role and institutional and goals in the field of rail transport. Agencies
character of regulator body could be seen. This is should continuously monitor indicators of security
applicable at EU countries and candidate countries and make public available report every two years,
[3, 11,12, 13]. and maintain a database on the safety of rail
transport. ERA will establish a network for
cooperation with national agencies responsible for
II. RЕGULATORY FUNCTION IN EU the safety of railway traffic, as well as with
investigation department.
EU legal framework governing the development B) In the field of interoperability
of rail transport community is contained in the so- The technical division of the railway network is
called. "railway packages" [2]. Relevant legislation the biggest handicap that slows the development of
includes the first package of Directives: 2001/12/EC this kind of traffic. EU rules gradually introduced
(amending Council Directive 91/440/EEC) on the compulsory TSI (Directives 96/48/EC and
development of the Community's railways, the 2001/16/EC concerning the interoperability of the
railway development of the Community, trans-European railway system). The first set of TSI
2001/13/EC (amending Council Directive was adopted in 2002 for high-speed railways. After
95/18/EC) on the licensing of railway undertakings, that TSI was developed for conventional rail, with
Directive 2001/14/EC on the allocation of railway priority in the field of freight traffic. According to
infrastructure capacity and the levying of charges this, Agency is responsible for monitoring the
for the use of railway infrastructure. The second interoperability and making reports about every two
package pays special attention to security and years.
interoperability, and contains an important Directive
2004/49/EC (on safety on the Community's railways Commission provides expert's opinion on
and amending Council Directive 95/18/EC on the compliance with the TSI for projects applying for
licensing of railway undertakings and Directive EU financial assistance [11].
2001/14/EC on the allocation of railway The Steering Committee is composed of one
infrastructure capacity and the levying of charges representative of each Member State, four
for the use of railway infrastructure and safety representatives of the Commission and six experts
certification - Railway Safety Directive), Directive in the field, the most trusted and non-voting in the
2004/50/EC amending Council Directive 96/48/EC committee.
on the interoperability of the trans-European high- In the very important Directive 91/440/EEC,
speed rail system and Directive 2001/16/EC of the through separation of infrastructure and transport,
European Parliament and of the Council on the foundation for the education of railway transport
interoperability of the trans-European conventional market is defined,. It should be mentioned that
rail system) and Regulation 881/2004/EC liberalization implies that railway transport market
establishing a European railway agency, ERA works on the principles of free market laws.
(Agency Regulation ). In the third package for the
regulatory area is very important to open markets To avoid favoring of individual operators and the
for international passenger service. appearance of monopoly, Article 30 of Directive
2001/14/EC has introduced the Regulatory Body
In the framework of its transport policy, EU which should be formed in every Member State [2]:
adopted an adequate regulation for enabling creation "the regulatory body may be the Ministry which is
of an integrated European railway companies in a responsible for transport matters or any other body
legal and technical manner. ERA has the primary independent in its organization, decisions on
task [10] to help security strengthening and financing, legal structure and decision making on
interoperability of European railways by providing the control infrastructure, charging agency, agency
technical assistance. This includes the development granting the capacity or the applicant. The body is
and implementation of technical specifications of obliged to work on the principles presented in this
interoperability (TSI) and a common security article. Complaints and regulatory functions can be
approach. The main task of the Agency is to manage assigned to separate bodies". Later in this article is
the preparation of these measures: referred to the competence of the regulatory body,

while Article 31 defines international cooperation of are given to the Directorate of Railways (Articles
regulatory bodies. 78, 79 and 80).
Article 30 of Directive 2001/14/EC allows Article 78 shall defines Directorate of Railways
certain variations in the institutional model of the as a separate organization to "carry out the
regulatory body, and therefore it varies from country regulatory, technical and other activities in the field
to country [2, 3]. The typical institutional models of of rail transport. Article 80 defines leadership, "the
regulatory bodies [3]: Directorate of Railways is headed by a director who
us appointed by the Government of the Republic of
• Within the Ministry of Transport (Finland,
Serbia, on the proposal of the Minister. "
France, Italy, Slovenia);
Article 79 lists the functions of the Directorate,
• a separate body outside the Ministry of which cover a wide range of activities, which could
Transport (United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, be classified into following groups:
Switzerland)
 preparation of technical regulations, norms
• divided into two parts: one part is under the and standards in the field of rail transport;
Ministry of Transport and is responsible for market
control, and the second part represents the special  issuing licenses, certificates, permits and
body for appeal addressing (Norway); approvals provided for by law in the field of
infrastructure and transport;
In addition to the above structural differences,
there are differences in responsibilities. In France,  decisions on complaints of competitors on
this body is actually the expert committee the transport market;
responsible for resolving complaints by affected  providing an opinion on the law provided for
stakeholders at the transport market. Italy also has programs and business development of
an important advisory role in the management of the railways;
regulatory policy of the Ministry of Transport. In
GB, ORR (Office of Rail Regulation) has a  control the use of funds for the
regulatory function as well as safety management of reimbursement of obligations of public
railway transport. Of our neighboring candidate transport;
countries we will mark off Romania, whose  proposing measures in the area of
regulatory body is independent and responsible for harmonization and interoperability of rail
monitoring and for complaints concerning trasnport transport;
market.
 providing professional services (running or
Article 31 of Directive 2001/14/EC provides participating in the performance of expertise,
interconnection and exchange of experiences of investigating extraordinary events, etc.).
national regulatory bodies throughout the EU [2].
An example of such a cooperation has been made Jurisdiction of the Directorate include in addition
for freight rail traffic on the corridor Rotterdam - to regulatory functions, functions in the field of rail
Genoa. Action Plan of 2006-2010 made for transport. So, Directorate can be seen as a
improvement of traffic flow on that section combination of regulatory authorities and safety. In
anticipates cooperation of regulatory bodies of Article 78, establishing the Agency, it is not
Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland and Italy. They explicitly stated that it has a function in the field of
are tasked with overseeing the process of allocation security (which are currently largely concerns
of international route freight trains and International Directorate), only regulatory function is clear.
Cooperation of infrastructure controllers’. However, Article 79, where tasks of Directorate are
listed, shows that the Directorate encompasses,
according to EU Directives [2, 10, 11], the functions
III. REGULATORY FUNCTION IN SERBIA of the four bodies, namely:
 Regulatory body - transport market
Harmonizing of Serbia's legislation with supervision
European concept in the field of rail transport began
with the acceptance of the Law on Railway on  Safety Authority - responsible for licenses,
2005th [13]. It is a very important document that certificates and others.
initialized reforms of the railway sector in Serbia
 Investigating body - study of accidents
[3]. In this way, in Serbia, a legal framework for the
transformation and liberalization of the railway  Notified body - appointed or authorized
sector was formed. Functions of regulatory bodies body for the assessment of the compatibility
of relevant

 security subsystem with the interoperability, consultant, and regular and consistent engine of
and as authority for issuing licenses. growth. Thus, the jurisdiction of the Directorate are
much broader than the regulatory authorities in the
In EU directives there are no legal barriers for EU [2, 13], probably because the legislator had took
merging of first two bodies into one. Notified body into consideration the problems of the transition
is in practice a separate authority, while strong period and required gradual reforms.
arguments for independence of Authority for
investigation of accidents exist. According to The transformation of the railroad and the
Directive 2004/49, "each State Party should ensure relevant legislation in EU is continuous process,
that the investigation of accidents and incidents which is constantly being built up by searching for
performs permanent body, consisting of at least one new insight into the problem, and correction of
licensed investigator. This authority doesn't identified deficiencies. These changes will be
dependend on infrastructure managers in its present in our practice.
organization, legal structure and decision making, Law on Railways was already in parliamentary
railway companies, authorities collectiing fees, procedure when it came into force Directive of
allocation organs and bodies for the certification of security 2004/49/EC [2]. It is necessary, therefore,
railway equipment, and by any subject whose to make appropriate amendments to the Railway
interests might be in contrary to the tasks that are Law Act in accordance with this Directive, although
delegated to authority for investigation. The it will mostly become a part of the new Law, which
Authority is functionally independent from security is under preparation.
body and from any regulatory body on railways. "
A) The existing organization of the directorate for
This should be taken into consideration when railways
drafting the new Law on safety of railway traffic,
and in the future transformations of Directorate Directorate for railways is composed of the
functions. department for normative affairs and the
department for international cooperation and general
Directorate for Railways under the law Railway affairs (Fig. 1.). Activities are carried out work in
Law has a very broad scope of activities, but these sectors of frameworks:
currently the it is only a part of it. Reason for this is
lower degree of railways reconstruction comparing  elaboration of technical regulations, norms
to provided functions of the Directorate. So far, and standards,
Directorate mostly dealt with matters in the field of  participation in preparing of regulations and
security: the issuance of permits and approvals, as agreements,
well as the preparation of normative acts. Their task  issuing of licences for railway infrastructure
was to prepare the regulations "in the field of rail management, carriage in railway transport,
transport, " and that "follows the development of
technical and technological system of railways in  issuing of certificates on safety for railway
other countries, and proposes measures to infrastructure management, i.e. industrial
harmonize, increase level of interoperability and railway and safety for carriage in railway
modernize", but has no power to make them. transport,
Railway Law does not define who is competent to
issue these regulations, but just who prepares them.  Issuing of permits for usage of newly
These responsibilities should be revised and manufactured railway rolling stock, new
specified, which will contribute to more efficient types of devices, parts and equipment for
work. railway rolling stock, new types of devices,
parts and equipment for railway
Although the certain number of licenses is infrastructure,
approved for the transportation and the security
certificate, the regulatory functions of the  taking decisions on objections against the
Directorate has not yet been possible, because there rejected or modified / supplemented offer for
was no opening of the transport market for railway making the contract on railway infrastructure
network in Serbia. usage,
The opening of national markets to foreign
 approval of technical documentation
operators in the EU has already started in freight
(construction, reconstruction and
traffic, and the third railway package provides same modernization of railway infrastructure),
for international passenger traffic. Serbia is at the
beginning of the process and major changes are still  rendering the consent relating the conditions
necessary. Directorate should be a modeler and for construction, reconstruction, maintenance

and protection of industrial tracks, railway  monitoring of railway development in other

rolling stock and other means for countries and proposing the measures for
organization and regulation of railway harmonization, increasing of interoperability
transport on industrial tracks, and modernization,
 providing opinion for five-year activity and  realization and development of international
development plan of the Public Enterprise, cooperation in the field of railway transport,
annual business program of the Public
Enterprise, annual program for maintenance  preparing and realization of the training and
of the public railway infrastructure, vocational specialization program in the filed
organization and regulation of railway of railway transport,
transport of the Public Enterprise, programs
of construction, reconstruction and  rendering expert services (expertise,
modernization of public railway investigation of accidents etc.),
infrastructure,
 classifying and keeping of technical
 control of usage of the funds for public regulations etc.).
transport charges,
Figure 1. Organization of the Directorate for Railways RS
B) Election of the new organization model of the corridors, especially in the transit traffic. Even
regulatory body of the Republic of Serbia though the quality of the railway system services
Most EU countries, those aspiring for EU has slightly increased, it is still far from the level
membership, but also other countries in the world, required by the transport market. The provision of a
accepted the views and directives related to the satisfactory level of quality of the railway services is
restructuring of the railway system. So far essentially dependant on the railway infrastructure
completed phases of the railway restructuring [1, 9, 11].
system have not allowed for full liberalization of the We have already above pointed out to the
railway transport market, the expected positive shortcomings of the current organizing system of
performance of the railway system, satisfactory the Directorate of Railways, as well as to the
meeting of the demands of the transport market, the necessity of making the appropriate amendments to
required level of quality of the railway services, the Law of Railway in accordance with the EU
appropriate satisfaction of the interests of the social Directives [2]. The definition of the ways for the
community at the national, regional and local levels, restructuring of national railway companies and the
and the like. Restructuring of the railway system, in organization of regulatory bodies in Europe, was
general, has given partial positive operating results mainly based on expert opinions, in accordance with
on the main railway routes or pan-European

the defined traffic policies, the level of development The choice of the model of the regulatory body is
of the country in question, as well as the willingness made out of a set of known solutions, based on the
to accept the changes (in political, social and others defined criteria, on the basis of a known procedure
sense). of CBR methodology. An experience base in
relation to the model of the regulatory body could
It should be noted that there have been attempts
be made out of the following countries: United
to develop appropriate models of decision making
Kingdom, France, Germany, Netherlands, Estonia,
based on multiple criteria (Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Italy, Austria, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovak
Montenegro) or simulation (Slovenia). Lately, there
Republic, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Slovenia,
has been an increase in use of artificial intelligence
Croatia, Albania, Bosnia and Macedonia.
and hybrid models in traffic and transport, and
therefore also in the solving of problems like these
[9].
IV. SWOT ANALYSIS DIRECTIONATE FOR
The use of Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) SERBIAN RAILWAYS
methodology in traffic and related disciplines is
significant. A hybrid model of the theory of SWOT Analysis Directorate of Railways of the
artificial intelligence (CBR methodology), the Republic of Serbia has shown many advantages of
theory of fuzzy sets and theory of MCS, has been its functioning expressed through the "power" and
developed [9]. For this purpose, ??an expert "opportunities ". As most important to adopt the
decision making system UZI-CBR has been made, new Law on Railway, compliance with EU
enabling the selection of the method (model) of the standards, the establishment and opening of the
institutional management of the railway market of railway services and effective cooperation
infrastructure, which could also be applied to the with the EU institutions to better attract financial
selection of the organizing model for the regulatory resources for the benefit of Railways.
body.
Of course, there are numerous deficiencies and
The Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) methodology inconsistency shown by "weak" and "danger. " It is
is applied to solve new problems in the areas of fairly important to review and assess the degree of
adaptation of old solutions used for similar risk bearing in the process of transformation of the
problems in the past. The main assumption railways and the relevant legislation. In this way
represented by this methodology is that similar bićemou able to eliminate them, especially in the
problems have similar solutions [9]. new legal provisions in the new settlement
The regulatory body has a very complex position organizations rgulatornog body.
with a number of important and sensitive functions. Strengths:
On the one hand, it should meet the demands of the
market as well as of the transporters, and on the 1. The Law on Railway - Establishment of the
other, those of the social communities at national, Railway.
regional and local levels. Moreover, it is necessary 2. Compliance with EU standards.
that it maintains an independent position and
provides the impetus and the positive impact on the 3. Improving interactive links between the state
development of the railway system. For this reason and the carrier and an user of rail-transport
it is crucial to find a rational (optimal) way to traffic in Serbia.
organize the regulatory body. To achieve this, it is 4. Establishing a normative connection with
necessary to define the substantial criteria for the European normative, transportation and
design of the institutional system of the regulatory business environment.
body [9].
5. Introduction of market criteria and serious
The sets of criteria by which the estimates were normative regulation of railway traffic of
made are: Serbia.
1. Sizes of the countries (regions); 6. Opening of the market space for
entrepreneurial businesses engaging.
2. Levels of the economic development;
7. Opening of space for the capital commitment
3. Levels of the development of infrastructure; of business entities (foreign and domestic) in
service of industrial tracks and transport, or
4. Levels of accomplished reforms of the in other words, in service of modernization
railway systems. of the rail transport and infrastructure.
Weaknesses:

1. The transition period between ZJ Railways Threats:

and Serbian Railways.
1. Normative inefficiency as reztultat of
2. Inherent weakness: sluggishness, no market, unprofessionalism and incompetence.
poor staffing structure.
2. Adoption of values and professional system
3. New approach in the state-organizational inherited from the previous period.
mechanism caused by the establishment of
the Directorate and its regulatory and 3. High bureaucratization and professional
functional relations. inertia in the work of the Directorate.
4. The inherited methods of the prior period.
4. Lack of market orientation.
5. Pioneering work on the adoption of laws for
increament of Directorate's efficiency. 5. Policy influence.
6. The need for professional development and 6. Autism compared to the normative and
for capacity building for implementation of practical solutions in relation to the positive
tasks of the Directorate, are not seriously legal concepts in the EU and Eurasia.
considered.
7. Bureaucratic allocation of resources and
7. Political rather than professional criteria are
activities guided by policy and personal
applied in choosing the leadership of the interests.
Directorate.
8. Lack of teamwork and respect for the 8. Poor, ineffective coordination with the
profession of transport. competent Directorate of the Ministry of
Serbia, local and foreign companies
Opportunities: interested to participate in accordance with
1. Investment funds, which may be market the law in rail transport Serbia and its
provided for strengthening the staff in the modernization.
Directorate, both existing and newly received.
V. CONCLUSIONS
2. Strengthening staffing levels through the
Given that there has not been liberalization in
receipt of the most successful master with
practice in our country, it is reasonable that in the
Traffic Engineering in Belgrade, specialed in
beginning the Directorate for Railways did the
the certain issues and problems which the
function of both - regulatory bodies and authorities
Department deals.
for safety. However, in the future, redefining the
3. Establishing an effective mechanism of functions of the Directorate, shall reconsider the
coordination with the competent ministries of division of powers in the field of security between
Serbia in the function of the adoption of the three main factors in the railway sector: the
adequate legal solutions within the Ministry of Infrastructure, Directorate for Railways
jurisdiction of the Directorate. and Public Enterprise "Serbian Railways". It is very
important to accurately distinguish levels of
4. Establishment of adequate and effective
competence and responsibility, in order to avoid
coordination with the competent Ministry of
confusion about the overlapping of functions in
the Republic of Serbia and the formation of
practice.
the operating team in solving strategic and
operational issues, and problems within the In accordance with the progress of the reform of
competence of the Directorate (in security the railway sector, it should gradually separate very
and the area of commercialization). complex responsibilities of the Directorate of
several independent bodies. Also, if we permanently
5. Establishing effective cooperation with the
keep a wide range of activities, there is a risk to lose
competent Directorate European institutions,
the main objectives and weaken the coordination of
and institutions of Eurasia as a function of
all segments of the system. Due to that, Directorate
adequate normative connection with the
can become sluggish and inefficient bureaucratic
legislation of these regions and applying their
apparatus.
positive experiences.
Models and responsibilities of the regulatory
6. Effective cooperation with the EU
body in Europe vary by country, so it is certainly
institutions to better attract financial
necessary in planning the further development of
resources for the benefit of Railways, their
modernization and improvement.

these features in our country to incorporate results [5] G. Stojić, B. Ristanović, I. Tanackov, S. Vesković,
K. Dimanoski, “Modeling Evaluation of the Size of
and experiences of more developed countries. Countries (Regions) Using Fuzzy Logic“, Pannonica
Geographic, Vol. 14 Issue 2, 2010, pp. 59-66.
[6] G. Stojic, S. Vesković, I. Tanackov, S. Milinković,
“Model for assessing the development of
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS infrastructure“, Technology-Transportation, Vol. 57,
no. 4, 2010, pp. 1-7.
This paper is supported by Ministry of Science [7] Z. J. Blašković, J. Zavada, D. Hozjan, “Development
of Railways in New Marketing Conditions“,
and Technological Development of the Republic of TRAFFIC - Traffic & Transportation, Vol. 19, No. 1,
Serbia (no. project 36012). 2007, pp. 43-47.
[8] D. Turnock, “Romania's Railways Under Transition:
Rehabilitation Reorganisation and Regional
Development“, TRAFFIC - Traffic &
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Using Fuzzy Logic Level“, Lecture Notes in [17] www.cer.bg
Computer Science / Lecture Notes in Artificial
Intelligence, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, Vol. 5788,
2009, pp. 695-702.

Huff Location Model of the Bicycle Parking

Services
Sanja Roksandić, Dragan Urošević, Emilio Carrizosa

Nenad Mladenović, Tatjana Davidović Faculty of Mathematics
Mathematical Institute University of Seville
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Seville, Spain
Belgrade, Serbia ecarrizosa@us.es
{sanja, draganu, nenad, tanjad}@mi.sanu.ac.rs
Abstract— Global warming is the biggest and most locating bicycle parking services in the street
serious problem humanity is facing in this century. network appears.
Therefore, the governments of developed countries
encourage their citizens to use human-powered transport, Parking spaces in general may occupy large
most commonly bicycles. Here arises the problem of surface areas. Usually it is quite difficult to allocate
locating bicycle parking services in urban zones. In this sufficiently large surface area within an urban zone.
paper we propose new model for this problem based on Thus, the location of the parking place is usually
the Huff location model on networks. Therefore, we predefined by the city administration with respect to
assume that customers probabilistically choose parking this practical restriction. Therefore, locating parking
spaces. The objective is to locate bicycle parking spaces
spaces in general may not be such a challenging
in competitive environment in order to capture as many
customers as possible. The parking spaces, as well as problem to solve. On the other hand, locating bicycle
customers, can be located not only at nodes, but also at parking places in urban zones can be extremely
any point along each edge of the network. In such a way, attractive problem for solving. First of all, in the
our problem becomes continuous and therefore we developed countries there is a growing need for the
propose to solve it by using adequate meta-heuristic bicycle parking places since the number of people
methods, in particular Variable Neighborhood Search which use bicycles as their everyday vehicles
(VNS). Our VNS is implemented in the software package constantly increases. Also, bicycle parking places do
GLOB which is a stand-alone solver for minimization of a not require too large surface areas. Moreover, since
continuous function subject to box constraints. We bicycles are much lighter than other vehicles, the
consider here simple variant of this problem: location of designers take advantage of that fact and create
bicycle parking services along single street and present
experimental results on randomly generated examples. parking places with several levels above the ground
increasing in that way the number of bicycles which
Keywords— bicycle parking services; location; can be placed in a particular parking place. With this
network; variable neighborhood search; VNS; global assumption the capacity of a bicycle parking place
optimization; GLOB; becomes not so significant attribute, unlike in the
case of a general parking place where must not be
neglected.
I. INTRODUCTION
Let us now focus on the problem of locating
The Earth’s climate is changing and we have bicycle parking services in urban zones.
already been the witnesses of it. This is largely the The collection of city streets can be clearly
consequence of the human activities which are modeled as a general network. We naturally assume
altering the chemical compositions of the that there are residential, commercial, government,
atmosphere. For instance, the road transport in EU is educational, religious or any other type buildings
responsible for approximately 20% of total located all along the streets. Each building has its
emissions of carbon dioxide which is the major own position in the street which is the relevant
contributor to climate change. In order to information for our analysis. Every building is being
systematically change the habits of individuals, the visited temporary or periodically by people who use
governments of developed countries encourage their bicycles. The number of these people can be
citizens to use human-powered transport, most estimated empirically. This information is also
commonly bicycles. In that sense the problem of relevant for our model.

We also assume that there are bicycle parking predefined way). Let be the distance from the
services already located at certain points on the customer located at the arbitrary point to the
streets. Our goal is to locate a given number of facility at on the network . Let be a
bicycle parking services in order to “steel” as many distance deterrence function of the customer from
customers as possible from already located parking the facility at , i.e. is monotonically decreasing
services. function with respect to . In his original
In this paper we consider simple variant of the model, Huff specified the distance deterrence
problem. We are focusing on location bicycle function as a power function, i.e.
parking services on a degenerated street network,
precisely a single street.
Eventually, let be the probability of
customer at choosing facility at among
facilities. In these terms, the network Huff model is
II. PROBLEM DEFINITION as follows
A. Basic Terms and Notation

First, let us introduce some basic terms and
notation. Let represent an imbedded Using the network Huff model, we next formulate
planar network with the set of vertices , a problem for obtaining the demand captured
, and with the edge set . We assume by facility at . Let be the demand density at
that at most one edge joins any two distinct vertices choosing facility at . Since the Huff model gives
and contains no loops. Also we assume that each us the choice probability of customer at choosing
edge has positive length and that each edge is the facility at , is obtained from
rectifiable, in the sense that there is a multiplying the probability by , i.e.
correspondence between each edge and the interval
. For notational simplicity, we will identify in
what follows with the set of points contained in
any edge . It is now straightforward to define
the distance between any two points
(1)
as the length of any shortest path in joining and
. To obtain the demand captured by the
facility at we need to integrate the equation (1),
B. General Huff Location Model on Network
performing the integration along all the edges ,
With the competitive Huff location model [5] we i.e.
assume that facilities providing certain service are
already located at points on network .
The next assumption is that the customers are
located not only on vertices, but all over the network
Hence the demand is generated at any point on
and distributed along each edge of the network. With
on is associated the demand density with
the properties , on each edge , and
. The demand density may Now we assume that there are existing
vary from location to location. For instance, it can be facilities located at the points of the
distributed uniformly along each edge. network , and we are supposed to locate new
facilities at the points , , in order
The goal is to locate new facilities which will
respond to the customers’ demands in such a way to capture maximal demand. The total demand
that the captured demand is maximal. captured only by new facilities is given by formula
Let us formulate the network Huff model on .

Let , , if , and
if , be the attractiveness of facility
located at the point , (which may be measured by
the number of parking spots, i.e. the capacity of where if , if
parking place, by the level of security, by the level of . Since it has to be maximal, problem that has to
protection from precipitation or in any other be solved is

Now it is easy to formulate the objective

function. The objective function which models the
(2) total demand captured by the new bicycle parking
services is the sum of the total captured demand of
C. Single Street Case each parking service, i.e.
Let us focus on a single street case. Therefore,
instead of a general network we have a segment.
Without loss of generality, we may assume it is a
segment and the distance between two points
and , , is given by . We Then our problem becomes
have buildings which positions along the street are
predetermined and various numbers of people
visiting these buildings which can also be estimated
in advance. The positions of buildings will
correspond to the points where customers are located (3)
at, while the number of people with bicycles visiting
a particular building is going to be modeled as the
demand of the particular building. Thus, we can III. COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS
assume that we have buildings located at the points
, , along the segment with
A. Variable Neigborhood Search Meta-heuristic
demand each of the
buildings at , respectively, generates. The form of a global optimization problem is
Existing bicycle parking services are located at the
points , , and we need to
find locations , , for new Where , , is a continuous function on an
bicycle parking services in order to attract as many open set and is a compact set. Global optimization
people as possible. The attractiveness of the is very difficult because in the majority of practical
bicycle parking service at is calculated in advance problems there is the presence of many local
and can be modeled as the function of the properties minima. In addition, the number of these local
previously mentioned. If we choose , the minima has a tendency to grow exponentially with
probability of people visiting the building the dimension of the problem. Even though
at , , choosing parking service at designing a general method which would guarantee
among parking services is calculated by finding the global minimum for a particular problem
formula seems quite impossible, a number of global
optimization methods have been created.
There are two main approaches to finding the
global minimum. One of them is Multi-Start Local
where , if , if Search. The idea of this approach is to create the set
. The demand of the building at that of randomly generated points and then apply any of
the parking service at captures is obtained from the standard minimization techniques converging to
multiplying the probability by the total a local minimum to these points. In order to achieve
demand of the building at , i.e. . Thus we have as high probability of locating the global minimum
as it is necessary, a large number of starting points
should be generated. Besides the fact that the
technique is time consuming, it becomes
impracticable as the dimension of the problem
increases.
The total demand captured by the new parking
service located at , , is the sum of The second approach is designing methods which
captured demand over all buildings avoid entrapments in local minima by escaping from
these in a predefined way allowing the search to
continue. They provide us near-optimal solutions.
One of the methods which follow this philosophy is
Variable Neighborhood Search (VNS) [3, 4, 5]. The
concept of VNS for continuous global optimization
has been motivated by the fact that VNS for discrete
optimization is conceptually very simple since it
depends basically on only one parameter: the number

of different neighborhoods in the VNS strategy. The avoid cycling which might occur if any
simplicity allows very efficient and flexible deterministic rule was used.
implementation.
C. GLOB software for global optimization
B. Generic VNS Algorithm We performed computations using GLOB [1]
The basic idea behind VNS meta-heuristic is to stand-alone software package for global
use more than one neighborhood structure. Then we optimization. GLOB is designed to seek for the
systematically change them during the local search. global minimum of a continuous (or smooth)
The search continues from the same solution until function in a finite dimensional box-constrained
we find a better one then the incumbent is and then region:
we move to the better solution. Otherwise, we
perform shaking procedure, i.e. moving to a
randomly generated point. The usage of GLOB software is very simple.
User should define the problem specific objective
Let us have a finite sequence of predefined
function as a C programming language function
neighborhood structures . Let
be the set of feasible solutions which double user_func (double *xcoord)
corresponds to the neighborhood structure at the
and optionally its gradient by
point , where is an initial solution. It is important
to note that most of the local search meta-heuristics void user_grad (double *xcoord, double *grad).
use one neighborhood structure, i.e. . The
basic VNS meta-heuristic algorithm is presented If the function to be minimized depends on
below. certain parameters with fixed values in the
minimization process, as the one found in our
problem, values can be passed to function via
Generic VNS algorithm. fun_params option in the job parameter file which
defines the values in global array Fun_Params[] that
can be used in the user function.
Find an initial solution There is a number of well known test functions
Choose a stopping criterion already built in the package.
repeat The package is designed for the jobs to run in a
batch mode which makes it possible to submit
several optimization jobs in batch mode. All
while do parameters are defined in a couple of parameter
files: main parameter file and job parameter file. In
(Shaking) Generate randomly a point the main parameter file (default name glob.cfg) user
specifies which job parameter file will be used, the
(Local search) Apply a local search name of the output file and the working directory.
method with as the initial solution; the Job parameter file contains test function details,
obtained local minimum denote by various options, limits, parameters as well as
reporting options for that job.
(Move or not) if is better than the
incumbent There are three heuristics built-in the current
version of the package: Random Search (Monte-
move to Carlo), Multi-Start Local Search and VNS. In the
last two heuristics, new random points are initial
points for a chosen local minimizer. In VNS new
else random point is chosen from a series of
until (the stopping criterion is satisfied) neighborhoods of the best found optimal point.
Local minimizers used in VNS and Multi-Start
Local Search are well known methods Nelder-Mead,
The stopping criterion may be e.g. a Hooke-Jeeves, Rosenbrock, Steepest Descent,
predetermined maximal CPU time allowed, Fletcher-Powell and Fletcher-Reeves. In our
maximal number of iterations, maximal number of experiments we use VNS heuristic with Nelder-
iterations between two improvements. The Mead local minimizer.
successive neighborhoods are often nested, but it
is not necessary to be always the case. Let us note
that the point is generated randomly in order to

D. Design of experiments and computational We may notice that when the attractiveness of
results the new parking service is lower than the
We are dealing with the location problem on a attractiveness of existing ones, the total demand
degenerated network, which is a segment. It can be captured by the new parking place is also low
assumed, without loss of generality, that we work on (13.7%). Increasing the attractiveness to the value of
the segment. It is also convenient to assume the attractiveness of existing services implies rapid
for the distance function and in growth of the demand captured (21.4%).
that case we can take . Appreciable improvement of the total demand
captured was achieved only when the attractiveness
In order to illustrate how this model behaves we of the new bicycle parking service had significantly
choose a simple example. We are going to consider increased (25.6%, 29.6%). Therefore, we may
five buildings located along the single street, i.e. conclude that the attractiveness of the new bicycle
segment, with the coordinates parking place has to be significantly higher than the
The number of people visiting attractiveness of existing ones in order to capture
the buildings, i.e. the generated demand related to satisfactory amount of demand.
each of the buildings is respectively.
The company which installs new bicycle parking
We assume that we have two bicycle parking services should make the trade-off between the
services already installed in this street with the attractiveness and the number of new parking
attractiveness , where the attractiveness services. In most of the cases it is easier to increase
is an integer number from the [1, 5] segment. We the total demand captured by increasing the
may also assume that the coordinates of the existing attractiveness of parking places (e.g. by adding
parking services were obtained by using some of the security locks or by installing a roof over the
non-competitiveness oriented location models, for parking place). In certain cases installing one or two
instance p-median model. In that case, the additional parking places may not improve
coordinates of the existing bicycle parking cervices significantly the amount of the total demand
are and . captured. On the other hand, in some cases installing
one or two additional parking places may bring
much greater benefit which gives sense to the
additional expenses of installation.
IV. CONCLUSION AND FURTHER WORK

Figure 1. Location of the Buildings and Existing
Parking Services Following the “Think globally, act locally” rule,
the governments of developed countries encourage
Now we assume that we are locating a single their citizens to use human power transport, namely
bicycle parking service competing with the bicycles, in order to reduce the level of air pollution
existing ones in order to capture maximal demand. and energy consumption. This is where the problem
The testing of our problem was performed for the of locating bicycle parking services in urban zones
various values of parameter and the obtained arises. We propose solving this problem by applying
results are presented in the table below. competitive Huff location model. Using GLOB
software package for global optimization with built
in VNS meta-heuristic we showed how this model
behaves with the simple instance of the problem.
TABLE I. LOCATION AND THE TOTAL DEMAND Our ultimate goal is to solve more challenging case
CAPTURED OF A NEW BICYCLE PARKING SERVICE FOR
THE VARIOUS VALUES OF ATTRACTIVENESS
of locating bicycle parking services on the general
network in the competitive environment.
Attractive Total Demand
Location
ness Captured (%)
1 0.3842 13.7
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
2 0.4135 21.4
3 0.2467 22.7 This research has been partially supported by the
National Science Foundation of Serbia, grants nos.
4 0.3141 25.6 174010 and 174033, and by the Spanish Ministry of
5 0.5172 29.6 Science and Innovation through the projects
OPTIMOS2/ MTM2009-14039-C06-06.

REFERENCES [4] P. Hansen, N. Mladenovic. “Variable neighborhood

search methods”, Encyclopedia of Optimization, 2nd
Edition, Floudas, Pardalos, Eds. Springer, vol 22, pp.
[1] M. Dražić, V. Kovačević-Vujčić, M. Čangalović and 3975-3989, 2009
N. Mladenović, “GLOB – A New VNS-Based [5] D. L. Huff, “A Probabilistic Analysis of Shopping
Software for Global Optimization, Global Center Trade Areas,” Land Economics, 39, pp. 81–
Optimization – From Theory to Implementation, L. 90, 1963
Liberty and N. Maculan, Eds. Springer, vol 84, part [6] N. Mladenović and P. Hansen, “Variable
II, p.p. 135-154, 2006 Neighborhood Search: Principles and Applications,”
[2] S. L. Hakimi, “On locating new facilities in a European Journal of Operational Research, 130, pp.
competitive environment“, European Journal of 449–467, 2001
Operational Research, 12, pp. 29-35,1983 [7] N. Mladenović, P. Hansen, “Variable neighborhood
[3] P. Hansen, N. Mladenović, “Variable neighborhood search: principles and applications”, European
search”, in Burke, E. K., Kendall, G., editors, Search Journal of Operational Research, 130, pp. 449-467,
Methodologies: Introductory Tutorials in 1997
Optimization and Decision Support Techniques, [8] B. C. Tansel, R. L. Francis, T.J. Lowe, “Location on
Springer, pp. 211-238, 2005 Networks: a Survey. Part I: the p-Center and p-
Median Problems”, Management Science, 29 (4), pp.
482-497, 1983

Enterprise Europe Network: Support of R&D

and Innovation in Transport Sector
Prof. Dr. Aleksandar Sedmak1, Dr. Dejan Ninković1, Dr. Igor Stankovic2
1
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kraljice Marije 16, Belgrade, Serbia
2
Institute of Physics Belgrade, University of Belgrade, Pregrevica 118, Zemun-Belgrade, Serbia
Abstract— Problems connected with the utilization of the establishment of Innovation Relay Centres
R&D results within production facilities and finding (IRCs) [1].
appropriate program for financing innovation resulted in
creation of Europe wide network of Innovation Relay and
European Information Centers. Today, successor Integrative processes within EU, have put
organization Enterprise Europe Network brings together forward issues and problems arising lack of
business support organizations from across 47 countries. information on new legislative, establishment of
Network experts are teamed-up in 17 key sectors aiming cooperation, markets and regulations linked with
to provide customized support. In particular, sector them, financial instruments and their availability,
group for automotive, transport and logistics industry is etc. Generally, information considering new and
aiming in finding partners for joint European research ever changing business environment were needed.
and commercial projects, sourcing new and innovative This applies especially to SMEs, which represent
transport technologies, licensing, joint ventures, 99% of all legal bodies in EU and generate 47% of
technical cooperation and other formal business
the income [3]. The answer was founded in creation
agreements across Europe. Using Europe’s largest
database of cutting-edge technologies, containing more of Europe Information Centres (EICs).
than 13,000 profiles the Network brings together
research and commercial applications. About 25% all Still, both networks have shoved certain
registered profiles are related directly or indirectly to shortcomings. Mainly, there was no one place to get
Transport Sector. Other issues, considering availability all of the needed information and support, again
of information on the European and local policies and predominantly needed by SMEs.
project are solved by Network through provision of
advice and support in all aspects of the transport
including efficiency, emissions and traffic regulation. In Through combination of these two networks,
addition to afore mentioned functions, the Network is along with added value for the clients, with the
supporting feedback of SMEs to European Commission. utilization of “no wrong door” concept, a new
This is especially important feature of the Network for the network (Enterprise Europe Network), providing
SMEs active in the Transport Sector since they are facing full range of the services to its clients, arose. Today,
maybe most drastic changes of the business environment more than 600 organisations are part of the
in the recent years. The Enterprise Europe Network successor organisation Enterprise Europe Network
connects SMEs with the feedback channels available – in more than 47 countries (including Serbia) [2],
from commenting on planned legislation and taking part
with role of intermediary party, dealing in
in test panels to proposing alternative solutions.
worldwide technology transfer. The role of the
Keywords— EEN, business support, EU programs Network is to provide full support to the clients,
dominantly SMEs in pan-European aspects of their
business activities. Naturally, supporting Transport
I. INTRODUCTION of any kind and environmentally friendly aspects of
it at various levels is one of the prime tasks of the
Division onto so called “white” and “blue” Network.
collars was very well noticed within industrially
developed countries. The main consequence was In order to provide clients with high quality
decreased flow of scientific and technical services the Network partners are organized in 17
achievements from R&D institutions into the thematic Sector Groups (SG). Enterprise Europe
production and transport sectors, due to the Network has four SG dealing directly or indirectly
unwillingness of researchers to work closely and/or with transport (SG Automotive, Transport and
within the production facilities and SMEs. Answer, Logistics, SG Maritime Industry and Services, SG
which provided a good solution to the problem, was Space and Aerospace, and to some extent SG

Environment). Groups also form the link between standards (HACCAP, etc.). The level of
the Enterprise Europe Network and other European intellectual property protection is not
actors and projects, including European Technology satisfactory.
Platforms, Europe INNOVA projects and Business
Innovation Centres (BICs) as well as research-  Lack of information on modern technological
driven clusters and National Contact Points of the solutions, innovations and relevant partners –
European Commission's 7th Research Framework which is consequence of lack of links between
Programme (FP7). the SME sector and scientific institutions
(faculties, scientific institutes, associations of
inventors, etc.) exists.
 The innovation support system lacks a number
II. BACKGROUND OF INNOVATION AND of key elements of a well-functioning
INTERNATIPONALIZATION NEEDS OF mechanism such as technology transfer advisory
TRANSPORT SECTOR IN SERBIA services, product development facilities,
technology training, innovation management
Situation in Serbia, especially in the light of the support, R&D results commercialisation
proclaimed State policy of joining the EU, economic support, possibilities for financing, etc. Other
and social transition, rapid emerging of the SMEs in barriers to an effective support system include
transport sector, and internally generated, and even issues related to the poor information flow and
more frequently, externally imposed problems was awareness about the services offered.
even more severe than in the EU countries, thus,
requiring even more support to the business. Official  Lack of adequate sources of financing - self-
statistics, showing the distribution of SMEs and finance is dominant in all types of SMEs
large enterprises in Serbia, by sectors, is presented regardless of their size. The state incentives are
in Table 1. SMEs in transport sector represent 7% of relatively limited, and bank loans are very
total number of enterprises. Further 65% of the expensive and not accessible for the most of
SMEs depend in larger or lesser extent on the SMEs.
quality and the cost (efficiency) of the services
provided by transport sector. One of the main
constraints and needs perceived within sectors,
III. ENTERPRISE EUROPE NETWORK IN SERBIA
determined through various studies is unsatisfactory
competitiveness level of Serbian industry/businesses
- World competitiveness list created on the basis of In 2009, after formation of the Consortium, and
Global Competitiveness Index shows decline in the successful submission of the project proposal (ref.
competitiveness of Serbian industry/businesses in ENT/CIP/07/0001a), followed by signing of the
period 2008-2011 (from 85th in 2008, to 96th in Contract with EU Commission, formation of
2011) [4]. In the same report Serbia was ranked Enterprise Europe Network Serbia, began. The work
125th in aspect of Business sophistication. Still, division, itself, is Europe-wide same and can be
technologically and regarding human resources divided into three main lines of actions. First action
there is considerable potential. line represents information dissemination (area of
the EICs network), and the load it carries is app.
Further constrains which could be identified are: 47%; The second line of action represents
technology transfer (area of IRCs) enriched with the
business cooperation and caries app. 47% of the
 Lack of information on laws and regulations and engagement; while third line of action represents
non-harmonised legal procedures - Slowness in offer of support to clients in connection with EU
adopting new laws, large number of by-laws and programmes, such as FP and CIP, and present app.
administrative procedures (often not 6% of the total project engagement.
harmonised), and not completely defined and
distributed to the public functions/bodies.
Main objective is establishment of integrated
 Lack of accurate information on markets - Main services in support of business and innovation for
focus of SMEs in Serbia is on the local market, SMEs in Serbia, as the main client, in order to help
though they are partly relying on foreign one(s) them increase their competitiveness on EU and
(more in supply than in the sales). domestic market and the possibilities, and enhanced
information access considering EU and domestic
 Lack of standards and harmonisation with EU - RTD possibilities.
Very small number of the SMEs has introduced
some of the valid quality systems and other

TABELE I. DISTRIBUTION OF SMES AND LARGE ENTERPRISES IN SERBIA, BY SECTORS [5]

Sectors: Small Medium Large Total:
Agriculture, hunting and forestry 3769 141 24 3934

Fishing 85 3 0 88
Mining and quarrying 259 13 9 281
19107
Manufacturing 18098 721 288
Electricity, gas and water supply 221 69 26 316
Construction 553 167 59 779
38751
Wholesale and retail trade 38073 530 148
Hotels and restaurants 1676 57 8 1741
Transport, storage and communication 5679 85 33 5797
Financial intermediation 376 5 118 499
12739
Retail estate, renting and business activities 12575 130 34
Education 1067 0 1 1068
Health and social work 376 5 0 381
Social and personal services 1941 44 6 1991
1970 754 87472
Total: 84748
 More uniformed regional development across

Specific objectives: Serbia
 Raise awareness about technology transfer During the first two years of existence of
opportunities and increase competitiveness Enterprise Europe Network in Serbia, the Network
supported Serbian SMEs in their consortia building
 Raiseawareness among SMEs regarding and application efforts for EU sponsored programs.
Community policies and opportunities In this period, the Network has held the training for
 Participate in the creation of the Europe-wide the EU funds available for SMEs – especially CIP
network of excellence Eco-innovation but also FP7 Agro, Health, NMT.
Beside the information about FP7 and CIP
programmes, network occasionally needed
information about other available funds such are:
EUREKA, EUROSTARS, CEI (Central European
Special emphasis is on: Initiative), preparation for Structural funds, IPA
(Instruments for Pre-accession) through CBC
 Promotion of innovation culture through the programmes.
SMEs
 Building capacity for applied R&D, innovation Consultants with experience in writing of project
and technology transfer proposals and management gave hands on workshop
for our clients. Also members of all EEN Serbia
 Support to the female and young entrepreneurs partners participated in these workshops and took
 Stronger regional cooperation in Western Balkans active role in discussing ways to write a successful
project proposal.

TABELE II. CONSORTIUM ACTIVITIES, BY PROJECT MODULES [5]:

Action Activities
 Dissemination of Information Related to the Functioning and Opportunities of the Internal

Market for Goods and Services Including Signposting and Tender Opportunities
 Promoting Pro-Actively Community Initiatives, Policies and Programmes Relevant For SMEs
and Providing Information to SMEs on the Applications Procedures for such Programmes
1  Operating Tools to Measure the Impact of Existing Legislation on SMEs
 Operating IT Tool to Mange the Consortium Client’s Data Questions and Answers in Order to
Ensure Good Integrated Service of the Centre and Easier Reporting to the Commission
 Assisting SMEs to Develop Cross-Border Activities and International Networking, Signposting
SMEs to Find Relevant Partners from Private or Public Sectors through Appropriate Tools
 Disseminating information and raising awareness regarding innovation–related policies,

legislations and support programmes
 Engaging in the dissemination and exploitation of research results
2  Providing brokerage services for technology and knowledge transfer, and for partnership
building between all kinds of innovation actors
 Stimulating the capacity of firms, especially SMEs to innovate
 Facilitate linkage to other innovation services including intellectual property related services
 Raising awareness among SMEs on the Community Framework RTD Programme

 Identification of RTD needs of SMEs and partner search
3
 Assisting SMEs in the preparation of project proposals for the participation in the Community
Framework Programme for RTD
IV. SECTOR GROUP FOR AUTOMOTIVE

(5) looking to buy or sell products within the
TRANSPORT AND LOGISTICS
automotive, transport and logistics sectors or
In order to support Europe-wide transport sector
(6) to license technology and IP in new markets.
Enterprise Europe Network has established
dedicated Automotive, Transport and Logistics
Sector Group. The Sector Group for Transport and The Sector Group organise brokerage events to
Logistics covers many services in the sector as well help reach technology transfer or cooperation
as all products and underlying transport agreements with other companies from the sector.
technologies from intelligent transport systems, Further advantage for clients of Enterprise Europe
downstream applications of GPS technology, Network is that they can obtain information and
telematics, production of commercial road vehicles, intelligence on new specific market – in this case
motorsport technologies, to rail networks and Transport and Logistic. In addition, they can receive
regional public transport systems. advice and support on European policies on in all
aspects of automotive, transport and logistics,
including safety, efficiency, low emissions and
The Automotive, Transport and Logistics Sector
traffic congestion issues. Also, they can obtain
Group is open to SMEs and entrepreneurs who are
information about local legislations and rules in any
looking for:
of 47 countries covered by Enterprise Europe
Network.
(1) information and collaboration,
In addition to afore mentioned functions, the
(2) companies, universities and research centres Network is supporting feedback of SMEs to
to work together on European research programmes, European Commission. This is especially important
(4) wanting to be better informed about potential feature of the Network for the SMEs active in the
new markets, Transport Sector since they are facing maybe most

drastic changes of the business environment in the example, of most of the grants offered by
recent years. The Enterprise Europe Network the EU for R&D
connects SMEs with the feedback channels  Working with a locally-based partner means
available – from commenting on planned legislation possibility to use their market knowledge
and taking part in test panels to proposing and contacts. They will also speak the local
alternative solutions. Also, Enterprise Europe language(s) and be aware of any business
Network being primarily SME oriented is prime customs and culture. All of this can be
source of information about coming changes of EU really helpful for developing sales in that
legislations and directives. country or region.
 Similarly, local SME can act as local a
partner of foreign firm, and in that way
capitalize own local knowledge and
V. ENTERPRISE EUROPE NETWORK’S DATABASE expertise.
OF TECHNOLOGIES AND BUSSNIES
COOPERATION DATABASE
In order to facilitate expansion of business across VI. CONCLUSION

European borders Enterprise Europe Network helps
its clients in finding and establishing Experience in developed countries has proved
communication with competent and trustworthy that, in order to facilitate the best support service to
partners. In this process, the Enterprise Europe the market oriented entities, in the ever changing
Network’s partner organisations, work together to business environment, especially after the creation
cross language and distance barriers. The prime tool of EU, there must be a single place with
is the business database. The business database of concentrated activities where those entities,
Enterprise Europe Network contains thousands of dominantly SMEs can receive the needed support.
company profiles, with hundreds of new company This led to the formation of Enterprise Europe
profiles added every week. In addition, the Network Network.
is managing Europe’s largest database of cutting-
Specialized Automotive, Transport and Logistics
edge technologies, containing more than 13,000
Sector Group is established within Enterprise
profiles large number (up to 25%) are connected
Europe Network to respond to specific sector needs.
with transport sector. In this way, Network brings
Through Network and its Sector Group end users
together research and commercial applications. The
can seek advice and support on European and local
database is updated with new profiles on a weekly
policies on in all aspects of automotive, transport
basis.
and logistics, including safety, efficiency, low
emissions and traffic congestion issues. In addition
There are a number of potential benefits of the Sector Group organise brokerage events to help
searching for foreign partner through Network’s reach technology transfer or cooperation agreements
database: with other companies from the sector.
 The potential partner is already visited and Identified problems in Serbia, with the situation
evaluated by Enterprise Europe Network’s even more complex than that in EU countries,
local staff. suggested that it would be of advantage to join such
 Increasing return on investment in new a network. This was accomplished by the
technologies or processes; reduce cost of Consortium, which has begun its work with clients
development of environmentally friendly in Serbia.
application.
 The access to new technologies or processes
developed by Europe’s top class universities
and research institutes, as well as other REFERENCES
firms working in complementary fields, in
order to significantly enhance products or
services. [1] Workshop III Formation of IRC in Serbia,
 In some cases, collaboration with other September 2006, Belgrade, Serbia
businesses or organisations in other [2] Enterprise Europe Network countries - EU countries:
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic
European countries is essential for access Denmark, Estonia Finland, France, Germany,
funding opportunities. This is true, for Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania,
Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United

Kingdom; Non-EU countries: Armenia, Bosnia and [3] TAIEX, Workshop on the program for
Herzegovina, Chile, China, Croatia, Egypt, fYRoM, entrepreneurship and innovations, June, 15-16, 2009,
Iceland, Israel, Japan, Mexico, Montenegro, Norway, Belgrade, Serbia
Russia, Serbia, South Korea, Switzerland,Syria, [4] WEF Global Competitivenes Report 2010-2011.
Tunisia,Turkey, USA. [5] Enterprise Europe Network – Serbia, work program.

Multimodal Transport Technology “A” for

Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emission
Jovan Tepić a, Siniša Sremac a, Dejan Aleksić b, Ilija Tanackov a, Gordan Stojić a
a
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department for Traffic Engineering,
University of Novi Sad, Serbia
{jovan.tepic, sremacs, ilijat, gordan}@uns.ac.rs
b
The Railway Technical School, Belgrade, Serbia,
aleksicdejan@sbb.rs
Abstract— Serbia, among many other countries is new or modernization of existing ones, significantly
trying to find a way to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) contribute to the introduction of certain changes.
emission. There is an estimate that in 2003 emission of Transport systems, as widely spread and complex
GHG was 13 630 000 tons, which is approximately 1.81 structures, affect the environment both locally and
tons per capita. By this parameter Serbia takes a
significant place in the world biggest pollution countries,
globally, with the uneven spatial and functional
with constant rising emission of GHG in every year. Due distribution.
to the high number of heavy road vehicles per year on Transport affects the environment by creating a
Corridor X through Serbia, there are some side effects series of undesirable and harmful effects; global
such as emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) gas as product
warming being one of the main problems the modern
of organic fuel combustion. Fossil fuels combustion
causes high emission of mainly CO2 gas and results with society is facing. Numerous studies show that the
higher rate of dangerous substance than it can be traffic significantly contributes to the environmental
naturally absorbed. Role of traffic in process of pollution, primarily caused by combustion of fossil
environment polluting is significant. Road transport is the fuels. In the European Union (EU), appropriate
biggest polluter in traffic as it makes 80-90% of total measures in the transport sector are being
amount of CO2 that is emitted by all means of traffic. implemented, significantly contributing towards
Various studies about energy consumption and CO2 enhancing the environmental protection effects [2].
emission by road and rail traffic have been performed in In particular, Technology “A” is heavily represented
EU during previous 15 years. The results of these studies on certain routes within the EU, as a system that
clearly indicate a significant saving in CO2 emissions
enables rail transport of complete road vehicles on
using both rail and multimodal road – rail transport
compared with pure road transport. In this paper we the congested traffic routes. Its practical
discuss possibilities of introducing multimodal transport implementation has shown many of the benefits of
Technology „A“ (transport of heavy road vehicles by faster and cheaper freight transport, resulting in the
railway) on part of Corridor X through Serbia with reduction of environmental pollution.
analysis of effects that are reflected in reduction of total
GHG emission, cost-effectiveness of introducing
This paper presents the financial, socio-economic
Technology „A“ (adding environmental costs in the total and environmental effects achieved by the
investments), relationship between tariffs, distance and introduction of the multi-modal Technology “A.” A
cost efficiency, etc. considerable number of previous studies in this field
were conducted in Western Europe, as this
Keywords— carbon dioxide; cost-benefit analysis;
technology has been in use in the region since 1990.
multimodal transport; Technology “A”
The key contribution of this work is in the proposal
of the micro-location problem solution, as well as in
the proof for the existence of the economic
justification of implementing Technology “A” in
I. INTRODUCTION Serbia.
The environment can be defined as a complex

and orderly system of communities of different
living organisms (flora and fauna) and the II. CO2 EMMISIONS IN SERBIA
corresponding spatial elements (land, water, and air)
[1]. It is governed by a system of relationships, Industry and transport are the main producers of
where transport systems, due to the construction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, creating greenhouse

gases. Road traffic is the key contributor in the Significant emissions, CO2 in particular, are
pollution, compared to other modes of transport, as generated by burning fossil fuels, whereby hazardous
road vehicles are powered by synthetic liquid fuels, materials-in quantities greater than can be naturally
obtained by processing primary fossil fuels, i.e. degraded-are emitted into the atmosphere, with
crude oil. The basic crude oil composition includes harmful environmental effects.
alkanes, alkenes and cyclic hydrocarbons (with over
The first source of the problem is the widespread
80% participation) [3].
use of a large number of units of emission sources
The methane combustion process, as the simplest that are, compared to the industry, relatively small
hydrocarbon in the alkane order, can be represented emitters. Small vehicle dimensions make the
by the chemical reaction equation: installation of known technologies for CO2
separation from car exhaust fumes impractical and
CH4 + 2O2→ CO2 + 2H2O (1)
largely ineffective. Hence, this issue primarily relates
where the atomic mass of hydrogen is 1, carbon 12 to the prevention of CO2 emissions into the
and oxygen 16, yielding the following proportions: atmosphere. Another problem is lack of
concentration of emissions, i.e. the sources are
(12+1*4) methane(16)+2*(16*2) oxygen(64) →
distributed over the entire transport network. For this
→(12+16*2) carbon dioxide(44) +2*(1*2+16) water(36) reason, technology for the separation of CO2
produced by different modes of transport does not
(2)
yield sufficient energy efficiency. Efficiency
Equation (2) leads to the conclusions [4]: coefficient of the isolated CO2 mass, its
compression, transport, storage and further use is
• combustion of 1 kg of methane requires 4 kg
extremely small.
of oxygen and
Clearly, within the transport system, the key issue
• combustion of 1 kg of methane emits 2.75 kg
is in capturing CO2 before and after its release into
of CO2.
the atmosphere.
Combustion of the simplest hydrocarbon,
methane, 75% of which is carbon, yields the ratio of III. MARKAL MODEL
oxygen consumption to carbon dioxide emission. As
The application of this model is confirmed by
carbon contributes to the composition of liquid fuel
over 80 users in 40 countries worldwide. The
materials by 87%, the CO2 emissions in internal
outcome of its implementation is energy economy
combustion engines (ICE) are even higher.
[6].
Furthermore, in addition to the above components,
fuel composition includes other impurities, emitted The model results analysis is presented in this
by internal combustion engines in the form of other paper, as none of the extant traditional models are
oxides. Exhaust gases from ICE engines contain able to provide precise answers with respect to the
significant levels of soot-a hard filtrate comprised of fundamental issues of the Kyoto Protocol [7]. For the
carbon particles. In addition to reduced visibility, calculations of these requirements, the part of the
soot has a detrimental effect on public health, as it MARKAL model had to be extended, as related to
contains carcinogenic hydrocarbons. the change in the fundamentals of economic and
energy efficiency, specifically in relation to the need
In terms of total CO2 emissions, Serbia, with
for additional remediation costs related to CO2
13,630,000 tons, occupies 56th position in the world
emissions. The expanded model, based on the
[5]. However, with 7,498,001 inhabitants, the
current information, introduced the following
average emission is 1.81 tons per capita, which
methods for CO2 reduction: forestation, development
would be even higher, if population density was
of carbon-based products, energy source substitution,
taken into account. Based on these parameters, it can
substitution of traditional materials the production of
be unambiguously concluded that Serbia, by the per
which is based on technologies that require CO2
capita and spatial distribution of CO2 emissions,
emissions, and energy restoration from unnecessary
occupies one of the top positions in the world.
products.
Clearly, Serbia is not one of the states that
implemented the CO2 emissions reduction measures. Previous studies reported on indirect costs,
through the tax on CO2 emissions in different sectors
All major sources of CO2 in Serbia are clustered
of the economy, whereby the generated financial
in a relatively small geographical area. Transport,
resources were used for the reduction of CO2
especially road traffic, as the largest emitter of CO2,
emissions.
is a major problem. The road transport participation
in the environmental pollution is significant, A significant result of the MARKAL model is
primarily due to the fuel combustion byproducts. that the increase in emissions leads to the

exponentially higher taxes. In relation to the taxation to in the literature as “Rollende Landstrasse − Ro-
system implemented in certain industries, the model La”, “Rolling Motorway − Ro-Mo”, “Rolling
clearly indicated that some previous estimates were Highway”, “Rolling Road” or “Route Roulante”.
unrealistic. Thus, it can be expected that, in many
During the railway transport, the road vehicle
cases, CO2 remediation costs will exceed the profits.
drivers, can sleep or rest in the passenger carriages,
The MARKAL test is aimed for the analysis of which are an integral part of the train (accompanied
economic and energy efficiency, as well as the transport), as shown in Fig. 2. At the station, they
calculation of the CO2 remediation costs, in all can reclaim their vehicles and transport them to the
industries for the next 20 years. The MARKAL test destination of their choice. However, this
adopts this approach due to the issues related to the technology, as many others, enables transport of road
reduction of CO2 emissions originating from road vehicles without drivers (unattended vehicles). In
traffic (large spatial dispersion of pollution sources), this case, at the station, the vehicle is delivered to a
as well as due to the role of transport in the road transport company representative for further
production and distribution. It was noted that the transit.
remediation cost of one ton of CO2 emissions from
transport is higher than for the industry sector.
Figure 2. Accompanied transport
Reloading operations required by auto

transporters and saddle vehicles can be accomplished
without any special reloading facilities or equipment.
These vehicles can be self-loaded onto the train
over the frontal ramp and later unloaded in the same
manner. Compared to the vertical cargo unit
reloading, the railway company implementing
Technology “A” can achieve substantial savings that
can be reinvested into reloading equipment and other
resources [9].
Figure 1. MARKAL CO2 remediation cost calculation
[7]
Technology “A” advantages:
 Traffic, transport, economic and social
The calculated scenario applies to the total
benefits;
emissions in the range 1200 – 1900 Mt CO2 in 2010,
for different measurement systems that are specific  Reduction in road traffic volume;
to energy (E) and the energy and materials (E + M)
[6]. In Figure 1, the emission intervals (1200 – 1900  Environmental protection by reducing
Mt CO2) and their corresponding remediation costs emissions and noise;
(120 – 160 Euro per ton of CO2, for 2010) are
highlighted.  Much shorter reloading time, compared to
other huckepack technologies (about 20
It is assumed that the minimum remediation cost, minutes for a train weighing 1.250 tons);
based on the MARKAL model, is 120 Euro per ton
of CO2.  Potential for transporting all types of road
IV. TECHNOLOGY “A” freight vehicles with no adaptation;
Technology “A” refers to the transport of  No expensive reloading machinery is required,
complete road vehicles on specialized railway as only reloading ramps are used in this
carriages [8]. The transport carriages within this process;
technology are constructed with extremely low
loading surface, and are interconnected to form a  High road vehicle productivity (faster delivery
platform for the movement of road vehicles during and longer driver operating time).
loading and unloading. For this reason, the
technology is named mobile highway, and is referred Technology “A” drawbacks:

 The unfavorable ratio of useful vs. redundant V. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF FEASIBILITY

mass, due to the need to transport road AND JUSTIFIABILITY OF INTRODUCING
haulage vehicles; TECHNOLOGY “A”
 Significant fixed capital expenditure, as the In order to provide an adequate economic and
haulage vehicles cannot be used in other financial justification of introducing Technology “A”
capacity during the rail transport; in the Serbian Railways system, a cost-benefit
analysis was carried out. The costs include all the
 High rail carriage costs; investments and operating costs of railway assets,
 High low-floor carriage maintenance costs. whilst financial effects are reported as profits.
In the process of investment efficiency
evaluation, all effects are classified as [10]:
- Effects on the railway system, or
- Effects on economy and society.
The effects on the railways are the direct effects
that are manifested as immediate and visible results
of the introduction of this technology, directly
affecting the railway operations (revenues and costs).
The societal and economic effects are the indirect
effects that result from investment activities, which
are not manifested within the railway system, but
within its environment, i.e. economy and society.
The above effects clearly indicate the demand for
two assessment measures:
- Financial assessment − assessment of efficiency
from the standpoint of the Serbian Railways, as
investors, and
- Socio-economic evaluation – assessment of
Figure 3. Frontal ramp for reloading road freight
vehicles efficiency from the perspective of transport
users and society as a whole.
Technical Technology “A” characteristics include The present efficiency assessment places special
[8]: emphasis on the issue of environmental pollution,
which is why the socio-economic evaluation will, for
a) Road transport vehicles, the first time, include the CO2 emissions reduction
b) Specialized railway carriages, and cost.
c) Terminals with facilities and equipment for A. Financial Assessment
horizontal loading of road freight vehicles
(Fig. 3). The paper discusses two potential applications of
Technology “A” in Serbia [11]:
Based on the evidence from other European  The introduction on the route Zemun Polje –
countries, and the goal to implement more effective Subotica, with the investment into two
transport systems-including increasing terminals, located in these cities (Variant A),
environmental protection measures-Technology “A”
has been used on many routes within EU. This  The introduction on the route Zemun Polje –
transport method, whereby complete road vehicles Budapest, with the construction of the terminal
are transported by rail, in particular on congested station in Zemun Polje (Variant B).
routes, has shown many advantages in practice, such
In the first case, a closed system is considered,
as faster and cheaper transport of goods, as well as
i.e. transport is performed within the Serbian
reduction of environmental pollution.
borders, in which case two terminals are required.
The second option connects Serbia with Hungary,
whereby only one terminal in Zemun Polje is
needed.

The cost of capital investment for both variants variations in IRR resulting from increases in tariffs
(A and B) is estimated to 2,000,000 Euro, based on for the heavy vehicle rail transport.
the studies conducted by the Traffic Institute CIP
[10].
The basic costs of introducing Technology “A” B. Socio-economic Assessment
are calculated as follows: In the socio-economic assessment, the main costs
include maintenance of freight vehicles and
locomotives and energy costs, calculated in the same
 Freight vehicle maintenance costs are way as in the previous case.
calculated based the projected number of
actual vehicle kilometers and average The analysis of cost-effectiveness of introducing
maintenance costs, whereby the amount of this technology in terms of society as a whole should
0.06 Euro/vehicle km is adopted. include revenues that will not directly affect the
railways, but will benefit the society [12]. This paper
 Locomotive maintenance costs were specifically considers the savings in:
calculated as above, yielding a value of 0.47
Euro/locomotive km.  Highway maintenance,
 Energy costs are calculated for consumption  Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (CO2),
of 23 kWh/103 BRTKM, at 0.04 Euro/kW. and
Although both versions are unacceptable for the  Reduction in heavy road vehicle depreciation
tariff of 0.5 Euro/km, as the internal rate of return and maintenance costs.
(IRR) is about 10%, further analysis of the impact of However, the above analysis must include all the
increasing transportation costs to the feasibility of losses the state will incur by investing in Technology
introducing this technology was carried out. “A”. These are:
As the tariffs for the transport of complete heavy  Losses incurred due to unpaid tolls, and
road vehicles varies in the range of 0.5 to 1
Euro/truck km, a further analysis incorporated the  Losses arising due to uncollected excise taxes.
increase from 0.5 to 0.59 Euro/truck km. Clearly, from the socio-economic perspective,
Technology "A" is fully viable, although CO2
remediation costs are not included in the above
analysis.
Variant A (closed system, with the construction
of two terminals in Serbia) has IRR of 13.15%,
whereas it is 14.80% for Variant B (connection
with Hungary).
C. Analysis of the Environmental Effects

In order to determine the economic and societal
effects of the introduction of Technology “A”, the
next section presents a socio-economic evaluation,
which includes income resulting from the reduction
Figure 4. Change in the internal rate of return (IRR) with of CO2 emissions.
the tariff increase Diversion of road traffic (heavy freight vehicles)
onto the railway will result in reduced exhaust
The first Variant A - the construction of a closed emissions, providing income due to much lower
system (within Serbia) - becomes profitable when environmental pollution [13].
the tariff exceeds 0.57 Euro/truck km, which is, for
this route, equivalent to 102.6 Euro per truck. The The Markal test determined the amount of
second Variant B that connects Serbia with Hungary compensation for emitting a ton of CO2 as
becomes profitable for tariffs above 0.54 Euro/km. approximately 120 Euro.
Thus, the above analysis has proven that the Fig. 5 gives an overview of the socio-economic
introduction of Technology “A”, from the assessment for the Variant A. The lower curve is a
perspective of the railway, is a profitable enterprise. graphical representation of the IRR for the Variant
Fig. 4 shows an overview of both versions, with the A when environmental costs are excluded, and the

upper curve includes these costs. The difference The above results classify the environmental
between the two curves appears negligible (2.55%), costs as the most important. Given this information,
as it is based on the comparison between the two all subsequent economic analyses will favor the use
IRR estimates - inclusive and exclusive of of multimodal technologies, due to their high rates of
environmental costs - at 15.70% and 13.15%, return.
respectively. We expect that, in the future analyses, the
inclusion of environmental factors will become the
norm, whereby meeting environmental standards
would be a requirement for integration into modern
European trends.
VI. CONKLUSION
The analysis conducted in this study highlights

the necessity of initiating concrete activities on the
development of multimodal technologies in Serbia
(primarily Technology “A”). The findings indicate
that the construction of terminals in Serbia must
Figure 5. Variant A commence in order for the country to integrate into
the in international flows of intermodal units.
The profitability of the Technology “A”
Fig. 6 shows the socio-economic evaluation for application is fully proven, with the IRR for the
Variant B, where the IRR inclusive of the Variant A at 12%, based on the tariff of 0.57
environmental costs is 19.25% (the upper curve), and Euro/km. For Variant B, the corresponding values
14.80% with the costs excluded (the lower curve). are 12% and 0.54 Euro/km.
A relatively high IRR of was obtained due to the
inclusion environmental costs, i.e. the costs incurred
by environmental pollution.
Environmental effects outlined in this paper are
based on the analysis of a single part of Corridor X
in Serbia. The environmental costs are classified as
the most important part of the analysis. Given this
information, all subsequent economic analyses will
favor the use of multimodal technologies, due to
their high rates of return. It should be noted that the
funds required for building roads and the
implementation of multimodal technology are
Figure 6. Variant B invested only once, whilst yielding permanent
environmental protection. Finally, the environment is
currently the most important economic parameter, as
Although the differences for both variants are it has no alternative and its degradation cannot be
relatively low, they can have a significant impact on compensated for by other resources.
the return on investment period, which will be shown
in the next section. The role of government in designing a national
strategy for the development of combined transport
The projected term for return on investment in is extremely important. The prerequisites for the
Variant B is 8 and 11 years, when the environmental implementation and development of combined
protection costs are included or excluded, transport in Serbia are adopting the concept of the
respectively. development of combined transport, identification
The difference of 3 years is not negligible, and tracking of goods flows, construction of
especially when the environmental costs and benefits terminals for combined transport, improving tariff
are considered (in this case, reduction of CO2 system, identifying bottlenecks in the transport
infrastructure, adopting appropriate measures
emissions).

towards reducing delays at border crossings, and [4] D. Aleksić, Elementi održavanja puta i ekologije u
oceni ekonomske opravdanosti uvoĎenja
shorter transit time through Serbia. multimodalne Tehnologije A, Magistarski rad,
Fakultet tehničkih nauka, Novi Sad, 2009.
The necessity of introducing Technology “A” in [5] D. Milutinović, “Hucke-pack transport – Tehnologija
Serbia is obvious, as it is one of the fundamental A na transportno tranzitnom koridoru Subotica-
environmental protection measures and a Beograd-Niš-Dimitrovgrad“, Saobraćajni fakultet,
Beograd, 2005.
precondition for EU membership. The significance [6] A. Seesebregts, G. Golstein, “Energy/Enviromental
of the environment is yet to be recognized; however, Modeling With the MARKAL Family of Models”,
the emphasis on its societal effects can contribute to ECN, Duisburg, 2001.
[7] D. Gielenm, T. Kram, “The role of Kyoto
the development of the aforementioned and other mechanisms, results from MARKAL analyses, ECN-
technologies that will improve the quality of living Policy Studies, Amsterdam, 2005.
conditions and preserving non-renewable natural [8] R. Perišić, „Savremene tehnologije transporta“,
Saobraćajni fakultet, Beograd, 1995.
resources. [9] J. Predojević, „Huckepack sistemi transporta na
železnici sa posebnim osvrtom na JŽ“, Diplomski
REFERENCES rad, Saobraćajni fakultet, Beograd, 2000.
[10] Saobraćajni institut CIP, „Razvoj intermodalizma na
Koridoru X i pruzi Beograd-Bar“, studija CIP-a,
Beograd, 2002.
[1] B. Metz, O. Davidson, H. de Cononck, M. Loos, L. [11] ŽTP Beograd, “Izveštaj o mogućnostima saobraćaja
Meyer, “Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage”, A vozova za prevoz drumskih vozila primenom
report of working grup III of the IPCC, United tehnologije ROLA na prugama ŽTP-a Beograd”,
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Beograd, 2005.
ISBN 92-9169-119-4, 2005. [12] International Union of combined Road-Rail transport
[2] International Union of combined Road-Rail transport companies, “CO2 Reduction through Combined
companies, “Annual Report”, Belgium, 2009. transport”, Copenhagen, 2009.
[3] M. Piletić, B. Milić, S. Đilas, Organska hemija I, [13] M. Pantelić, G. Brun, D. Brković, Ekologija i zaštita
Prometej, Novi Sad, 1992. životne sredine, Tehnički fakultet, Čačak, 2001.

Estimation of Pollutants Emissions from Road

Transport in the Republic of Serbia using
COPERT IV, period 1990 – 2009
Jelena Trifunović Aleksandar Manojlović

Department for vehicle fleet operation and Department for road and urban transport
maintenance
a.manojlovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
j.trifunovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Nebojša Redžić
Vladimir Momčilović Serbian Environmental Protection Agency
Department for vehicle fleet operation and
maintenance
nebojsa.redzic@sepa.gov.rs
v.momcilovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract– The results of the estimation of pollutants transport system’s efficiency and cost-effectiveness
emissions’ quantities related to road transport on the by increasing the travel times, fuel consumption, etc.
territory of the Republic of Serbia for the period between
1990 and 2009 have been presented in the paper. This A recent trend in the European Union is in
estimation has been determined by applying the COPERT addressing transport policy actions towards the
IV model. The software tool COPERT IV utilises large set reduction of gaseous pollutants emission originating
of categorised inputs, which requires a complex from road transport. One of the first steps is
acquisition of input data in view of a certainly large reporting of all countries regarding emissions,
twenty years period. As for the outputs we have obtained applied measures and analysis of their particular
emission values for 24 different pollutants. The analysis
effect on emission of pollutants. The following steps
of quantities of emitted pollutants is focused on legally
regulated pollutants (CO, NOX, PM10, and VOC), would consist in transport indicators assessment
greenhouse gases (CH4, CO2) and fuel-related emissions along with pollutants emission indicators. With the
(SO2, lead). objective of following the European trends in view
of sustainable transport, the Republic of Serbia has
Keywords– atmospheric pollutants, road transport, initiated the assessment and analysis of road
emission
transport related emissions.
The Serbian fleet is composed of 1.9 million of
I. INTRODUCTION registered road vehicles. The majority of the fleet,
around 87%, is constituted by passenger vehicles,
The transport demand for carriage of people and while the remainder is composed of goods vehicles,
goods are closely related to the economic buses and motorcycles. The differences in structure,
development. Being that transport represents an purpose, capacity and age are characteristic for all of
important and indispensable activity of the modern the vehicle categories. Fleet analysis for the twenty
society, its extent and intensity are factors that have years period has served to determine all previously
been recognised in causing certain undesired effects. mentioned characteristics, which served as basis for
Traffic congestions make the urban environment less the estimation of road vehicles’ emissions in the
pleasant, decrease the quality of life, and reduce same period. COPERT IV software has been used
with the intention of determining the quantities of

road transport related gaseous pollutants emissions. volume in 2004 accounted for 3.68 billion
By applying the aforementioned software it has been passenger-km, while in 2008 it accounted for 4.72
estimated the emission of major polluters (CO, NOx, billion passenger-km.
VOC, PM, SO2, heavy metals) and greenhouse gases
The accomplished freight transport volume in
(hereafter referred as: GHG) (CO2, CH4) originating
2004 was 277,000,000 tonne-km, which is around
from the vehicle fleet of the Republic of Serbia for
38.72% less than in 2003. Such important difference
the period between 1990 and 2009. The results’
in volumes has been caused by the decrease in the
analysis has been realised by observing the trends of
transport of raw non-metal minerals (for around
regulated pollutants as well as GHG emissions. In
40.59%), cereals (for approximately 46.43%), solid
the analysis it has been considered the influence of
fuel (for about 73.67%), wood and cork (roughly for
introduction of compulsory EURO emission
34.64%) and so on. In the following year 2005, the
standards to the level of pollutants’ emission.
accomplished transport volume was 680,000,000
tonne-km which is increased for around 59.26%
compared to 2004. Such difference is due essentially
II. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ROAD TRANSPORT to the increase in transport volumes of raw non-
DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS metal minerals (for around 89.85%), lime and
cement (for approximately 69.25%), other
The transport activities realisation depends alimentary products (for about 53.77%), solid fuel
largely on socio-economic and demographic (roughly for 65.65%), cereals (for around 42.31%),
conditions in a country, as well as on road network etc.
development. That is why we have analysed the
basic socio-economic indicators, road network D. Fleet structure
characteristics, and transport activity indicators in From the total number of registered vehicles in
the period from 1990 to 2008, according to data from the past two decades road motor vehicles and trailers
the National statistical office1. have accounted for around 75-80%, while tractors
A. Gross domestic product and tractor trailers made 20-25%. In the road motor
vehicles and trailers structure the dominant part
Gross domestic product (GDP) is an essential belongs, of course, to passenger cars with
economic indicator of relevant conditions in a approximately 87%. In the same period the number
country. GDP per capita of the Republic of Serbia of passenger cars increased for about 60%, and in the
has brusquely and importantly decreased in 2001, as meantime the number of goods vehicles and trucks
a consequence of the exchange rate of the national has almost doubled. With important oscillations the
currency, while afterwards it was constantly total number of buses has decreased for more than
growing. The GDP per capita was 3,398 euro in 10%. The number of motorcycles is in significant
2000 and only 1,709 euro in 2001. In 2008, this increase since 2005 because ever since it has been
value has grown to 4,547 euro per capita. increased for 100%. In periods of crisis in the
B. Road network country (1993 and 1999) the number of registered
The length of the categorised road network of the vehicles has decreased, which is especially true for
Republic of Serbia (without Kosovo) in 2008 was 1993 when it has been observed a decrease in the
39,719 km. The structure of the road network is the number of registered vehicles of around 30%
following: main roads 5,156 km (13%), regional compared to the previous year. The effects of the
roads 10,400 km (26.2%) and local roads 24,163 km economic crisis in 2009 have been also reflecting
(60.8%). Within the last decade there weren’t onto the transport industry sector: the number of
important changes in the road network length. In the registered commercial vehicles (goods vehicles,
same period it has been only increased the length of buses) has decreased regarding 2008.
the local roads for almost 1,600 km. E. Motorisation rate
C. Road transport volumes The motorisation rate, expressed in passenger
The accomplished transport volumes represent cars per 1,000 inhabitants, is in constant growth in
one of the country’s economic development the analysed period and it has been increased for
indicators. The transport volume has been approximately 50%, from 143 to 209 passenger cars
importantly increased in the period between 2004 per 1,000 inhabitants. This figure is still under the
and 2008. The accomplished passenger transport European average which in 2007 was 4352 passenger
cars per 1,000 inhabitants.
1
Statistical Yearbooks 1998-2009, Statistical Office
2
of the Republic of Serbia CEA Statistics N°38 The European Motor Insurance
(http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/WebSite/Default.aspx) Market February 2010

F. Fuel annual mileage in 2009 for each category of

The amount of consumed fuel is one of the vehicles was obtained.
indicators of transport activities, which can be used Based on the realised survey results, i.e. values
as a control indicator for determining the average of average annual mileage, the total emissions of
annual mileage of certain vehicle categories. pollutants for all vehicle categories have been
Statistical data related to the consumed fuel are calculated for 2009. The calculated values have
published in the Energy balance, issued by the been compared to the emissions obtained based on
National Hydro-meteorological Institute. The level slightly increased EU average mileages for 2005.
of detail of those data is very low. Within the Energy
balance are registered only the data on total
consumption of certain fuel only by types of fuel. V. RESULTS
Total quantities of emitted pollutants of certain

III. COPERTIV categories have been presented on the following
figures. The analysis of pollutants emissions have
For the estimation of road transport related been focused on regulated pollutants (as CO, NOX,
exhaust gas emissions the software tool COPERT IV PM10, and VOC), GHG emissions (as CH4, CO2) and
uses a large set of categorised inputs, which requires fuel-related emissions (as SO2 and lead). The results
the implementation of a complex procedure for the of the emissions obtained based on the realised
input data acquisition, considering that it was done survey for 2009 have been also presented hereafter.
for the previously mentioned twenty years period.
The data that required collection were: total The quantities of pollutant emissions in the
consumption of certain fuel types, the number of observed period, between 1990 and 2009, is in minor
vehicles for different categories and vehicle growth except for VOC, CO
technologies, average annual mileage for each (
vehicle category, average vehicle speed per vehicle
categories and road types, mileage structure per road
types (urban, rural, motorway) expressed in
percentage related to all vehicle categories, climate
condition data.
Certain input data, related to the Republic of
Serbia, have been acquired from the National
Statistical Office, Ministry of interior and National
Hydro-meteorological Institute. After thorough
analysis it has been determined the method for data
correction and adaptation to the format required by
COPERT IV.
IV. RESEARCH ) and CH4 emissions that all decrease during the
analysed period. Important decrease of pollutants
For determining the average annual mileage in emissions has been observed as well in 1993 as in
2009 a particular survey has been realised. The 1999. It is estimated of being a consequence of
survey consisted in an interview of drivers of road socio-economic situation arisen in 1993 and 1999
transport vehicles at the refuelling stations, parking where the number of registered vehicles has also
lots and transport companies all over the Republic decreased.
of Serbia.
A. Regulated Pollutants emissions
The drivers were requested to state their average The emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds
annual mileage of the present vehicle. The total (VOC) since 2001 have a trend of slender decrease
number of kilometres travelled was obtained by (shown on Error! Reference source not found.).
odometer reading (denoting the present total The emission of VOC in 2009 was 30,245.69 tonnes,
mileage) of the vehicle, and the remaining data were which is less than in the previous 2008 for 5.21%,
taken from the vehicle registration booklet (so- and related to 2001 it decreased for 13.87%, when
called traffic license). The survey involved 8,650 the VOC emission was 34,439.89 tonnes. The
vehicles, and as a result of data processing average volatile organic compounds emission in 1990 was

30,447.66 tonnes, which is more than in 2009 for 1990 it is 60.41% higher, when the carbon dioxide
about 0.67%. emissions accounted for 3,758,228.84 tonnes.
Figure 1. CO emissions Figure 2. OC emissions
The emission of Particulate Matter (PM10) shows

a trend of small growth
(
Figure 3. PM10 emissions
). The emission of PM10 in 2009 was 3,265.62

tonnes, which is 1.16% higher than in 2008, and
38.03% higher than in 1990, when the particulate
matter emission was 2,023.83 tonnes.
The emission of Nitrogen Oxides has a growing

trend (Error! Reference source not found.). NOX
emissions in 2009 were 67,755.92 tonnes, which is
5.15% more than in 2008, and for 40.08% higher
than in 1990, when the NOX emissions were
40,599.14 tonnes.
B. GHG emissions
Upon calculation results, the road transport
related carbon dioxide emissions show a growing
trend (shown on Error! Reference source not Figure 4. Ox emissions
found.). CO2 emissions in 2009 were as much as
9,493,642.48 tonnes, which is higher than the Methane emissions in the observed period grow
previous 2008 for more than 2.71%, and related to until 2001, and CH4 emissions do not change
importantly since, but stay approximately at the

same level
(
Figure 6. CH4 emissions

).
Upon calculation results, in the total heavy metals
C. Fuel-related emissions
emissions a growing trend has been observed. The
The sulphur dioxide emissions show an calculation of heavy metals emissions has been
increasing trend determined for seven following: lead, cadmium,
( copper, chromium, nickel, selenium and zinc. In this
paper the lead emission that in 2009 was 1,051.81 kg
has been shown on
). SO2 emission in 2009 was 1,880 tonnes, which The emission of lead in 2009 was for 64.17%
is for 2.39% higher than for the previous year 2008, higher than that from back in 1990 which was
and 61.17% higher related to 1990, when the sulphur 376.84 kg.
dioxide emission accounted for 730 tonnes.
Figure 7. O2 emissions
Figure 5. CO2 emissions

project should be in creating the conditions for the

decrease of pollutants emissions for certain level of
transport volumes, with the objective of lowering the
negative environmental impact.
Obtained emissions estimations for the period
between 1990 and 2009 could be used for the
emission estimation in the coming period. The
emission levels are influenced by projected transport
policy measures to be implemented. Some of the
most important measures are fleet structure
modification by introduction of new EURO emission
standards, fuel quality improvement, internalisation
of external costs and others. The stated possibility to
estimate the impacts offers an important tool for
correction and improvement of transport policy
measures.
Figure 8. (Pb) emissions
The implementation of the model and software
COPERT IV for the calculation of road vehicles
related pollutants emissions allows realisation of
In the following table are shown the results of transparent, standardised and comparable databases
emissions and fuel consumption for 2009 based on
and reporting procedures on pollutants emissions,
calculations and realised survey. The analysis of complying with our international agreements and EU
obtained results shows the model sensitivity to the regulations.
modification of input data, and therefore requires
more quality input data in order to obtain better
gaseous pollutant emissions estimations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is based on the project „Determination

VI. CONCLUSIONS
of road transport related emissions of gaseous
pollutants using COPERT IV model of the European
For the calculation of gaseous pollutants Environmental Protection Agency“, which is
emissions in this paper has been used the model and supported by the Serbian Environmental Protection
software tool COPERT IV. The authors of the paper, Agency, of the Ministry of Environment, Mining and
together with the all the other colleagues involved in Spatial Planning of the Republic of Serbia.
the project (referred hereafter in acknowledgements),
after having acquainted the features and capacities of
the model and having mastered the model in detail,
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national level, as well as on the local level. The main
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TABELE I. DIFFERENCES IN EMISSIONS AND FUEL CONSUMPTION BETWEEN CALCULATION AND SURVEY
Differences in emissions
Pollutants Calculation Survey
[%]
CO2 [t] 9,086,410.59 9,604,566.42 5.39
NOx [t] 67,755.92 68,369.32 0.90
VOC [t] 30,245.69 37,496.90 19.34
SO2 [t] 1880 1884 0.21
PM2.5 [t] 2,919.12 2,927.78 0.30
CO [t] 166,853.75 209,078.33 20.20
NO [t] 58,411.02 60,803.89 3.94
NMVOC [t] 29,017.96 36,030.31 19.46
NO2 [t] 7,623.41 7,541.61 1.07
PM10 [t] 3,265.62 3,278.20 0.38
PM (exhaust) [t] 2,532.75 2,536.12 0.13
CH4 [t] 1,227.73 1,467.48 16.34
Organic matter [t] 820.61 845.66 2.96
NH3 [t] 531.17 590.94 10.11
N2O [t] 196.67 214.88 8.47
Copper [kg] 13,541.69 13,757.88 1.57
Zinc [kg] 6,005.92 6,128.21 2.00
Lead [kg] 1,051.81 1,061.71 0.93
Chromium [kg] 537.16 544.82 1.41
Nickel [kg] 265.98 272.26 2.31
Selenium [kg] 36.99 37.91 2.43
Cadmium [kg] 34.03 34.90 2.49
Elementary carbon
1,517.37 1,496.62 1.37
[t]
Fuel consumption [t] 3,024,173.92 3,056,766.84 1.07

Port-city closeness and turnaround time critical

for Short Sea Shipping sustainable performance
A case study: Spain.
Juan José Usabiaga Santamaría

Marcel·la Castells i Sanabra
F. Xavier Martínez de Osés
Department of Nautical Sciences and Engineering
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC)
Barcelona, Spain
jusabiaga@cen.upc.edu
Abstract—Air pollution is the most relevant pollution is the weak point of this performance
externality of maritime transport and its effects are more though. By far air pollution accounts for the vast
acute in urban areas. As Short Sea Shipping (SSS) majority of the external costs produced by maritime
services call ports frequently and expend significant time transport, around the 90% [1]. Emissions from
in port, both the overall turnaround time and the port city
shipping represent around 40% of global NOx
closeness, become critical in its sustainable performance.
This paper analyses the impact of maritime transport at emissions and around 15% of CO2 emissions of
Spanish SSS ports and identifies the ideal ones, reflecting global freight transport. [2]
the differences in their sustainable performance and Among the several environmental effects entailed
finally identifying the characteristics that a harbour
by maritime transport both at sea and in ports, the
needs to gather in order to minimize air pollution impact
in the maritime transport sector. scope of this paper covers the externalities produced
by the air pollutants emitted by SSS Ro-Pax ships at
Keywords— Short Sea Shipping; externalities, air Spanish harbours. This paper covers emissions of
pollution Particulate Matter (PM2.5), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2),
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), and Volatile Organic
I. INTRODUCTION Compounds (VOC-s), although other pollutants also
The geographical location of Spain, its orography exist these are considered the most relevant.
in border regions and the fact that intraeuropean Air pollutants follow two different paths when
transport is not balanced at all, have made of Spain causing their effects:
the perfect location to establish Short Sea Shipping
(SSS) lines.  On the one hand PM2,5 and SO2 emissions are
relevant for local impact considering that they are
SSS line operators often seek well located (close able to cause damage in the original form they are
to industrial areas) and connected (infrastructures) released. This impact, as related to health
ports, being the answer to these requirements major problems, is dependent on the proximity between
ports located next to densely populated urban areas emission sources and receptors, and the
such as Barcelona. population density around the emission source.
Since SSS lines call frequently at port, these ships  On the other hand NOx, VOC-s and SO2 being
expend long time manoeuvring and hotelling, hence ozone and aerosol precursors need to be
releasing harmful pollutants close to urban areas. transported some distance (hundreds of
kilometers) in the atmosphere while undergoing
II. THE SCENARIO chemichal processes before generating associated
secondary pollutants (ozone, nitrate aerosols and
This paper studies the environmental sulphate aerosols). These associated pollutants
performance, focusing in air pollution, of Ro-Pax produce impacts mainly in form of sulphur
ships calling at Spanish mainland ports under the deposition (acid rain), eutrophication (excess of
existing SSS services. nitrogen nutrient) and ozone formation.
A. SSS air pollution In harbour cities maritime activity is often
Maritime transport is well known due to its dominant source of urban pollution, hence this must
overall environmentally friendly performance, air be addressed adequately [3]. Moreover the type of

ship studied in this paper is especially relevant taking Air pollutant emissions from ships are covered by
into account the frequency with which they call at Annex VI, in force since 2005. This annex set’s
port and therefore the time they spent in port. limits on Sulphur Oxide and Nitrogen Oxide
emissions from ship exhausts as well as Particulate
B. Spanish SSS Ro-Pax service network
Matter and prohibit deliberate emissions of ozone
Spain is among the European Union (EU) depleting substances. In 2008 the IMO Marine
member states the one with the longest coastline, Environment and Protection Committee (MEPC)
approx. 8000 km and its state controlled port amended Annex VI, and the revised text introduced
network is composed by 46 harbours managed by 28 emission control areas (ECA-s) in which, due to their
port authorities. This together with the facts already air quality problems, more stringent emission
mentioned, the strategic geographical location, policies are in force since 1 July 2010.
border region orography and the EU willingness to
achieve a better balanced transport system, has IMO emission standards are known as Tier I-III
developed in numerous SSS lines calling at Spanish standards. Tier I standards were established in 1997
harbours. when air pollution was introduced into the Annex
VI, while Tier II-III standards were introduced in
27 of the aforementioned 46 harbours are located 2008 when Annex VI was amended by the MEPC.
in the Iberian Peninsula, and SSS Ro-Pax lines call
at eight of them. Three (Bilbao, Santander and The Annex VI establishes to sets of fuel quality
Gijon) are located in the Atlantic and five in the and emission standards:
Mediterranean (Barcelona, Valencia, Alicante,  Global requirements
Almería and Algeciras). These SSS lines connect  More stringent requirements applicable to
Spain directly with Great Britain, Belgium, France, ships operating in ECA-s
Italy, Marocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
Ro-Pax ships are designed to carry both Roll on- As stated by Regulation 12 of the MEPC 58/22
Roll off (Ro-Ro) cargo and passengers, they usually “an Emission Control Area shall be any sea area,
have relatively high service speeds, of around 20 including any port area designated by the
knots, short turnaround times, involve simple port organization” in which more restrictive emission
operations and do not require of complex harbour regulations are applicable.
infrastructures. Therefore are commonly used in SSS ECA-s, following a proposal from a party, can be
lines requiring both passenger and cargo capacity. designated specifically for SOx, PM and NOx, or for
the three of the pollutants. Existing ECA-s include
C. Regulatory framework for air emissions from the Baltic Sea (for SOx and in force since May
ships 2006), the North Sea and the English Channel (for
The international feature of the maritime activity, SOx in force since November 2007) and the North
the sector itself and the governing regulatory American ECA (for NOx and SOx to enter into force
framework makes it complex to design and in August 2011).
implement policies in order to abate air emissions.
Nevertheless, through the Strategy for Sustainable MARPOL Annex VI seeks a progressive
Development of the EU White Paper on Transport reduction in SOx emissions limiting the sulphur
Policy [4], the European Union has expressed content in marine fuel oils. The actual sulphur cap of
concern about transport-related impacts. 4.5% shall be reduced to 3.5%, by January 2012 and
furthermore down to 0.5% by January 2020 [6].
Current regulatory actions seek to reduce
emissions from ships forcing the introduction of new Since July 2010 the sulphur limit in the ECA-s is
abatement technologies and also establishing of 1% and will be further reduce to a 0.1% by
minimum fuel quality standards. January 2015 [6].
The main regulatory body is the International Progressively restrictive policies regarding NOx
Maritime Organization (IMO), the United Nations emissions are also being enforced by Annex VI, for
specialized agency with responsibility for the safety instance Tier III applicable for new constructions
and security of shipping and the prevention of after January 2016 [6].
marine pollution by ships. The International Moreover the EU is going beyond IMO emission
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from standards, and with its EC Sulphur Directives
Ships, MARPOL 1973/1978 [5], is the main IMO 2005/33 and 1999/32, it has established even more
convention aimed at preventing and minimizing stringent sulphur standards, limiting the sulphur
pollution from ships,both accidental pollution and content to 0,1% in marine fuels used by ships at
that from routine operations, and currently includes berth in EU ports, with the exceptions of ships which
six technical Annexes. spend less than two hours at berth and ships which

switch off all engines and use shore-side electricity at port involves for each of the 8 harbours hosting
when at berth. Standard enforced since January Ro-Pax SSS lines in Spain.
2010.
Taking into account great part of air pollution
externalities are produced at a local scale just after
D. Previous research
the pollutants (PM and SOx primarily) have been
Several attempts have been made to estimate released, hence are site specific, to be able to achieve
external costs in the transport area. The most a real estimation high detail is required (geographical
important results were obtained by some research characterization of the emissions is critical).
projects, especially those within the 4th, 5th, 6th and
7th EU-framework programs. Other projects that Therefore the approach chosen for the estimation
conducted similar research are RECORDIT [7], of air pollution externalities is a bottom up approach,
ENTEC [8], UNITE [9], INFRAS [10], ExternE where all the elements relevant for the costs
[11], MOPSEA [12], EMMOSS [13], EMSA [14], estimation are individually assessed in order to
iTREN-2030 [15] and IMO proposals. RECORDIT achieve a final global result. This means that the
(and thus REALISE) results were expressed at pollution a single ship generates in a precise location
emission factor costs. Some other approaches is modeled in order to be afterwards aggregated to
developed in Europe, such as the MEET the rest.
(Methodologies for estimating air pollutant For site specific air pollution externalities cost
emissions from transport), which describes a calculation, two estimations result critical. On the
methodology for calculating the emissions from sea- one hand the quantity of pollutants (PM2.5, SO2, NOx
going vessels. and VOC-s) emitted must be estimated and on the
If aforementioned projects try to estimate the other hand the impact of released pollutants also has
emission of pollutants produced by the transport to be estimated.
activity, there many others focusing on the impacts, Already exist well known projects regarding both
cost, that pollutant emissions produce. Among the the estimation of pollutant emission (REALISE) and
most important and the ones in which this paper is the estimation of the impact of the pollutants
based we find Benefits Table Database: Estimates of released (Benefits Table Database: Estimates of the
the marginal external costs of air pollution in Europe marginal external costs of air pollution in Europe
(BETA) [16] and Clean Air For Europe programme (BETA), Clean Air For Europe programme
CAFE [17]. (CAFE)). Our job has been to put these projects in
common in order to get the desired and
comprenhensive results.
III. THE PROBLEM The following are the relevant projects put in
common and used in this paper:
Although air pollution is well known as the major  Environmental impact (tones of each pollutant
externality of maritime transport, today there is no considered) of SSS ships at port. We have used
study in Spain attempting to quantify this cost. data from REALISE project, a thematic network
Moreover air pollution costs have a local component on Short Sea Shipping which provides a
and it is not fair to evaluate all ports as whole, a methodology to calculate external costs from both
differentiation is required to properly evaluate SSS sea and road transport. The REALISE project
performance and the economic feasibility of existing took the datasets in the EIG (2002), based upon
alternatives for power supply in harbours. the COPERT III calculation module. The air
Furthermore the existing unawareness regarding emission factors of vessels, in g/kg fuel, were
real costs that a call at port implies, makes it calculated taking the fuel consumption into
impossible to take efficient decisions between account. Since not all the pollutants were listed in
different alternatives taking into account that the the EIG report, additional information was
existing criteria is not comprehensive. extracted from the CBS database with regards to
SO2 emissions. To evaluate the impact of the
Therefore this paper tries to calculate site specific evolution of transport emissions, the scenario
costs, and thus build up a criterion for the fair pricing considered is a future hypothetical improved
of SSS shipping services, favouring the most condition, resulting in a 10% decrease in all
sustainable services. current emissions, except for SO2 and NOx. The
main engine specific fuel consumption rate is
A. Methodology strongly affected by the propulsion systems
The purpose of this paper is to estimate, tailored installed, such as engine, gear, shaft and
for each port, the air pollution externalities that a call propulsion arrangements. In this analysis we

consider the hourly consumption of each ship on C. Examples

the basis of 200 g/kW per hour, because almost In this paper, we have analyzed the air pollution
all ships mentioned here are propelled by four- externalities that Ro-Pax ships generate for each of
stoke diesel engines [18]. the 8 following harbours hosting SSS lines in Spain:
 Benefits Table Database (BETA), published in
2002, provides a straight forward estimation of
TABLE I. RO-PAX SHIPS AND SSS SPANISH LINES
air pollution overall external costs, putting CONSIDERED IN THIS STUDY
together both urban and rural externalities. BETA
SSS Spanish Services Ro-Pax Ships
studies both the local and regional or
Passio per
transboundary impact and calculates the overall Algeciras-Tanger Med
Formentera
external costs. However, once in 2005 new air
pollution external costs were published, under the Alicante-Argel Tassili II
CAFE programme, it was clearly agreed by the Almeria-Melilla Juan J sister
experts that previous external costs, given by
BETA where underestimating the real costs. Barcelona-Civitavecchia Cruise Roma
Therefore this paper maintains the relation given Bilbao-Portsmouth Cap Finistere
by BETA to relate urban and rural external costs,
but takes updated external costs provided by the Gijón-St. Nazaire Norman Bridge
CAFE programme. The cost estimation done Santander-Plymouth-
Pont Aven
under the CAFÉ programme considers human Portsmouth
exposure to PM2.5, human exposure to ozone and Valencia- Palma de
Fortuny
exposure of crops to ozone under different Mallorca
sensitivity frameworks. Although more impacts
are known still there is no sufficient information Ro-Pax ships are commonly used in SSS lines
to valuate them with guarantee. Moreover in the requiring both passenger and cargo capacity.
attempt to achieve comprehensive results the Like air pollution local impact is proportional to
valuation done by the CAFÉ programme the affected population it is necessary to know the
considers four different sensitivity scenarios number of inhabitants around the considered ports.
which lead to four different results. This information is shown in Table II. Then Table III
B. Analysis shows the cost of emission for each considered
Based on Realise project and in order to achieve a pollutant and harbour determined by the affected
comprehensive bottom up approach, it was important people.
to know: TABLE II. POPULATION IN CONSIDERED PORTS
Ports Inhabitants in urban area
 Characteristics of the vessels, basically power.
Algeciras 116417
Ships considered in our study are passenger/Ro-
Ro. Ro-Ro ships are ferries designed to carry Alicante 334418
wheeled cargo and have built-in ramps which Almería 190013
allow the cargo to be efficiently “rolled-on” and Barcelona 1619337
“rolled-off” the vessel when in port. Bilbao 175234
 Duration of the stages of the voyages, basically Gijón 277198
manoeuvring and hotelling stages time of the Santander 181589
different ships. Valencia 809267
 Emission factors of pollutants analysed.
On the other hand, based on BETA and CAFE Table III shows clearly how emission costs
programme it was important to know the number of increase in densely populated harbour areas, for
inhabitants around the considered harbours, as this is instance costs per emitted tonne in Barcelona are 12
the main variable producing the difference between times higher than those in Algeciras. As the
the external costs produced by a ship calling in the objective of the paper is to valuate air pollution costs
different ports. at port calling the two operation modes considered
Finally, once we have gathered all the mentioned are maneuvering stage (moving into or out of port)
data, following the methodologies of the different and hotelling stage (operations while stationary at
projects and putting them together we can map the berth). Hence we have calculated engine power
actual emissions of SSS services in Spanish ports (kilowatts), manoeuvring times and hotelling times.
and calculate the external costs produced in each. Table IV shows the duration of time of the two
stages considered:

TABLE III. COST OF POLLUTANTS IN CONSIDERED PORTS (€/TM)

PM 2.5 SO 2 NOx VOCs
Ports Sensitivity
Local Rural Local Rural
Sen. Case 1 92435 19000 8149 4300 2600 380
Sen. Case 2 140981 29000 12457 6600 3800 510
Algeciras
Sen. Case 3 179864 37000 15833 8400 5200 920
Sen. Case 4 262588 54000 22585 12000 7200 1100
Sen. Case 1 265528 19000 23409 4300 2600 380
Sen. Case 2 404980 29000 35783 6600 3800 510
Alicante
Sen. Case 3 516676 37000 45481 8400 5200 920
Sen. Case 4 754307 54000 64877 12000 7200 1100
Sen. Case 1 150870 19000 13301 4300 2600 380
Sen. Case 2 230106 29000 20331 6600 3800 510
Almería
Sen. Case 3 293570 37000 25842 8400 5200 920
Sen. Case 4 428590 54000 36863 12000 7200 1100
Sen. Case 1 964315 19000 85015 4300 2600 380
Sen. Case 2 1470763 29000 129952 6600 3800 510
Barcelona
Sen. Case 3 1876407 37000 165172 8400 5200 920
Sen. Case 4 2739408 54000 235614 12000 7200 1100
Sen. Case 1 139136 19000 12266 4300 2600 380
Sen. Case 2 212208 29000 18750 6600 3800 510
Bilbao
Sen. Case 3 270737 37000 23832 8400 5200 920
Sen. Case 4 395254 54000 33995 12000 7200 1100
Sen. Case 1 220095 19000 19404 4300 2600 380
Sen. Case 2 335687 29000 29660 6600 3800 510
Gijón
Sen. Case 3 428271 37000 37699 8400 5200 920
Sen. Case 4 625242 54000 53776 12000 7200 1100
Sen. Case 1 144182 19000 12711 4300 2600 380
Sen. Case 2 219904 29000 19430 6600 3800 510
Santander
Sen. Case 3 280555 37000 24696 8400 5200 920
Sen. Case 4 409589 54000 35228 12000 7200 1100
Sen. Case 1 519752 19000 45822 4300 2600 380
Sen. Case 2 792721 29000 70042 6600 3800 510
Valencia
Sen. Case 3 1011357 37000 89026 8400 5200 920
Sen. Case 4 1476503 54000 126992 12000 7200 1100
Both manoeuvring times and hotelling times have calling frequency is a critical factor since a minimum
been concluded analysing company provided time of four hours is required as turnaround time for
schedules and real AIS data in Marine traffic large Ro-Pax ships. This means the higher the port
website. This is not trivial since some companies calling frequency is the % of time the ship passes in
reflect in schedules shorter turnaround times than manoeuvring or hotelling phases is more relevant
real. comparing it with the sea going phase. Therefore
ships operating in high frequency lines will cause
From the chosen SSS lines Algeciras - Tanger
higher overall air pollution costs.
Med crossing the Gibraltar strait, due to shorter
distances, is the one with higher frequencies. Port

From REALISE data, the total annual amount of The above example and results show the importance
each pollutant considered (in tonnes) is: of SSS services and the need to reduce emissions at
berth. Some proposed measures already put into
TABLE IV. MANOEUVRING AND HOTELLING TIME practice at some ports are fuel switching and shore
(IN HOURS) OF SPANISH SERVICES CONSIDERED IN THIS power. Fuel switching measure implies the use of
STUDY low sulphur fuel while at berth, thus reducing SOx
SSS Manoeuvring Hotelling and PM emissions. On the other hand, shore power
Spanish Time Time measure offers multiple benefits, reducing fuel costs,
Services (in hours) (in hours) emissions and also reduces the associated noise to
Algeciras- 2 ship engine operation. Finally, other measures
1
Tanger Med
include new technology like scrubbers and
Alicante- 2
13 alternative energy sources such as gas or
Argel
Almeria- 2 second/third generation biofuels.
3.5
Melilla
Barcelona- 2
Civitavecchi 4 TABLE VI. ANNUAL TONNES OF POLLUTANTS OF
a SHIPS CONSIDERED IN THIS STUDY
Bilbao- 2 Ships PM2.5 SO2 NOx VOC-s
2.5 Passio per
Portsmouth 2.92 78.84 74.45 21.69
Gijón-St. 2 Formentera
9
Nazaire Tassili II 0.97 26.73 16.95 15.24
Santander- 2
Plymouth- 3 Juan J sister 1.51 41.39 33.02 17.15
Portsmouth
Cruise Roma 3.04 83.02 64.73 35.85
Valencia- 2
Palma de 3 Cap Finistere 1.42 38.81 32.23 14.88
Mallorca
Norman Bridge 2.10 57.82 38.98 30.78
TABLE V. FRECUENCY OF SPANISH SERVICES Pont Aven 1.38 37.73 30.90 14.88
CONSIDERED IN THIS STUDY
SSS Spanish Services Frecuency Fortuny 3.26 88.79 72.70 35.03
Algeciras-Tanger Med 4 per day
Alicante-Argel 1 per week Table VI shows annualy emitted pollutants for

1 per day
each ship, and two are the critical factors when it
Almeria-Melilla comes to determine the amount of emissions:
3 per week
Barcelona-Civitavecchia  Time spent at port: Manoeuvring and
Bilbao-Portsmouth 2 per week hotelling phases, determined by line
frequency and turnaround times.
Gijón-St. Nazaire 3 per week
 Ship engine characteristics and its power.
Santander-Plymouth- 2 per week
Portsmouth E. Proposal
Valencia- Palma de Mallorca 1 per day
Ports are frequently situated close to urban areas
with the consequences of emissions from engines
Table VI shows annualy emitted pollutants for during manoeuvring and hotelling operations at port.
each ship, and two are the critical factors when it The above example and results show the importance
comes to determine the amount of emissions: of SSS services and the need to reduce emissions at
berth. Some proposed measures already put into
 Time spent at port: Manoeuvring and
practice at some ports are fuel switching and shore
hotelling phases, determined by line
power. Fuel switching measure implies the use of
frequency and turnaround times.
low sulphur fuel while at berth, thus reducing SOx
 Ship engine characteristics and its power. and PM emissions. On the other hand, shore power
measure offers multiple benefits, reducing fuel costs,
D. Proposal emissions and also reduces the associated noise to
Ports are frequently situated close to urban areas ship engine operation. Finally, other measures
with the consequences of emissions from engines include new technology like scrubbers and
during manoeuvring and hotelling operations at port. alternative energy sources such as gas or
second/third generation biofuels.

In view of this, it is so important that SSS ships most critical and the overriding one is the population
spend less time in port reducing freight and emission affected by the emissions. Hence Barcelona in first
costs. As harbour emissions are directly proportional place and Valencia in second are the ports which
to turnaround times, any measure achieving shorter suffer from higher air pollution externalities mainly
turnaround times will indirectly achieve a cut in air due to the number of people affected by emissions.
pollution external costs. On the other hand, the
frequency of serviced route also determines the total IV. CONCLUSIONS
amount of the emissions at port, the higher the
frequency is the longer the vessel stays at port. In the
We have estimated the impact of some pollutants
above example, frequency route from Algeciras to
emissions of maritime transport at Spanish SSS ports
Tanger Med is higher than the others and the annual
and results need to be taken into account in the
tonnes of pollutants are higher too. RESULTS
future.
Tables VII and VIII show the obtained results for
Among the studied pollutants SO2 is the one
the selected SSS routes and it is easy to detect how
presenting higher externalities and therefore we do
port city closeness (number of inhabitants affected),
think that both IMO and EU are working in the right
time spent at port (turnaround times and service
direction applying progressively more stringent
frequency) and ship characteristics are the critical
policies. Al though PM2.5, NOx and VOCs emissions
factors defining the extent and hence the cost of the
also produce significant costs and must not be
produced impact. Although of this three factors the
forgotten.
TABLE VII. ANNUAL COSTS (IN EURO) OF PM AND SO2 EMITED FROM SHIPS IN SSS SPANISH SERVICES
CONSIDERED IN THIS STUDY
Ports PM2.5 SO2
Case
Local Rural Local Rural
1 270126 55524 642482 339012
2 411994 84748 982080 520344
Algeciras
3 525624 108126 1248251 662256
4 767370 157806 1780593 946080
1 257759 66310 770979 406814
2 393132 18444 625780 114948
Alicante
3 501560 28152 956550 176432
4 732238 35918 1215801 224550
1 229249 28871 550538 177981
2 349648 44066 841537 273181
Almería
3 446083 56222 1069617 347684
4 651246 82054 1525777 496692
1 2935685 57842 7058552 357016
2 4477475 88285 10789500 547978
Barcelona
3 5712385 112640 13713757 697426
4 8339638 164393 19562272 996323
1 198701 27134 476154 166917
2 303057 41415 727835 256197
Bilbao
3 386642 52840 925099 326069
4 564467 77118 1319626 465814
1 463411 40005 1122071 248657
2 706790 61060 1715166 381660
Gijón
3 901726 77904 2180024 485749
4 1316450 113697 3109740 693926
1 200034 26360 479716 162280
2 305090 40234 733280 249081
Santander
3 389235 51333 932019 317012
4 568254 74918 1329498 452874
1 1696544 62019 4068598 381803
2 2587551 94660 6219142 586023
Valencia
3 3301210 120773 7904704 745847
4 4819511 176264 11275828 1065496

TABLE VIII. ANNUAL COSTS (IN EURO) OF NOX populations is expected to occur. Thence important
AND VOC-S EMITED FROM SHIPS IN SSS SPANISH measures are necessary to be implemented in ports
SERVICES CONSIDERED IN THIS STUDY
and harbours close to densely populated urban areas.
Ports Case NOx VOC-s Nevertheless, each route has different economic,
1 193560 8244 geographic and environmental conditions, these must
2 282895 11064 be taken into account, and a site specific evaluation
Algeciras
3 387119 19958 is always required.
4 536011 23863
1 44095 5791
2 64447 7772
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ECDIS system in function of sea environment

protection
Srđan Žuškin Marko Valčić

University of Rijeka University of Rijeka
Faculty of Maritime Studies in Rijeka Faculty of Maritime Studies in Rijeka
Rijeka, Croatia Rijeka, Croatia
szuskin@pfri.hr mvalcic@pfri.hr
Igor Rudan
University of Rijeka
Faculty of Maritime Studies in Rijeka
Rijeka, Croatia
rudan@pfri.hr
Abstract— The Heretofore, ECDIS system The demands for the remission of harmful gases
development and implementation have been linked emission affected ships that use diesel as motor fuel,
primarily to safety of navigation. Further development specifically their combustion.
allows for the implementation from other aspects of The first part of the paper deals with the legal
navigation. This primarily pertains to timely on-line
aspects concerning ecological normalizations of the
ECDIS system updating that contains all the necessary
information vital for safe navigation, but also to the Annex VI of the MARPOL Convention with special
information updates that can significantly improve sea reference to the Special Areas and Particularly
and sea environment protection. The paper contains an Sensitive Sea Areas. A chronology of regulation
overview of important legal aspects of sea environment enforcement that deals with the allowed amount of
protection on global as well as on local state scale. sulphur in fuels for ships and all the regulations that
Integration of these and other aspects of sea environment were introduced apart from different relevant
protection into the ECDIS system can lead to a global institutions are described. One of the specificities of
ship information system that can, apart from enhancing the ship is the necessity for water ballast and its
navigation safety, significantly contribute to sea and sea change during the voyage. An ecological approach
environment protection. This approach also ensures a
reduction of possible consequences an ecological
to navigation exposes the risk of transferring aquatic
incident can cause to ships passing through a navigation organisms and their mixing with the ones from other
area in which such an incident is recorded. ecosystems, therefore the paper elaborates on ballast
water management.
Keywords— ECDIS; MARPOL; SECA areas;
protected sea areas; sea pollution; protection of sea In order to achieve the desired result that the
environment convention regulations demand, it is necessary to
enhance technological systems and ship
construction, and to achieve a significant
improvement in navigation and the mariners'
I. INTRODUCTION ecological awareness. By utilizing the intelligent
ECDIS system that is primarily used for purposes of
Global recognition of the harmful effects of safety of navigation, and safe ship management and
exhaust gases to the environment has resulted in voyage planning, we can additionally contribute to
actions taken for its remission by various sea and sea environment protection.
conventions and regulations concerning
environment protection. Their adoption and Basically, ECDIS presents a computer-based
enforcement have brought about additional changes navigation information system that complies with
in all professional activities, such as maritime international maritime organization (IMO)
affairs. By adding Annex VI to the Marpol regulations and can be used as an alternative to
Convention, sulphur and nitrogen oxides emission paper nautical chart. The acronym stands for
from all ships was limited. These harmful Electronic Chart Display and Information System.
compounds were recognized as crucial factors that It is a complex system for shiphandling assisting
affect global warming and acid rains generation. the mariner in all aspects of navigation. The most

important request for the safe use of ECDIS system  Identification and proclamation of
is accurate, reliable and timely updating by the Particularly Sensitive Areas and Special
officer on watch. Some relevant deficiencies noticed Areas
in the existing updating procedures could be
eliminated by implementing appropriate computer–  Ballast water management
satellite infrastructure that should enable 24/7
ECDIS on-line updating in real time. [6] When Annex VI of the MARPOL Convention
In this paper, the architecture of automatic real was adopted and enforced, Sulphur oxides SOx and
time updating system without time delay in function Nitrogen oxides NOx emission from ships was
of sea environment protection is suggested. An limited for the first time in history. Today, the mass
automatic installation of important and timely fraction of sulphur in fuel is limited to 4,5%, and for
updates and a description of possible updates in special areas (ECA-Emission Controlled Areas) to
function of sea environment protection are set forth 1,5%. In Annex VI, two ECAs were set up: one in
in the last part of this paper. the Baltic Sea and the other in the North Sea; as per
the old Annex VI, these were called Sulphur
Emission Controlled Areas (SECA). Emission
control areas means an area where the adoption of
II. LEGAL ASPECTS OF SEA ENVIRONMENT special mandatory measure for emissions from ships
PROTECTION is required to prevent, reduce and control air
pollution from NOx or SOx and particulate matter or
Implementation of On Line ECDIS System all three types of emissions and their attendant
Updating would considerably improve the adverse impact on human health and the
navigation safety aspect, however if further environment. [1]
developed, such a system could contribute to a The control of diesel engine NO x emissions is
better sea and sea environment protection. It is achieved through the survey and certification
necessary to define all legal aspects and other norms requirements leading to the issue of an Engine
of coastal countries that can be implemented into the International Air Pollution Prevention (EIAPP)
ECDIS system. Certificate. The NOx control requirements of Annex
International Maritime Organization through VI apply to install marine diesel engine of over 130
Marine Environment Protection Committee – MEPC kW output power other than those used solely for
within the adopted MAROL CONVENTION 73/78 emergency purposes irrespective of the tonnage of
and its annexes passes international regulations the ship onto which such engines are installed.
concerning prevention of sea pollution from ships. Different levels (Tiers) of control apply based on the
The International Convention on the Prevention of ship construction date, a term defined in regulations,
Pollution from Ships was adopted at a conference in and within any particular Tier the actual limit value
London in 1973, and was significantly modified in is determined from the engine’s rated speed
1978 for reasons of faster enforcement. according to the Tab. 1 [2]
The Convention contains VI annexes; Annex I- Tier I and Tier II standards are applied on global
Regulation for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil, scale, and Tier III standards are applied solely to
Annex II-Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Special Areas in which the amount of NO x in
Noxious Liquid, Annex III-Regulation for the exhaust gases is limited. Present day technological
Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances engine advances are able to meet Tier II through
Carried by Sea in Packaged form, Annex IV- combustion process optimization or a change-over
Regulation for the Prevention of Pollution by to cleaner fuels.
Sewage from Ships, Annex V-Regulation for the SOx and significant matter emission controls
Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships, apply to all fuel oils, combustion equipment and
Annex VI- Regulation for the Prevention of Air devices onboard and therefore include both main
Pollution from Ships. and all auxiliary engines. These controls devide
Besides the international regulations, there are between those applicable inside Emission Control
also those prescribed by each country for its area, Areas (ECA) established to limit the emission of
and it should be noted that the regulations SOx and particulate matter, and those applicable
concerning pollution mainly apply to several main outside such areas and are primarily achieved by
areas which are: limiting the maximum sulphur content of the fuel
oils as loaded, bunkered, and subsequently used
 Requirements for control of emissions from onboard.
ships;

TABLE I. NITROGEN OXIDES (NOX)-REGULATION 13

Total weighted cycle emission limit (g/kWh)
Tier
Ship construction date n = engine’s rated speed (rpm)
on or after
n < 130 n = 130-1999 n ≥ 2000
45.n-0.2
I 1 January 2000 17.0 e.g.,720 9.8
rpm-12.1
44.n-0.23
II 1 January 2011 14.4 e.g., 720 7.7
rpm–9.7
9.n-0.2
III 1 January 2016a 3.4 e.g., 720 2.0
rpm–2.4
a. Subject to a technical review to be concluded 2013; this date could be delayed
These fuel oil sulphur limits (expressed in terms be made in a logbook as prescribed by the ship’s
of % m/m – that is, by weight) are subject to a series flag State, in the absence of any specific
of step changes over the years according to Tab. 2 requirement in this regard the record could be made.
[2] The first level of control in this respect is therefore
on the actual sulphur content of the fuel oils as
TABLE II. SULPHUR OXIDES (SOX)-REGULATION bunkered.
14 In this respect, ECDIS could have a significant
Outside an ECA Inside an ECA role in supervision, that is recording, of all the
established to limit SOx established to limit SOx appropriate actions during the change-over in order
and particulate matter and particulate matter for the emission of harmful gases to be in line with
emissions emissions the convention. Timely and permanent record of
4.50% m/m prior to 1 1.50% m/m prior to relevant data will also be possible to use in case of
January 2012 1 July 2010 Port State Control (PSC) Inspection.
3.50% m/m on and 1.00% m/m on and Tab. 3 shows a chronology of regulation
after 1 January 2012 after 1 July 2010 enforcement concerning the allowed amount of
sulphur in fuels for ships, as well as the
0.50% m/m on and geographically defined Emission Control Areas with
after 1 January 2020a 0.10% m/m on and the allowed maximum of sulphur content. The table
after 1 January 2015 shows the regulations defined according to the IMO
a. depending on the outcome of a review, to be concluded in 2018, as to the along with other regulations prescribed separately
availability of the required fuel oil, this date could be deferred to 1 January 2025. by different institutions.
Most ships which operate both outside and inside As of October 2010 the ECA established to limit
these ECA will therefore operate on different fuel SOx and particulate matter emissions are:
oils in order to comply with the respective limits. In
such cases, prior to entry into the ECA, it is required
to have fully changed-over to using the compliant  Baltic Sea area – as defined in Annex I of
fuel oil. Similarly change-over from using the ECA MARPOL;
compliant fuel oil is not to commence until after
exiting the ECA. At each change-over it is required  North Sea area – as defined in Annex V of
that the quantities of the ECA compliant fuel oils MARPOL;
onboard are recorded, together with the date, time  North American area (expected to enter into
and position of the ship when either completing the effect 1 August 2012); and
change-over prior to entry or commencing change-
over after exit from such areas. These records are to

 Puerto Rico and US Virgin Islands area (to be A. Particulary Sensitive Area
considered for adoption at MEPC 62) IMO is the only organization that pronounces
Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA) - areas that
Another regulation, for example which is not require special protection due to their ecological,
under IMO is established by California Air socio-ecological or scientifical characteristics, and
Resources Board (ARB) that require ocean-going that can be vulnerable to damage caused by
vessel operating within 24 nautical miles of international maritime activities.
California's coastline to use either MGO (Marine
Gas Oil) with a maximum of 1,5 % sulphur, or When a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area is
marine diesel oil (MDO) with a maximum of 0,50 % pronounced, special measures of maritime activities
sulphur in their main engines and auxiliary boilers. supervision such as routeing, strict implementation
Also The sulphur limit under the ARB regulations of MARPOL and Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) are
will fall to 0,10 % for both MDO and MGO required.
beginning January 1, 2012. A PSSA can be protected by ships routing
measures – such as an area to be avoided: an area
within defined limits in which either navigation is
particularly hazardous or it is exceptionally
TABLE III. IMPORTANT DATES FOR THE SULPHUR important to avoid casualties and which should be
CONTENT IN SHIP FUELS [4] avoided by all ships, or by certain classes of ships.
2005 May 19 IMO Marpol Annex VI
enters into force B. Ballast Water Management
Aug 11 EU
EU Sulphur
Directive 1999/32 as
International Convention for the Control and
amended by 2005/33 Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments
enters into force was enforced in 2010, and the signatory countries
are obligated to take effective measures in order to
2006 May 19 IMO Baltic SECA enters prevent, reduce and eliminate the transfer of harmful
into force and pathogen aquatic organisms and
Aug 11 EU
Baltic SECA microorganisms by way of ships ballast water
EU enforced by EU supervision and management.
directive 2005
Harmful Aquatic Organisms and Pathogens are
Max 1,5% sulphur aquatic organisms or pathogens which, if introduced
for passenger ships into the sea, including estuaries, or into fresh water
to/from EU ports courses, may create hazards to the environment,
(2005/33)
human health, property or resources, impair
2007 Jan 1 CARB Max 0,5% sulphur biological diversity or interfere with other legitimate
within 24 miles of uses of such areas. [5]
California shore
Aug 11 EU Ballast water exchange must be executed within
North Sea and the minimum range of 200 nautical miles from the
English Channel SECA nearest land, at a minimum depth of 200 meters
enters into force
Nov 22 IMO when possible, and according to the IMO
North Sea and instructions. When the conditions cannot be met, the
English channel SECA exchange must be performed within the minimum
enters into force range of 50 nautical miles from the nearest land, at a
2010 Jan 1 EU Max 0,1% sulphur minimum depth of 200 meters. Ballast Water
bunker fuel in use at EU Exchange Standard sets an obligation of exchange
berth efficiency to 95% of total volume that can be
EU Max 0,1% sulphur in achieved by a triple exchange of content of each
CARB all EU inland waterways tank.
Max 0,1% sulphur ECDIS system, that constantly keeps track of the
within 24 miles of ship's position via GPS and depth using Electronic
California shore Navigational Chart respectively, could be
significantly helpful with the ballast water
2012 Jan 1 EU Max 0,1% sulphur
fuel in use by Greek exchange.
ferries at Greek ports

III. PROPOSED ARCHITECTURE AUTOMATIC LIVE vessels engaged on international voyages. The most
ECDIS UPDATING IN FUNCTION OF SEA important for the safe use of ECDIS system is
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION accurate, reliable and timely updating by the officer
on watch. In fig. 1, is proposed architecture of
The IMO's Maritime Safety Committee approved automatic live ECDIS updating in real time in
new regulations for the mandatory carriage function of sea environment protection.
requirements of ECDIS by 2018 for almost all
SPACE Environment
SATELLITES
(24/7 SatCom)
24/7 Stand By Mode
YES
NO YES 3G, WiFi, ...

New Update ?
3G, WiFi, ...

Earth Station
Internet/E-mail Ship's Communication

24/7 Provider Server
Charts & Updates Ship's Network Hub with

Web Server Security Appliance
Chart Update 24/7 Online ECDIS Station

EARTH Environment
Data Processing Automatic Live

Storage Server Update Module
SHIP'S Environment
ENC DataBase
GENC/RENC
Charts & Updates Computer
due to
IHO Standards
Update ECDIS
National HO Report Display
Oceanographic GPS INS

ICE PATROL
service Position Subsystem
Meteorological Environment
Network Connections
service Protection Agencies
(3G, WiFi, SatCom, …)
Availability Info
Harmonization Group on Marine Information Objects
(International Electrotechnical Commission and International
Hydrographic Organisation)
Figure 1. Proposed architecture of automatic live ECDIS updating in function of sea environment protection

This system presupposes full standardization of when to switch back to HFO (heavy fuel oil) when
electronic chart format, thus some sort of the global exiting an ECA zone.
organization GENC (Global Electronic Navigational
Another example of how automatic live ECDIS
Coordination Centre) under the jurisdiction of
updating in real time might protect the environment
which all the National Hydrographic Organizations
is in support of the forthcoming International
with relevant organizations would be dealing with
Convention for the Control and Management of
updating and standardization issue on global scale is
Ships Ballast Water and Sediments. Vessels with
proposed. In order to enable an undisturbed 24/7
dynamically update system could be provided with
communication with the server onboard, an
the geographic limits of clean "water", boundaries
appropriate Earth Station and Ship’s
that change according to the season and the tidal
Communication Server interrelationship
flow. This would than eliminate the need for the
infrastructure should be facilitated. Earth Station
vessel to carry out an exchange of ballast water en
could be connected to Ship’s Communication
route to the next port. If the ballast water exchange
Server by Internet via satellite (e.g. INMARSAT,
needs to be carried out, respecting the IMO's legal
Iridium, MTN,…) or by some other means (e.g.
norms, the ECDIS system could timely warn the
GSM, GPRS, 3G, WiFi, etc.). To optimize this
officer on watch when the ballast water exchange
communication protocol, Earth Station should
should begin in order for the ballast exchange to be
dispose with two basic INS subsystem information
carried out in time before the next port of call, so
from Ship’s Communication Server: GPS position
the Ballast Water Exchange Standard can be met.
and Network connections availability info. Earth
station simultaneously selects critical updates for The modern ECDIS system with a dynamic
the ship’s navigation area which is vital for safe of critical update can be developed into a powerful tool
navigation for the ship. [6] displaying relevant meteorological information,
such as tidal levels, currents, winds and waves, from
However, a corresponding update containing
relevant meteorological and oceanographical
environmental data in a further ECDIS system
institutions. In that case, a significant critical update
development can contribute to a better sea and sea
from a National HO could locate a dynamic
environment protection. One of the critical updates
movement of a potential danger, and thus decrease
(information overlays) that would integrate into the
possible consequences for the ship and the
ECDIS system would be precisely defined and
environment. [8]
marked environmental areas, restricted security
zones, Emission Control Areas (ECAs), Particularly After a major oil spill, National HO could send
Sensitive Sea Areas and hazardous high – risk areas critical update in real time and immediately display
defined according to the legal norms. the environmentally vulnerable areas so that ship's
officer can constantly monitor the spill and provide
For example, ECA zone areas are precisely
larger safety margins. Because this information
defined by geographical coordinates or a radius of a
would be standardized, it would be equally
certain location (ECA California). Before entering
accessible to shore – based authorities as well as
an ECA zone, it is necessary to change–over to
vessel owners, who could then be proactive rather
LSHFO (low sulphur heavy fuel oil) so that the
than reactive to a developing situation.
pollution limits can be respected, which requires a
certain amount of time for the preparations of the Immediate action could be taken issuing advance
main engine and all the auxiliary engines to be warning to vulnerable areas, erecting oil booms
performed. based on predicted movement of the oil spill or
towing a vessel to another less sensitive location to
Possible Switching scenario between HFO and
lessen any possible impact to the environment. [9]
LSHFO could be implemented in ECDIS system by
Fuel Oil Change over Calculation. For example Hydrographic office could also recommend an
change over with one service and one settling tank alternative shipping route and with an appropriate
depending on the ship and ship's procedure may update, could prevent vessel to enter into the
take perhaps 15 hours in case the service tank is vulnerable area.
filled to 50 % before taken into use. [7]
Similarly, the real time display of ice movement
While considering the planned voyage, the could also be presented as a critical update from the
dynamic ECDIS system could timely announce the National HO. For example, The Canadian
precise time when the preparation of the main Hydrographic Service and Canada ICE PATROL
engine should begin in order for the ship to run on already cooperate together on a project to provide
an appropriate fuel when entering an ECA zone, and sea–ice information for use in the ECDIS as part of
in so doing, meet the requirements. The intelligent St. Lawrence Seaway Test Bed project. The aim
ECDIS system could also warn the officer on watch

here is to enhance safety of navigation in the seaway approaching a special area in order for certain
in winter months using environmental data. actions to be carried out.
Another significant critical update from the Despite numerous rules and regulations
national HO could be location of migratory fish regarding environment protection, there is
species like whale migration around Sri Lanka to insufficient global effort to equip the mariner with
provide safe access routes for vessels proceedings the technology and relevant information in function
from Europe to the Far East. of environment protection.
To create a significant update, the National HO Therefore, the proposed architecture of
must assume a higher responsibility in caring for the automatic live ECDIS updating in real time in
environment by connecting all relevant function of sea environment protection would lead
organizations, agencies and private institutions that to significant progress in making sure that the
have a role in environment protection, as shown in officer on watch takes timely and safe actions.
Fig. 1. Further development of the ECDIS system in
ecology could be connecting the system with the
Together with an undisturbed 24/7
surveillance system of the engine room which
communication with the server onboard, the ECDIS
would prevent oil or sewage discharge in certain
system could be converted from a static to a
areas, for example closing the valves before
dynamic system and these significant updates can
discharging harmful substances that can in any way
improve environment protection.
damage the environment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
IV. CONCLUSION
The authors acknowledge the support of research
Sea and sea environment protection is a very project "Research into the correlations of maritime-
complex matter. There are, however, various transport elements in marine traffic" (112-1121722-
activities in that direction which is can be seen 3066) funded by the Ministry of Science, Education
exclusively in supplementing relevant conventions. and Sports of the Republic of Croatia.
The dynamics of implementing new ecological
norms are slow, and that will reflect on maritime
affairs as well. However, ecological awareness is on REFERENCES
the rise. Although some norms are impossible to
fulfil, or their fulfilment takes certain time, by
setting up ambitious demands, the international [1] NOx Technical Code, Edition 2009, IMO, London
2009
institutions point to am even more rigorous norms. [2] www.imo.org
[3] Revised MARPOL Annex VI, Regulations for the
By establishing a model of automatic on line prevention of air pollution from ships, IMO, London
updating, ECDIS becomes a dynamic system that 2009
can contribute to environment protection via timely [4] Kuiken, K., Diesel engines part II, Target Global
Energy Training, Onnen, NL, 2008
critical updating. For creation of critical [5] PARTICULARLY SENSITIVE SEA AREAS,
environmental updates, a better connectivity and Australian Maritime Safety Authority Canberra,
cooperation of all national and private institutions in ACT Australia, June 2008
[6] Kos, S., Žuškin, S., Valčić, M. "On-line ECDIS
function of environment protection are needed. system updating", Proceedings, The 19th
Connecting such institutions and National International Symposium on Electronics in Transport
Hydrographic institutions into one global 2011, Ljubljana, Slovenia
[7] Wärtsilä LOW SULPHUR GUIDELINES, Wärtsilä
organization GENC (Global Electronic Navigational Switzerland Ltd, 2005
Coordination Centre) would significantly improve [8] Pilich, B., Pearlman, S., Chase C. "Real Time Data
the system. and ECDIS In A Web-Based Port Management
Package" Proceedings, Vol. 4, pp. 2227-2233,
The dynamic and intelligent ECDIS system Oceans 2003: Celebrating the past and teaming
toward the future, MTS/IEEE, San Diego
would then precisely define all special areas, and [9] Parry, O. "Green ECDIS an answer to Deepwater
timely warn the officer on watch that he is Horizon“ Maritime IT & Electronics Maritime, Port
Authority of Singapore, Singapure, 2010

SESSION C
Evaluating policies and
measures in climate friendly
transport
Evaluating Policies and Measures in Climate Friendly Transport
Measuring Energy Efficiency of Refrigerated

Warehouses
Andrejić Milan, Ratković Branislava, Kilibarda Milorad, Bjelić Nenad

Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, University of Belgrade
Belgrade, Serbia
m.andrejic@sf.bg.ac.rs
b.ratkovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
m.kilibarda@sf.bg.ac.rs
n.bjelic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract– In recent years, energy efficiency has warehouses grow more sophisticated, their energy
become a critical issue for logistics systems. Namely, as consumption grows too. For example, in the U.S.,
logistics systems are becoming more sophisticated, warehouses only for lighting spend an average of
energy consumption in these systems grows as well. In 10$/m2. Energy costs for some warehouses are more
situation of increasing global energy demands and rising
energy costs, conserving energy becomes very important
than 10% of their total revenue. It doesn’t matter
issue. Refrigerated warehouses (RWs) represent a special whether a production, warehouse or distribution
type of warehouses that use several times more energy for center is 1000 square meters or 500000 square
operating than conventional ones. The basic problem meters, it is necessary to cut costs and improve to
associated with energy efficiency in RWs is related to operating efficiencies. Refrigerated warehouses
seasonality of stored products, which implies significant (RWs) represents special types of warehouses that
variations in energy consumption levels over a year. Over use 2.8 times more energy for operating than
a half of a typical RW’s energy consumption is used for conventional warehouses [1]. RWs are very
products refrigeration. There are different possibilities of important links in supply chain, but also large energy
improving energy efficiency of these systems, such as consumers.
improvement of building envelope insulation, installation
of fast-acting doors, etc. Beside that, regularly scheduled The two major categories of RWs facilities are
maintenance is important aspect in improving overall coolers that store products at temperatures above 0°C
operational efficiency, which emphasizes importance of and freezers that store products at temperatures
efficiency measures. Except brief overview of measures under 0°C. Additionaly, according to size RWs can
for efficient energy consumption in RWs, this paper also
be classified as small, intermediate and large storage
proposes a model for evaluating RWs energy efficiency.
Proposed model is based on one of the most frequently rooms ranging from small refrigeration rooms units
used methods for evaluating efficiency - Data to large cold storage cooler/freezer warehouses [2].
Envelopment Analysis (DEA). Model is tested on The main design considerations of RWs are
numerical example, and the corrective actions are mostly related to wall and roof types, shell
proposed. The results show that RWs do not operate on
an optimal scale and the most of the inefficiency is due to
insulation, the refrigeration system and lighting
inadequate size of the facility as well as to the systems. The refrigeration system design involves
environmental aspect, rather than management of RWs. sizing of the condenser, compressor and evaporator,
determining power capacity, and controls to maintain
Keywords– Energy Efficiency, Refrigerated efficient operation and sufficient capacity.
Warehouses, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)
A basic refrigeration system consists of an
evaporator, compressor, condenser and an expansion
valve. The refrigerant is looped through the system
I. INTRODUCTION components. Many different substances can be used
as refrigerants, including air, water, carbon dioxide,
Energy efficient warehouses and distribution man-made refrigerants, and ammonia. The type of
centers are integral components of supply chain refrigerant depends on the pressures and
strategies, especially nowadays in competitive global temperatures in the process. Ammonia is the most
economy. Warehouses are moving beyond simply commonly used refrigerant for food processing and
storage function and today they offer high-tech storage facilities and it is an effective refrigerant,
inventory tracking and value-added services as which allows ammonia compressors to be smaller or
quality-control testing and repackaging. As to operate at slower speeds and require less

maintenance than other compressors [3]. Insulation high level of quality. Management plays the key role
is very important for this type of warehouses. The in the energy consumption reduction. This paper
various storage areas in RWs require different levels presents model for evaluating RWs energy
of insulation e.g. freezer areas require more efficiency, which should help managers to reduce
insulation than other areas. energy consumption.
A number of different types of products require The main objective of this paper is to propose a
different temperature range store in RWs. Some DEA model for measuring energy efficiency of
foods can be sensitive to temperature changes and RWs. Next section discusses efficient energy
drastic fluctuations in temperature may cause consumption. Proposed model for evaluating energy
deterioration. This is important, because when a efficiency of RWs is given in section 3, while
facility participates in energy consumption section 4 gives numerical example and results of
rationalization, the reduced use of refrigeration proposed DEA model. Overall conclusions of this
equipment can cause the temperatures within storage paper are presented in section 5.
areas to vary. In a report on energy efficiency in
RWs, [4] authors suggested that frozen packaged
products, frozen juices, and frozen products that do
not require a minimum temperature are good II. EFFICIENT ENERGY CONSUMPTION
candidates for rationalization strategies, since they
can tolerate a 5°C temperature drift. In contrast, Energy use is very important factor for optimal
cooled products may not tolerate temperature RWs operating. RWs use energy for product
variations larger than 2–3°C and humidity variations refrigeration, processes such as lighting, maintaining
greater than 3–5% [2]. water temperature, HVAC (Heating, Ventilating and
Air Conditioning), charging forklift batteries, etc. It
Logistics systems, especially RWs demand more
is necessary to know all RWs energy consumers,
energy for process operation. In situation of
before implementing any actions for reducing energy
increasing energy demand and rising energy costs,
consumption (Fig. 1). The main energy user in RWs
energy efficiency measures are becoming more
is product refrigeration in cold and frozen storage
important. The need for energy efficiency measuring
areas [4]. Refrigeration accounts for over half of a
and monitoring becomes a necessity. This paper uses
typical RWs energy consummation (Fig. 1). Electric
one of the most frequently used method for
defrost also contributes a significant portion of the
measuring efficiency - Data Envelopment Analysis
energy use in industries. All other services total
(DEA) for RWs energy efficiency measuring.
about 25% of the energy use in industrial RWs.
According this method RWs are viewed as system
that uses inputs (labor, electricity, fuel, water, space,
etc.) to produce products and deliver services with
3% 2% 1%
9%
Refrigeration
10% Electric defrost
Lighting
Office HVAC
Battery Chargers
54% Office equipment

Exhaust fans
21%
Figure 1. Refrigerated warehouse energy use - [4]

RWs energy efficiency opportunities that can be Namely, in the set of homogeneous units, DEA
applied for evaporators, compressors, condensers, method finds the most efficient DMUs, with
and the warehouse shell. Evaporators would efficiency score of one and these DMUs are
contribute to more than half of overall facility energy technically efficient relative to their peers. To all
savings, compressors would account for 34% of other DMUs score is between zero and one. The
savings, condensers for 12%, and shell measures for technically inefficient DMUs use either more
3% [4]. weighted inputs per weighted output, or produce less
weighted output per weighted input than efficient
Process of performance monitoring and
DMUs.
controlling is very important for energy efficient
operating. Computerized control system allows As mentioned earlier, [5] proposed the basic DEA
monitoring of key operating parameters such as model, named CCR model, which determines TE of
temperature, pressure level, oxygen or carbon the observed DMUs (in this paper RWs represents
dioxide concentration, energy use, etc. [2]. DMUs). For evaluating RWs efficiency it is
Advanced control technologies can be beneficial for necessary to obtain data of consumed inputs and
improving energy efficiency and implementing realized outputs. In DEA terminology xij denotes the
rationalization strategies as well as improving value of input variable i for RWj (xij > 0, i = 1, 2, ...,
information access and management within the m, j= 1, 2, ..., n), while yrj denotes output variable r
facility. Also, advanced control systems require less for RWj (yrj > 0, r = 1, 2, ..., s, j = 1, 2, ..., n).
time for checking on equipment, and equipment Coefficients associated with all inputs and outputs
operates for shorter periods of time which results in are denoted with ur and decision variables are
reduced facility operation and maintenance costs. denoted with υi. The basic CCR model has the
Product quality is also improved through well following form:
controlled processes and environment conditions [2].
The basic problem in RWs relates to energy s
consumption varying because many of their products Max h j   ur yrj  

r 1
are seasonal. Accordingly, energy consumption at
most RWs types typically reaches peak during Subject to:
summer months, when agricultural products
ripening. This causes more heavy demands and
m
refrigeration systems must work harder to
v x i ij  1 
compensate for warmer weather [4]. Energy efficient i 1
RWs reduce use of energy (all types) and decrease
operating costs. Some energy efficiency
opportunities in RWs relate to improving building s m
envelope insulation, new roof technologies, 

r 1
u r yrj  v x
i 1
i ij  0, j  1,2,...,n 
installing fast-acting doors, retrofitting lighting and
HVAC systems, using of natural light, variable speed
drives, and upgrading to more efficient equipment.  
Further, regularly scheduled maintenance can
improve overall operational efficiency and sustain
the impact of efficiency measures.
vi  0, i  1,.., m  
III. MODELS FOR RWS ENERGY EFFICIENCY ur  0, r  1,.., s  

EVALUATION
DEA is a mathematical programming technique Previous model maximizes the virtual output of
which gives opportunity to comparing of different RWj, while its virtual input must be equal to one.
decision making units (DMUs) efficiency based on Constraint (3) requires that the optimal weights for
multiple inputs and outputs. In [5] authors proposed the RWk must meet the requirements applicable to all
a non parametric approach for efficiency measuring, RWs. For example, virtual output RWj cannot be
in which multiple inputs are reduced to a single greater than its virtual input. If the value of the
virtual input and multiple outputs to a single virtual objective function is 1, then for all remaining RWs,
output by using weights. The ratio of weighted virtual output will be less of a virtual input. If the
inputs and outputs produces a single measure of value of objective function is less than 1, then those
productivity called relative technical efficiency (TE). RWs which virtual output is equal to virtual input

will be peer observed RWs. Efficiency index for for evaluating efficiency of 20 RWs. The data are
evaluated RWs is denoted with hj. Constraints (4) generated in accordance with the actual values of in
and (5) ensure that all weights are non-negative. RW RWs in real systems. Following inputs are taken into
is CCR efficient only if it is scale and pure technical consideration (Table 1): RW size (m3), labor,
efficient. number of forklifts and facility utilization (%),
electricity consumption, other energy costs (water,
The constant return to scale (CRS) assumption is
fuel, gas, etc). RW size present the volume of
appropriate when all firms operating at an optimal
facility. It is better to use m3 rather then m2 when
scale. However, imperfect competition, goverment
describing warehouse space. Forklifts in this model
regulations, constraints on finance, etc., may cause a
are one of the equipment indicators in RW and they
firm to be not operating on optimal scale. In contrast
influence on energy and fuel consumption. In this
to the CCR model that assumes CRS (proportional
case all forklifts are electric, so fuel consumption is
increase in inputs results in proportional increase in
not caused by forklifts. The percentage of facility
outputs), [6] extend the original DEA model to
utilization is good indicator for rationalization of
variable returns to scale (VRS - increase in inputs
energy consumption. Electricity consumption is
doesn't result in a proportional change in output).
basic measure for energy efficient measuring. As
This model is known in the literature as the BCC
mentioned before electricity costs are more than 50%
model. BCC model measures the pure technical
of all costs in RW [10], so detail analysis of this
efficiency (PTE), and provides a measure of
input is necessary. This measure is expressed in
efficiency, which ignores the influence of the
MWh/year. All other costs of water, fuel, gas, etc.
volume of business, because RWs are compared only
consumption are incorporated in one measure – other
with other RWs of similar scale. Scale efficiency
energy costs, and they are expressed in monetary
(SE) indicates whether the observed RW operates
units (m.u.).
with an optimal volume of operations. SE can be
obtain for each RW by conducting both a CCR and a On the other side proposed model uses two
BCC models, and then decomposing the TE scores outputs: successfully realized services and goods
obtained from the CCR model into two components, deterioration. Successfully realized services are
one due to scale inefficiency and one due to pure services that are realized according customers
technical inefficiency. If there is a difference in CCR requirements (right time, right place, right quality,
and BCC TE scores for a particular RW, then this etc). Goods deterioration is caused by poor handling
indicates that the firm has scale inefficiency [7]: and storing of goods (i.e., inappropriate temperature,
pressure and humidity).In accordance with defined
TE (Technical Efficiency - CCR) = PTE (Pure
input and output values, as mentioned, we used input
Technical Efficiency - BCC) x SE (Scale Efficiency)
minimizing orientation of CCR and BCC models,
It is important to note that the overall efficiency where the emphasis is on maintenance or
of energy consumption consists of two factors: improvement of the level of service provided with
environmental factors and energy management the minimum use of inputs.In this paper analysis is
factors. The environmental factors include weather carried out with DEA software efficiency
conditions, occupant intensity, imperfect measurement system (EMS), developed by the
competition, goverment regulations, constraints on Operations Research Department at the University of
finance and so on. The energy management factors Dortmund [11].
include equipment efficiency, operating strategy, and
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for the
so on. Due to the difficulty of separating the effect of
outputs and inputs of the 20 RWs.
environmental factors from overall energy
efficiency, there is little research analysis of the
effect of energy management of RW with DEA. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Therefore, we use DEA to measure the overall
energy efficiency in details by examining The results of DEA analysis, TE and SE scores
environmental factors and management factors. for each RW, are given in Table 2. Out of the 20
RWs, 8 (40%) were found TE with a score of 100%.
Considering the fact that RWs can control energy
The remaining 12 RWs (60%) were technically
consumption and reduce it in order to become more
inefficient since they had a TE score of less than
efficient, in this paper, we adopted the input
100%. The average efficiency of 20 analyzed RWs is
orientation of DEA models.
80%, which roughly means that each RW can store
Inputs and outputs and deliver the current quantities of goods up to 20%
less resources during the observed period (in this
Importance of inputs and outputs selection in
case one year). In this way, in average RWs can
energy efficiency evaluating with DEA is described
realize potential savings of 811 MWh in electricity
in [8] and [9]. Six inputs and two outputs are used

consumption and 100000 m.u. in other energy costs. show the fact that most of the inefficiency is the
In average RW could operate with 2.6 forklift, and result of the inadequate size of the facility, and
15 employees less. The average technical environmental factor, rather than management. (i.e.
inefficiency of the observed RWs is 20%. Most of RW does not operate on an optimal scale). In real
the inefficiency is in SE, about 18%, while about 2- systems the inefficiency is often caused by bad
3% of inefficiency corresponds to PTE. These results management.
TABLE I. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR RWS INPUTS AND OUTPUTS

Standard
Inputs/outputs Mean deviation Max Min
Size (m3) 52.87 24.19 92.72 23.75
Employees 77.21 27.35 132.69 31.95
Number of forklifts 12.97 4.46 19.87 3.44
Facility utilization (%) 69.49 17.35 99.26 44.48
Electricity consumption
4056.63 891.02 5078.87 2357.02
(MWh/year)
Other energy costs (m.u.) 27.32 10.03 48.01 11.73
Realized services (1000) 499.13 208.50 997.13 215.69
Goods deterioration (%) 9.20 5.73 19.37 0.97
Detailed analysis of the obtained results shows of facility and awareness of employees in the RWs,
that RWs can be classified into certain groups. as well as of a number of external factors.
Namely, DEA analyses found that 8 RWs are TE and
they can be classified according to the frequency V. CONCLUSIONS
with which they appear in the reference group of the
inefficient RWs. In this context, RW 1 and RW 7 are
Rising energy costs dictate the need for energy
appearing as a reference in 58.33% of the inefficient
optimization to help logistics systems remain
RWs. That is, 58.33% of the inefficient RWs should
competitive. Facility managers are always seeking
observe how RW 1 and RW 7 operate and then
ways to maximize profitability and minimize total
modify their utilization of resources with the aim of
costs. This paper has considered DEA as a method
becoming efficient. In the set of 12 inefficient RWs,
for energy efficiency measurement that can
two interest groups can be distinguished. As
accommodate various desirable and undesirable
mentioned before the most RWs do not operate in
effects of production into a single efficiency index.
the optimal scale. Reason for their inefficiency, can
Proposed model is some kind of management tool
be found in the size of RWs and environmental
for RWs. energy efficiency measuring. With this
factors.
model management should make fast decisions and
The slack movements, which arise because of the corrective actions. In contrast to other methods
sections of the piece-wise linear frontier that run which are presented in the energy efficiency
parallel to the axes are reported in order to give an literature, DEA does not require any normative
accurate indication of RWs TE. Analysis of slack judgments and subjective evaluations of weights.
values (Table 3) shows that there is a significant
The results of numerical example show that the
slack in the input variable. Much of the inefficiency
most of the inefficiency is in SE, about 18%, while
is the result of scale inefficiency of the RW
about 2-3% of inefficiency corresponds to PTE.
operating. Potential improvements are related to the
These results show the fact that most of the
average decrease in input sizes, which range from
inefficiency is the result of the inadequate size of the
2.22% for other energy costs up to 10.21% for
institution, and environmental factor, rather than
employees costs while maintaining its current level
management. (i.e. RW does not operate on an
of outputs. Slack for electricity and potential energy
optimal scale). In future research proposed model
consumption is about 6.5%.
should be tested on real examples. There are about
150 RWs in Serbia, at this moment. Energy use of
Namely RWs energy efficiency heavily depends these warehouses is very large. The technology level
on the organization management, technologies, size in many of them is very low. Proposed model should

be applied to evaluate potential improvements in TABLE III. POTENTIONAL SAVINGS IN INPUTS

these systems, as the first step in rationalization of Actual Average Potential
energy consumption in Serbian RWs. Future average slack reduce
research should also include Malmquist index which
offer useful techniques for quantifying and Size 52.87 3.8635 7.31%
explaining changes of energy efficiency over time, Employees 77.21 7.882 10.21%
and seasonality index.
Number of
12.97 1.2955 9.99%
ACKNOWLEDGMENT forklifts
Facility
This paper was supported by the Ministry of 69.49 4.8765 7.02%
utilization
Science and Technological Development Republic
of Serbia, through project 36006. Electricity
4056.63 264.7565 6.53%
consumption
TABLE II. EFFICIENCY SCORES Other energy
27.32 0.6065 2.22%
RW TE (CRS) PTE (VRS) SE costs
RW 1 0.54 1.00 0.54
RW 2 1.00 1.00 1.00
REFERENCES
RW 3 1.00 1.00 1.00
RW 4 0.53 0.98 0.54
[1] M. Roy, “Green Warehouses, ” ASHRAE Journal,
RW 5 1.00 1.00 1.00 vol. 52, Issue 3, pp. 64-70, March 2010.
[2] American Society for Heating Refrigeration and Air-
RW 6 1.00 1.00 1.00 Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) ASHRAE
Handbook: Refrigeration. I-P Edition, 2006.
RW 7 0.80 1.00 0.80 [3] Naval Facilities Engineering Command,
Refrigeration Systems for Cold Storage .200 Stovall
RW 8 1.00 1.00 1.00 Street Alexandria, Virginia, 1986.
[4] Pacific Gas and Electric Company,. Codes and
RW 9 1.00 1.00 1.00 Standards Enhancement Initiative (CASE): Final
Report Refrigerated Warehouses, California Energy
RW 10 0.61 1.00 0.61 Commission, 2007.
[5] A. Charnes, W.W. Cooper and E. Rhodes,
RW 11 0.97 1.00 0.97 “Measuring efficiency of decision making units, ”
European Journal of Operational Research, vol. 2,
RW 12 1.00 1.00 1.00 issue 6, pp. 429–444, November 1978.
[6] R.D. Banker, A. Charnes and W.W. Cooper, “Some
RW 13 0.54 0.97 0.55 models for estimating technical and scale
RW 14 0.86 1.00 0.86 inefficiencies in data envelopment analysis,”
Management Science, vol.30, pp. 1078–1092,
RW 15 1.00 1.00 1.00 September 1984.
[7] T. D. Coelli, D.S.R. Prasada, C. J. O'Donnell and
RW 16 0.88 1.00 0.88 G.E. Battese,. An introduction to efficiency and
productivity analysis, Springer 2nd ed, 2005.
RW 17 0.87 0.92 0.95 [8] T. Kuosmanen and M. Kortelainen, “Measuring Eco-
efficiency of Production with Data Envelopment
RW 18 0.53 0.80 0.67 Analysis, “ Journal of Industrial Ecology, vol 9, issue
4, pp. 59 – 72, Fall 2005.
RW 19 0.73 1.00 0.73 [9] J.Sarkis, S. Talluri, “Ecoefficiency measurement
using data envelopment analysis: research and
RW 20 0.20 0.72 0.27 practitioner issues, ” Journal of Environmental
Assessment Policy and Management, vol. 6, issue 1,
Average pp. 91-123, March 2004.
0.80 0.97 0.82 [10] P. Singh, Benchmarking Study of the Refrigerated
efficiency
Warehousing Industry Sector in California, PIER
Efficient Final Project Report, 2008.
8 (40%) 15 (75%) 8 (40%) [11] http://www.ub.uni-dortmund.de/service/benu-
units ord.htm.en
Inefficient
12 (60%) 5 (25%) 12 (60%)
units

Monitoring of chemical pollution from the ships

in coastal areas
Goran Bakalar Vinko Tomas, Ph.D., Ante Bukša, Ph.D.

Faculty of maritime studies Rijeka Faculty of maritime studies Rijeka
University of Rijeka University of Rijeka
Rijeka, Croatia Rijeka, Croatia
Goran.Bakalar@xnet.hr
Abstract— Use of satellite communication The worst oil pollution accidents in history
technologies for sea pollution monitoring has been initiated international activity against all possible oil
analyzed in this review. Satellite communication pollutions. Reaction of International Maritime
technology today, covers monitoring of oil pollutions. Organisation to Exxon Valdes accident brought out
Technological limitations and improving potential of that
kind of monitoring were listed. Particular attention has
strategy and its action plans that oblige whole
been paid to the oil discharge monitor. It has been international community. Obligating conventions,
researched possibility of use that monitoring potential for regulations and procedures were enforced and lot of
chemical pollutions from the ships in coastal areas. Real education was ordered and has been done. One of the
cases from the experience and registered accidents were best inventions during that activity was
explained in this paper. Possible reasons of the accidents implementation of Oil discharge monitor. That unit,
were brought out after experience cases were analyzed. installed on the ships worldwide, prevented many oil
Chemical pollution cases were taken as good examples in pollutions and still does the best oil pollution control
this review, being compared against oil pollution cases. among all other preventing activities. Ship's
Minor oil pollutions in coastal area were drastically Chemical discharge monitor doesn't exist. That
reduced since oil discharge monitor has been in use. That
makes risk of chemical incidents higher, and gives
advantage in oil cases is being taken into consideration
in this paper and another solution proposed. Proposed more room for uncontrolled operations on the ships.
solution in this review is possibility of use satellite There are two types of risks involved in chemical
positioning system combined with good software incidents which, to some extent, are independent of
programs and emergency procedures already in use on the type of maritime transport of the products,
the ships. In another solution satellite communication whether carried in bulk or in packaged form. These
technologies would force up ship operators to work in are risks involving the personnel (crew, intervening
accordance with the pollution prevention law. personnel, and the local population) and more
Automation would stop chemical pollution in coastal specifically the environment.
areas.
Keywords— sea protection, liquid chemicals
transportation, coastal area contamination, satellite
communication technologies, global satellite positioning
system, chemical pollution monitoring. II. EXPOSURE TO CHEMICALS
There was much minor chemical pollution from

I. INTRODUCTION the ships in coastal area with different causes. Some
of those pollutions were done by improper cargo
handling, cargo loading or cargo discharging. Spill
Satellite communication technology is on highest of chemicals into seawater may give rise to health
level of use today. That use initiates many good hazards because of contamination of fish or shellfish.
improving advanced ideas. The intention in this Seawater pollution with persistent chemicals, such as
review is to explore improving possibility to prevent biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins, can also be a
deliberate chemical pollution from ships in coastal significant health hazard even at extremely low
area. Use of satellite communication technology concentrations. [1]
could help and prevent minor chemical spills. It is
easier to fight oil pollution than chemical pollution, Dinking contaminated water is the most direct
since the oil floats and doesn't dissolve in the water. route of exposure to pollutants in water. Chemical
pollution of sea water could contaminate produced

fresh water on the ship. Ships are equipped with Chemical cargo in bulk could be spilled while
desalinating machinery to produce more fresh cargo loading, unloading, handling proper cargo
potable water and use it for showering, drinking and temperatures during voyages and or carrying tank
food preparation on the ships. The actual exposure to washing residues. It is obvious on the map of
contamination via drinking water depends on the Mediterranean Sea that is hard to be on time in next
amount of water consumed. It is usually 2 to 3 liters port of call and to clean unloaded tanks on time, due
per day for an adult, with higher amounts for people to small international water areas in whole
working in hot engine rooms or people engaged in Mediterranean zone. All shortest routes are thru
heavy physical work on the open decks. Use of territorial waters. Even if ship's speed is at least 7
contaminated water in food preparation can result in knots, there is no room and no time enough to clean
contaminated food, because high cooking tanks, too. Cargo operation is hard job in the ports
temperatures do not affect the toxicity of most and at the terminals. Ship’s crewmembers work hard
chemical contaminants. [2] all the time during cargo operations and they need
resting hours after departures. In Mediterranean Sea,
Very high amounts of the fresh water produced
unloading ports are mostly located in Eastern
on ships are in use on very big passenger ships.
Mediterranean, and loading ports are in Western
There is no sensor to detect contaminated sea water
Europe for lot of chemical cargo carriers of 2,000
while being pumped into the desalination machinery.
DWT up to 10,000 DWT. It is also lot of bad
Inhalation exposure to volatile compounds during
weather days during those voyages.
hot showers and skin exposure while bathing or
using water for recreation is also potential routes of
exposure to water pollutants. Examples of disease
are the nervous system diseases of methyl-mercury
poisoning (Minamata disease), the kidney and bone
diseases of chronic cadmium poisoning (Itai-Itai
disease), and the circulatory system diseases of
nitrate exposure (methemoglobinemia) and lead
exposure (anemia and hypertension). The effects on
the developing nervous system can include impaired
mental and psychomotor development, as well as
cognitive impairment and behavior abnormalities.
Chemicals in drinking water can also be
carcinogenic. [3]
III. CHEMICAL POLLUTION MONITORING

Figure 1. Map of the route from India to North Sea
The most important in marine pollution
expressed by its mass of total leakage are common All of those facts show lack of time for tank
even small size of a few square meters. Invisible washing and proper cleaning to be ready for another
size spills do not enter official statistics and do not cargo load. The time remaining for the part of a
attract the attention of the public media (36% total voyage in international waters is not always long
mass of oil and related chemicals that may be enough.
discharged into the sea). [4]
Recorded incidents do not include spills if The Mediterranean had long time been
transported in bulk. It is hard to find residues of designated a special area under MARPOL Annex V,
transparent and dissolving chemicals. It is not but it has taken time for the regulations to come into
possible to see chemical pollution from a ship if the effect due to the lack of disposal facilities in all
cargo has been transported in bulk. member states within the area. [6]
Statistics research of the incidents brings out

questionnaires in tables for a few incidents of
chemical spills from ships transporting chemicals in
bulk. There was not found reason of the spill. There
are only a few causes of those unknown spills while
cargo transported in bulk. It is all deliberately
caused by ship's cargo handling. [5]

enough for environment. It is needed new good

supervision and monitoring because of the
environment and health protection. Ships might be
not following regulations of tank washing in
international waters only, particularly in
Mediterranean sea, where not much international
waters remain to sail thru, while travelling from
eastern Mediterranean to North sea.
In the drums that were found in a few incidents
[1] could be either collected defrosted crystalized
Figure 2. Map of special area Mediterranean sea cargo from the ship's pipelines, or collected from
overflown tanks during cargo loading operations. It
In accordance to MARPOL 73/78 the discharge might be not reported if was not seen by harbour or
is made at least 12 miles from the nearest land and terminal personnel. Then it could be collected to the
not less than 25 meters depth. Ship's speed has to be drums and thrown to the sea. Collection to the
at least 7 knots. to discharge any residues of tank drums can be, also from residues after unloading
washing. It is not requested any discharge filtering was completed, vessel departured and tanks were
or monitoring devices. It is allowed not to prewash not washed in international waters. The ship was
if in the tanks after unloading remains: any quantity scheduled for a cargo and was in hurry to be on
of category A residues, 150 litres and less of time int he next port of call. Therefore it maybe was
category B or 450 litres and less of category C no time for voyage extention and tanks could be
chemical substance residue. No restrictions for cleaned in coastal waters. The residues of tank
category D except the maximum allowed cleaning were collected in drums and then thrown
concentration in the wake of the ship is not greater into the sea at the point that was decided to be good
than 1 part of substance in 10 parts of water. That enough against potentional detection. Lot of drums
regulation is for tank washing inside special areas, full of chemicals do not fall overboard so accidently.
Mediteranean sea too. Each ship owner or charterer wants his crew to be
on time in next port of call, otherwise is risking to
Since no disposal shore facilities exist at all the await at the anchorage for a months to be scheduled
terminals whith out class A cargo operation ability, again. That is why loyal crew could collect drums
surveying personnel could not pay that much aboard a ship, to fill them with chemicals that would
attention to the remaining cargo in the bigger tanks be product of unprofessional cargo handling.
wether it was 1 or a few m3 remaining unloaded. Satellite remote monitoring doesn't affect
The underwater overboard valve for cargo chemical pollution incidents. Chemicals are mostly
operations still doesn't exist on most of the ships, invisible liquid. The only effective camera
therefore part of ballast pipe line could be used only. monitoring could be monitoring from ship's
It is usualy used flexibile hose hanging overboard, survelliance systems. Land remote controll centre
connected to ship's cargo pipeline for discharging should be able to operate that system remotely using
residues to the sea. No any positioning automatic satellite communication advanced technology.
control exists. The race for profit makes this
problem even more dangerous to the environment. IV. OIL DISCHARGE MONITOR
This is an operational oil separation and filtering

equipment with an automatic stopping device.
Monitoring system ensures the most accurate and
maintenance free monitoring based on the latest
technology and data treatment. It measures the
actual oil concentration in water and not particles
opposed to monitors based on light diffusion.
The monitoring solutions include interface to
Figure 3. Discharge of tank washing residues Satellite Positioning GPS and computer system,
overboard into sea customized user template and possibility for remote
service and support. This makes it possible for users
The way of sea protection and chemical to track discharging history for periods of up to 30
substances pollution prevention is not good enough days up to 18 months as well as other customized
for big bulk chemical cargo carriers and not good features.

Oil Discharge Monitor (ODME) consists of the pumproom of the tanker ships equipped with
following main parts: common cargo pumps, not deep well pumps. For
A computer unit is installed in the cargo tanker ships equipped with deep well pumps an
control room or in an equivalent non-hazardous additional solution is to be implemented.
area. The computer unit controls and receives data
from the other ODME components. This
information is treated for computing and control
purposes and is stored into a flash memory which
could be displayed or printed out an external
computer or printer, according to the requirements
of the IMO resolutions.
A Zener barrier unit is installed in the engine
room or equivalent safe area. The Zener barrier
module converts electrical control signals from the
computer unit to pneumatic or electrical supply
signals for operation of the components that are a
part of the ODME equipment. The Zener barrier
module contains electrical power supply and zener
barriers for the analysing unit and for up to two loop
powered flow meters.
An Analyzing unit is installed in the hazardous Figure 5. Oil discharge monitor OMD-21 DECKMA
scheme
area. The analyzing cabinet contains the oil content
measuring unit, a sample feed pump of shear type, a
fresh water valve for cleaning purposes and a
SOLUTION PROPOSAL
pressure transmitter that monitors the sample flow
through the measuring cell. This compact design It is needed to change working operational
makes it possible to install the unit close to the system of Anylysing and Computer unit of the Oil
sampling point, which makes the sampling pipes discharge monitor (ODME). That change has to
distance between the sampling probes and the enable an automatic overboard discharge shutdown
analyzing cabinet as short as possible. [7] and the pump shut off, ordered by GPS Satellite
positioning system. Instead of controlling the oil
ammount, the monitor should control ship's position.
Since technology has improved ways of

detection, an analyse unit of the monitor could take
spectroscopy metodology were each chemical
element has different spectrum. Two chemical
elements with identical spectral lines do not exist.
That makes this method precise and trustfull. The
mentioned spectroscopy of characteristic X-
Figure 4. Different oil discharge monitors radiation is of multielement and non-destructive
nature and therefore considered appropriate for the
A monitor measures the oil content in the measurement proposed.This detection method is
sample through advanced light scattering principle. base of finger print method as well. It is multi-
Infrared light is passed through the sample and element detection. The results of the detection could
captured by an array of solid state sensors. The be archived for any need of proval at the court. It is
signals are then processed and through the enough to alert the atoms of the analysing sample in
application of advanced algorithms the displayed oil adecvate way and then to record x-ray flourecentric
content disregards virtually all influence of solids spectrum After that quality and quantity analyse
present in the sample. The device provides two can be done. Exit or final step of the detecting
independent alarm contacts, for the operation of an analyse is printed report, but instead of printer has to
audible alarm and/or operation of an automatic be connected automatic device(unit) to make
overboard discharge shutdown device. [7] function of an automatic overboard discharge
shutdown device . That part of this system allows or
This automatic stopping device could be used to stops discharge of liquids into the sea, depends to
prevent chemical substances spill from the ships in measured detected values.[8]
coastal area. It is possible to install this monitor in

The discharge activity should be automatically

stopped if a ship was sailing within 12 miles from
any land and if the speed of the ship was not higher
than 7 knots. That has to be controlled and ordered
by use of satellite positioning system, combined
with partial telepresence of monitoring control
expert from a shore side. That data should be
followed up by more international institutions
momentally if the ship was breaking law. The whole
system could be an additional part of Remote
maintenance system that is already ongoing in
project of satellite remote ship's maintenance
ROHMS and ICAS. The background of this Figure 7. Satellite communication monitoring chain
solution proposal is in the project DIGITAL SEAS in ICAS and ROHMS projects
and project JUSTIN.
Project Digital Seas (communication project,

Project ROHMS is the Remote Off-Hull 2010.) is ongoing project of Mobile
Maintenance Support (ROHMS).That is the “web Telecommunication Network(MTN) and AT&T
services” component that enables authorized telecommunications company on a newest and
personnel at an off-hull maintenance location to largest cruise ship today. There , for massive
execute predefined queries for system maintenance communication, is in use a bandwidth with 10
related data, retrieve that data through a Secret Megabites per second for the internet, 1.5 Mbps for
Internet Protocol Router Network connection, and mobile phones, 2 Mbps for video streaming and 3
provide feedback to the on-hull system or system Mbps for voice and corporate data. Gateways can
operator. This capability enables shore-based support more than 40 simultaneous satellite phone
technicians to conduct system assessments and calls. [10]
troubleshoot problems reported via casualty reports
or through any other means of requesting fleet
technical assistance. Project Justin is about the telepresence robot.
Justin is an interesting robot that was manufactured
by the German Aerospace Center, where he was
specially designed to repair satellites. He can’t do
this alone since he will need to be controlled by a
human hand via telepresence. Technology from that
project combined with technology used in the
project Digital Seas could be in use for this
monitoring by using satellite communication
technologies. It is needed to keep camera with GPS
position that alerts ship's surveillance system and
Remote Maintenance Centre (RMC) that an
operation is ongoing in forbidden area, also to
immediately alert RMC to activate a telepresence
camera. That camera should be enabling shore
controlling centre to enter ship anytime for
supervision and routine checks. [11]
Figure 6. Basic Satellite communication scheme
REFERENCES
Additional capabilities include off-hull analysis
of system performance to identify degrading trends [1] www.bonnagreement.org/eng/html/.../chemical_spill
before any system “down time” is experienced. s
[2] www.chem-tox.com
Project ICAS remote monitoring has [3] www.acronymfinder.com/International-Programme-
commenced on year 2003, installing monitoring on-Chemical-Safety-(WHO)
softwares on the ships to detect failures of the [4] www.satoc.eu/sos/projects/CSeas/reportbits/report5-
3.html
engines before the failures make damages. [9] [5] www.mardep.gov.hk/en/msnote/pdf
[6] http://www.seaservice.ch/MARPOL.htm

[7] www.nauticexpo.com/prod/deckma-hamburg/oil- [9] www.esrginc.com

discharge-monitors [10] www.ship-technology.com
[8] Dobrinić, J., Onečišćenje mora uljima i elementima [11] www.robaid.com/robotics/humanoid-robot-justin-
u tragovima Pomorski zbornik 38 (2000)1, 333- developed-for-maintenance-of-satellites
348)

Methods for Waste Disposal on Commercial

Ships
Mate Barić, B.Sc.; Marko Smokrović, B.Sc.; Dražen Butorac, B.Sc.

Rijeka, Croatia
leteca.utoka@gmail.com
Abstract— The research paper titled "Methods for II. WASTE AND INCENERATIONON BOARD
disposal of the cargo ship" includes wastes that are found
in the seas, and generally define their chemical and
Classical division of the sources of waste in the
physiological characteristics. A special attention is given
to the legal regulations of international law which define marine environment recognizes coastal (terrestrial)
the ways of dealing with waste and exhaust gases on and marine. Some marine sources of waste are:
board ships (MARPOL; MARPOL Annexes 5 and 6).  Boats of all types and purposes (shopping,
Shipping books and documents are issued in accordance
with the classification societies of particular countries
fishing, passenger, military, ferries, travel
due to standardization and automation in the handling of cruise ships to smaller vessels for leisure,
cargo on ships. Subject of research were systems for sport and personal pleasure of sailing)
burning and disposal of waste on ships as well as  Oil and gas platforms.
technical - technological units and maintenance with
them in "civilized way" in accordance with the standards
given with conventions for disposal of waste from ships in Sources, types and sizes of waste
the national and international navigation. Sources of waste are important to know because
Keywords— waste disposal, international law, it is much easier and, above all, cheaper to prevent
shipping documents, systems for burning and disposal its introduction into more than the removal of the
marine environment and / or remediation of damage
that may result. Unfortunately, much of it is not
I. INTRODUCTION known origin.
For some time it is considered that, on a global
On merchant ships most of waste is generated by scale, about 80% of marine waste comes from land,
the crew, a small part is of the domestic waste while 20% occurs on the sea. The data that often
materials. Because of this the biggest problem is the relies show that 36% of marine waste comes from
disposal of the same waste to prevent pollution and tourism, 13% of the fishery, and 10% for various
the environment. Particularly from an environmental types of sewerage and drainage systems. Only a
aspect is considered air pollution from exhaust small percentage of marine waste is one of the ships
gases from ships. sailing in different properties (except fishing), but
that does not mean that it is less significant.
Due to the large amount of material that can not Although the method of expressing skepticism
be discharged into the environment, and that can be rough estimate precise figures are justified, we agree
destroyed by inceneration, it is necessary to provide with the data that a large portion, about 40% of
space for waste and to reduce all the space for cargo. marine waste an unknown source. We can even
The consequences are rigorous checks and penalties consider that this part is unknown and the ships that
for shipping companies and ships that do not do not comply with the MARPOL Convention or
comply with regulations. Improving procedures for boats are not states parties to the Convention [1].
inceneration and incorporating new machinery for
waste treatment will lead to reduction in space Marine Waste is everything that is found in the
required to accommodate the waste. marine environment, and naturally does not appear
Studying the legal regulations and procedures of and does not belong there. The main categories are
waste disposal will try to explore possible methods the various types of plastics, metals, glass, rubber
of waste disposal. and paper. Among the cases that are in whole or in
part become dominated by plastic packaging waste

(for beverages, edible oils, dairy products, in which he was forbidden to spew oil or its mixture
detergents, cosmetics, medicine, including with more than 100 parts per million of oil [4].
injections), fishing crates of Styrofoam, mostly While these conventions deal with oil pollution, a
broken, and various bags, wrappers and foil, growing market and further development required a
stoppers, one-time packaging for food, jars, cans, new measure of protection. As a motive for the
metal containers and sprays, different types of action of the international community was the
packaging paper, further plastic footwear, fishing average tanker "Torry Canyon", which in 1967. was
tools like ropes, nets, fish traps, buoys, buoys and stranded at the entrance to the English Channel [5].
the like [2]. Oil slick spread on 270 square kilometers.
Waste (small) size which is a particular focus of After the disaster several conventions were
researchers for possible direct entry into the food brought, among which and 1973. MARPOL -
chain is divided into micro-waste (between 63 and Convention (Eng. International Convention for the
500 micrometers), mezzo-waste (under 5 mm to Prevention of Pollution from Ships). International
over 1 cm), macro-waste (generally up to 1 dm) and Convention for the Protection of Pollution from
mega-waste (over 1 dm). Ships was adopted in second of November 1973.
with the IMO. At the International Conference on
The retention of waste in the marine environment Tanker Safety, held in London 1978. adopted the
Protocol which forms an integral part of the
Assuming that it is not removed before the bin MARPOL Convention. Unlike the convention in
will remain in the marine environment as much as 1954. which regulates the prevention of sea
he needs to dissolve, then depending on its pollution by oil, MARPOL.
decomposition. Time decay depends on its chemical
The Convention regulates the prevention of
and physical structure and the point where there is:
pollution of all harmful substances from ships
if floating on the sea surface is located on the shore
discharging or discharged, either intentionally or
or sank to the seabed. In the case of biodegradation,
accidentally. MARPOL - Conventions are
then the action of bacterial material fully
constantly amended. New text entries, almost every
decomposed, decomposition, and dissolves, which is
year, no longer have to wait for ratification by states.
characteristic of mostly natural materials.
And news automatically enter into force one year
Unfortunately, when it comes to trash plastic, glass,
after the decision of the IMO, unless they explicitly
metal, rubber and so it is resistant to biodegradation
object to third countries that have at least half of the
and should be long until it is completely
world tonnage. Apart from the basic text of the
decomposed, but at the stage of microscopic size
Convention contains six annexes.
still retains its properties, and it is harmful become
more dangerous . In order that Annexes are:
• Annex I - Regulations on the Prevention of oil
pollution.
III. LEGAL REGULATION IN THE PROTECTIONS
OF THE SEA AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT • Appendix II. - The rules for pollution control of
liquid substances transported by tankers.
Control and monitoring of ships is important for • Annex III. - Regulations on the Prevention of
the prevention of marine pollution. MARPOL pollution by harmful substances in packaged
enables, and also allows improving the rules of form.
prevention of pollution itself.
• Annex IV. - Regulations on the Prevention of
MARPOL - Convention 1973./1978. (Eng. The Pollution from Ships faeces.
1973./1978. MARPOL Convention) • Annex V - Regulations on the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships waste.
Oil pollution is recognized as a major
environmental problem in the first half of the 20th • Annex VI. - Regulations on the Prevention of
century. Already at that time, many countries have Air Pollution from Ships, emissions of sulfur
begun to adopt national legislation in order to and nitrogen oxides.
control the transshipment of oil in its territorial
waters. Ship documents
However, the first convention in relation to the For easier control, the ships were forced to take
prevention of sea pollution by oil was made in 1954. notes. This makes it easier to locate the offender,
year. It established [3] the restricted zone which and tracking statistics to improve regulation.
went at least 50 nautical miles from the nearest coast,

Garbage Record Book rule on the disposal of waste at sea (Appendix 5 of

the Convention).
In accordance with Rule 9 of Annex V of the
International Convention on the Prevention of The Garbage Prevention Certificate
Pollution from Ships (1973) [6]. Protocol and 1978.
(MARPOL 73/78), any discharge or incineration of The certificate is issued in accordance with the
waste must be written in the book of Waste provisions of Annex V of MARPOL - Convention
(Garbage Record Book). The book must have each and contains a detailed description of the device for
ship with more than 400 BRT [7], and it issued by the treatment of waste, such as a description of the
Croatian Register of Shipping in Croatia. Waste is device, manufacturer name, a description of the
considered litter, all related to nutrition, life and collecting tank and settling tank waste. The validity
work of the board, except fresh fish and its remnants. of the certificate is five years; an owner and
Waste is not considered to be oil, hot water or equipment are subject to regular annual
noxious liquid substances; it is classified into five examinations.
categories [8]:
Regulations of the Croatian Register of Shipping
• Plastics,
Croatian Register of Shipping is responsible for
• Floating boards and packaging,
the control of ships registered in the register of ships
• Crushed paper products, rags, glass, metal, in Croatia. Their technical rules are consistent with
bottles, containers, etc., international rules for controlling and monitoring of
ships.
• Food waste,
• Ashes. General
The book is a must keep receipts and stored on
Appendix V. (Prevention of pollution by waste
the dedicated waste in ports. The receipt should
from ships) of the International Convention on
contain a list of persons or organizations that have
prevention of pollution of MARPOL 73/78, focused
accepted the waste, with a specified quantity and
reducing of pollution by waste generated by ships.
type. These certificates are kept with the book about
Waste includes all waste excluding fresh fish and
the waste of at least two years, so that at any time be
parts of the same (plastics, synthetic mesh, plastic
available for viewing to port authorities burning
bags, paper, rags, glass, metal, bottles, packaging,
plastic and nylon on the boat, the remains are not
etc.) [9]. The requirements of Annex V shall apply
allowed to spew ash into the sea, but it will be the
from 31th December 1988 to all ships (new and
first port of arrival to deliver appropriate services .
existing in the national and international waters).
Annex V is an optional part of the MARPOL
Garbage Plan
Convention applied only to countries which have
accepted it. All countries whose authorization has
Pursuant to Rule 9.2. Annex V of MARPOL -
CRS (Croatian Register of Shipping) have accepted
Convention, any ship larger than 400 gross tonnages
(or decided to implement requirements such as
must have a "plan for handling waste". The plan
Malta) Annex V, and the requirements apply to
includes procedures for collecting, storing and
ships under their flag. Annex V does not envisage
treating different types of waste. Detail the specific
compulsory examinations and issuing mandatory
person responsible for the proper implementation of
shipping documents. HRB at will and at the request
the plan. Waste is placed in containers should be
of shippers may review and issue the board and the
marked accordingly. Container for waste that is
appropriate certificates attesting to compliance with
disposed into the sea is prohibited, is colored red, it
the requirements of MARPOL 73/78 Annex V.
can be burned if you have a drive for burning -
HRB encourages shippers to seek certification of
otherwise, must be kept until the arrival in port,
ships confirming compliance with the provisions of
where he taught for a charge to port services. Waste
Annex V, and thus reduces the possibility of
is committed to be issued appropriate certificates.
unpleasant surprises during inspections by port
Black color indicates the tank waste that is allowed
authorities. Amendments to Annex V of MARPOL
to be disposed at a distance from the coast more
73/78 Convention, adopted Resolution MEPC 65
than 25 miles, while that which can be disposed at a
(37), requires the following:
distance of 12 miles and more, indicates the green.
White marks are intended for waste incineration in 1. In all ships 12 m in length and over shall at
the ship's incinerator waste. The ship's kitchen, appropriate locations to be placed posters
lounges and crew decks must have stickers printed with instructions for disposal of waste;
in the language of the crew and English, pursuant to

2. All ships of gross tonnage> 400 and ships ships on international voyages or 30 USD to ship
authorized to carry 15 or more persons must restricted navigation areas 5-8.
have a Garbage Management Plan.
Applying the rules of the Croatian Register on
3. All ships of gross tonnage> 400 and ships
ships:
authorized to carry 15 or more persons in
international voyage must have Garbage
All ships of gross tonnage> 400 as well as boats
Record Book Ships certified to carry 15 or
that are licensed to carry 15 or more persons must
more persons may be exempted from the
have a plan for handling waste.
requirement if the journey time is less than
an hour.
Garbage Record Book
Posters
The Book of waste, according to the model PCH-
Posters must be made of durable materials, the 055 for ships of the Croatian flag, or PCA -055 for
minimum dimensions of 200 x 125 mm and placed ships of other flags that CRS is authorized to issue
in a prominent place on the bridge, dining area and safety certificates to be completed in the official
on the exposed deck of a passenger ship and the language of the country whose flag the ship, and in
places of gathering a large number of passengers in addition to English or French. The book fills a
the interior of the boat and on an exposed deck. responsible person on board (according to the plan
Application: for handling), and the master shall initial each
completed page. Once the book is filled with must
1) Vessels on international voyages
be kept on board for at least another two years [11].
Ships flying the Croatian flag must HAVE Application:
bilingual posters with the text according to the
1. The Book of waste must be on all ships of
model in Annex 1 Ships of other flags that CRS is
gross tonnage> 400 and ships authorized to
authorized to issue certificates of safety can have
carry 15 or more people who sail in
posters with the text of the aforementioned form.
international waters.
2) Vessels restricted navigation areas 5-8
2. The Book of waste must be on all ships of
Since the requirements of Annex V of MARPOL gross tonnage> 400 and ships authorized to
73/78 prohibits the dumping of any wastes in the carry 15 persons or more in the navigation
Adriatic Sea within 12 nautical miles from the area 5-8. from 1st July 2000.
nearest land, requires as follows: Note: The Book of waste for ships on international
a) Passenger ships - In areas designated for the voyages may be obtained from the CRS regional offices
accommodation of passengers and on exposed decks or ordered at the Main Office at a cost of 20 USD in
shall be placed a poster with the text [10]. Kunas; Book of waste for the restricted area of navigation,
ships can be purchased at the regional offices of CRS or
b) Other ships (cargo ships, fishing ships, order in the Supreme office at a cost of 10 USD in Kuna.
including fixed and mobile offshore units) should at
least in the dining room crew to set up a poster with
the text. IV. DEVELOPMENT OF WASTE INCENERATION
Note: HRB at the request of the shipper for any ship
to which the statutory certificates issued free to submit Development of technology of waste disposal on
the appropriate posters. land also is developing of technologies and methods
of waste management on ships. The adoption of the
Garbage Management Plan new rules and laws that develop aimed at protecting
the environment, while at the same time complying
Plan for handling the waste must contain the with the conditions of carriage.
prescribed procedures for collecting, storing,
processing and disposal of waste into the sea and the Waste Regulations
name of the responsible person on board to conduct
the same. The plan must be made in the working According to the rules of the legislation
language of the crew to the template specified in mentioned in the chapter on protecting the marine
MEPC / Circ. 317. Although it does not require that environment must be disposed of waste on ships. Of
the plan is approved, the HRB has been prepared at course, the dynamic progress of life during the
the request of the ship-owner to make the same twentieth century came to a different phenomenon
approval for a fee of $ 100 in money equivalent to of waste on ships and thus to the constant
improvement of methods for the disposal of waste

on ships in the manner of storage of waste and in the countries, particularly those exposed to more
manner of waste incineration in incinerators. pronounced and shipping emissions, which are
The basic legal act of the MARPOL that are closer to the marine waterways.
governed by state within the International Maritime
Organization. Each state, through its registry and
standardized norms with national legislation.
(Lloyd's in the UK, American Bureau of Shipping in
the U.S., including the Croatian Register of
Shipping in the Republic of Croatia). Regulations to
implement the legal and administrative level within
the country and certain governments, and port-level
inspection of the relevant ministries and port
authorities.
New generation of incenerators
New generation of incenerators EVAC are

designed to burn solid waste, waste oil, according to
IMO standards. In this device the waste will be fed
manually, and thus goes into a powerful food
processor wastes. Compacted waste still goes into
the repository of the device, which has a sensor
waste, the detector temperature and the junction
with fire extinguishers. Gravity from the tank waste
going to the burner and sliding surfaces are
hydraulically operated. In the incenerator burning is
in two phases. In the first stage of decomposition of
waste is achieved by partial pyrolysis. Complete Figure 1. EVAC incenerator
removal of gases and waste residues occurs in the
second phase, incenerator temperature is Figure 2.
approximately 850 ° C to ensure destruction of all
debris and gases. The device is equipped with a Legal aspects of marine pollution exhaust gases
water injection in order to increase the amount of
waste that can be processed, and to reduce oil Air pollution only in recent times began
consumption. The devices are equipped with international legal regulation. Until that
automatic control of the gases emitted, and control contamination can occur in different ways. Whether
the first and second phases of waste incineration. it is harmful substances resulting from the land
The system is designed for continuous use, with transferred by wind into the sea, whether pollution
automatic ash removal. Ash is discharged into the resulting directly from the air. Cause can be at sea
reservoir which is subsequently stored on board activities such as waste incineration and
until the disposal of the land. transmission of harmful substances from ships into
the air. The air is increasingly polluting the
development of industry and energy use for different
purposes, which comes to global warming.
V. POLLUTION OF THE SEA AIR BY EMISSION
GAS
Pollution from the air is mainly regulated by
international and regional treaties relating to land-
Manufacturers of marine diesel engines and based pollution from ships and agreements to
scientists explore a multitude of techniques that the control emissions of harmful substances into the
basic goal of reducing diesel emissions in practical atmosphere.
terms, as one of the segments of global pollution. In this context we should mention the
The reason for intensifying the need for a solution to Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air
this problem is the growing increase in air pollution Pollution at large distances (Convention on Long-
emissions of ships, and because the show is Range Transboundary Air Pollution - LRTAP), in
stationary manufacturers significantly reduced the which provisions were made to limit or reduce and
adoption of various environmental laws. prevent air pollution in general, and therefore it
This issue became the primary, so join the must be indirectly polluting and more.
international and national regulations in individual

The Convention was adopted under the auspices Due to the control and impact on climate change
of the Economic Commission for Europe Economic by reducing emissions of hazardous substances into
and Social Council of the UN. It is general the air, was taken in Rio de Janeiro 1992 and The
obligations of States and will be further developed UN Convention on Climate Change. In its
protocols to the Convention adopted. So far, have application the state are obliged to cooperate in
been adopted: developing national and regional programs of
measures to mitigate climate change control
1. Protocol relating to long-term financing
emissions of gases that contribute to global
Cooperative Program for Monitoring and
temperature increase, are not covered by the
Assessment Long-range transmission of air
Montreal Protocol. Along with the Convention and
pollutants in Europe (EMEP),
Protocol was adopted in Kyoto 1997. According to
2. Protocol on reducing emissions of sulfur [12], some opinions, the application of the Protocol, too
Protocol on Heavy Metals late, because with the measures will be sufficient
given that the earth has more signs of global
3. The Protocol on persistent organic pollutants,
warming. However, the entry into force of the
4. Protocol to Abate Acidification, Protocol, it is considered, the gases that cause the
Eutrophication II ground-level ozone greenhouse effect will be reduced by 60%, which
would stabilize the global climate.
5. Protocol on the Control of Emissions of
nitrogen oxides or their transboundary fluxes, After Russia's ratification of the Protocol and its
entry into force, all the industrial countries to the
As a party to the Convention on Long Range
agreement until 2012. The reduced amounts of gases
Transboundary Air Pollution and the Protocol on
that cause the greenhouse effect - 5% below 1990
Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions, Croatia is
levels. According to some statistics, the share of
participating in international programs for
Russia in the emission of these gases is 17%. On the
calculating and mapping critical loads (ICP
other hand, the fact that the Protocol is not signed by
Mapping & Modeling of Critical Load and Levels
the United States, and participates in air pollution
and Air Pollution Effects, Risks and Trends - ICP
with 36% of all emissions. China or other
Modeling & Mapping).
developing countries, is not required to reduce
Protection of the ozone layer and reducing emissions even though it ratified the Kyoto Protocol.
harmful emissions into the air apart from the All these facts considerably reduce its effectiveness.
aforementioned Convention and the Protocol deals However, only the entry into force is still a big step
with the Vienna Convention on the Protection of the forward in an effort to reduce harmful emissions.
Ozone Layer and, with her adopted, the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Convention to be directly involved in
Layer. marinepollution from the air
Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol are
Besides the conventions of a general character
important international instruments for protection of
related to air pollution, and so indirectly, and has air
the ecosystem of the entire Earth, including the seas
pollution from the air is particularly concerned with
and oceans. In fact, the past decade there has been a
the Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982. year,
large increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide,
and its Section 212. In doing so, states are
methane, nitrogen oxide and halogenated
authorized to bring national regulations to prevent,
compounds, which resulted in a damaged ozone
reduce and control pollution from the air or
layer, this leads to changes in climate and to global
indirectly through the air.
warming. It is estimated that carbon dioxide is the
most important cause of warming, and even While the legislation states must take account of
accounts for 64% of all emissions, then with 20% internationally recognized norms and standards and
methane, nitrous oxide by 6% and halogenated recommended practices. They are committed to
compounds with 10%. Not if they can control the apply national legislation and international rules on
emissions of these substances, there would be a prevention of air pollution in areas under their
further increase in temperature on Earth, which sovereignty, to ships flying their flag on the aircraft
would become the man's survival doubtful. In this registry in their area while respecting the rules of air
respect the Vienna Convention obliges States to navigation. With regard to the adoption of general
protect the environment and human health from and regional rules, the Convention states that
harmful effects which may arise due to ozone suggests the rules are established through competent
depletion, and so to reduce and gradually stop the international organizations or diplomatic conference.
production of harmful substances.

Emission control ship emissions - well as legislation, are working intensively on the
implementation of Annex VI. MARPOL Convention creation of new knowledge essential for the
selection of propulsion systems and fuels, and to
When talking about air pollution from ships, adapt those existing requirements for safety and
primarily refers to emissions from ships where the environmental protection.
main propulsion system of a diesel engine. Slow-
movement form the basis of diesel engines drive the
majority of large commercial ships (tankers, bulk VI. CONCLUSION
carrier ...). In order to achieve maximum efficiency
of marine diesel engines, it shortens the time of fuel Today we can say that control of waste on ships
combustion in the cylinder, so the engines with a is one of the important factors in preventing
long merge by increasing the compression ratio. environmental pollution. The same can be said
This leads to fuel combustion in the cylinder at about the fact that the marine industry is one of a
higher temperatures, which cause the appearance of growing industry, and a large number of ships that
emissions. sail the seas of the world. Also, control and
Sulfur is an ingredient in low-speed diesel fuel manipulation of waste by ships is very important in
engines, increase fuel quality, i.e. the reduction of the fact that the waste occupies space ship, thus
sulfur content in fuel, costly production and thus reducing the payload of the ship. Today's methods
increases the price. Diesel engines and gas turbines, are managed much of the waste, while the other part
using higher quality fuels, thus reducing pollution, such as the plastic waste problem. The proposed
but they also have a lower degree of efficiency. method can solve part of the plastic waste.
Desulfurization fuel on board, or „clean― exhaust It is very important and legal support that allows
gases after combustion fuels are more expensive, the very control of ships, and punishes those who do
requires additional storage and handling of residual not respect the rules. Today, MARPOL Convention
products. Such limitation of high efficiency and provides very rigorous rules governing itself
increased environmental demands open, however, prevention and punishment of those who do not
need to develop new propulsion systems. Passenger respect the rules. Further modernization and
and ro-ro ships today because they have friendly implementation of the rules will protect the world's
electric drive, has been intensively working on more than pollution and allow shippers greater
developing a new generation of gas turbines, and efficiency of its own fleet.
combined operating systems are no longer the
exception.
At the same time major manufacturers of diesel REFERENCES
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Climate friendly transport by using synchronized

multimodal transport systems
The case of the Aegean Islands
Dr. Julia Th. Costaki
Architect – Town Planner,
Department of Spatial planing and Airport master-planing
Hellenic Civil Aviation Authority, Athens, Greece
jfcostaki@hotmail.com
Abstract— The scope of this paper is to present, transport networks. In island regions transport is
analyse and evaluate the advantages of intergrated and mainly based on ports and airports. Their location is
synchronized multimode transport systems. These systems thus very important for the island and the well being
are needed in order to reach long distance destinations of its inhabitants. Because of their location the
or regions with geophysical peculiarities that cannot be
easily accessed by road. It examines - as a good example
transportation cost is significantly higher than that in
- the case of Aegean islands in Greece. This specific the mainland (road and rail transport).
region of Greece suffers from many typical disadvantages
of insularity and the accessibility of the inhabitants to
services, work, health, infrastructures and recreation is
not sufficiently served. II. THE GREEK CONTEXT
Keywords— transport; port; regional airport;
combined transport; islands; insularity Greece has more than 1300 islands and islets.
About 227 of them are inhabited and the majority of
them is located in the Aegean Archipelagos. They all
have very good climate, nice physical surroundings
I. INTRODUCTION and fascinating seashores and thus they are
considered as excellent tourist destinations. Their
It is accepted nowadays that societies need to demographic data is presented in table 1 (below),
manage their lives and organize their activities in a categorized in six groups:
way that will ensure and protect the heritage of the
next generations. Pollution caused by the transport of  North Aegean (departments of Lesbos, Chios
products and passengers is recognised as a major and Samos -11 islands)
contributor to CO2 emissions. Reduction of pollution
during transportation is very important and can save
energy and resources in multiple ways. The two most  South Aegean (dep. of Dodekanese and
important ways to achieve this are: Cyclades – 49 islands)
 By a new generation of vehicles with less CO2  Ionian Islands (dep. of Corfou, Zante,
emissions Cefalonia and Lefkada – 13 islands)
 Through involving intelligent and synchronized
multimode transport systems and separating  Islands close to the mainland (islands of
major routes from secondary ones with less medium and small size attached to dep. of
demand. Pireas, Kavala, Evros, Chalkidiki and
A combination of the above two approaches may Magnesia)
lead to the best solution. The purpose of this paper is
to examine the second one as a part of spatial, urban  Evia (2 islands)
and transportation planning.
 Crete (3 islands)
As far as spatial planning is concerned, transport
systems are planned and located in order to serve In Aegean Sea islands vary in size, population
people and their activities. Transport facilitates the and gross income in many ways (Figure 1):
dispersion of goods and ideas. The development of
today’s societies is depended on well-organized

TABELE I. Transportation in the extended island region of

No region 1991 2001 Perc Greece and especially in the Aegean Archipelagos
inhabitants inhabitants entage has always been problematic. From the old times the
change inhabitants owned boats or larger transport vessels
and the majority of them lived of the sea (fishermen,
1. North 199.11 204.15 2,5 mariners, merchants, etc.). Nowadays tourism is
Aegean 1 8 % their major activity and societies depend a lot on
wide body ferries, high-speed ships and aircrafts.
2. South 257.48 301.74 17,2 The location of ports and airports has thus become
Aegean 1 5 % very important for the distribution of goods and the
3. Ionian 193.64 214.27 10,6 well being of inhabitants. Almost all of the islands
Islands 2 4 % have a port (sometimes we find 2 or 3 in the larger
ones) but very few have an airport able to handle
4. Island 81.903 88.605 8,2 airplanes coming from Europe. Of course quite all
s close to % of them have a simple road network for local use,
the which connects the villages with the port. Maritime
mainland routes for the groups of Cyclades and Dodecanese
are departing from Pireas (the major port of Greece,
5. Crete 539.30 601.15 11,5 close to Athens) and follow the schedule of the next
4 9 %
table:
6. Evia 208.40 217.27 4,3
8 8 %
Total 1.479.8 1.627.2 10%

49 19
TOTAL 10.252. 10.939. 6,7

OF 580 605 %
GREECE
Source: National Statistical Service, 2002
Figure 2. .
It is obvious that some islands have very good

frequent connections from/to the capital, while
others don’t at all and depend on local transportation
to another close-by island that does. In addition to
that, the wide body ferries that are needed to carry
passengers, goods and cars during the summer
period, travel quite empty in the wintertime,
consuming the same amount of energy.
Figure 1. .

The majority of Greek regional airports were synchronize with each other for a better distribution
developed mostly after the 2nd world war. About 10 and coordination of movements.
or 12 of them retained the location they had during
All Greek regional airports and ports were
the war and continued to operate as military airports
financed by the state and they continue to operate
at the beginning of the post-war period. Their
under public authority until today. The real problem
position was close to major cities and civil aviation
derives from the fact that these various means of
used them for its own operations mostly because of
transport are being organized by different authorities
economic reasons. Later on, some exclusively civil
and regulated by different Ministries. It is obvious
airports were founded mainly in tourist destinations.
that these traditional transportation systems are no
At the end of the 20th century Greece had more than
longer sufficient and cannot cover the demand for
40 regional airports. About half of them are located
the future development of the whole region.
in the islands. This number is rather big for the size
of the country and its population, but has to be
viewed as acceptable taking under account the vast
Greek island area, which is not identical to any other III. DISADVANTAGESOF THE EXISTING SYSTEM
European region. On the other hand some Greek
regions still lack ease of access to transport services
Historical circumstances affected the structure of
and urgently demand a solution to their problem that
the network. The lack of national spatial planning
can no longer be ignored.
and the inapplicability of long-term goals enabled
The next picture shows a typical air connection of the prevailing of different parameters in every
the Aegean islands (year 1990): historic sub period and the formation of a rather
unequal spatial distribution of regional airports, in
the island area of Greece. It is assumed that the
transport interconnection of the Greek regions –
especially the remote ones - is a more complicate
problem than it appears to be and demands a
different kind of approach.
The real problem comes from the fact that
passenger and freight flows decrease very
significantly in winter due to the absence of tourism.
Large ferries tend to decrease their routes during
wintertime and the inhabitants are isolated, since
there are no smaller ones to replace them. Bad
weather conditions play their role too.
Additional local airports that were founded in
several small islands didn’t bring the expected
results to the interconnection and facilitation of
transportation, nor did they contribute to ensuring
equal access of the population to services,
infrastructures, work, knowledge and recreation.
IV. ORGANIZING AN INTEGRADED TRANSPORT

SYSTEM
Figure 3. .
Air and maritime routes could be scheduled in an
intergraded way involving both air, maritime, rail
The Greek national air-carrier organized at that and road transport means, in order to make them
time a domestic hub-and-spoke flight system, from supplement each other and serve the entire region.
Athens to the regions, which was compatible with its The basic principles are:
own profitability but not with the demand of the
region. Local airports were built in restricted I. Select (or develop) specific airports, able to
dimensions in order to serve one or two types of accept national and international flights.
light aircrafts. The spoke flights from Athens These airports must be located close to
operated independent of the sea transport routes from major ports and if possible connected by rail
the Athenian port of Pireas and could not with them.

II. Define one government body (authority or

Ministry) responsible for the whole process.
This authority will determine routes and
interconnections.
III. Enable and facilitate transport mode change
with no additional cost.
IV. Create port facilities and introduce
hydroplanes services, where possible
A potential scenario could be similar to the “hub-

and-spoke” system of commercial aviation, with
large ferries and aircrafts carrying people and goods
to selected interchange points or “transportation
hubs”, from where they could be distributed to every Figure 4. .
other close-by island (mostly through a round trip to
a group of them).
Another case to be examined is that of the well-
known island of Santorini, which already has an
international airport with a more than 2000m. long
V. THE ADVANTAGES OF AN INTEGRATED runway, but no sufficient port facilities nearby.
TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANF THE ROLE OF THE Aircrafts from all over Europe arrive to Santorini not
GOVERMENT only during the summer period, but in wintertime as
well, because of its mild climate. If the existing port
An intergraded transport system, like the one was enlarged and a rail connection with the airport
described above, is more flexible and is able to serve was installed, this island could also serve as a hub
better both summer and winter demand: for its region, as table 6 shows:
I. Wide body ferries will execute shorter routes,
which they can increase or decrease
according to the demand with less severe
consequences for the region.
II. Aircraft movements will be directed to
specific airports with good and frequent
connections to other islands.
III. Passengers and products arriving to “hubs”
will have a variety of choices as far as their
final destination is concerned.
IV. Investors or companies with smaller vessels
or hydroplanes will find a good field to
develop their activities.
V. Local economies will be able to sustain year
round services instead of seasonal, tourist Figure 5. .
based ones
Central and Local Government can play an

A closer look to Cyclades one of the most important role in enforcing the use of multimode
problematic island complexes of the Aegean sea, transport systems and fund innovations that
will explain better the above-proposed model. West contribute in less energy consumption.
Cyclades for example, could develop a transportation
hub at Milos, where the existing airport is very close a. Local government
to the port and a rail connection can easily be
constructed. The airport runway could be expanded
 Provide technical advice, free of charge
to 2000 meters and the wide and deep bay will have
enough room for boats and hydroplanes (table 5)
 Grants for best practices

 Volunteer for pilot projects REFERENCES
 Controls on interconnections and routes ENGLISH
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 Accessibility to information Planning in Democratic Countries, Liverpool
University Press, Liverpool
b. State [2] AMBROSE, M. (1988) Regional air transport : an
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493
[3] ASHFORD N., STANTON M., MOORE C., (1997)
 Economic benefits, e.g. taxation Airport Operation, 2nd edition, Mc Graw - Hill, New
incentives York, U.S.A.
[4] CAMPBELL, T.L. (1981) Impact of airline
deregulation on small airports, Survey Business
 Specific legislation (Univ. Tenn.) 17, pp. 22 -27.
[5] European Commission (1997) The EU compendium
of spatial planning systems and policies: GREECE.
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 Social benefits and rewards [6] GLASSON, J. – MARSHALL, T. (2007 ) Regional
planning, Routledge, New York
[7] HALL P. (2002) Urban and Regional Planning 4ht
 Unification of competent authorities Ed. Routledge, New York
[8] HEALEY P., A. Khakee, A. Motte, B. Needham
(eds) (2003) Making Strategic Spatial Plans.
Routledge, London
[9] NEUFVILLE, R. D. – ODONI, A., (2003), Airport
VI. CONCLUSIONS systems, Mc Graw Hill, New York, USA
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newspapers, are interested in developing new
villages - mostly for holidays - in different parts of [10] ΒΑ΢ΔΝΥΟΒΔΝ, Λ. (2002) Η δημοκπαηικόηηηα ηος
ζσεδιαζμού ηος σώπος και η αμθιζβήηηζη ηος
Greece, especially in the islands. According to οπθολογικού "μονηέλος", ζηο Αμσώπορ, 3-6-200.
research in real estate there are 10 million European [11] ΒΑ΢ΔΝΥΟΒΔΝ, Λ. (2008) Δθνικόρ σωποηαξικόρ
citizens wishing to have 'a house in the ζσεδιαζμόρ: πεπιεσόμενο, διαδικαζία, ζσέδια και
ππογπάμμαηα, ζηο Νόμορ & Φύζη, Φεβποςάπιορ
Mediterranean'. Greece could have 10% of this 2008
market while Spain and Portugal will get a great [12] ΒΑ΢ΙΛΟΠΟΤΛΟ΢ Γ. – ΜΠΙΛΑ Α. (1995),
percentage as well. Πεπιθεπειακέρ ανιζόηηηερ & πολιηικέρ
πεπιθεπειακήρ ανάπηςξηρ ζηην Δλλάδα 1971-1991",
Ι.Π.Α., Αθήνα.
[13] ΜΑΝΧΛΟΓΛΟΤ Δ. & Σ΢ΆΡΣΑ΢ Π., (1998), Ο
The danger for the physical environment is more ηοςπιζμόρ ωρ παπάγων κοινωνικήρ αλλαγήρ,
than evident. Spatial planning and well-driven Δξάνηαρ - Δ.Κ.Κ.Δ., Αθήνα.
transportation routes could prevent inappropriate [14] ΟΙΚΟΝΟΜΟΤ Γ. (2008) Σα ζςζηήμαηα
σωποηαξικού ζσεδιαζμού ζηο διεθνή σώπο, ζηο
new developments. Maybe this is a good timing for Γοζποδίνη Α. (επιμ.) Γιάλογοι για ηο ζσεδιαζμό ηος
the Greek government to introduce an innovative and σώπος και ηην ανάπηςξη. Δκδόζειρ Κπιηική, Αθήνα
intelligent model of synchronized multimodal [15] ΠΡΑΚΣΙΚΑ ΓΙΔΘΝΟΤ΢ ΢ΤΝΔΓΡΙΟΤ (2001),
Αεπομεηαθοπέρ και αεποδπόμια: εξελίξειρ ζηον 21ο
transport system to serve the existing built Αιώνα", Πάηπα.
environment through α social, economic, [16] ΦΑΡΑΚΗ – ΚΑΛΟΤΠΣ΢ΙΓΗ, Β. (1998) Η
environmental and cultural benefits led approach. ππόζβαζη ζηα αεποδπόμια, ζηα ππακηικά διεθνούρ
ζςνεδπίος, Αεπομεηαθοπέρ και Αεποδπόμια,
΢ύλλογορ Δλλήνων ΢ςγκοινωνιολόγων, Αθήνα.

Exploring The Youth Environmental Attitudes

And Intentions To Travel Behaviour Change
Prof. Dr Svetlana Čičević, Mr. Marjana Čubranić-Dobrodolac
Laboratory for Traffic Psychology and Ergonomics
Belgrade, Serbia
s.cicevic@sf.bg.ac.rs
marjana@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— During the past few decades, rising obviously moving fast towards more sustainability in
interest about environmental problems has led to areas of energy management and transportation sector.
international scientific debate. There is a growing
necessity to increase the levels of concern about the Keywords— climate change; attitudes; behavior
climate change including the contribution of transport,
and the extent of its potential to influence travel behavior.
The purpose of this pilot study was to explore young
I. INTRODUCTION
individual’s beliefs regarding climate change, and to use
the data to understand peoples’ behavior regarding car
use. Participants completed a questionnaire assessing Human society around the world currently faces
demographic information, self-reports of behavior, and increasing global, regional and local environmental
items measuring Environmental Attitudes. According to problems. Industrial growth has brought great
the results, understanding of the causes of climate change prosperity, but has also brought environmental
was somewhat limited and confused. The majority of pollution and disruption. These problems present
students believed that human beings have the right to
change and alter nature in order to satisfy their needs. industrial civilization with a new dilemma- how
Subjects were against of use non-renewable natural should we balance economic growth and
resources. Over 84 % of the population showed strong environmental protection? The solutions to this
trust that science and technology will solve problems with dilemma involve not only technical invention, but
pollution and diminishing resources. With the opinion also issues of governance and implementation in
that the positive benefits of economic growth far complex societies. During the past few decades,
outweigh any negative consequences strongly disagreed rising concern about environmental problems has
the majority (73%) of subjects. Also, the majority of led to intensified international scientific debate
students agreed for giving full support to people and about environmental issues. The international
organizations that are campaigning to preserve nature
community has recognized that natural resources are
from being used or altered by human activity. On the
other hand, 30% disagreed for their willingness to join being used up at a faster pace than they can be
and actively participate in environmentalist groups, until restored, that the Earth’s resources are not limitless,
over 50% agreed. Surprisingly, the majority of student and that ecosystem preservation is closely related to
population did not favored the (24% strongly disagreed, the preservation of the human species. Hence, the
20% disagreed, somewhat disagreed 10% and 13% were themes of crucial importance emerge, as knowledge
neutral) need to decrease the use of the motor car as a about the causes of climate change, including the
major means of transportation. On the other hand, they contribution of transport; about the consequences of
very often (33%) or often (40%) conserved gasoline by climate change and views on the potential for
walking or bicycling, while a further 17% indicated that behavioral change to reduce the impacts; reducing
they sometimes do that, and never, only 3%. The activity transport emissions and the extent to which concern
that was most commonly mentioned as performed during
last year was recycling and reusing things and engaging about climate change has the potential to influence
in encouraging friends or family to recycle. But, they travel behavior.
were not ready to try to persuade others that the We have very little true understanding of how
environmental protection is important. From this fact, people deal with the complexities of the science of
obviously, there is a need to understand the role of
information in improving public awareness.
climate change, or how they might deal with it
Communicating the contribution of personal transport under different information environments. Public
decisions is key. In this respect, information and awareness through educational programs is very
educational campaigns deserves attention as means to important and essential step toward sustainable
change people’s behavior. Fortunately, the social norm is developments [1,2]. If development of
environmental awareness among the public is a key

element in the formation of fundamental solutions that personal norms are significant to public
for environmental problems that are blocking transport use. They found that the influence of
sustainability, then people are in direct need of personal norms was mediated via intentions, and
environmental education for development of this that relevant personal norms are formed from social
awareness. It is important for all countries around norms and guilt. Climate change issues were
the world to look to the future and plan education investigating as the values proved to be highly
and training programs to address the challenges of significant predictors for policy preferences
environmental problems their citizens will be regarding climate change [18]. Using the TPB it
encountering in the coming decades. could be shown that intentions to use public
transport as means of climate-friendliness can be
There are a number of studies on specific
explained.
environmental actions, for example, recycling,
reduction of garbage, energy saving and traffic [3- The concept of relapse was introduced to the
7]. theory by [19] having established that during the
process of behavior change, individuals can at any
A. Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) stage move back to the previous phase, or back
Reference [8] emphasizes that driving forces of more than one step. Similarly, when they progress
human behavior in the environmental domain are again, they may skip a stage. The concept of relapse
manifold and that they interact concluding that it is is important in the context of travel behavior
important to investigate and to analyze the change, since reducing car use (the key means of
relationships between them. In developing reducing travel related carbon emissions for many
sustainable solutions to climate change, enabling individuals) is challenging for most car drivers.
long-term changes in individual attitudes and Likewise, the Government’s Transport Strategy
lifestyles is crucial. The climate change issue is cannot depend only on improving travel conditions
rather complex as mitigation and adaptation and opportunities. Rather, more fundamental
behavior extends beyond adopting new technologies behavioral changes are required which alter people’s
and that there is a complex interplay between aspirations, motivations and ultimately their travel
perceptions, behavior, and communication [9]. To and lifestyle choices.
consider both, to be theory-driven and to cover the
complexity in a comprehensive way we could apply Therefore, factors influencing individual
the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The TPB behavior, beyond market mechanisms, are important
developed by [10] states that behavior is the and a focus on individual behavior in scientific
combined result of intentions and perceived research is needed, in particular to identify factors
behavioral control (PBC). In [11] the ability of that determine climate-friendly behavior and to
attitudes to predict intentions and overt behavior derive measures to change behavior. For example, it
was reviewed; according to the TPB, people act in has been suggested that uncertainty about the extent
accordance with their intentions, while intentions in of the impacts of climate change, the timescales
turn are influenced by attitudes toward the behavior. over which they might occur and the location of the
PBC is the perceived ease or difficulty of carrying worst impacts, may mean that environmental
out a behavior successfully; it is assumed to reflect concerns alone are unlikely to motivate actual
past experience as well as anticipated practical behavior change [20]. In [21] the strong links
impediments and obstacles. An example is between lifestyle and travel behavior that may
perceived ease or difficulty of reducing car use. The further limit the likelihood of travel behavior change
TPB also sets out the basis for the formation of in particular, were also highlighted. It was
intentions, stating that they are formed from the concluded that a deeper understanding of the role of
combined effects of attitudes towards behavior, individual and societal motivations and barriers to
subjective norms, and further influence from PBC. reducing car use needs to be established for a range
Subjective norms are an individual’s perception of of travel behaviors [22]. It further identifies
social pressure from significant others to perform limitations with traditional approaches to
(or not) a specific behavior (e.g. to travel by car). segmentation such as age or income, for example,
Past uses of the TPB have looked at walking or which do not consider the motivation for change of
cycling as an alternative to driving [12, 13]. any segment. It suggests that different types of
travelers will be inhibited from changing their travel
Not only is there some experience with using the patterns by different barriers. Even individuals with
TPB in transport studies considering mode choice positive attitudes may show much reluctance to
[12, 14]), there is also a proven history of adding behave in a climate-friendly way. Resistance to
variables to the TPB when the research questions change is also a well-known barrier to any project
require this [12, 15, 16]. As in [17] also concluded aiming at bringing some kind of innovation. The

greenhouse gas emissions inventories carried out in information and educational campaigns, are not
universities always show that transportation is one sufficient to change people’s behavior [24].
of the biggest sources of emissions, mainly through
commuting, but also through professional travel. C. Environmental education
Significant emissions reductions are therefore Understanding the side effects of industrial
attainable only if all members of society change development on public health, green areas, water
their transportation habits. resources, and other important socio-economic
aspects of life is important for both individuals and
B. Environmental attitudes (EA) communities. The public needs to perform in a
Environmental attitudes (EA) are fundamentally certain way to protect the environment. Research on
important, widely discussed, frequently measured, students’ environmental perceptions becomes vital if
and poorly understood. EA are psychological it is necessary to develop citizens who can take
tendencies that is expressed by evaluating responsibility to protect and improve the
perceptions of, or beliefs regarding the natural environment. Amongst these various categories, the
environment, including factors affecting its quality, shaping of environmental attitudes, such as
with some degree of favor or disfavor. environmental sensitivity, knowledge of ecology, in-
depth knowledge of environmental issues and
Many reasons underlie a denial attitude towards
attitudes toward pollution, technology and
climate change. The actions required to fight against
economics are some of the key variables in
climate change are frequently perceived as a threat
predicting environmentally responsible behavior. On
to the current way of life of people in industrialized
the other hand, people have realized through
countries. Furthermore, some individuals feel
personal experience the need for educational
powerless, overwhelmed, in the face of such a
programs on environmental protection, which
planetary problem and think it is impossible to fix it,
facilitate and enhance decision-making, choice of
at least through their own action. Some people
action, and attitude development to increase an
perceive their individual responsibility, as very low
environmental friendly way of life in any society
and wonder how their individual action could make
[25]. Environmental education can be a tool for
a difference, when their peers behave similarly and
fostering environmental beliefs to instill sensible
inaction is the current implicit standard among their
attitudes and practices toward nature and its
reference group. The fact that climate change is a
resources. National strategies should encourage
highly complex phenomenon, almost abstract for
regional collaboration for environment protection,
lots of people, and comprises uncertainties about its
resource conservation, and recognition of the
future impacts in terms of exact location, timing,
concept of worldwide interdependence.
magnitude, intensity, etc. This fact also contributes
to the denial process: people tend to act more to Universities’ mission is to educate students, who
fight against tangible, local, short-term risks, rather are future consuming adults, hence the adoption of a
than against global, long-term risks blurred in an low-carbon behavior by the young generations may
array of unclear climate change patterns. entail a significant spillover effect to the next
generations. Finally, universities are both
The hypothesis of a pro-social behavior as a
experimental territories and showcases: they must
driver of individual climate mitigation action may
be frontrunners to show other communities that
deserve attention from economists. A pro-social
adopting a low-carbon behavior is actually feasible.
behavior may be defined as a voluntary, intentional
The question then is: how to get people adopt a low-
behavior that aims to help the others. The pro-social
carbon behavior at the university. A climate-friendly
preferences hypothesis refers to individuals who
initiative is a social innovation in the sense that it
express their preferences as a function of the well-
aims at structuring university activities and
being of others in some situations. Altruism, internal
university members’ work along a new additional
reward, or inequality aversion may be the drivers of
social purpose that needs to be integrated into the
such a behavior. Importance of social norms, social
existing missions of the universities.
support, and social network as drivers of individual
actions are pointed out, although these factors are
often underestimated by people [23]. For example,
lots of people will turn to an energy-saving behavior II. ACTUAL STUDY
if energy management becomes the social norm, or
if it is a social concern shared by their community,
Bearing the above mentioned in mind, the aim
or if the social network to which they belong
this paper was to identify college students' attitudes
identifies this behavior as standard. In this respect,
towards climate change in relation to transport, and
to consider options that could change positive

attitudes into actual travel choices, i.e. low-carbon III. RESULTS

behaviors.
1) Method Given that the survey contained a hugh number
of items, only answers to the most interesting issues
Participants. The purpose of this pilot study was that are closely related to the topic of this paper, will
to explore young individual’s beliefs regarding be presented. According to the results,
climate change, and to use the data to understand understanding of the causes of climate change was
peoples’ intentions and behavior regarding car use somewhat limited and confused. Regarding the
in the context of climate change. The sample question that humans are running out of their supply
consisted of 30 college students (57% females and of oil, 31% of the students were unsure, while 13%
43% males; with the mean age 21.68 years). strongly agreed and 22% agreed to some extent
Participants completed a survey with questions (Fig.1).
assessing demographic information (e.g., age,
gender, ethnic affiliation), self-reports of behavior,
and items measuring EA. The opinions survey
included questions to assess levels of public
awareness about the causes of climate change,
including the role of transport, and to identify to
what extent students believe climate change will
impact upon themselves and others. Respondents
were asked about the impact that different groups
could potentially have on reducing the impacts of
climate change and their views on their own
personal contributions.
Instrument. Attitudes are a latent construct and as
such cannot be observed directly but have to be
inferred from overt responses. Three-component
model assumes that attitudes have cognitive,
affective, and behavioral components. Recent Figure 1. ―It bothers me that humans are running out
research [26] have shown that the horizontal of their supply of oil‖.
structure of EA is comprised by at least twelve core
dimensions. These dimensions are: Enjoyment of
Nature; Support for Interventionist Conservation Over 84 % of the population showed strong trust
Policies; Environmental Movement Activism; that science and technology will solve problems
Conservation Motivated by Anthropocentric with pollution and diminishing resources (Fig.2).
Concern; Confidence in Science and Technology;
Environmental Fragility; Altering Nature; Personal
Conservation Behavior; Human Dominance Over
Nature; Human Utilization of Nature; Eccentric
Concern, and
Support for Population Growth Policies. These
12 dimensions are grounded in either a single
(i.e.Generalized Environmental Attitudes) or two
correlated values (i.e. Preservation and Utilization),
which comprise the vertical structure of EA. This
inventory captures both the vertical and horizontal
structures of environmental attitudes [26-28]. The
students were asked to indicate the extent to which
they agree or disagree with the statements by
circling one of the set of numbers following each
statement that best reflects their degree of agreement
or disagreement, according to the 7 point scale Figure 2. ―Science and technology will eventually
ranging from 1, which represent Strongly solve our problems with pollution‖.
disagreement, to 7, which meant Strongly
Agreement. The majority of students believed that human
beings have the right to change and alter nature in

order to satisfy their needs. However, they 50% agreed. Surprisingly, the majority of student
postulated the need to preserve resources to population did not favored the (24% strongly
maintain a high quality of life (Fig.3 and 4). disagreed, 20% disagreed, somewhat disagreed 10%
and 13% were neutral) need to decrease the use of
the motor car as a major means of transportation
(Fig. 6).
Figure 3. ―Human beings have the right to change

and alter nature and all natural phenomena in order to
serve human goals and satisfy human needs‖.
Figure 5. ―We need to preserve resources to maintain
a high quality of life‖.
Figure 4. ―Human beings have the right to change

and alter nature and all natural phenomena in order to
serve human goals and satisfy human needs‖.
With the opinion that the positive benefits of Figure 6. ―Because of problems with pollution, we
need to decrease the use of the motor car as a major
economic growth far outweigh any negative means of transportation‖.
consequences strongly disagreed With the opinion
that the positive benefits of economic growth far On the other hand, they very often (33%) or
outweigh any negative consequences strongly often (40%) conserved gasoline by walking or
disagreed the majority (73%) of subjects. They bicycling, while a further 17% indicated that they
claimed that environmental goals are more sometimes do that, and never, only 3% (Fig. 7).
important than economic (Fig.5).
Also, the majority of students agreed for giving The activity that was most commonly mentioned
full support to people and organizations that are as performed during last year was recycling and
campaigning to preserve nature from being used or reusing things and engaging in encouraging friends
altered by human activity. On the other hand, 30% or family to recycle (Fig. 8,9,10).
disagreed for their willingness to join and actively
participate in environmentalist groups, until over

Figure 7. ―Conserved gasoline (petrol) by walking

or bicycling.‖.
Figure 10. . ―Encouraged friends or family to

recycle‖.
Figure 8. ―Looked for ways to reuse things‖.
Figure 11. ―I would never try to persuade others

that the environmental protection is an important thing‖.
Most of the students disagreed that people should

be allowed to use their cars as much as they like,
even if it causes damage to the environment
(Fig,12).
Levels of support for the Government persuading

people to behave more environmentally friendly,
and to find alternative sources of energy, were very
high regardless of its price (Fig 13 and 14).
IV. DISCUSSION
Before people can act responsibly, or even make

choices as to which responsible behaviors are
Figure 9. ―Recycled newspapers‖. important to them, they need to be informed about
the issue that relates to the proposed behavior.
But, they were not ready to try to persuade others Interventions to increase knowledge have been one
that the environmental protection is important of the most popular ways to create environmental
(Fig.11). behavior change within a large audience. Although,

this is one of the easiest interventions to implement, can be more cost efficient. Adopting an
it is not the most effective method of initiating or interdisciplinary approach drawing simultaneously
sustaining behavior change. However, if used with a on economics, sociology, psychology, or marketing
number of complementary interventions, the may bring better results.
distribution of information toward the goal of an
The environmental knowledge of students is still
educated audience is well worth some careful
generally low and largely science-based, lacking the
thought. Individuals with greater knowledge of
deeper understanding of the social, cultural, and
environmental issues and/or of how to take action
political dimensions of environmental problems.
on those issues were more likely to have reported
Underpinning this reorientation is a pedagogy
engaging in responsible environmental behaviors
focused on education for sustainability. Important
than those who did not possess this knowledge [29].
aspects of pedagogy in education for sustainability
Interventions should engage many types of
include encouraging learners to explore questions,
information strategies including workshops,
issues and problems of sustainability actively in
demonstrations at public events, and other more
contexts relevant to them and their communities. It
participatory forms. If one has economic constraints
provides space for learners to envision positive
that prevent one from participating in a certain
futures rather than focus on negative aspects of
behavior, however, economics becomes an
sustainability problems, and to reflect critically on
important limiting factor that will prevent even the
current lifestyles to make more informed decisions
most motivated person from participating.
[32].
Interventions that include monetary incentives as
well as other incentives would be useful to employ
where economics is a limiting factor impeding
participation. If people believe that a cost reduction
is involved in an environmental behavior, they will
be more likely to do that behavior than if they are
not aware of a cost savings [30]. Also, people with a
more positive attitude toward the environment were
more likely to participate in a behavior that required
more effort that those individuals that demonstrated
less positive attitudes toward the environment [33].
Information campaigns should include feedback
about successful results as well as about the
willingness of others to try this behavior. This
emphasizes that social norms may not only be
influential in an early phase of behavioral change,
but that they may also be important in terms of
Figure 12. ―I drive whenever it suits me, even if it
proceeding with new behaviors. Research is needed does pollute the atmosphere‖.
to develop techniques for motivating people who
display pro-environmental behaviors to become
active, themselves, in promoting pro-environmental
behaviors in others (become intervention agents).
V. CONCLUSIONS
Given a high relation between intention and

behavior it might be one possible strategy for
motivating people to act climate-friendly by
emphasizing the positive aspects of a certain
behavior and connect it to climate change, so people
can associate the behavior with climate-friendliness.
The social norm is obviously moving fast towards
more sustainability. In this context, the research
contribution could consist in identifying the main
social groups and social norms at play in public Figure 13. ― Controls should be placed on industry
universities, in order to get more university to protect the environment from pollution, even if it
members involved in climate mitigation initiatives, means things will cost more‖.
as well as, to identify an optimal policy mix which

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―Analysis and synthesis of research on responsible

Methods of Defining and Evaluating Future

Research Priorities in Climate Friendly Transport:
Preliminary Results from the REACT Open
Consultation
1
Dragan Čišić, 2Ana Perić Hadžić, 5
Konstantinos Smagas, 6Efstratios
3
Edvard Tijan, 4Dario Ogrizović Stylianidis
University of Rijeka, Faculty of Maritime GeoImaging Ltd,
Studies Nicosia, Cyprus
5
Rijeka, Croatia kostas@geoimaging.com.cy,
1
dragan@pfri.hr, 2ana@pfri.hr, 6
stratos@geoimaging.com.cy
3
etijan@pfri.hr, 4dario@pfri.hr
Abstract— The goal of Open Consultation procedure, includes activities related to development of
as a part of REACT project, is to define future research roadmaps, to validate priorities with the
priorities in friendly climate transport, which includes stakeholders, and to suggest applications that can be
activities related to development of roadmaps, to validate realized in practice (e.g., the tactics to select the
priorities with the stakeholders, and to suggest
applications that can be realized in practice In this
most effective initial actions).
paper, authors present preliminary results of the Open
Consultation procedure and present in details the
methodological procedure of an online survey using a
multivariate questionnaire and engaging an extended pool
II. METHODOLOGY
of respondents.
Keywords— Open Consultation Procedure, transport, The methodology which was used for the Open
survey Consultation procedure was a survey, as a
methodical mean for gathering information from a
sample of entities for the purposes of constructing
quantitative descriptors of the attributes of the larger
I. INTRODUCTION population of which the entities are constituents.
Open Consultation procedure questionnaire was
The REACT project plays an important role in sent to the managers of selected national and
addressing climate friendly transport objectives by European schemes and projects, National Contact
linking the strategies for the research and Points in transport of the 27 Member States and 11
development in the area of transport to the climate Associated States and to all EC funded project
friendliness and European climate policies. This participants. The questionnaire was also sent to
Project has to enable a better understanding of the general public such as Universities, Institutes,
climate friendly transportation priorities and also Centres, Departments, NGOs, Representatives of
needs to be an incentive for better cooperation with Industrial Clusters, Research Associations and
the EU community. Project scope is to act as a others, through the REACT CIP. A number of 100
motivating force for coordinating, supporting and completed questionnaires was the aim of the
strengthening the RTD area on climate-friendly (i.e., REACT project [1].
low-carbon) transport and mobility, to avoid spillage
of funding resources and to achieve integration of The main fields of Open Consultation
funding opportunities at European level, in relation Questionnaire are shown in Figure 1.
to mitigation of greenhouse emissions from Systematic planning is absolutely critical to the
transport. success of any survey effort. This task is often
The goals of Open consultation procedure, as a allotted inadequate time and consideration, resulting
part of REACT project, is to define future research in inaccurate or inadequate data. To exclude this
priorities in climate friendly transport, which problem, the Faculty of Maritime Studies has

created two distinct teams: the survey planning For the invitation emails sent, the following
team responsible for the planning, design, and indicators had to be kept track of:
overall conducting of the survey, as well as
reporting the results, and the survey  Number of email invitation sent
implementation team comprised of the
interviewers, supervisors, and support personnel  Number of bounced emails (emails that have
who actually performed the survey. Some of the been changed of mistaken)
members of the survey implementation team also  Number of respondents that actually have
served on the survey planning team. followed the link and opened the
questionnaire
In order to achieve the predefined goal of 100

completed questionnaires and to facilitate the process
of inviting the potential respondents, tools for e-mail
campaigns have been used. E-mails with the
invitation for participation in the survey have been
sent to 1670 stakeholders from various fields who
are involved in transport. Some of the tools have
been web-based, for example Mailchimp [2] and
AcyMailing [3] tool from the REACT CIP. The
process was divided into six "campaigns", starting on
March 21th 2011. As of April 15th 2011, a total of
1670 invitations has been sent, of which 363
bounced (invalid e-mails, out-of-office or similar),
and 233 respondents "clicked" on the link and
opened a survey web page. Among 233 participant
"clicks" on the survey link, 102 respondents
completed the survey (44%), 105 respondents partly
completed the survey (45%), and 26 respondents
skipped the survey (11%). From 105 partly
completed surveys, 49 have been stopped after the
first list of questions, and 56 respondents have
finished the survey, but have left some of the
questions unanswered.
III. RESULTS
Figure 1. Open consultation Questionnaire topics The Open Consultation survey in total has 161
completed questionnaires. Using the calculations in
When the survey planning team defined the
[4], we can conclude that the sample size for 95%
questionnaire, then the survey implementation team confidence interval is inside the error of 8% for the
had to create the questionnaire by using specific population size up to 500.000. This means that there
software. When approved and tested by the REACT is 95% of confidence that calculated survey question
consortium, the team had to send out email mean value could vary from -8% to +8% of the real
invitations for participation. The survey was mean value of full population size.
implemented by using Limesurvey [2] software.
Persons involved in answering the questionaire
During survey execution time, survey have been nearly from all of Europe. Figure 2. shows
implementation team had to daily monitor the participants countries distribution.
following data for the questionnaire:
As for research areas for reducing GHG, there is
 Number of total responses no major measure that has considerable significant
priority, as shown in Figure 3.
 Number of full responses
 Number of incomplete responses

results show significant differences for different

transportation modes (road, road freight, air,
maritime and rail). For the purpose of this paper we
will show results on each topic for different
transportation mode. The result showing priorities
for transport fuels for waterborne transport is shown
in Figure 4. Results show that the primary priority in
maritime transportation is LNG/LPG/ gas as a fuel
for waterborne transport. Second rated are advanced
fuels and technologies, and third conventional fuels.
Figure 2. Participants georgraphical distribution
Figure 4. Priorities in propulsion system for maritime

transport
It is interesting that even nuclear energy as main

Figure 3. Research area for reducing GHG priorities transport propulsion system is indicated, although
with very small priority. Results showing priorities
Although, as seen in the graph, there is a for vehicle technology for Air transportation are
significant difference in priorities for different shown in figure 5.
research areas, when the categorical text data is
changed to numbers from 1 (for very low) to 5 (for
very high), averages of the research area priorities
are very close (ranging from 3.1 to 3.9) with
standard deviation around 1. Equity and
accessibility is the worst rated research area with
average of 3,113 and std.dev of 0,997, and transport
efficiency is prime research area with average of 3,9
and std.dev. of 0,995. It is interesting that statistical
analysis shows big differences between priorities of
participants from different sectors (administration,
industry, NGO, research, and university). Further
statistical analysis is needed to validate and
statistically evidence these initial results.
At the end of the questionnaire, participants for
each mode of transport had to choose 3 main
priorities for following topics: Transport fuels, Figure 5. Priorities in vehicle technology for air
Vehicle technology, Infrastructure and Pricing and transportation
taxation.
Although participants have been asked for As apparent from the graph, primary vehicle
general opinion about priorities and research mode, technology for air transportation is design of
lightweight materials and aerodynamic forms, which

have collected nearly 30% of answers as most very low priority in rail and fixed track sector.
important technologies. New combustion systems Explanation for this is the global presence and
and vehicle reduction systems are sharing the second performance of maritime transport in contrast with
and third place, although vehicle reduction systems regional (European) presence of rail transport.
have obtained more second places. Main propulsion
systems for air transport are bio fuels (21%),
advanced fuels and technologies (18%) and synthetic
fuels (17%).
Research trends in infrastructure have also been a
part of the research. Results showing the priorities
for infrastructure for road freight transport are shown
in Figure 6.
Figure 7. Priorities in pricing and taxation for rail

transportation
IV. CONCLUSION
Figure 6. Priorities in infrastructure for road freight The paper presents methodology and preliminary
transportation results of the REACT Open consultation and
provides useful insight not only in terms of results
produced but also in terms of a best case example of
Intelligent transportation systems are the main
a virtual consultation procedure that involves
infrastructure technology that has to be indicated,
engagement of an extended, multinational, and with
followed by Integration of spatial, urban and
specific background sample of respondents. From
transportation planning and economic policies and
more than 200 questions, significant results have
traffic management. It is significant that more than
been presented. The results are significant within
half of respondents have indicated that intelligent
±8% with 95% confidence. It must be underlined
transport systems are the main priority in future
however that more statistical processing and
research for road transportation environment
implementation has to be put into operation.
improvement.
The last group of questions have been about REFERENCES
environmental taxation and pricing that should
contribute to the efficient distribution of
environmental goods and services in transportation. [1] REACT documents – downloadable at www.react-
transport.eu
Results showing priorities for pricing and taxation [2] http://www.limesurvey.org/
for rail and fixed track transport are shown in Figure [3] http://www.mailchimp.com
7. [4] http://www.acyba.com/
[5] ACRP REPORT 26 , 2009 National Academy of
Sciences
It is not a surprise that the main priority for
pricing and taxation for rail and fixed track
transportation is European regulation on emission
performance, followed by financial sector regulation
to foster sustainable transport. Interestingly, global
transport industry GHG regulation, that is the most
significant factor for maritime transportation has

CO2 Reduction Methods from Vehicles
Ivan Dapčić, Petar Brusić

Dept. of Nautical Science and Safety of Navigation
Rijeka, Croatia
pbrusic@net.hr
ivan.dapcic@yahoo.com
Abstract— Various measurements and scientific technology vehicles propulsion system could serve as a
researches indicate a significant increase of carbon bridge to go to the application of fuel cells.
dioxide concentration in the atmosphere (30-40%) since
Keywords— CO2, combustion, reduction, alternative
the beginning of industrial revolution which represent
fuels
one of the biggest ecological and environmental problems
of modern society. Scientists round the world warn that
conceantration of CO2 in the atmosphere has reached a
record level, i.e. the highest concentration of CO2 in the I. INTRODUCTION
last 650 thousand years. The level of CO2 is increasing
faster than scientists predicted even a matter of opinion In the last 15 years an increase in annual fuel
that the Earth has lost even the ability to absorb vast consumption, resulting in increased emissions of
amounts of carbon. The effect of greenhouse and global carbon dioxide (CO2). Annual fuel consumption
warming of earth are terms often mentioned today in the increases due to rising transport people and goods,
world. A number of natural disasters, large temperature
differences, health problems, are just some of the
higher traffic density in urban areas, population
consequences of global warming which is one of the mobility, etc. In order to achieve lower emissions
causes of rising concentrations of carbon dioxide in the caused by higher fuel consumption, is to study the
atmosphere. In the last twenty years is indicated a large areas of automotive and transportation infrastructure
increase consumption of fuels per year, which causes to reach better solutions. As carbon dioxide is
increased emission of carbon dioxide. Annual fuel constantly increasing, technical innovation is the
consumption is growing for several reasons: increasing basic concept of environmental policy, which
freight traffic flows in all segments, increasing global accepts the motor industry to reduce CO2 emissions
industrial production, higher traffic density in urban into the environment. The purpose of this research
areas, the use of fuel for household and similar. For was to study the effect of CO2 on the environment
example, only the combustion of motor vehicles, each
year the Earth's atmosphere drop to $ 8 billion in carbon
during combustion of motor fuels and to bring new
dioxide. In order to achieve lower carbon dioxide solutions to the problem of how to release CO2 into
emissions caused by higher fuel consumption, is to the environment could be reduced to as small as
research in the areas of automotive and transportation possible.
infrastructure to reach satisfactory solutions.
Consequently, the use of alternative fuels and eco- Questions that sought to answer the burning of
technical innovation are the main concept of the motor fuel are: what is the CO2, how it affects the
environmental policy of the European Union to limit CO2 environment, in which everything branches present,
emissions. One of the strategy elements of environmental and what proportion of CO2 emissions by motor
protection is to promote increase of dizel fuel vehicles, vehicles, to reduce CO2 emissions. During the study
which comparatively with gasoline motor vehicle has a
smaller specific fuel consumption. Use of bio-fuels in
used a method of analysis and synthesis and
transport vehicles propulsion systems will have important compilation methods. In the introduction, this
part in reducing of CO2 emission in transformation problem, subject and object of research, working
period, while hydrogen (H2) will be used as a future fuel. hypotheses and auxiliary hypotheses, the purpose
Over past ten years a large influence has been made in and goals of research, scientific methods and
progress of developing fuel cells, which is very important explained the structure of work. Title of the second
for CO2 emission reduction. In the debates on the quality section is generally of carbon dioxide and its
of motor fuels due to CO2 emissions need to refer to the emissions. In this part of the analysis are carbon
direct application of hydrogen combined with fuel cell dioxide, its genesis, and listed other consumers who
propulsion system to transport vehicles, with the ultimate emit CO2. CO2 emissions and its impact on the
goal that in due course replace the internal combustion
engine. Alternative fuels use in combination with hybrid
environment is the third title of the paper which

presents the parameters for the assessment of emissions growth from year to year, and during
emissions, the impact on CO2 emissions and 2005. The carbon dioxide emissions responsible for
environmental consequences. In the fourth part of global warming rose to 15.1 billion tons. Annual
the paper with the title of the possibility of reducing emissions of the carbon dioxide in air is 26
CO2 emissions were analyzed trends in emission Gigatonnes. It should be noted that 50% of the
reductions, alternative fuels and emission limitations oceans absorb CO2 [2].
of the European Union. The conclusion is a
Forests, grasslands and oceans which act as
synthesis of research results which confirmed the
drains and dump carbon, over and absorb almost
hypothesis.
half of overall carbon dioxide emissions and thereby
mitigate and slow the accumulation of CO2 in an
artificial atmosphere.
II. CO2 EMISSIONS IN DIFFERENT SECTORE Scientists believe that due to the accumulation of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere could lose
Of the total CO2 emissions into the environment, permanent ability to absorb carbon. Increasing
3% caused by men's activities and of which 12% is amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
related to anthropogenic 1 emissions of CO2 increasing the amount of CO2 reacts with seawater,
transport vehicles, which use fuels. Distribution of causing bicarbonate 2 and hydrogen ions 3 , which
anthropogenic emissions in other sectors is shown in increases the acidity of the surface layer. Although,
Table 1. the oceans and vegetation absorb huge amounts of
carbon dioxide, their absorption capacity is limited,
TABLE I. DISTRIBUTION OF ANTHROPOGENIC
EMISSIONS BY SECTOR
and every year, because of excessive burning of
fossil fuels, a certain amount of greenhouse gases
Fuel energy consumers Portion remain in the atmosphere, it condenses and
[%] enhances its ability to retain heat, contributing in
Thermo power plants 25 this way global warming [3].
Ships 1,5 A. CO2 Concentration
Airplanes 3 Greenhouse gases keep Earth's average
temperature at 15 ° C. Without their performance,
Industry 19
and the greenhouse effect 4 , temperatures on Earth
Biomass burning 15 would be approximately 18 ° C below zero, and life
Automotive vehicles (cars) 5,5 would not be possible. Change in concentrations of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere could lead to
Trucks, buses 6,0 changes in heat balance in the Earth-atmosphere
Domestic heating 23 system. The concentration of CO2 is steadily rising.
Increased concentrations in the atmosphere causing
Other means of transportation 2 the Earth's average temperature increase. Double the
Source: Dobovišek Ž., Samec N., Kokalj F., 2008, Goriva i maziva., concentration of carbon dioxide would increase the
p26 temperature of the Earth by about 2.8 ° C.
U.S. scientists have warned that the
It should be noted that the costs of technical
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere reached a
operations, reducing one ton of excess CO2
record level. According to recent data, the
emissions by motorized vehicle emits into the
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere rose to 387
environment, three to eight times higher than the
ppm, which is 40 percent more than the industrial
cost of the project with the same goal in other
revolution. It is also the highest concentration of
sectors of industry, energy industry and households
CO2 in the atmosphere over the past 650,000 years.
[1].
III. COMBUSTION OF THE CO2
2
Acidic carbon acid salts (sodium bicarbonate,
Combustion of motor fuels, every year the NaHCO3)
Earth's atmosphere drop 8 billion tons of carbon 3
The particles are electrically charged due to
dioxide. According to the data the carbon dioxide differences in the number of protons and electrons
4
Heating of Earth's atmosphere due to the difficult
1 reemisije heat received by radiation
Anthropogenic: The consequence of human activity
on the environment

CO2 levels rising faster than scientists predicted

even the increasingly popular view that the country
has lost the ability to absorb vast amounts of carbon.
B: Expected effects of increasing CO2 concentration
The latest report of the Intergovernmental
Committee on Climate Change (Eng.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC)
emphasizes the danger of global heated planet.
Eleven of the last twelve years has been the warmest
since weather observations are made. Sea levels
rising faster than it had predicted. In large areas of Figure 1. Glaciers melting (source:www.meteo-
the globe, are increasingly climate disasters info.hr)
(hurricanes, droughts and heat). The IPCC is that the
climate change responsible for human activity and Since the changing structure of the food chain in
the burning of fossil fuels (climate change, 2010). nature, with trees leafing through the changes in the
lives of insects which results in reducing or
Increased amounts of carbon dioxide and other increasing the number of birds that feed on them.
greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere is Coral reefs as highly sensitive ecosystems will also
the result of burning fossil fuels (oil, coal and gas), suffer. If temperatures rise by 1-2 degrees, coral
deforestation for agriculture and other human reefs will fade and eventually die. Changing weather
activities. Reducing fossil fuel use is currently very conditions will greatly affect the changes in
hard to achieve due to the constant growth of the agriculture in certain areas. Cultures that were
economy and the constant need for production grown in a specific area for centuries, will not
optimization, and optimization of itself means a prosper, but will grow something else. Lately, we
reduction in investment in clean and renewable monitored more storms, storms in the summer, heat
energy sources because such sources of energy at waves and floods. A warmer environment conducive
the beginning generally more expensive than fossil to the spread of various diseases will significantly
fuels. The automotive industry is increasingly takes affect human health. Increased concentrations of
into account alternative sources of energy. The carbon dioxide affect the food we eat and drinking
consequence of increased concentration of carbon water. People will be more likely to die of heat
dioxide, and thus global warming is primarily the stroke, a consequence of excessive UV radiation and
climate change. Because climate change is coming food poisoning, a flood will cause diseases to spread
to an increase in temperature on Earth, and the water. The estimated effects of global warming are
melting of glaciers and glacier, and thus to sea level not always negative. Global warming leads to
rise and ocean that according to some experts climate change which will have positive effects in
estimate could be 18-59 cm by the end of the 21st some regions while other regions will feel the
century. Melting glaciers, will initially cause negative consequences of climate change. Scientists
increased discharges, and then water shortages in currently are unable to predict exactly what will
some parts of the world. While the rise in happen and what will be the extent of the
temperature on Earth affect the melting of ice at the consequences of global warming. Scientists warn
poles, is not expected that it would raise sea levels. that the very uncertainty of what will happen to the
Sea levels will sharply raise the melting of glaciers best reason that the effects of global warming an
on land that will be dissolved within a very short attempt to reduce to a minimum and that we should
time. Due to rising sea levels will be many small respond in advance. It is believed that the uneven
islands in the oceans disappear [4]. impact of global warming will be a great motivation
Climate change caused extinction of some plant for future migration.
and animal species and the emergence of new ones.
The impact of climate change on marine life can be
manifested in the trees in each park or garden. IV. OPTIONS FOR REDUCING CO2 EMISSIONS
Listing and flowering trees are common in
November and December, which is not natural. Increasing human population causes an increase
Awakening of plants has so far been reserved for the in the use of motor vehicles, which directly affects
spring. Spring is coming 2 weeks earlier than it was the rise in consumption of motor fuels. Motor
before the 50-odd years, and autumn arrives about a vehicles are one of the biggest polluters of the
week later. atmosphere with carbon dioxide and to reduce CO2

emissions in the atmosphere are introduced fuel cells6, which are used in public transport around
novelties. the world, which makes a very important milestone
in the reduction of CO2 in the atmosphere. In the
Agreement of the representatives of the
debates on the quality of motor fuels due to CO2
European automotive industry VDA (Verband der
emissions need to refer to the direct application of
Deutschen Automobilindustrie), ACEA (European
hydrogen combined with fuel cell propulsion system
Car Manufacturing Association), governmental
to transport vehicles, with the ultimate goal that in
institutions within the EU and others, it was
due course replace the internal combustion engine.
concluded that in the resolution of global
Development and Planning Technology retardant
environmental problems, tested the value of the
article and large-scale introduction of hydrogen
standard consumption (g) and thus CO2 emissions
vehicles on road transport in order to significantly
(es) of newly produced cars after the 1995th was
reduce CO2 emissions, are faced with a number of
gradually reduced without reducing the effective
very serious problems.
power of the engine, using the abundant resources of
innovation and optimization of the propulsion The problems are the construction of
system and vehicle design [5]. Environmental infrastructure (it is anticipated that the costs of
Strategy, proclaimed the automotive industry, based building infrastructure in Europe amount to at least
on the application of telecommunications 10-20 billion €), charging vehicles at retail outlets,
technology and telematics, with the aim of reducing operating costs, reliability (can not compete with
traffic congestion, to the introduction of quality internal combustion engines for which you have
fuels and lubricants, tires with low coefficient of more than 100 years of development and use in
friction and alternative propulsion systems further vehicles) [6].
reduce fuel consumption and reduce CO2 emissions.
The use of alternative fuels in combination with
It should be noted that one of the most important
hybrid power trains7 transport vehicles could serve
elements of this strategy of promoting the increase
as a bridge to go to the application of flammable
of diesel engines, which compared with a vehicle
articles. Bio-fuels provide more benefits in terms of
with a gasoline engine has a lower specific fuel
reducing global CO2 emissions. The problem is that
consumption. Summary of proposals VDA, ACEA
their use is now limited due to insufficient quantity
is shown in Table 2.
of bio-fuels in the market.
TABLE II. A GRADUAL REDUCTION IN SPECIFIC VI. CONCLUSION
CO2 EMISSIONS AND CONSUMPTION OF STANDARD FUEL
FLEET OF PASSANGER CARS Combustion of carbon dioxide and its circulation
Specific CO2 Standard in the atmosphere during combustion of motor fuels
Y emission Fuel has become one of the major environmental
ear consumption problems. A number of natural disasters, large
[ l/100 km] temperature differences, health problems, are just
[gCO2/ Reduc Gaso Dies some of the consequences of global warming which
km] tion [%] line el is one of the causes of rising concentrations of
1 186 - 7,8 7,0 carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. At the present
995. time have begun to introduce standards that could
2 165 11,3 7,0 6,0
limit CO2 emissions and the automobile
003.
2 140 24,7 5,8 5,3
industry increasingly focused manufacturing cars
008. that meet all standards to reduce emissions.
2 120 14,3 4,9 4,5 Alternative drives are the future and make their
020.
Source: www.vda.de
application in the automotive industry, which should
encourage more to reduce CO2 emissions and
V. ALTERNATIVE FUELS thereby preserve the environment in which we live.
The use of bio-fuels 5 in transport vehicles,

propulsion systems, will play an important role in
reducing CO2 emissions in the interim period, while 6
Fuel article: Device that converts chemical energy
the hydrogen (H2) used as fuel. In the past ten years into electrical energy
has made great progress in developing bus powered 7
Hybrid Technology: The combination of electric
motors and internal combustion engine as you drive the
5 car
Biofuels: Fuels which are obtained by processing
biomass

REFERENCES [2] Nasa-Giss, 2010., online:http:// www.giss.nasa.gov

(22.12.2010.)
[3] Nasa-Giss, 2010., online:http:// www.giss.nasa.gov
[1] Dobovišek Ž., Samec N., Kokalj F., 2008, Goriva i (22.12.2010.)
maziva, online: http:// [4] Goodstein, E.2003, Ekonomika i okoliš, 2. Izdanje,
hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_je Grafotisak, Zagreb, p.45
zik=10524 (12.11.2010.) [5] Verband der Automobilindustrie, 2010,
http://www.vda.de/de/verband/index.html
(24.03.2011).

Development of light rail system in Belgrade –

modeling approach to scenario analysis
Vladimir Đorić, Ivan Ivanović, Dragana Grujičić

Traffic Engineering Department
Traffic and Transport Engineering Faculty
Belgrade, Serbia
v.djoric@sf.bg.ac.rs
i.ivanovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
d.gruicic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— The basic equation in transportation lines and passengers produced the changes in the number
planning puts the sign of equality between the of passengers carried by different lines. Indicators on
transportation demand and transport supply. different levels were defined in order to detect the
Transportation planning process usually involves long capacity gaps and quantify the modeling results. Defining
periods, 20-30 years. On the transportation demand side the criteria’s for ending the modeling procedure needed a
of the equation, there is the need to determine the real great experience and knowledge of Belgrade public
number of trips in public transport. On the other side, transport systems. The criteria’s are based on number of
transportation and infrastructure planning is the process transfers, passenger kilometers and passenger hours
of establishing the necessary capacity to meet the future traveled. The iterative process of adjusting the
transportation demand. Development of sustainable way parameters of the system was very complicated
of thinking in the transport sector brought a change in considering that they are closely related.
the general approach to solving problems. Throughout
history, the problems were solved by adding capacity in Keywords— planning and modelling; public
transport; modelling crterias;
areas where it was needed. Today, improving the efficacy
of existing capacity is more important together with the
investments in new technologies that bring sustainable
benefits. In addition, there are some traffic management
I. INTRODUCTION
measures with the aim to decrease the transportation
demand within a certain group of passengers, activities
or modes. Public transport in Belgrade can strongly Transportation infrastructure planning is the
affect the quality of the overall transportation system. process of establishing the necessary capacities to
Modern, high capacity, rail transportation system is meet the future transportation demand.
capable to solve the problem of large transportation Transportation planning process usually involves
demand. This paper presents the transformation of public long periods of time, 20-30 years. According to the
transport systems of Belgrade in order to become the
system based on light rail transportation system. The IAC 1 (Inter Academy Council) recommendations,
planned solution has positive effects on public transport improving the efficacy of the measures through the
travel time, reducing environmental impact by decreasing analysis of the effects and the influence on demand
the number of buses on the network and handling and investment in new technologies have an
transportation demands. Particularly important is the important place.
possibility to influence transportation demand through
modal split and keeping public transport share at the Addition transportation also capacity gives some
level of about 50%. The future public transport network negative effects. First of all, new infrastructure is
has been developed in line with the vision provided in the built in an urban area. Land is been occupied
Belgrade master plan. Demand matrices are reduced to resulting in a land use changes, whether it is the
the total number of trips based on the survey results. All existing roads, housing or agricultural land.
the relationships from survey, between the matrix fields Therefore, the system changes its performance in
are kept. The changes in socio-economic indicators were terms of spatial distribution of capacity. In this way,
used to produce future transportation demands. In
forming and testing a public transport network overall
capacity on the main corridors was the main
consideration. Development of high-capacitive system on 1
Formed in May 2000, brings together the best
those corridors fully changed the spatial distribution of scientists and engineers with the aim of providing quality
lines within the public transport system. Adjusting and advice to international institutions such as the United
changing elements on the level of system, sub-system, Nations and the World Bank

some residents and users of the system gain benefits primary network especially in periods of peak hour
or suffer losses in terms of system accessibility [3]. demand, technological obsolescence of equipment
and equipment for light control and traffic
Transportation infrastructure will inevitably
management, the lack of the high capacity public
induce the construction of other types of objects
transportation modes on the most congested
which will cause future transportation demands
corridors, low level of service in urban and suburban
increase [8]. A well known Bress paradox reminds
passenger transport.
that the construction of new infrastructure can
produce more problems than those who are trying to
A. Transportation system development objectives
be solved. This occurs in situations where
transportation infrastructure induces a large demand The total number of trips in 2021 is forecast at
that will keep the system on the same or higher level about 3.5 million trips per day, while in periods of
of capacity utilization, compared to the current peak demand the greatest number of trips was
situation. Besides the construction effects, a system estimated at 300 000 trips per hour. The motorization
should be analyzed on a operational level, in relation level is estimated at the average of one passenger car
to the burden of transportation of people and goods per household. The future modal split is an important
in the territory of the city [9]. component of the transportation plan. Bearing in
mind the possibilities of street network development
This paper deals with the procedure to identify and parking system in the central zone of Belgrade, it
problems that occur during the analysis and is estimated that the share of passenger car travel
modeling of the present state, as well as, should be maintained at levels between 25 and 30%.
transportation infrastructure planning. The The public transport must provide high level of
methodology and the elements that can be used as service and capacities that will provide 45% to 50%
criteria’s in modeling process are proposed. The aim of daily trips to be transported [11].
is to complete the criteria set at all levels: entire
public transportation system (PTS), sub-systems The overall objectives of Belgrade transportation
(LRT, bus, tram ...) and lines of transportation system [11]:
subsystems.  The optimal connection of all city functions,
 Efficient and rational use of transport
capacity,
II. STATE OF THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
 Increase the level of service and traffic
safety,
The current traffic situation in Belgrade is the
result of several elements: the street network  Increase the attractiveness of the public
condition, poor public transport and parking status. transportation in relation to passenger car and
Level of motorization in 2000 reached 200 PC/1000
inhabitants for the whole area of Belgrade. With the  Reduce the harmful impact of traffic on
rise of motorization level and in the case of people and the environment and natural and
passenger cars usage increase, street network of cultural heritage.
Belgrade will not be able to accept the increasing
demands of the transportation system. About 67% of B. Public transportation development objectives
the primary street network is with a single-lane per The development plan of the passenger mass
direction. In addition to undeveloped infrastructure, transportation is based on the revitalization and
traffic management system is outdated and does not rehabilitation of existing modes of public transport
match the needs. The average speed in the central and the gradual introduction of a light rail
zone of the city is in the range of 12-18 km/h, which transportation system (LRT). This concept of public
amounts time losses on certain sections to 45% of transport for the 2021 involves three types of rail
the total travel time [11]. sub-systems: urban (and suburban) trains, LRT and
tram [11]. Existing rail public transport sub-systems
Belgrade's PTS is relying on the four sub- will continue to be the basis of PTS, where the main
systems: bus, tram, trolleybus and urban-suburban role is given to the one having the highest level of
railway. PTS, designed in this way, will not be able passenger km traveled, the most favorable effects on
to accept the increasing demand without radical urban traffic and environmental parameters [4].
change through introduction of modern urban light Having that in mind, planning and construction of
rail system [11]. LRT system has undoubtedly perspective [11, 13].
The main traffic problems in Belgrade and the LRT systems are characterized by a capacity of
consequences get down to [11]; Large traffic load on about 10000 to 15 000 passengers per hour
the radial directions, the deficit in the capacity of the

(maximum of 25 000 passengers per hour by  Definition of LRT development scenarios

applying control measures that give priority) and the and
ability to integrate with the regional railway. LRT
has greater effects comparing to other sub-systems of  Definition and analysis of output parameters.
PTS, partly by using an active urban space. On the
other hand, space can become available for more A. Calibration of a PTS to the existing state
humane purposes, reducing the need for developing System calibration means that the traffic network
extensive street network. Many traffic areas, is represented in accordance with the existing state
especially in the central zones can be adapted for and travel behavior. The lines were checked
pedestrians. Taking over the function of other according to the time-table, especially on the
surface sub-systems, LRT alleviates the negative terminal points and the headway intervals, which are
effects of contemporary motorization - traffic basic elements in the distribution of passengers on
congestion, noise and air pollution, directly affecting the network [5, 6].
in better living conditions. The greatest effects can The matrix of transportation demand is calibrated
be expected precisely in the central zones, where the to obtain the real total number of trips in the current
traffic congestion can be significantly reduced. Due state and the appropriate spatial distribution. The
to lower consumption of fuel and improvement of matrix was produced as a result of traffic survey -
service conditions on the road network level of air passenger counting. Assigning the demand matrix to
pollution can be reduced up to 40%. Therefore, the the network results in traffic loads (passenger
LRT is the most suitable solutions for massive volumes). These volumes are compared to the
passenger transport. [13] counted volumes, giving certain level of deviation.
The length of the proposed LRT route in The main indicators of transportation demand in
Belgrade is about 25 km and implementation can be Belgrade by the transport sub-systems have been
divided into several sections, or stages of identified in traffic surveys (household survey, the
construction. Tram network in the existing state is outer ring and transport terminals) in 2005 and 2006.
about 45 km long and depending on the dynamics of According to these surveys, OD matrices for
LRT sub-system development, the routes where the different purposes, modes of transportation and
two networks overlap will be adapted for both sub- different time intervals were formed [1, 2]. Future
systems. Trolleybus routes are retained as in the matrices were produced on the basis of survey
present state. Replacement of buses where matrices. The matrices used in this paper were
technologically and economically feasible, is left as a calibration again according to additional traffic
possibility. Bus sub-system will continue to play an survey conducted in December 2007.
important role and its development will be
harmonized with the introduction of LRT system. The survey area was defined by the influence area
Main purpose of bus sub-system is to serve of the first LRT line. Special attention was given to
secondary corridors which are not covered with LRT the corridors between the left and right bank of the
and to assume the supporting role for urban and Sava River, connecting two major parts of the city.
suburban railway and LRT. The research was extended to Gazela Bridge, which
is the bottleneck of the European Corridor X. Gazela
Bridge is a good indicator of the total number of
passengers transported and good location for
III. METHODOLOGY FOR TRANSPORTATION determining the total number of passengers in the
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT ANALYSIS public transport system.
The survey results were also compared with the
Transport model of Belgrade as a transportation 2001 public transport passenger counting. The
modeling tool for transportation planning that comparative analysis of transportation demand for
enables the identification of different development the area defined by this study, between 2007 and
strategies in relation to changes in transportation 2001, was done. The total exchange of passengers
demand is used as a basis for PTS development between the left and right bank of the Sava River
scenarios [2]. increased 12.55% in the peak hour.
In the methodology for PTS development The increase in volume, in the direction towards
analysis several parts are defined: the city centre, was 5.64%. In the opposite direction
 Calibration of a PTS to the existing state, there was 25.62% increase. This is the consequence
of the change in the land use, primarily considering
 Forecast the spatial distribution of the the rapid development of the New Belgrade, with the
demand matrix for different planning time highest degree of increase in residential and
horizons,

commercial facilities. For purposes of this research transportation sub-systems and within smaller spatial
OD matrices for the planning horizons (2013, 2021 units.
and 2033), were formed in order to keep the patterns
Dividing the total number of trips in PTS by the
expressed through the gravity model [1].
total number of trips from the matrix, results in
transfer coefficient. Transfer coefficient represents
the average number of trips needed to execute a
IV. LRT SCENARIOS DEVELOPMENT FOR journey from origin to destination [10, 12]. The
PLANNING HORIZONS possibility of using single parameter – number of
transfers – for calibrating and planning the
development of PTS was tested.
The Concept of Public Transport Development
determined LRT as the main transportation mode in According to the previously defined main
future. Along the LRT routes there should be no indicator, within specified levels, groups of
strong “competition” between LRT and sub-systems indicators were selected.
with smaller capacities (like buses and trolleybuses).
At the level of system as a whole and the level of
On tram routes, when overlapping with the LRT, study areas:
where possible, the LRT infrastructure should be
used. The aim of such a concept is to enable as many  The total number passenger trips, which
trips to be realized usin any of the rail systems – should be based on the number transfers. The
without transfers. On other routes, the tram is the transfer coefficient should keep realistic
main transportation mode with limited help of the value.
buses.  The total passenger kilometers in the PT
Trolleybus and bus transportation sub-systems system
distribute the passengers in urban parts without rail  Total transportation time in the PT system
sub-systems; otherwise, their role is primarily to
supply the rail sub-systems with passengers. Lines At the level of sub-systems and smaller spatial
which have the supply role, should be brought to the units (municipalities):
terminal stations, where the suburban passenger  Total the number of passenger trips on the
transfer should be realized. [11] transportation sub-systems
So called concept of “limited competition” gives  The total passenger kilometers in the PT sub-
the possibility to form lines connecting peripheral systems and the relationships between sub-
parts of the city (tangentially or through the city systems
centre). These lines would be main transportation
modes in the areas not covered with rail sub-systems.  Total transportation time in the PT sub-
systems and the relationships between sub-
The possibility of development through phases systems
was tested for each time period. “Do minium”
scenario was also tested, presumed solely the  Number of transfers between PT sub-systems
extension of tram network - as provided by the
 The passenger exchange rate between the
Belgrade Master Plan [13]. The scenario is defined
parts of the city, above all, on major screen-
for all census years (the year 2013, the 2021st and
lines and on major streets
2023.)
At the level of lines and smaller spatial units:
 Analysis of the LRT line and its number of
V. DEFINING AND ANALYZING THE OUTPUTS OF passengers
THE PTS
 Analysis of lines that carry the greatest
number of passengers
In the analysis of the modeling results it was very
important to define the indicators against which to  Analysis of the lines in terms of numbers of
evaluate the logic of the results and quantify the passenger board/alight, passenger flows
relationships that exist in the PTS. That meant the through stops, travel times, capacity and
comprehensive analysis at several levels; starting congestion
with indicators on the level of the whole system, The entire PTS was designed to operate in
indicators of the various transportation sub-systems accordance with defined assumptions about the role
and different parts of the city, the indicators related of the LRT, as the main transportation sub-system.
to the participation of some of the lines within the Aligning the system parameters was done till the

defined criteria’s were met, according to the 2007. In order to simplify the process of system
experience and knowledge of Belgrade PTS and calibration, all the time losses (boarding time, alight
through set of iterations. time, opening and closing the door) are placed in the
segment of the travel time between the stops. The
Adjusting and changing of elements within
future scenarios involved improvements in system
groups (system, sub-system and line) produces
performance and trip times on the lines, e.g.
differences in the number of passengers carried in
transportation sub-systems line speed.
the system using different lines. Elements at different
levels are closely related, so that changing one Vehicle kilometers and transportation time are the
affects the other in a vertical hierarchy. parameters of the efficiency enabling easy
quantification of the differences. Derived parameters
Besides these three groups of elements, there is
based on these are average trip length and the
also a set of inputs affecting the passenger behavior
average trip time. These elements are particularly
(impedance). Impedance crucially affects the
important as a basis or input in the process of
selection of links that will be used to connect origin
evaluation.
and destination, e.g., the trips distribution ratio
between the alternative routs. Impedance represents
B. Sub-system level
the combination of weight affecting the total
passenger trip time: walking, waiting for The share of each sub-system in the total number
transportation, in-vehicle time, boarding and alight of trips is the essence of the analysis on this level.
time and transfer time. The sequence of weights was Control factors were the data on modal split in PTS.
adjusted according to available research [7]. The most important aspect of modal split
When all the elements are defined, OD matrix modeling was the LRT share in relation to other
was assigned to the network in order to obtain the transportation sub-systems that exist in the PTS.
number of passengers on routes and lines within the While LRT is a newly planned, other sub-systems
PTS. That was the basis for the PTS parameters have suffered changes in the modal split share.
definition. Bringing the system into balance required a descent
to a lower level, changing spatial elements of the
A. System (PTS) level lines: changing the line routes, extending and
shortening the lines, merging and splitting the lines,
Check of the total number of trips in the system
etc; and changing the operational elements of the
was made. Indicators were based on the number
lines: characteristic times.
direct trips, with one, two or more transfers, which
summed up to the total number of passenger trips. Vehicle kilometers and transportation time are
associated with the number of trips. Similarly to the
The total number of trips in the system changes
system level, the efficiency data were used to
with every change of line routs that provide
compare the developed scenarios and to quantify
accessibility change and the change in relationship
changes.
between the lines. Besides spatial and operational
elements of the lines, the total number of trips is The number of transfers was controlled at the
affected the weight factors assigned to represent level of sub-systems. Special attention is paid to the
willingness to transfer in the trip impedance exchange between the LRT and other sub-systems.
function. Larger factor increases the total impedance
At this point, all the data are still at the level of
of trip, thus increases the likelihood of using direct
the systems and sub-systems. This fact determines
links (without transfers). Certain points in the PTS
the measures applied in these phases: changes in
were defined as a strong transfer points and used for
sub-system lines development plan, the planned sub-
passenger behavior modeling. These weights were
system speeds during exploitation and adjustments in
adjusted in this point and were not changed
the assignment procedures (route choice modeling).
afterward.
In fact, the main objective was to balance the sub-
The total passenger kilometers in the system system shares according to modal split plan.
depend on the total number of trips and the length of
each trip (e.g. the average trip length). The effect is C. Line level
transmitted from the total number of trips to the Observing only at the level of sub-system, load
passenger kilometers, so that the changes follow the distribution may seem logical. But, there was a big
same pattern. difference in the data on the most loaded lines
Transportation time (total time) in the same way obtained from the survey and those obtained from
depends on the total number of trips. Calibration of the traffic assignment. LRT sub-system takes the
travel time on the lines was done according to the main role. Still, the lines that traditionally carry a lot
available data on trip times from 2002, 2005 and of passengers need to retain its position.

The main control indicator used was the number parameters and criteria’s that enable modeling of the
of passengers transported on the level of line. PTS in order to
Outputs were controlled in total, on the system level
In the methodology for PTS development
and on the sub-systems level. At the level of the
analysis several parts are defined:
system as a whole, LRT lines transport the largest
number of passengers. However, it was taken into  Calibration of a PTS to the existing state,
account the fact that lines congested in the current
situation should stay loaded considerably. Lines that  Forecast the spatial distribution of the
overlap with sections of the LRT route were demand matrix for different planning time
eliminated. horizons,
In addition, the line loads within each of the  Definition of LRT development scenarios
subsystems (e.g. bus) were controlled. Historical and
data show the major lines within sub-systems. Each  Definition and analysis of output parameters.
of the inconsistencies pointed to the problem and
was individually examined to find the right load The basic hypothesis is related to the choice of
balance or to find a logical explanation for the number of transfers as a basic criterion for the
phenomenon. system calibration and development planning.
Such analysis demands great attention to every According to number of transfers, total number of
line of public transport in order to reach the final trips in the PTS can be determined according to the
loads on all the lines. In the cases where additional number of trip in the OD matrix, giving the main
capacity appeared on lines, changes were made on control factor on the level of system.
the route itself, primarily, when it was necessary to At the level of sub-systems, the criteria should be
shorten the line. Consequently, some lines were linked to modal split research and planned data.
merged.
And at the lowest level, line level, concept of
After calibrating the system on line level it was public transportation network development (spatial
necessary to return to the indicators of higher levels position of lines) is crucial. Besides, data related to
and see the consequences at the level of sub-systems the number of passengers on the lines are needed.
and system in total. The changes on higher levels
were first logically explained in order to determine The presented work proves that a satisfactory
the lines that can bring the desired change. That way, solution can be reached in a large system based on
an iterative process was entered until criteria’s are single criteria, such as average number of trips on a
met at all levels. journey from origin to destination.
Adjusting and changing the elements within four
groups of elements (system, subsystem, line and
VI. CONCLUSION behavior) differences in the number of passengers
carried by defined lines are obtained. Set of
indicators used to detect defects and evaluate
Growing traffic problems are a reality not only in modeling results and system performance was
Belgrade but also in all major cities of Europe. With defined. Parameters of the system are modeled to the
increasing demands in the transport of goods and level set by criteria’s in iterative process. Elements at
people in cities, consequently, there is a higher rate different levels are closely related, so that changing
of heavy vehicles, public transport vehicles and cars one affects the other in a vertical hierarchy.
on the streets. Technology has successfully followed
the growing demands in limited urban space by
offering new transportation solutions. In passenger REFERENCES
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model. The paper presents the methodology, životna sredina), 2 ed., GIRO Napredak,
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pp. 223-233. Gradski saobraćajni prevoz Beograd, 2005, 15p.
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and sub-urban lines of public transport in Belgrade”

Is a new metro line a mean for sustainable

mobility among commuters?
The case of Thessaloniki city
Nikolaos Gavanas a,c Ioannis Politis a,c Konstantinos Dovas b,c Emmanouil Lianakis b,ca
Transport Engineer, MSc, PhD b Civil engineerc Transport Engineering Laboratory, Department of Civil
Engineering, School of Technology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki Tel:
00302310351582, 00302310995744, Fax: 00302310995789
ngavanas@civil.auth.gr
nicosgavanas@gmail.com
Abstract— No one can argue that fix route transport distance of trips, leading to the increase of car
systems, like the metro, can significantly contribute to the dependency and so on. The main objective of policy
target of sustainable mobility by shifting a large number makers and transport planners is to abolish this
of persons from their current transport mode of choice - cycle, or at least to delay it, by introducing
in most cases private cars. However, the individual
characteristics of the traveller (like the trip purpose and
initiatives that can alter not only the supply side of
the socioeconomic background) can affect the demand for the transport system (e.g. new tram or metro line),
such a transport mode. In this context, the paper aims to but also to affect the demand for travel (such as
develop a methodology for the investigation of the impact decreasing the frequency of trips and the mode
of these characteristics on the potential use of the new selection).
Metro System of Thessaloniki by daily commuters. More
specific, a questionnaire survey based on stated The demand of urban transport is spatially
preference techniques is developed and a pilot distributed and it is vital for the transport planner to
application is conducted at the area of three future metro detect areas presenting common travel, behavioural
stations with different geographic location and economic and socioeconomic characteristics. The current
profile. The pilot application showed daily commuters of paper attempts to identify the factors of potential
middle and high income are more frequent users of demand for a new transport mode by taking into
private cars. Approximately the ¾ of commuters with account the above specific characteristics, which can
destination to the city centre are expected to shift to the have an impact on travellers’ choice. In this context,
metro, while the corresponding share for through traffic the paper aims at the development of a
commuters is diminished due to the dependence on the methodological approach and a pilot application for
private car for large distance work trips.
the estimation of the potential use of the
Keywords— urban transport; sustainable mobility; Thessaloniki’s Metro System.
metro system; stated preference; questionnaire survey
II. THE CITY OF THESSALONIKI AND NEWMETRO

I. INTRODUCTION SYSTEM
Nowadays, almost 60% of the European citizens Thessaloniki is the largest city of Northern
are living in cities and approximately 85% of the Greece with a population of approximately
European GDP is produced within urban areas. 1,000,000 inhabitants. The road network of the city
Despite their specific features, the European cities centre is congested and delays are presented during
have to face and overcome similar problems peak periods mainly due to commuters’ traffic.
(congestion, pollution, threats on public health, According to the General Transportation Study of
safety and security issues), with road traffic the Thessaloniki metropolitan area, approximately
pertaining to be one of the main contributors. The 1,600,000 trips are made daily in the city. Almost
delays and the greater negative impacts due to 25% of these trips use the city centre as their origin
traffic congestion cost over 1% of the European or destination (or both) [2]. As a result, traffic and
GDP [1]. In addition, the ongoing urban sprawl associated environmental problems related with
causes the following vicious cycle: The increase of delays, vehicle queues, energy consumption and
car dependency increases the demand for new road pollutants emissions are observed.
infrastructure, which leads to the growth of new
activities and the increase of the number and

The public transport system of Thessaloniki (Line 1) has a total length of 9.5 km and is expected
comprises the urban bus system operated by the to cost approximately 1 billion euros. In addition,
Urban Transport Organisation (OASTH). The public funds of 400 million euros have been secured
number of passengers annually served by this fleet for the extension of the metro system to Kalamaria
is 180,000,000 approximately with a mean (Line 2). The master plan of the city betoken that an
occupancy of 42% [3]. extensive metro network will cover the city sprawl
for the next 20 years (Fig. 1). Table I presents the
Currently, a metro system is under construction
main technical and operational characteristics for
in the city (its completion date is foreseen for the
the two lines that are under construction.
year 2014), which is expected to serve 250,000
passengers daily [4]. The main line of the metro
Figure 1. Network Extension Plan of Thessaloniki Metro System[4]
TABELE I. TECHNICAL AND OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF METRO SYSTEM[4]

Characteristic Value
Vehicle Capacity 450pas/train
Density 5 pas/m2
Max Speed 80 km/h
Commercial Speed 30 km/h
1min 30 sec (peak

Frequency hours)
2 min (off-peak hours)
250,000 (Line 1)
Daily Passengers
300,000 (Line 1+2)
Max Hourly
18,000 pas
Capacity

It is estimated that the new metro system will different attributes [7]. The methodological
have a positive impact in terms of transportation and framework of the SP analysis is based on the
environmental benefits. Regarding the random utility theory, which assumes that each
transportation indices, it is calculated that due to the consumer (the user of a new road facility or service
diversion of preference from the bus to the new for transport studies) is a rational decision maker,
metro Line 1, the net benefits will be approximately aiming to maximize his personal utility when
68.5 million euros (values 2004), derived just from making choices. Two of the most spread methods
the first year of operation. These benefits were that are being used in SP analysis are the Contingent
calculated to reach 188 million euros until 2036 [5]. Valuation Method and the Conjoint Analysis
As far as the environmental benefits are concerned, Method [8].
it is estimated that the operation of Line 1 within the
Revealed preference (RP) theory is a method by
period 2012-2041 will decrease the CO2 emissions
which it is possible to discern consumer behaviour
approximately by 1.25 million tones and the CO
on the basis of variable prices and incomes [9]. A
emissions by 25 thousands tones mainly due to the
consumer with a given income will buy a mixture of
diminishment of road traffic volumes and
products; as his income changes the mixture of
congestion.
goods and services will also change. It is assumed
Taking all the above into account, it can be that the consumer will never select a combination
argued that the new metro system can play a key which is more expensive than that which was
role towards the vision of sustainable mobility. previously chosen. RP theory deliberately ignores
However, certain questions emerge in respect to the measures of utility and indifference. RP data are
fulfillment of the target of sustainability: How sure gathered either through direct observation or in
is it that all potential users are attracted by the new surveys asking about actual behaviour. The most
metro system? What are the individual commonly used revealed preference method is the
characteristics that can act as barriers to adopt Hedonic Price Method (HPM).
sustainable behaviour? In the context of this paper
some of these questions are examined through the IV. METHODOLOGICAL APPROATCH
development of a stated preference questionnaire
survey for the examination of the potential of five For the purposes of the study, a questionnaire
modes (car, motorcycle, taxi, bus, metro) for survey was conducted using SP techniques. The first
through and towards the centre commuting and a part of the questionnaire comprises four (4) sections.
pilot application focused on three future metro At the first section, a number of questions regarding
station areas. the way people are moving from/to their work were
asked. The second section includes questions about
the household characteristics like the number of
persons and the income level as it is perceived by
III. THE STATED AND REVEALED PREFERENCE
the members of the household. The third section
TECHNIQUES
aims at the identification of the personal
characteristics of the responder (e.g. age and gender)
The stated and revealed preference surveys are
and finally the last section of the revealed part is
being used for decades in order to value nonmarket aiming to identify the current travel patterns of the
public goods. Nonmarket goods are those not interviewed persons, such as the current travel mode
exchanged in markets, such as the environmental choice, the average travel time for commuting trips
quality and the improvement of transportation etc.
systems and services. Most of the methods are
specifically designed to estimate individuals’ At the second part of the survey, a stated
“Willingness to Pay” (WTP) for certain preference survey was conducted. At this part, the
improvements and services, or their “Willingness to responders were asked to state their preference,
Accept” (WTA), where the accepted (or not between two (binary) preselected travel modes (car,
accepted) paying value for the improvement (or motorcycle, taxi, bus and metro). The attributes of
respectively worsening) of a transportation index the choice based SP game were two: the cost of
(e.g. deaths related to road accidents) is calculated travel and the travel time. Table II presents an
[6]. example of the cards of the SP game.
In stated preference (SP) surveys responders are V. PILOT APPLICATION AND DISCUSSION OF
asked to rate, rank or choose between different RESULTS
hypothetical product/ service scenarios made up of
different attribute mixes. The choices made by the In order to test the applicability of the proposed
responders can be used to infer how they value methodological approach, a pilot application was

conducted comprising: the conduction of a TABELE II.EXAMPLE OF THE CHOICE BASED

questionnaire survey, the collection of data, the STATED PREFERENCE GAME
management of results and the extraction of Attribute Bus Metro
conclusions and proposals. The questionnaire survey
was conducted within a radius of 200 meters Travel 0,50 Increase by 0.50
(walking distance) around the area of three future Cost euro euro
metro stations for a sample of 105 commuters. Each Time Decrease by 12.2
30 min
of the station areas is characterized by a different Cost min
geographic location and income level [3]: Kalamaria
(east end of the city/high income), Fleming (east
side of city center/medium income) and Lagada
(west side of the city center/low income). The questionnaire survey showed that the 75.2%
of the responders come from households of medium
In Fig. 1 it is illustrated the station areas (orange income level while the percentage of both low and
circles) and the city centre (green rectangular). The high income level households was found equal to
presentation of results involves the development of 12.4%. In Fig. 2 it is presented the current mode
a series of thematic diagrams and tables for: a) each choice for commuting in relation to the household
of the three metro station areas, b) the synthetic income level, where it is evident the dominance of
analysis, including total values for the pilot the private car for commuters of medium and high
application area, c) the comparative analysis income. The percentage of commuters using the
between the three areas in respect to their location public bus is high for the groups of low and medium
and income level. income while the percentage of taxi is relatively
high (15.3%) only for the group of high income.
Total
Household income level
High taxi
pedestrian/bicycle
bus
motorcycle
Medium private car
Low
0 10 20 30 40 50
Percentage (%)
Figure 2. Current transport mode choice for commuting in relation to the household income level
According to the pilot application results, 70 out current mode choice in relation to age and sex, the
of the total of 105 responders are expected to shift percentage of male commuters of all age groups
from the current transport mode to the metro for (18-35, 35-55 and over 55 years old) using private
their daily work trips. The 84.3% of these cars for their daily work trips is approximately 60%
commuters are of the age groups of 18-35 (40%) while the corresponding percentage for female
and 35-55 (44.3%) while the commuters of older commuters is less than 15%. On the contrary, the
age seem more reluctant to change their current 58.6% of women commuters prefer the bus whereas
choice of mode. Furthermore, according to the the corresponding percentage of male commuters

varies from 15.8% (18-35 years old) to 22,2% (over their destination (either towards or through the city
55 years old). centre). For the whole of the pilot application area,
the percentage of commuters that are expected to
In Table III there is a presentation of the current
shift from the private car to the metro after its
mode choice for commuting and the potential shift to
operation is 57% with small variations among the
metro that is expected to take place after its
three areas. It should also be noticed that the
operation. From the Table it can be observed for the
majority of motorcycle users in the areas which are
Kalamaria metro station area the relatively high
closer to the city centre are not expected to shift
percentage of commuters that use private cars for
from the motorcycle to the metro mainly because of
their daily work trips. This is due to their higher
the low cost, the flexibility and the door to door
income level and also to the comparatively larger
service provided by the specific transport mode.
distance that they have to travel in order to reach
.
TABELE III.CURRENT TRANSPORT MODE SELECTION FOR COMMUTING AND POTENTIAL SHIFT TO METRO BY TRANSPORT
MODE
Metro station Transport Before metro After metro

area mode Current Current Shift to metro
selection (%) selection (%) (%)
Kalamaria private car 51.4 22.8 28.6
motorcycle 20.0 5.7 14.3
Bus 20.0 2.9 17.1
pedestrian/bicycl 2.9 2.9 0.0
e
Taxi 5.7 2.8 2.9
Total 100 37.1 62.9
Fleming private car 34.3 14.3 20.0
Bus 45.7 0,0 45.7
pedestrian/bicycl 5.7 5.7 0,0
e
Taxi 5.7 2.8 2.9
Total 100 31.4 68.6
Lagada private car 34.3 14.3 20.0
Bus 45.7 5.7 40.0
pedestrian/bicycl 5.7 0.0 5.7
e
Taxi 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total 100 31.4 68.6
As far as the distribution of work trips according centre respectively. In these Figures each pair of
to destination is concerned, the pilot application bars represents the current transport mode choice
showed that 51.4 % of the commuters originated and the potential shift from the specific mode to the
from the Kalamaria metro station area have to reach metro as percentage (%) of the total number of
a destination within the city centre and 40% conduct commuters using all modes. Fig. 3 shows that
a through traffic work trip. The corresponding 47.3% of the commuters towards the city centre
values for the Fleming and Lagada metro station chose the bus for their daily work trips. After the
areas are 54.3 % and 51.4% with destination to the operation of the metro, the commuters that are
city centre and 28.5% and 25.7% for through traffic expected to shift from the bus to the new mode
respectively. represent the 40% of the total number of commuters
with destination to the city centre. The 74.5% of the
In Fig. 3 and 4 it is illustrated the transport mode
total number of commuters with destination to the
choice for commuting towards and through the city

city centre are willing to shift from their current commuters are expected to shift from their current
mode choice to the metro. In Fig. 4 it can be mode choice to the metro. In this percentage it is
observed that 76.5% of the commuters that conduct included the combined use of metro for the initial
through traffic currently use private cars and only part of the trip and other modes (bus and rail
30.7% of them are willing to shift from this mode to mainly) for the final part.
the metro. An overall of 41.2% of the through traffic
100
90
80
70
Percentage (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
private car motorcycle bus pedestrian/bicycle taxi total
Transport mode
Shift to metro
Figure 3. Current transport mode choice and potential shift from each mode to the metro as a percentage of total
commuters with destination to the city centre
100
90
80
70
Percentage (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
private car motorcycle bus pedestrian/bicycle taxi total
Transport mode
Shift to metro
Figure 4. Current transport mode choice and potential shift from each mode to the metro as a percentage of total
commuters with destination through the city centre
VI. CONCLUSIVE REMARKS preference questionnaire survey) for the ex ante

evaluation of potential demand for the Thessaloniki
In the current study it is presented a Metro System. The study aims at the investigation
methodological approach (based on a stated of the role of the new transport mode for the

promotion of sustainable mobility in the city of the new transport mode will provide the opportunity
Thessaloniki. More specific, it is examined how the of radically change the profile of the Thessaloniki
new transport mode will affect the mode choice of transport system and upgrade the quality of the
daily commuters towards and through the city urban environment.
centre, thus alleviating congestion from the road
network during peak periods. The proposed
methodological approach was tested by a pilot REFERENCE
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findings:
[1] Commission of the European Communities, “White
There is a strong dependency on private car use Paper. European transport policy for 2010: Time to
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[2] Organization for the Master Plan and Environmental
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Atkins, Thessaloniki, 2000
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that use motorcycles to reach their work places in communication technologies to the management of
the city centre appear satisfied with the level of transport in a metropolitan area”, (in Greek), Paper
conducted and presented at the Department of Civil
service provided by the specific mode and are not Engineering, School of Technology, Aristotle
willing to shift to the new transport mode. The University of Thessaloniki, 2005
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accessed 16 Apr 2011
from commuters that currently use the Thessaloniki [5] P. Papaioannou, “The metro system of
public bus system. This is due to the fact that the Thessaloniki”, Polimixano Magazine, Faculty of
main routes of the public bus network today are Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
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Finally, it was also observed that in the current understanding and modelling travel behaviour in
situation there is almost no use of combined Greece”, 3rd International Conference on
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[7] J. Abley, “Stated preference techniques and
Thus, in order to further reduce the use of the consumer decision making: New challenges to old
private car it is proposed the promotion of the assumptions”, Working Paper, 2000, School of
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service long distance trips. At the same time, the consumers’ behaviour”, Econometrica NS, Volume
metro’s park & ride services is expected to 5, 1938, p.p.61-71
[10] E. Lianakis, and K. Dovas, “The impact of the
contribute towards this direction. Furthermore, the Thessaloniki’s metro on the mode choice of
operation of the metro system should be combined commuting trips”, (in Greek), Paper conducted and
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wider area of the city centre and other areas. Thus,

Environment Friendly Transport Solution-

Transadriatic Balkan Transport Corridor
Natasa Gojkovic Bukvic
Management Consultancy,
Bari, Italy
natasagb@gmail.com
Abstract— Herein, we discuss the project idea to

find a way how to connect South Italy (South Europe- I. CLIMATE CHANGE AND TRANSPORTATION
Spain and Portugal) to South East Europe/Balkan
Peninsula countries in the most suitable way with less air In the decade up to 2008, greenhouse gas
pollution, more traffic safety and reduction of road
congestion. This approach should be seen as immediate emission (GHG) in the EU27 decreased by 2,4%.
implementation of the European Union Common The areas where emissions decreased were: energy
Transport Policy and enlargement of European Union on use, waste, manufacturing and construction and
Balkan Peninsula, countries which are still out of EU and agriculture. At the same time however, emissions
also to establish joined traffic management as one of the from energy industries, industrial processes and
most industrialized topic areas within transport research. transport were growing. [1]
This means that this research area, dynamic and fast
moving, should have, obviously, special attention on
environment. Creation of a new intermodal/combined
transport corridor could reduce CO2 emission with
enormous advantage on the environment, reduction of
greenhouse gas emission, not only due to reduction of
number of kilometers, which a new corridor permits, but
also because we are focusing on creation of railways
joined practice between all Balkan countries with
interoperability and interconnection operations and
management. The project takes care, promotes and
underlines protections of the environment and natural
resources. However, the governments need to impose
more determent air quality standards, this requires
action to achieve these standards first in those areas
where larger numbers of people are exposed. Key issues
will be if the technological improvements can keep pace
with expected growth in transport industry and if
appropriate incentive structures are able to encourage
further developments and side effects that should be
effectively compensated. Climate change and increase in
energy efficiency creating a new intermodal corridor will
have a direct and indirect influence on many others
domains. European Union found out that transport has a
determinant impact on regional development and
regional cohesion. The South-East Europe countries
should be more sensitive on this issue because of facing
with more or less critical levels of socio-economic and Figure 1. EU -27 greenhouse gas emissions by
stability. As regards of the automatic link between sector, 2008
economic growth and growth in freight transport, the
solution is not in reduction of transport but in Today and in the future climate change is
redistribution between modes. This is a reason why a essentially a social problem. It is the production,
project idea could have success and in this case we are transportation and eventually the consumption of the
not only talking about redistribution between modes of goods that produce emission. These emission give
transport but also implementing a new corridor with rise to climate change with social costs in the form
environment benefits. of diseases, cost that do not have to be carried by the
Keywords— Balkan, EU, intermodal, CO2, reduction, actual polluter. The green house gas emission in EU
environment, climate have been reduced in most sectors over the last 15

years, on the other hand, transportation has shown a particulate matters and noise. The effects of
25% increase [2]. In order to come to terms with transport infrastructures on the nature, landscape
this, many governments in Europe have to decide to and biodiversity are also adverse but at the same
take legislative action. The level of greenhouse gas time is essential for society and for individuals.
emission is to be reduced by 40% by 2020 and by
2030 the Swedish vehicle fleet is to be fully
independent on fossil fuels. The number of
economic measures are suggested. The social cost
will have to be internalized and to achieve this
carbon taxes and emissions trading schemes will be
utilizes. [3]
Figure 3. Ton CO2 for 500 km route [5]
One of the main goals of the EU Sustainable

Development Strategy is to achieve a balanced shift
towards environmentally friendly transport modes to
Figure 2. CO2 emissions from transportation EU-25 bring about a sustainable transport and mobility
[2] system. This shift would certainly bring down GHG
emissions as well.
In order to achieve a reduction, a firm may chose
between a number of measures. One measure Achieving sustainable transport and lower
commonly suggested is a shift in transport mode, emissions requires infrastructural development in
from faster, more polluting mode such as road and modes with lower environmental impact. There has
air transport to slower and less polluting modes such been a shift in investment towards environmentally
as rail or sea transport. A particularly interesting friendly transport modes. Total investment in
solution is an intermodal road-rail- short sea transport infrastructure, including new construction,
shipping solution. In this way, the flexibility and extension, reconstruction and major repairs, reached
availability of truck transport is combined with low about €95 bilion euro in 2008. During a period
cost, CO2 efficient , rail transport for the longer part between 1999-2008 investments in rail, maritime
of the journey. Research has shown that, with this and inland waterways slightly decreased but road
type of mode shift, CO2 emission can be reduced by infrastructure investment remained dominant.[6]
20-50% or more depending on how the electricity
for the train part is produced. [4]
Climate change, as well known, is a major threat II. EUROPEAN UNION PLANS FOR THE REGION
to sustainable development. Under the international
Kyoto Protocol the EU15 has a collective target of EU plans for the Region are distinguished in hard
8% of reduction below levels chosen in base year and soft measures. The hard is related to
(mostly 1990). By 2008, the EU15 had decreased its infrastructures and soft measures are harmonization
emissions by 6,9%. Furthermore, the EU27 has set a and reforms (technical standards and border crossing
20% reduction target by 2020. procedures). The soft projects indicate that the rail
and ports are considerably affected by “
With a share of 19,5% of total emissions in 2008, regionalization”, which could be solved by setting up
transport is the second largest source of emissions in Intergovernmental Working Group on Railway and
the EU and it is the sector that has exhibited Intermodal Policy. One of the main job of the
continuously growing emissions. Beside GHG Working Group is to make an inventory of rail
emissions, transport is also responsible for other reforms and further recommend measures that ensure
negative externalities such as air pollution,

the regional integration and harmonization of the and public consortium which will be able to move
reforms for every country and to open access to merchandise from/ to Southern Europe to/from
transport infrastructure. Unfortunately, States have Eastern Europe. To start up a common railways
usually denied railways enterprises the freedom of a practice it is necessary to create a Intergovernmental
commercial business and this has to be changed. Working Group on Railways- new railway
Different options are possibly: some railways may management model able to take care of the
focus entirely on their core business of operating opportunities given by all existing European
trains. Other may choose to enter into partnership for Programs on intermodal transport sector - which will
example with road haulers or logistics companies include all countries interested in a project start up.
and offer door to door intermodal services. Some The aim of European Union policy has been to
may operate across Europe, while others may reduce and in the future to eliminate technical and
concentrate on local services. One thing in common operational differences among national railway
of all railways in Region is that they must focus on systems and achieve harmonization in terms of
what their customers want and how they can satisfy technical specifications for infrastructure, signaling,
these needs. It is important to establish common telecommunications and rolling stock as well as
traffic management which will focus on planning, certain operational rules [ 9,10]. The above
monitoring and control or influence of traffic. The mentioned group should create common intermodal
principal aim should be to maximize the policy.
effectiveness of the use of existing infrastructure,
ensure reliable and safe operation of transport,
address environmental goals and ensure fair
allocation of infrastructure space (road space, rail IV. CONCLUSIONS
slots etc.) among competing users [7].
Climate change is essentially a social problem
Concerning seaports intention is to identify which
and because of that it needs integral and coherent
regional port (out of total number of seven ports in
transport policy. The social implications of the
the regional core network) provides the best long-
transport need to be constantly and carefully
term solution for Adriatic shipping.
monitored.
The core network was defined by the “REBIS”
The starting point is to find sustainable transport
study and includes the mail rail and road connections
and welcome the development of infrastructure
between the five capitals of the region, as well as the
changing as a policy instrument to contain and
cities of Banja Luka, Podgorica and Pristina; the
reduce congestion and reduce environmental
linking of these cities with the capitals of the
impacts. It is well reported by Kreutzberger [11] that
neighboring countries and to the ports of the Adraitic
the environmental performance of intermodal
Sea and the river Danube.[8]
transport is substantially better than that of unimodal
road transport when looking at every use and GHG
emission and this is even more outspoken when also
III. PROJECT IDEA local emissions, accidents, congestion and noise are
integrated. As regards of the automatic link between
economic growth and growth in freight transport, the
The project idea is to create unaccompanied
solution is not in reduction of transport but in
combined transport chain of intermodal transport
redistribution between modes. This is a main reason
units in South East Europe between Bari Logistic
and strength of a project idea which could bring a
Center and Logistic Railways Terminals in Bosnia
success. Furthermore, in this case we are not only
and Herzegovina, Serbia, Romania, Montenegro,
talking about redistribution between modes [12] of
Croatia and Bulgaria avoiding the road traffic and
transport but also we are implementing a new
reduction of CO2 using short sea shipping by Ro/Ro
corridor. Fair and efficient pricing, better
vessels and block trains. The European Commission
investments and some of policy tools that can help to
has developed policy measures to shift the balance
achieve this. Enlargement of the European Union is
between transport modes with special focus on
set to trigger larger exchanges of goods and so need
promoting intermodal transport. The type of
for additional investments in transport
transport has been strongly advocated because of
infrastructures. It’s well known south-east Europe
environmental concerns and safety reasons to avoid
transport system distinguishes itself by extremely
road congestions.
fragmented transport. Italy, especially South Italy,
The first step is to organize railways practice in with its geographical position, cultural, political,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Romania, humanitarian and historical connections could have
Montenegro, Croatia and Bulgaria mixing private prestige and favorable role between European Union

and Balkans. Finally, implementation of legal [5] Fedrik Eng Larsson, David Kollberg “Overcoming
the obstacles of intermodal transport- a shipper
regulations under supervision could produce perspective on the effects of modalshift” Master
different positive consequences on transport, Thesis conducted at Engineering Logistics, Lund
environment, climate, production, crime control, University 2009
[6] Eurostat 2011 “Climate change-driving forces”
protection and defense etc. The European http//epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/in
Commission is supporting the idea that transport dexphp?title=Climatechange Accessed: 2011-04-13
costs should reflect the true impact on environment [7] The World Bank document “Railway Reform in the
western Balkans”, December
and society and is relentlessly pushing towards the 2005http://ec.europa.eu/.../rail/.../
so called internalization of external costs as a policy 005_world_bank_western_balkans_railways_report.
instrument in order to establish fair and efficient [8] www.seerecon.org/infrastructure/sectors/transport/do
cuments/REBIS/Rebis_FR_Final.pdf Accessed
pricing of different transport modes. :2010-02-01
[9] Commission of the European Communities (CEC),
“White paper: European transport policy for 2010:
time to decide” Luxemburg: Office for Official
REFERENCES Publications of the European Communities, 2001
[10] Commission of the European Communities (CEC),
“Keep Europe Moving-Sustainable Mobility for Our
Continent, Mid-term review of the European
[1] Eurostat 2008, “ Greenhouse gas emission by Commission’s 2001 Transport White Paper”
sector”, Luxemburg; Office for Offical Publications of the
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/product?code=tsdcc210& European Communities, 2006
language=en&mode=view), Accessed: 2011-04-13 [11] E. Kreutzberger, C. Macharis, L. Vereecken, L.
[2] Eurostat 2006”Greenhouse gas emissions by sector” , Woxenius, “Is intermodal freight transport more
http//epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu Accessed: 2009-03- environmental friendly than all-road freight
20 transport?” A review in:7th Nectar Conference “A
[3] Regeringen 2009, Enhallbar energy-och klimatpolitik New Millennium. Are things the Same? Umea
foor miljo, konkurrnskraft och trygghert, Sweden 13-14 June 2003
Regeringskansliet, Stockholm [12] A. Ogorelc, “ European Union Common Transport
[4] IFEU & Sgkv 2009 “ Comparative analysis of energy Policy “; Nase more” 50. 5-6, 2003
consumption and CO2 emission of road transport and
combined transport road/rail , IRU, Geneva

Impact of emissions of marine diesel engines to

air pollution on the
example of the Yugoslav River Shipping
Dragan Ljevaja
Employee of:
World Transport Overseas
Serbia
draganljevaja@yahoo.com
Abstract— The subject of this paper is the impact nor considered by transportation planners and
which marine diesel engines have on air pollution. The decision makers in the processes of planning,
combustion of fossil fuels for marine diesel engines decision making and management of transport
produces emission of various greenhouse gases; infrastructure. Many experts are not aware of the
including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous traffic problems that can lead to the climate change.
oxide (N2O), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), non-methane volatile organic compounds Others are reluctant to take action because of the
(NMVOCs), and sulphur dioxide (SO2). Gas emission uncertain outcome, long-term framework and lack
calculation is shown on the example of the Yugoslav river of clear guidelines and standards for classifying the
shipping with two methods for calculating harmful effects of climate change.
emissions of the marine diesel engines. Technologies for
reduction of harmful emissions of marine diesel engines
The purpose of this study is to gain knowledge of
and other engines are also presented, as well as the substances that come from marine diesel engines
implementation of those technologies, using the example and their quantity, as well as to help in recognizing
of the Yugoslav river shipping. One of the objectives of the need of developing technologies which can
this paper is to determine the actual condition of the fleet, reduce these substances, enhanced by the operation
as well as the impact it has on air pollution in Serbia, as of ship diesel engine - as the best mode of transport
a country which plans to become a member of the in an ecological sense. Marine diesel engines will be
European Union. A measurement on diesel engines of used certainly for many years so that research
different production date was done with a special device, should focus in improvement of their ecological
in order to get the results that represent reality (about efficiency. [1]
harmful emissions) in Serbia. Final task of this paper is
to collect information in order to reduce harmful
emissions of the marine diesel engines, along with
preservation of the environment. II. ADVANTAGES OF RIVER TRANSPORT
Keywords— emissions from marine diesel engines, In comparison to other pollutants (heating,
climate changes, Yugoslav River Shipping (JRB)
industry, road transport), river transport has a low
level of fuel consumption and consequently a
relatively low level of polluting the environment.
I. INTRODUCTION.
The total amount of air pollution by the
Over the course of several past years, the waterways is only 0.5%.
attention has been turned to a potential It is expected that by 2030. the effectiveness of
consequences of climate change on the global river transport is going to increase by aproximatley
transport infrastructure and operations. Eg. Rising of 30%, while fuel consumption will decrease by 15%
superior sea-level, flooding and storm waves (compared to 1990. Year).
overwhelming port transportation facilities, runways
at airport near the coast, sub-ways, and railways In terms of growth, river transport has virtually no
entering the tunnels and roads and bridges in low- limitations, e.g. the river Rhine which has the
lying coastal areas. posibility to increase the volume of transport by 4
times, and the Danube by 10 times. Moreover, only
Consequences which these impacts can have on the river transport are able to clear the road
the transportation sector are not fully studied, congestion. [2]

III. MARINE ENGINES. generally fuel consumption. The emission factor

may be fuel type and/or technology type specific.
Ships are way different from other means of The basic equation is:
transportation, such as trucks or rail. In addition to
Emissions=Fuel Consumption•Emission Factor
the transportation of various goods and passengers,
(1)
ships must include accommodation and other
necessary facilities for the crew. In many cases must The IPCC method provides two approaches, Tier
be able to handle different types of cargo in ports, as 1 and 2. Both tiers use fuel consumption data. The
well. In order to secure this, ships must be able to Tier 1 approach does not use fuel type or engine
provide energy in various conditions. Therefore, the type specificity for the non-CO2 gases (although it
ships are equipped with different types of does for CO2), and therefore is assumed to be less
"producers" of energy. [3] accurate for the non-CO2 gases. The Tier 2 approach
requires that the calculations are to be performed
Marine engines are presented as the main engine
with some fuel or vehicle type specificity and in
and auxiliary engines. The main sources of
some cases discusses engine type specificity.
emissions are as follows:
 Main engine - used for ships movement
Method I
 Auxiliary engine - used to generate electricity
(current)
The most commonly used engine in the ship is Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
diesel engine. The diesel engine has undergone a The IPCC Tier 1 or Reference approach for
powerful development process resulting in a estimating CO2 emissions from the combustion of
completely new generation of engines with fossil fuels used for navigation is the same approach
considerably improved performance. The specific used for other energy sources. It is a "top-down"
fuel consumption of a modern two-stroke diesel method that estimates emissions based on the
engine may be in the order of 160 g/kWh, as consumption of fuels.
compared to 210 g/kWh for older engines. Today
the largest two-stroke diesel engines have an output The steps in the methodology are as follows:
of over 80 MW, which should be sufficient even for Step 1 - Estimate consumption of fuel
future proposed high-speed container ships. Owing
to the high efficiency of diesel engines, the Fuel consumption data is generally collected and
emissions of CO2, CO and hydrocarbons are published by national or international agencies. The
relatively low, however, they have a high emissions amount of fuel consumed in ships, boats and other
of NOX. The same high combustion temperatures vessels for navigation may have to be approximated
that give a high thermal efficiency in the diesel using proxy data on the marine shipping industry or
engine are also most conducive to NOX formation. other metric.
By running on low quality fuels with a low fuel Step 2 - Convert the fuel data to a common
consumption, large diesel engines offer enormous energy unit (TJ), if necessary
savings in fuel costs compared with those of
alternative prime movers. The fuel consumption data may not be reported
in common units.
However, the ship's engines produce various
emissions of greenhouse gases, including carbon Step 3 - Select the carbon content factor for the
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide fuel and estimate the total carbon content of the fuel.
(N2O), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen Although default IPCC carbon emission factors
(NOx), non-methane volatile organic compounds are available, country-specific values should be used
(NMVOCs) , and sulfur dioxide (SO2). [3] if possible.
Primary goal is maximum reduction of harmful Step 4 - Estimate the amount of carbon stored in
emissions products for long periods of time
If lubricants have been included in the estimates
IV. METHODS FOR CALCULATING EMISSIONS of fuel consumption, then the fraction of those
lubricants which remain un-combusted should be
The IPCC methods provide a general approach to subtracted from the consumption total. The
estimate emissions from the combustion of fossil oxidation of lubricants in ships is expected to be an
fuels for navigation. The activity data used is extremely minor source of CO2 emissions.

Step 5 - Account for carbon not oxidized during was made according to the methods which are
combustion briefly presented above.
The fraction un-oxidized is a function of the type From Table 2. can be seen that the total
of fuel, the combustion technology, and the emissions for each vessel has a higher value when
operation and maintenance practices. The default calculated by method II. This is because the
value for most common petroleum fuels combusted calculation does not include CO 2 gases.
in typical engines is near 1 percent.[4]
That is why it cannot be always used for certain
Method II engines and certain fuel types but should have been
The Tier 2 IPCC approach requires only minor properly modified.
additional specificity. The IPCC methods do not
currently provide Tier 2 default emission factors by
fuel type and engine type. In theory, the IPCC VI. TECHNOLOGY FOR REDUCTION OF HARMFUL
approach would use the equation below to estimate EMISSIONS
emissions of non-CO2 gases.
There are four basic technologies to reduce
harmful emissions that are used today: the use of
Emissions = Σ (EFij • Activityij) (2) selective catalytic reduction (SCR catalyst) using a
filter to remove soot (PMF filter), using fuel with
ultra low sulfur content, the same standard diesel
Where: fuel used by road vehicles; Cruise control (ATM), a
computer program for advising the captain on the
EF: Emission Factor (g/MJ or g/kg fuel) most cost-effective combination of distance and
speed. [6]
Activity: Fuel Consumption (MJ or kg)
TABELE I. SHIPS IN SERVICE IN THE MONTH OF
i: Fuel type APRIL 2005.
Ships at service
Fuel connsump-tion (l)

j: Engine type
Working hours (h)

Estimates for CO2 using the Tier 1 methodology
Power (kW)
already requires fuel type specificity, and the

accuracy of those estimates is unlikely to be
improved by the addition of engine type specificity.
Emissions of non-CO2 gases are far more dependent
upon the engine characteristics and technology than
CO2 emissions. In the case of SO2, the sulphur 1. "Karlovac" 3091 181384 471
content of the fuel is the primary factor. [6]
2. "Karadjordje" 2060 110630 441
It is important to note that the existing default 3. "Kadinjaca" 1620 68738 268
emission factors presented in the IPCC methods are
4. "Kajmakcalan" 1552 59738 368
currently inaccurate to estimate emissions of non-CO2
gases using well characterized activity data by fuel 5. "Velebit' 1552 92370 348
and engine type. 6. "Bihac" 1104 95065 477
7. "Orasac" 1103 63512 328
8. "Deligrad" 1276 59887 237
V. FLEET WHICH WAS USED IN APRIL 2005 9. "Kosmaj" 736 4380 29
Detailed monitoring and records of vessels on 10. "Birac" 442 19095 278
field, it was found that in April 2005, the following 11. "Stig" 368 13260 169
ships were in service. (Table1) [5]. Detailed tracking 12. "Modrica" 592 22934 298
of the vessels in April 2005 helped in gathering the 13. “Kalemegdan” 109 22353 251
data on fuel consumption and hours of work for 14. “Gavran” 64 0 0
each of these ships. This data is essential for the 15. “Radan” 40 0 0
calculation of emission which is made for all of the 16. “Mc-20” 6 0 0
above mentioned ships. The Table 2. shows the total 17. “Miljacka” 88 0 0
emissions of harmful substances for the month of 18. “Sarajevo” 736 0 0
April of all the ships that were in use. Calculation

TABELE II. TOTAL EMISSIONS OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES BY METHODS I AND II FOR THE MONTH OF APRIL OF ALL
THE SHIPS THAT WERE IN USE.
Total Total
emisions metod emisions
I (t) metod II (t)
(kW)
1. "Bihać" 1104 70,24 73,7
2. "Birač" 442 16,69 17,38
3. "Deligrad" 1276 44,96 46,72
4. "Kadinjača" 1619 51,07 53,6
5. "Kajmakčalan" 1552 44,4 46,5
6. "Karadjordje" 2060 82,24 86,1
7. "Karlovac" 3091 134,81 142,44
8. "Kosmaj" 736 3,25 3,4
9. "Modriča" 592 16,12 126,8
10. "Orašac" 1103 47,2 49,4
11. "Raška" 368 2,4 2,6
12. "Stig" 368 9,85 10,3
13. "Stig"-II 368 10,62 11,04
14. "Velebit" 776 71,61 75,12
Total 15455 605,46 745,1
have installed catalyst and PM filter. Regarding

cruise control, we needed some certain engine
technologies and newer engines with computerized
fuel injection system what required a complete
engine replacement, and unfortunately we were not
able to do so. We were not able to find fuel with a
small proportion of sulfur.
TABELE III. THE EXPECTED REDUCTION OF

PARTICLES THAT POLLUTE THE AIR
Types of
NOx PM FC CO2 SOx
Technologie
Tempomat
-7% -7% 7% -7% -7%
(ATM)
Figure 1. Comparative review of the total emissions per Fuel with less
methods I and II of all ships that sailed in the month - 17% - - 99,50%
sulfur
of April 2005.
Catalizator
85% - - - -
(SCR)
VII. THE APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY TO Particulate filter
- 95% 2% 2% 2%
JRB (YUGOSLAV RIVER SHIPPING) (PMFfilter)
Total emission
In order to demonstrate the impact of the above reduction
86% 96% 5% -5% -99.5%
technologies to reduction of harmful substances,
example will be done on JRB ships, for the month
of April 2005. Regarding technology - we will
assume that all the ships that have sailed in April

Good fuel quality in Serbia is difficult, almost “FAP 1620BD” (year of production 1980, engine
impossible to find. So we will apply the technology power 60kW). This kind of truck is still used in
catalyst and PM filter. large cases in Serbia and it is a representative type
of the older diesel engines. Figure 6. shows the
emissions from diesel engine Mercedes Benz Actros
VIII. RESULTS FOR THE MONTH OF APRIL 2005. (year of production the 2002nd, engine power 294
YEAR, AFTER THE INSTALLATION OF TECHNOLOGY kW) with a catalyst and PM filter. We can conclude
TO REDUCE EMISSIONS from the diagrams that the engine with the power of
294 kW has much lower level of emission. It was
By using the example of Yugoslav River also interesting to find that the level of fuel
Shipping for the month of April 2005, we have consumption of the stronger engine was lower than
performed a calculation of the emissions for ships that of the older engine type with less power.
that sailed, with an assumption that every ship had a Measurements were done on 10 different kinds of
catalyst and PM filter installed. Figure 4. shows the engines, however – we will show only these two
comparison of these results (results obtained after representative samples.
the technology was built) and results for the same
month when the ships sailed without adequate 'add-
on' that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. From the
figure 4. it can be seen that the total emissions
reduced from 605.46 t to 31.54 t as per IPCC II
approach method, and from 745.1 tons to 45.19 tons
as per IPCC II approach method. The overall
conclusion is that the first method was reduced by
19 times, while another method is reduced by about
17 times.
Figure 3. The emissions from motor “FAP 1620BD”,

collected on the field with testing.
Figure 2. Comparative review of total emissions before

and after the installation of technology to reduce
pollution
IX. THE RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS

PERFORMED ON THE ENGINES
Measurements were done on the field on diesel

engines of different engine power and years of
production in order to gain a real impression and
carry out comparisons with the methods for
calculation of emissions. Measurements were done
by a device which is used to check the exhaust
matter from diesel engines on technical road
inspections of vehicles in the Republic of Serbia. Figure 4. Figure 6. The emissions from motor Mercedes
Benz Actros, collected on the field with testing.
Figure 5. shows the emissions from diesel engine

X. CONCLUSION REFERENCES
It is obvious that the fuel consumption is directly

related to the emission of harmful gases and that the fuel [1] National research council of the national academies,
Transportation research board special report 290,
has an important role in controlling emissions. In order Potential impacts of climate change to US
for the fuel consumption to be reduced, it is necessary to transportation, published
move to more modern and newer engines with different [2] www.ekoportal.com
[3] Andrzej Adamkiewicz, Krzysztof Kołwzan Marine
fuel injection systems. This is the best solution, however power pollutant emissions, published
it requires more investments. Moreover, replacing the old [4] Paul Jun, Michael Gillenwater, Wiley Barbour, CO2
engines with new ones definitely has more advantages. , CH4 , and N2O emissions from transportation
water-borne navigation, published
Fuel consumption is lower and corresponding to the [5] Miljana D.Sladojević., Graduate work,,, Comparison
vessel owner; harmful emissions are reduced and it of exploitation fleet Yugoslav River Shipping
brings less emission factors which directly affect the Company - JRB, for the month of April and August
2005. Diplomski rad; ,,Uporedjivanje eksploatacije
emissions. flote preduzeća Jugoslovensko Rečno Brodarstvo –
JRB, za mesec april i avgust 2005. godine“ ,
It should be kept in mind that that all emissions of Beograd, 2006
greenhouse gases are not reduced in the same way. The [6] Prof.Dr. Dejan Radojčić “Green ships for blue
influence of technology to reduce emissions has been Danube”, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in
Belgrade “Zeleni brodovi za plavi Dunav”, Mašinski
presented, in order to see their actual effect on the real fakultet u Beogradu, published
example. Therefore, it is shown that the installation of [7] Graham Richard , EU Project Designs Cleaner Ship
for Inland and Coastal Waterways by Michael,
these technologies on ships JRB's total emissions are Ottawa, Canada, published
reduced almost 20 times, which is a significant reduction.
In respect to ecologically sustainable development
strategies implemented within each country, it is
considered that changes should be done in transportation
sector as well. It has been recognized that the marine
traffic has a potential of becoming an ecologically
sustainable mean of transportation and efforts are made to
lower and consequently eliminate the impact of marine
traffic to the living environment.

The Turbofan Transport Aircraft Pollution

Calculation Software
Petar Mirosavljevic, PhD Assistant Professor, Slobodan Gvozdenovic, PhD Full Professor
Olja Cokorilo, PhD Assistant Professor, Ljubiša Vasov, PhD Associated Professor
University of Belgrade
The Faculty for Traffic and Transport Engineering
Vojvode Stepe 305, Belgrade, Serbia
perami@sf.bg.ac.rs
slobodg@sf.bg.ac.rs
oljav@sf.bg.ac.rs
lj.vasov@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— The sustainable development of air I. INTRODUCTION

transport in next decade will be under strong influence of
pollution minimization trend. The Advisory Council of
Aeronautical Research in Europe-ACARE already set The transport aviation sector has challenge to
aims, which drastically lower transport aircraft air define acceptable system for pollution quantification
pollution. European Countries, such as Sweden and and certification for part of flight above 3000ft. This
Switzerland introduced pollution charges as a method of is open question for aeronautical society. We all are
sustainable development of air traffic. All entities in air aware of recent global attempt to reduce pollution,
transport sector: airports, airlines, air traffic as result of global society concern. The world air
management and civil aviation authorities develop in transport system is changing in rapid way, also as a
cooperation measures and efforts to minimize pollution.
This paper is review of newly developed software for consequence of economics crisis and escalating
turbo fan transport aircraft pollution calculation as a environmental concerns. Concerns over global
support for air transport sector effort in pollution warming, are now also focused on air carriers
minimization process. This pollution calculation software operations. All of these issues need to be addressed
is develop as a part of new research project for future air traffic systems, and new technology
‘‘Environment management system framework respect to needs to be applied, to the basic aircraft
aircraft engine emissions and risk of aircraft accidents configuration, engines, and subsystems and the
around airports in Serbia’’, supported by Ministry of airspace in which they operate. ACARE has set up
Science and Technological Development of Republic of targets for the year 2020 in order to reduce NOx and
Serbia. The impact of pollution is measured from CO2
CO2 emission per passenger per nautical mile. This
pollutant directly, and NOx non-directly, related to fuel
consumption. The first part of paper describe pollution reduction is significant in is for 20% in the case of
calculation model, as a core of pollution calculation CO2 and 80% in the case of NOx [1].
software. The presented model is based on real aircraft The significant fuel combustion pollutants can be
performances and real aeronautical meteorological selected in two different categories:
conditions in form of universal parametric functions. This
pollution functions parameterization guaranties  Linearly related to fuel consumption: carbon
application to any turbo fan transport aircraft type, dioxide CO2, sulphur oxides SO2 and water vapour
which is also contribution to universality of obtained H2O and
results. The second part of paper describes software
calculation process on base of input parameters and  Not linearly related to fuel consumption:
pollution functions. This part of paper is deducted to two nitrogen oxides NOx, carbon monoxide CO and
part of software: the first for en route pollution hydrocarbons HC.
calculation or above 1500ft and the second for
calculation of pollution bellow 1500ft in area of takeoff The emission of CO2 and NOx depend on type of
and landing airport. The final part of paper describes fuel, fuel burned and flight level where fuel is
software result presentation which is use full for all burned. We can set up direct relationship of fuel
entities in air transport sector. The scope of paper burned and CO2 emission for transport aircraft. For
belongs to area of evaluating policies and measures in kerosene Jet A1 fuel used in transport turbo fan
climate friendly transport. aircraft, 1kg of fuel burned produce 3.15kg of CO2,
Keywords— air transport pollution, software, turbo as publish in Boeing 1988. The energy problem
fan aircraft, performance research in USA (Energy Information Association

of US) publishes data related to emission of CO 2 pollution measurement for flight altitude up to
during combustion of aviation fuel. 3000ft QFE, by LTO emission cycles (landing, take
off) published by [3]. This air pollution
 Aviation Gas: 2.199 kg CO2/l measurement system is based on Emissions Related
 A1 Jet engine fuel: Landing Charges Investigation recommendation,
published by [4]. Today, is not jet present
 3.840 kg CO2/l or 3.149 kg CO2/kg fuel methodology for pollution charges calculation,
 Water (H2O) 1.237 kg H2O/kg fuel based on real pollutant emission, produces during
real aircraft operations, for given aircraft
 Sulphur oxides (as S02) 0.0008 kg configuration in takeoff and landing and real applied
S02/kg fuel throttle setting.
For example, ICAO ENGINE EXHAUST
The water as product of fossil fuel combustion is EMISSIONS DATA BANK published by [3], for
not pollution, bat have influence on green house engine CF6-80C2B6F, assumes only application
effect thought contrails. During fossil fuel 100% take off thrust. Contrary to this, de rated
combustion process we got water H2O. When exit thrust is established method for takeoff operations,
form engine exhaust water freezes (at FL360 ISA when ATOW is lower than MTOW. This ATOW
temperature -54oC) and produce contrails. Contrails require lower thrust setting, which imply lower
promote cirrus formation and in that way change pollution as described by [5]. De rated take-off
atmosphere heating/cooling schedule. thrust have flight safety and operations limitation
Pollution by air transport is directly related to and shall not be used when the runway is
pollutants released after fuel consumption. The most contaminated with standing water, slush, snow or
important pollutants, which are linearly related to ice.
fuel consumption, are carbon dioxide (CO2, SO2 and The second example is CDA method, which
water vapour). The production of pollutants, such as requires idle thrust during approach. Again, ICAO
oxides of nitrogen (NOx, CO and HC) is not linearly ENGINE EXHAUST EMISSIONS DATA BANK
related to fuel consumption. The one of measures in [3] for engine, CF6-80C2B6F assumes only
for managing air transport industry development is application of 30% thrust setting, during approach
pollution charges, introduced by Swiss land and operations. CDA procedure has flight safety and
Sweden and recently by UK. This paper, analyses operational limitations:
the effect of major pollutants, CO2, SO2 and water
vapour and NOx, CO and HC trough developed  require more time to complete operations,
pollution during takeoff and landing flight phase. than classic descent, approach and landing
operations, which imply reduction of air space
The increase in fuel consumption causes the capacity and induce delay [6],
linear increase of CO2, SO2 and water vapour
emission. The production process of CO2, SO2 and  it may sometimes not be possible to fly a
water vapour is quite opposite of the production CDA due to airspace constraints or overriding safety
process of NOx, CO and HC. The lower CO2 requirements, [7],
emission produces the higher emission of NO x, CO
and HC, as stated in [2].In turbo fan aircraft engine,  require special air crew training,
combustion chamber high temperatures, which are  Require higher meteorological minimums,
desirable from the viewpoint of maximization of [8].
fuel combustion efficiency and also minimizing
CO2, CO and HC production, create higher emission
of NOx. These two examples clearly imply need for detail
pollution analysis, for actual thrust and flaps setting
ICAO Oxides of Nitrogen Emission Standards during takeoff and landing operations, as well as
were adopted in November 2005, and they apply to optimal choice of climb, cruise and descent speed,
engines manufactured after 31 December 2007. In contrary to rigid LTO method of pollution
this paper is suggested simple and efficient way to assessment. The indirect benefit, which can be
meet ICAO Oxides of Nitrogen (NO x) Emission achieved through detail take off, en route and
Standards, with respect to fuel consumption, which landing operations analysis, is definition of optimal
require definition of the best operational procedure throttle/flaps setting and en route operational
for pollution minimization. This optimal procedure for minimum fuel consumption. The
combination cuts emission of NOx with lower fuel market oriented airline, have main target to reduce
consumption or CO2 emission. direct operating costs. Now days, one of costs is
In today air traffic is defined system of air environmental pollution cost, represented by

pollution charges, which is generated by fuel  en route phase consisting of climb to cruise
consumed during flight and time spent in flight FL (Flight Level), cruise at const. M (Mach
phases. number) and descent from TOD (Top of
Therefore, a further investigation of influence of Descent) to IAF (Initial Approach Fix ) and
real aircraft configuration (speeds, flaps and throttle finally
setting) for real pollution emission quantification  approach, landing and taxi out.
and presentation is suggested. This paper
investigates process of detail real pollution
calculation for different en route speeds and This three flight element have totally diferent
different flaps and throttle setting, in takeoff and flight mechanic and input data.
landing phase flight regime. This pollution B. The Transport Aircraft Pollution Calculation
calculation is base for pollution cost mitigation and
source for assessment of real pollution emission and The core of pollution calculation in software is
emission distribution. Such problem set up; BM2 (Boeing Method 2) internationally accepted
introduce real quantification and their influence on method for pollution calculation. This model has
environmental pollution. flexibility and punctuality for all flight phase which
is useful in process of pollution determination. For
The generated environmental pollution has more accurate calculations of pollution emission, we
measured trough time, height and distance during investigate Boeing Method 2 or BM2, published by
taxi in, takeoff phase (acceleration, rotation and [9], which involves correction of ICAO LTO
initial climb to altitude of 1500ft QFE), en route certification data for atmospheric conditions and
flight phases and landing flight phase (approach aircraft operations. The calculation of emissions
from 1500ft QFE, rotation and deceleration until full above 3000ft flight altitude relies on the information
stop) and taxi out operations. The achieve results are in the BM2, or the “Boeing curve fitting method”,
than, used for pollution calculation and emission which is an internationally accepted operational
presentation, according to consumed flight fuel and emissions method published by [10.] This method
elapsed flight phases time. Besides highlighting of calculates emissions indices on based of fuel flow
different flight speeds, flaps and thrust setting and ICAO certification data. The data taken from [3]
contribution to minimum pollution emission, the and the four-certification power settings at SLS
aim of this paper is to provide, contribution to real conditions are used to compute pollutants emissions,
pollution calculation, as a method of pollution corrected for real atmospheric conditions. Before
mitigation and an airline strategic tool in process of application of BM2, the aircraft engine performance
environmental pollution reduction. must be modelled as closely as possible to real
The paper reviews benefit from application of engine performance and ICAO aircraft engine
different speeds, flaps/throttle setting application certification data were used, as input to the
and different engine-airframe combination, as methodologies presented in this analysis. The BM2
measures of pollution mitigation. The air operator was used in this paper, as referent model for
can determine best operational parameter to achieve pollution above 3000ft during en route flight, as
minimum pollution and in that way to achieve. well as during ground operations and take off and
Other beneficiary, such as national CAA, have tool landing operations , because it can calculate
to determine, by adoption of proposed methodology, pollutant emission with variations of altitude, speed,
how much pollutants are produced from aircraft thrust and flaps setting and flight segment time.
operation. The rigidity of ICAO LTO pollution The emission of NOx pollutant is not linearly
calculation model will be calibrate by BM2 which related to fuel consumption, and must be calculated
utilize real aircraft flight data and real operation by using BM2 [5]. BM2 for a given engine and
flight parameter. ICAO Engine Exhaust Emission Data Bank, build
up a relation with fuel flow and Reference Emission
Index of NOx emission, REINOx (gNOx/kg fuel), for
II. THE AIR POLLUTION CALCULATION ISA SL conditions. Reference Emission Index of
A. The Transport Aircraft Flight Model NOx emission, REINOx (gNOx/kg fuel) is a function
of corrected fuel flow, FFcor as shown in Figure 1.
The first part of calculation software ATAPC Reference Emission Index of CO emission, REICO
v3.14 (Air Transport Aircraft Pollution Calculator) (gCO/kg fuel) is a function of corrected fuel flow,
developed in Mathematica®7.0, represent aircraft FFcor as shown in Figure 2. Reference Emission
flight model. The three most importnt segments of Index of HC emission, REIHC (gHC/kg fuel) is a
calculation is: function of corrected fuel flow, FFcor as shown in
 taxi in, take off and take off climb phase , than Figure 3.

FF (1)
FFcor   3.8e0.2M  
2
373.16
   7.90298 1    3.00571 
 Tamb  273.16 
Tamb  273.15 (2)  
 5.028log 1 
373.16
288.15  (8)
 Tamb  273.16 
pamb   373.16


 (3) 1.38 107 1  10
11.3441
 Tamb  273.16 
 
psl  
In case of calculation carbon monoxide CO  3.491 373.16  
pollution, we must calculate emission index EICO. 8.13 103 10  Tamb  273.16   1
 
amb
3.3
(4)
EICO  REICO 
 1.02
In (7)  is denotes relative humidity (standard
In case of calculation hydro carbon HC value 0.6),  denotes specific humidity, Pv denotes
pollution, we must calculate emission index EIHC. saturation vapour pressure in psi, Pamb denotes
 amb
3.3
(5) ambient pressure in psi, Tamb ambient temperature in
EIHC  REIHC  o
C.
 1.02
In (5)  denotes relative air temperature, 

denotes relative air pressure. Then, for emission of
NOx we must calculate emission index EINOx,
which must be adjusted for atmospheric and flight
condition by (6).
 1.02 (6)
EINOx  REINOx  e H 
 3.3
Figure 2. Relation between REICO and FFcor, ICAO

data bank for CFM-56-7b turbo fan engine
Exponent  is the function of ambient

temperature Tamb in oC and detailed computation can
be found in (8) and [5].
Figure 1. Relation between REINOx and FFcor, ICAO The analysis of Boeing Method 2 shows that
data bank for CFM-56-7b turbo fan engine EINOx are the function of flight altitude and REINOx.
For the given engine, REINOx increase with the
Elements for calibration on real atmospheric corrected fuel flow (at SL, ISA condition) increase
condition are defined by the coefficient H in (7). as shown in Figure 1.
l
PO( HC )  eng no   EIHCk  FFk  tk 103 (9)
H  19  (  0.0063) k 1
0.62198    Pv (7) l
 PO(CO)  eng no   EICOk  FFk  tk 103 (10)
Pamb    Pv k 1
Pv  0.014504 10 l
PO( NOx)  eng no   EINOxk  FFk  tk 103 (11)
k 1

In (9), (10) and (11) EI ..k emission index of

pollutant in flight mode k, FFk is devoted to flight
mode-specific fuel flow and tk is devoted to time
in mode, eng no is devoted to number of installed
engines. Other elements of the equation (4),(5) and
(6) are related to a flight altitude or ambient pressure
and ambient temperature. Our aim is to achieve
operational application of calculation results and Figure 4. The forces acting on transport aircraft during
adapt them for application in FMS (Flight taxi in and taxi out ground operations
Management System) as climb speed schedule,
cruise speed and descent speed schedule [10]. Total amount of water H20 emission during taxi
in kg, is presented in (17).
mtxinH2O  gtxin 1.237 (17)
Aircraft mass at the end of taxi in can be

presented , as in
mTO  mramp - gtxin (18)
In (18) mramp is aircraft mass at airport apron on

start of taxi in ground operations.
IV. TAKE OFF POLLUTION CALCULATION
In this part of paper we present, unique take off

model, which can be used for different flaps /throttle
setting in take off performance calculation. The
aerodynamic and engine date for this model is
Figure 3. Relation between REIHC and FFcor, ICAO imported from PEM published by aircraft
data bank for CFM-56-7b turbo fan engine manufacturer. For presentation realistic aircraft
engine data in take off model, we used following
charts: installed take off corrected net thrust,
III. TAXI IN POLLUTION CALCULATION generalized net thrust, maximum climb thrust,
minimum idle in flight thrust, corrected fuel flow
The taxi operation before take off in aviation is table. The terminal altitude for takeoff analysis is
called taxi in. For pollution calculation we can 1500ft QFE, and altitude for start of landing analysis
calculate pollution simply by multiplying pollution is 1500ft QFE. In order to determine take off
index, fuel flow in taxi in operation, installed engine performance, we modified basic flight mechanic
number and time of taxi in, from apron to runway equations, where we first calculate take off distance,
distance to rotate and distance to achieve 1500ft
centre line.
QFE, [13]. Limitations on which basis we calculate
mHC txin  EIHCtxin  FFtxin  n  ttxin (12) take off are explained in following equation.
mCO txin  EICOtxin  FFtxin  n  ttxin (13) Available thrust is equal to the maximum take
off thrust (limitations from PEM) to altitude 1000ft,
mNOx txin  EINOxtxin  FFtxin  n  ttxin (14) as in
Total amount of CO2 emission during taxi in, is Fnmaxto  Fn (19)

presented in (15). Available thrust is equal to the maximum climb
mtxinco2  gtxin  3.15 (15) thrust (limitations from PEM) from altitude 1000ft
to 1500ft, as in
Total amount of sulphur oxides SO2 emission Fnmax cl  Fncl (20)

during taxi in kg, is presented in (16). Fuel flow is function of take off altitude, take off
mtxinSO2  gtxin  0.0008 (16) speeds and take off/climb thrust. Take off is straight,
without turns or change of flight direction. The

equation which describes flight during initial climb

in each segment of take off climb is calculated,
under assumption of small climb angle [22],  <13o,
which results in following simplification, cos  1,
sin    .
Centre of gravity position do not have influence,
on drag value, obtained from low speed polar (from
PEM). The aircraft take off mass change is small.
We assume that aircraft mass during takeoff is
constant. ISA condition, take off from dry runway,
no wind, no runway slope. The basic elements of Figure 5. The forces acting on transport aircraft during
takeoff analysis are L1, t1, L2, t2, L3, t3, L4, t4, L5 take off roll and takeoff operation elements
and t5.Distance to accelerate to lift off speed from
v=0 is calculated by utilization of (21). Distance to climb aircraft at climb gradient to
altitude 10.7m (35ft) , as in
vlof
v
(21)
L1    Fn 1   v  Cx  Cz 
2

dv
L3 
10.7
0
g       (26)
 mTO  g 2 mTO  g 
Time to climb in sec aircraft at climb gradient to
In (14) Fn is net all engine take off thrust in N, v
altitude 10.7m (35ft) , as in
aircraft True Air Speed in m/s, speed where execute
lift off is vlof =1.10vs1g, vs1g is aircraft stalling speed L3
t3 
at n=1 taken from PEM for aircraft mass and Vtrans (27)
aircraft take off configuration (flaps setting), v
aircraft True Air Speed during takeoff in m/s and Climb gradient after aircraft rotation, at speed v2
mTO is aircraft mass at start of take off in kg. Time to from 10.7m (35ft) to 304.8m(1000ft) in aircraft
accelerate to lift off speed, from v=0 is expressed in configuration with gear up and flaps in take off
(22). configuration , as in
1
vlof
1
(22) Fn   v2 2Cxclf S
t1    Fn 1  v 2
 Cx -   Cz  
dv  clf  2
G
(28)
0
g  - -  
 mTO  g 2 mTO  g  In (28) Cxclf is aerodynamic drag coefficient, on
Distance to rotate aircraft and accelerate, from angle of attack achieved after rotation, with aircraft
vlof to v2 was shown in (23). in gear up configuration.
1 Distance to climb aircraft in m, at climb
Fn   vtrans 2Cxrot S v 2
L2  2 trans (23) gradient  clf , from 10.7m (35ft) to 304.8m(1000ft) ,
mTO  g 0.44 g
as in
Where vtrans is average speed calculated from vlof 304.8  10.7
and v2, Cxrot is aerodynamic drag coefficient after L4 
 clf
rotation. Time to rotate aircraft and accelerate from (29)
vlof to v2 , as in Time to climb aircraft, at climb gradient from
L2 (24) 10.7m(35ft) to 304.8m(1000ft) , as in
t2 
Vtrans L4
t4 
V2 (30)
The climb gradient , after aircraft rotation, at
Climb gradient after reaching 1000ft and thrust
speed vtrans , as in reduction to maximum climb thrust of all installed
engines Fncl and flaps up, gear up configuration is
presented by (31).
1
Fn   vtrans 2Cxrot S 1
 2 (25) Fncl   v2 2Cxcl S
G  cl  2 (31)
G
Where Cxcl is aerodynamic drag coefficient after

rotation, flaps up and gear up configuration (from

PEM). Aircraft mass at the end of take off flight phase ,

as in
Distance to climb aircraft at climb gradient from
304.8m(1000ft) to 457.2m(1500ft) , as in mcl 1  mto - gTO (43)
457.2  304.8 (32)
L5 
 cl
V. EN ROUTE FLIGHT MODEL
Time to climb aircraft at climb gradient from
304.8m (1000ft) to 457.2m (1500ft) , as in A. CLIMB FLIGHT PHASE
L5 In order to set climb parameters, we applied the
t5  basic climb equation, in which height altitude from
V2 (33) 1500ft QNH to TCA (Top of Climb Altitude) climb
Take off parameters, from take off segments altitude, was divided into i-th (i=1,..,j) segments.
i=1,..,5, are LTO , tTO , gTO, mTO NOx and mTOco Total take Limitations on the basis of which we calculate climb
. 2
flight phase are:
off distance from v=0 to 1500ft , as in
 all installed engines available thrust is equal
5
LTO   L
(34) to the maximum climb thrust ,
i
i 1
Fnmax cl  Fncl hi , i  1,..., j (44)

Total take off time from v=0 to 1500ft is
calculated in (35).
tTO   t
5
i
(35)  engine fuel flow is function of flight height
i 1 altitude, Mach number and climb thrust,
Fuel needed to take off from v=0 to 1500ft is  climb can be considered up to height which
presented as in represents operative top of the flight, and which is
gTO  FF  n  tTO (36) defined by ROCmax=500 ft/min (2.54m/s)
In (36) n is number of installed engines, FF is  flight is straight, without turns or change of

fuel flow kg/sec per engine and tTO is take off time. flight direction,
Total amount of NOx emission during take off, is 
presented in (37).  the change of the climb angle is small  =0

,
EINOx (37)
mTO NOx  gTO
1000  equations which describe flight during
climb, in each segment of climb are calculated
Total amount of hydro carbon HC emission
assuming the small climb angle [11],  <13, which
during take off, is presented in (38).
results in cos  1, sin    ,
EIHC (38)
mTO HC  gTO
1000  Centre of gravity, position do not have
Total amount of carbon monoxide CO emission influence on drag value, obtained from high speed
during take off , is presented in (39). polar.
EICO (39)
mTOCO  gTO
1000 The aircraft mass in first climb segment is mcl 1.
For each climb segment i, we calculated used time
Total amount of CO2 emission during take off, is tcl i, fuel gcl i and range Xcl i.
presented in (40).
Equations which describe climb flight are
mTOco2  gTO  3.15 (40) represented by following equation.
Total amount of sulphur oxides SO2 emission Rate of climb or rate of height change , as in
during take off in kg, is presented in (41). dh
 M  a  (45)
mTOSO2  gTO  0.0008 (41) dt
In (45) a denotes speed of sound at altitude h.
Total amount of water (H20) emission during
Flight speed in horizontal plane , as in
take off in kg, is presented in (42).
dX (46)
mTOH2O  gTO 1.237 (42)  M a
dt

Change of aircraft weight mcl during climb flight height hi , as in

phase, as in
FFi  n
hi
(i=1,..,j) (55)
gcl i   dh
  FFcl  n
dmcl (47) ROCi
hi 1
dt
The horizontal range covered during climb flight
In (47) FFcl is engine fuel flow and n is number phase Xcl i from height hi-1 to height hi , as in
of installed engines. Balance of forces perpendicular
to flight direction, as in X cl i  tcl i  cos  i  M i asl  i (i=1,..,j) (56)
Rz = g m (48)
Balance of forces in true air speed directions, as
in
d M  a
 mcl  Fncl  RX  g  mcl  (49)
dt
Parameters needed to define climb parameters
for flight in i-th segment height intervals, with
constant M number in troposphere are:
 rate of climb ROCi,
 for used fuel,  ROCi  and
  Figure 6. Balance of forces in the climb flight phase
 FFi  n 
phase
 for range in climb, it is necessary to first
define climb angle  i . The climb parameters, from segment i=1, which
All elements of definition of climb flight phase fits to segment of height at the beginning of climb
on i-th (i=1,..,j) segments , as in (1500ft) to climb segment i=j, which fits to segment
at the end of climb, TCA are presented by following
equations.
mcl i  mcli 1 - gcl i 1 (i=2,..,j) (50) Total amount of NOx emission during climb
flight phase , as in
Fncli - RXi
M i  asl  i
ROCi= g  mcl i (i=1,.,j) (51) j
EINOxcl i
mNOx cl   gcl i
(57)
1- 0.133M i 2 i 1 1000
M i  asl  i
Fncl i - RXi Total amount of hydro carbon HC emission
g  mcl i during climb, is presented in (58).
 ROCi  1- 0.133M i 2 (i=1,..,j) (52)

j
 mHC cl   gcl
EIHCcl i (58)
 FFi  n  FFi  n i
1000
i 1
 Fncli - RXi  Total amount of carbon monoxide CO emission

 g m  (i=1,..,j) (53)
 i  ArcSin  cl i
 during climb flight phase, is presented in (59).
 1- 0.133M i 
2
  j
EICOcl i
  mCO cl   gcl i
(59)
i 1 1000
For basic segment i of climb, it is possible to
define time, fuel needed in order to climb from Total amount of CO2 emission during climb
height hi-1 to height hi. Following climb parameters flight phase , as in
are climb time, climb fuel and horizontal range in j
climb. mco2 cl   3.15  gcl i (60)

i 1
The time needed to climb from height hi-1 to

Total amount of sulphur oxides SO2 emission
height hi , as in
during climb flight phase in kg, is presented in (61).
hi
dh (i=1,..,j) (54)
tcl i  
j
hi 1
ROC i
mSO2 cl   0.0008  gcl i (61)
i 1
The fuel needed to climb from height hi-1 to Total amount of water (H20) emission during

climb flight phase in kg, is presented in (62).

a

d Masl   
Fncr  Rx (67)
j dt macc
mH 2O cl   1.237  gcl i (62)
i 1
tacc 
M cr  M j  asl  (68)
Total amount of fuel consumed during climb a
flight phase , as in
( M cr asl  )2  ( M j asl  ) 2 (69)
j X acc 
g cl   gcl i
(63) a
i 1
gacc  tacc  Fcr  n . (70)
Total time spent during climb flight phase during
climb flight phase , as in Racc= X acc (71)
j
1000
t cl   tcl (64)
i 1
i
Total amount of NOx emission during
acceleration phase, as in
Total path distance covered during climb flight
phase is EINOxacc (72)
mNOx acc  g acc
1000
j
 X cl i Total amount of hydro carbon HC emission

Rcl  i 1 (65) during acceleration flight phase, is presented in (73).
1000
EIHCacc (73)
mHC acc  g acc
1000
B. THE TRANSITION FROM CLIMB TO
CRUISING FLIGHT PHASE
When climb phase has been finished and aircraft
reaches TCA altitude, climb phase is transformed
into cruising phase. The transition from climb phase
implies the change of aircraft‟s angle of attack and
engine performance regime. The change of engine
performance regime includes lowering of thrust to
cruising regime and accelerating with Mi number at
the end of climb flight phase to Mcr in cruising. This
activity consumes time, fuel and distance and adds Figure 7. Balance of forces in the acceleration flight
costs. Greater difference of Mi number at the end of phase phase
the climb and Mcr number of cruise implies greater
costs of Acceleration up. It has been accepted that
an aircraft switches to cruise thrust Tncr.
Assumption has been accepted, that aircraft after
reaching TCA switches to cruise thrust. The aircraft
mass at the beginning of acceleration flight phase
macc is equal to aircraft mass at the end of the climb
macc =mcl 1 - g cl (66)
Acceleration can be defined from the balance of
forces in the direction of speed vector as shown on Figure 8. Balance of forces in the cruise flight phase
Figure 7.
macc

d M  asl    Fn  Rx (49)
Total amount of carbon monoxide CO emission
during acceleration flight phase, is presented in (74).
cr
dt
EICOacc (74)
In (49) macc in kg is aircraft‟s mass, Fncr in N is mCO acc  g acc
1000
net available thrust for cruise throttle setting, Rx in N
is aerodynamic drag force. From acceleration, while Total amount of CO2 emission during
reaching cruise Mcr, from Mach‟s number at the end acceleration phase , as in
of climb Mcl j, we can define Acceleration time tacc, mco 2  3.15  gacc (75)
acc
distance needed for acceleration up Xacc, fuel needed
for Acceleration gacc. Total amount of sulphur oxides SO2 emission
during acceleration flight phase in kg, is presented

in (76). For basic cruise segment, cruise fuel during k-th

segment can be defined as in
mSO2 acc  0.0008  gacc (76)
gcr k  Fk  n  tcr k , k  1,..., l (85)
Total amount of water (H20) emission during
acceleration flight phase in kg, is presented in (77). Aircraft‟s mass at the beginning of k-th cruise
segment, as in
mH2O acc  1.237  gacc (77)
mcr k  mcr k -1 - gcr k , k  1,..., l (86)
In (77) Fcr in kg/sec per installed engine is the
flow of fuel on cruise throttle setting (e.g. Maximum Cruise parameters from k=1, which fits the
Cruise Thrust). The aircraft mass at the beginning of beginning of cruise to k=l which fits the end of
cruise flight phase mcr1 is equal to aircraft mass at cruise is presented in following equations. Total
the end of the acceleration flight phase, as in amount of NOx emission during cruise phase, as in
mcr1 =macc - g acc (78) EINOxcr (87)
mNOx cr  gcr
1000
C. THE CRUISE FLIGHT PHASE during cruise flight phase, is presented in (88).
The total cruise range Rcr is divided into Xk cruise EIHCcr (88)
mHC cr  gcr
segments, where k  1,..., l . The total sum of all 1000
cruise segments lengths is equal to Rcr. Total amount of carbon monoxide CO emission
l during cruise flight phase, is presented in (89).
X k
mCO cr  gcr
EICOcr (89)
k 1
 Rcr (79) 1000
1000
Equations which describe cruise flight in each Total amount of CO2 emission during cruise
segment of cruise are described in following phase , as in
equation. mco 2 cr  3.15  gcr (90)
True Air Speed or TAS in cruise can be Total amount of sulphur oxides SO2 emission
determined from const Mcr, expressed as is in during cruise flight phase in kg, is presented in (91).
dX (80)
 M cr  asl   mSO2  0.0008  gcr (91)
dt cr
Change of aircraft‟s mass mcr during cruise Total amount of water (H20) emission during
function of cruise fuel flow Fcr, as in cruise flight phase in kg, is presented in (92).
dmcr  1.237  gcr (92)
  Fcr  n (81) mH2O cr
dt
Total cruise time, as in
Balance of forces perpendicular to flight speed l
direction , as in tcr   tcr k (93)
k 1
0= Rz - g mcr (82)
2 Total cruise fuel, as in
In (82) g=9,81m/s denotes gravitational
l
acceleration. Balance of forces in the direction of gcr   gcr k (94)
flight‟s speed, as in k 1
0  Fncr  RX (83) The aircraft mass at the beginning of descent

flight phase mdes1,1 is equal to aircraft mass at the end
The cruise flight phase limitations can be of the cruise flight phase, as in
described as follows. Available net thrust is less or
mdes1,1 = mcr - gcr (95)
equal than maximum cruise thrust is in
Fnmax cr  Fncr X k , k  1,..., l (84)
D. THE DESCENT FLIGHT PHASE
Fuel flow in kg/sec per engine is function of
cruise altitude, Mcr and cruise thrust, The descent flight phase is done by constant
Fcr  f (h, M cr , Tncr ) . descent law from TOD, by const. descent law
Mcr/CASde to 1500ft QNH. The descent flight is

divided into two parts. The descent with constant  rate of consumption fuel during descent
Mcr was performed from TOD to altitude hcode. This  RODs ,1  and
interval is divided into s small high intervals,  
 Fs ,1 
(s=1,..,m). The second descent interval is from
altitude hcodes to 1500ft QNH with const  descent angle  des s ,1
needed to descent range
CASdes=250kt. This interval is divided into n, define.
(n=1,..,r) intervals. The assumption is that engines
are on low idle thrust, all the time during mdes s ,1  mdes s 1,1 - gdes s 1,1 ,(s=2,..,m) (101)
descending. Descending speed after cross-over
Fnli s ,1  RXs ,1
altitude, hcodes is equal to speed limit by air-traffic M s ,1  asl   s ,1
RODs,1= g  mdes s ,1 ,(s=1,..,m)
law for flight under FL100, so that the segment of
descending need not be separately analyzed. 1  0.133M s ,12
Equations that describe flight in each descent flight (102)
phase segment are described in following equation.
True air speed vertical component is descent Fnl i s ,1 - RXs ,1
speed or change of altitude h with time, as in M s ,1  asl   s ,1
g  mdes s,1
dh (96)  RODs ,1  1  0.133M s ,1 ,(s=1,..,m)
 M  asl   sin  des  M  asl    des 
dt  F  n  Fs ,1  n
 s ,1 
True air speed horizontal component can be (103)
derived, as presented in  Fnli s ,1  RXs ,1 
dX  g m  ,(s=1,..,m) (104)
 M  asl   cos  des  M  asl   (97)  des s ,1  ArcSin  des s ,1 
dt  1  0.133M s ,12 
 
Change of aircraft mass mdes during descent, as  
in For already defined functional connections
dmdes RODs,1,  RODs ,1  i  des s ,1 we can easily define by
  Fli  n (98)  
dt  Fs ,1 
In (98) Fli in kg/s per installed engine, n is following equations.
number of engines, presents fuel flow for low idle Total descent time from altitude hs-1,1 to altitude
descent regime. hs,1 , as in
Balance of forces parallel to flight direction, as hs ,1
dh (105)
in tdes s ,1  
hs1,1 RODs ,1

d M  asl     mdes  Fnli  RX  g  mdes  des (99) Total fuel needed for descent form altitude hs-1,1
dt to altitude hs,1 , as in
The descent flight phase limitations are : hs ,1
Fs ,1  n (106)
 presented thrust is equal to low idle thrust
g des s,1  
hs1,1
ROD s,1
dh
Rx  Fndes ; Fndes  Fnli hs , s  1,..., j (100) Total horizontal distance covered during descent
Xdes s,1 from altitude hs-1,1 to altitude hs,1, as in
 fuel flow during descent is equal to low idle
fuel flow X des s,1  tdes s,1  cos  des s ,1  M s ,1 asl  s ,1 (107)

 change of descent angle is small  des  0 The descent flight phase parameters from height
segment s=1 to s=m, which ends at height hcodes are
 equations that describe flight in descent in presented by following equation.
each descent segment are calculated for accepted Total amount of NOx emission during descent
assumption of small descent angle, or  des <15o phase from TOD to hcodes, as in
which leads us to cos  des  1, sin  des   des m EINOx des s,1
mNOx des1   g des s,1 (108)
Parameters needed to define descent element for s 1 1000
flight in s-segment altitude interval, with constant M Total amount of hydro carbon HC emission
number in troposphere are: during first part of descent flight phase, is presented
 rate of descent RODs,1, in (109).

m EIHCdes,1
mHC des1   g des s,1 (109)
s 1 1000

during acceleration flight phase, is presented in (32).
m EICO des ,1
mCO des1   g des s,1 (110)
s 1 1000
Total amount of CO2 emission during descent

phase from TOD to hcodes, as in
m
mCO 2 des1   g des s,1 3.15 (111)
s 1
Total amount of sulphur oxides SO2 emission Figure 9. Balance of forces in the descent flight phase
during cruise flight phase in kg, is presented in
(112).
m RODn,2=
mSO2 des1   g des s,1 0.0008 (112)
Fnli n,2 - RXn,2
s 1 M n,2  asl   n,2 
g  mdes n,2 ,(n=1,
Total amount of water (H2O) emission during
  - 1  0.2  M 
-2.5
cruise flight phase in kg, is presented in (113). 1- 0.133M n,2  1  0.2  M n,2
2 2
n,2
2
m
..,r) (119)
mH 2O des1   g des s,11.237 (113)
s 1
Total descend time from TOD to hcodes, as in Fnli n,2  RXn,2

M n,2  asl   n,2
g  mdes n,2
m
tdes1   tdes s ,1 (114)
  
-2.5
 1- 0.133M n,2  1  0.2  M n,2 - 1  0.2  M n,2
2 2 2
 RODn,2
s 1  
 Fn,2  n  Fn,2  n
 
Total descend fuel from TOD to hcodes, as in
m
,(n=1,..,r) (120)
g des1   g des s,1 (115)
s 1  des n,2 
Total descend range covered from TOD to hcodes,  Fnli n,2  RXn,2 
 g  mdes n ,2 
as in ArcSin  

 1- 0.133M 2  1  0.2  M 2 - 1  0.2  M 2
  
-2.5
m
 X des s,1  n ,2 n ,2 n ,2

(116)  
Rdes1  s 1
1000
,(n=1,..,r) (121)
Aircraft mass at the beginning of second phase of
Descending time from altitude hn-1,2 to altitude
descent flight phase mdes 1,2 , as in
hn,2 , as in
mdes 1,2 = mdes 1,1 - g des1 (117) hn ,2
dh (122)
Parameters needed to define descent parameters
tdes n ,2  
hn1,2 RODn,2
for flight in n-th altitude interval, with constant CAS
speed in troposphere are: rate of descent on n- Fuel needed from altitude hn to altitude hn+1, as
segment are RODn,2, fuel spent  RODn,2  and for in
 F n 
 n ,2  Fn,2  n
hn ,2
(123)
covered descent range we have to define descend g des n,2  
hn1,2
ROD n,2
dh
angle  des n,2 .
Horizontal range covered during descent is Xdes
mdesn,2  mdes n 1,2 - gdes n 1,2 ,(n=2,..,r) (118) n,2,when descent executed from height hn-1,2 to
height hn,2.
X des n,2  tdes n,2  cos  des n,2  M n,2 asl  n,2 (124)
The descent flight parameters from n=1, which

fits height hcodes to n=r which fits the altitude to
1500ft QNH as follows. Total amount of NO x

emission during descent phase from hcodes to 1500ft phase , as in

QNH, as in
mSO 2 des  mSo 2 des1  mSO 2 des2 (136)
m EINOx des s,2 (125)
mNOx des2   g des s,2 Total amount of H20 emission during descent
s 1 1000
phase , as in
during second part of descent flight phase, is mH2Odes  mH2O des1  mH2O des2 (137)
presented in (126).
Total amount of NOx emission during descent
m EIHCdes,2
mHC des2   g des s,2 (126) phase , as in
s 1 1000
mNOx des  mNOx des1  mNOx des2 (138)
during second flight phase, is presented in (127). Total amount of CO emission during descent
m
phase , as in
EICO des ,2
mCO des2   g des s,2 (127)
s 1 1000 mCO des  mCO des1  mCO des2 (139)
Total amount of CO2 emission during descent Total amount of HC emission during descent
phase from hcodes to 1500ft QNH , as in phase , as in
m
mNOx des2   g des s,2 3.15 (128) mHC des  mHC des1  mHC des2 (140)
s 1
Total descent flight phase fuel from TOD to

Total amount of CO2 emission during descent 1500ft QNH , as in
phase from TOD to hcodes , as in
m gdes  gdes1  gdes 2 (141)
mCO 2 des2   g des s,2 3.15 (129)
s 1 Total descent flight phase range covered from
Total amount of sulphur oxides SO2 emission TOD to 1500ft QNH , as in
during cruise flight phase in kg, is presented in Rdes  Rdes1  Rdes 2 (142)
(130).
m The aircraft mass at the beginning of
mSO2 des 2   g des s,2 0.0008 (130) approach/landing flight phase mln is equal to aircraft
s 1
mass at the end of the descent flight phase, as in
Total descent time from hcodes to 1500ft QNH, as
mln= mdes 1,2 - g des1 (143)
in
r
tdes 2   tdes n,2 (131)
n 1
VI. AIRCRAFT LANDING FLIGHT MODEL
Total descent fuel from hcodes to 1500ft QNH , as
in
We have explored classic landing operations,
r
which results in application of thrust after
g des 2   g des n,2 (132)
n 1
application of landing flaps configuration (full flaps,
gear down).
Total descent range covered from TOD to hcodes
to 1500ft QNH , as in The starting altitude for landing analysis is
r
1500ft QFE. In order to set up landing analysis, we
 X des n,2
(133)
modified basic flight mechanic equations for
Rdes 2  n 1
landing, in which we first calculate distance for
1000
approach from 1500ft to 50ft, than distance to
Total descent time from TOD to 1500ft QNH , as rotate, distance to parachute and distance to
in decelerate, from speed at touchdown to v=0, [5].
tdes  tdes1  tdes 2 (134) Limitations on which basis we calculate landing
are:
Total amount of CO2 emission during descent
phase, as in  presented thrust is equal to low idle thrust :
mCO 2 des  mCO 2 des1  mCO2 des2 (135) Rx  Fnidle (144)
Total amount of SO2 emission during descent  fuel flow during approach and landing is

equal to low idle fuel flow, 15.24 (149)

Ll 3 
 rot
 change of approach angle is small  app  0 and

Time to decent aircraft at descent gradient from

we adopt approach angle  app  30 , altitude 15.24m(50ft) to touch down at h=0, as in
 equations that describe flight in landing in tl 3 
Ll 3 (150)
each approach segment are calculated for accepted vrot
assumption of small approach angle, or  app <15o Distance to decelerate from vrot to v=0, as in
which leads us to cos  app  1, sin  app   app , o
v
Ll 4    Fn 1   v 2
 Cxro  b  Czro  
dv
 approach and landing are straight, without vrot
9.81 app
  b 
turns or change of flight direction,  mln  9.81 2 mln  9.81 
(151)
 c.g. position do not have influence on drag
value obtained from low speed polar for given In (151) Fnapp is net available all engine idle
landing configuration (published in PEM), thrust in N, v aircraft speed in m/s, Cxrot is devoted to
aerodynamic drag coefficient at deceleration, Czrot is
 the aircraft approach and landing mass change devoted to aerodynamic lift coefficient at
is small, we assume that aircraft mass during deceleration. Time to decelerate from rotation speed
landing and approach are constant, to full stop speed v=0, as in
 ISA condition, landing on dry runway, no o
1
wind, no runway slope. tl 4    Fnapp 1  v  Cxro  b Czro 
2 
dv
vrot
9.81   b 
 mln  9.81 2 mln  9.81 
 
The basic elements of approach and landing are (152)
Ll1, tl1, Ll2, tl2, Ll3, tl3, Ll4 and tl4.Distance to
approach aircraft at angle of approach (3o or descent Landing parameters, from segment i=1,..,4, are
gradient  app  0.05240 ) from 457.2m (1500ft) to LLN, tLN, gLN, mLNCO2 and mLNNOx. Total landing
distance from 1500ft to v=0:
15.24m (50ft) as in
4
Ll1 
457.2  15.24 (145) LLN   Ll i
(153)
i 1
 app
Total landing distance from 1500ft to v=0 can be
Time tl1, in sec, is time for aircraft approach at expressed as in
angle of approach (3 o) from 457.2m (1500ft) to 4
15.24m (50ft) as in t LN   tl i
Ll1 i 1 (154)
tl1 
vapp Fuel spent to landing from 1500ft to v=0, as in
(146)
Distance to rotate aircraft and decelerate from g LN  FFLN  n  tlLN (155)
vapp to vrot=1.10vs1g , as in
Mass at the end of landing is
1
Fnidle    vtrans 2  Cxrot  S (156)
vtrans 2 v 2 mln  mdes  g LN
Ll 2  2   rot trans
mln  9.81 0.69 g 0.69 g
Total amount of NOx emission during landing , as
(147)
in
In (147) vtrans is average speed, calculated from EINOxLN
vrot and vapp, Cxrot is aerodynamic drag coefficient mLN NOx  g LN (157)
1000
after rotation. Time to rotate aircraft and decelerate
from vapp to vrot=1.10vs1g , as in Total amount of CO emission during landing , as
in
tl 2 
Ll 2 (148)
EICOLN (158)
vtrans mLN CO  g LN
1000
Distance to decent aircraft at descent gradient
from altitude 15.24m(50ft) to touch down at h=0, Total amount of HC emission during landing , as
as in in
EIHCLN (159)
mLN HC  g LN
1000

Total amount of CO2 emission during landing, as mtxoutH2O  gtxout 1.237 (169)
in
Aircraft mass at the end of taxi out can be
mLNco2  g LN  3.15 presented , as in
(160)
Total amount of SO2 emission during landing, as mrampout  mtaxiout - gtxout (170)
in
In (170) mrampout is aircraft mass at airport apron
mLNSO2  g LN  0.0008 (161) on the end of taxi out ground operations.
Total amount of H20 emission during landing, as
in VII. TOTAL POLLUTION QUANTITY
mLNH2O  g LN 1.237 (162)
In the end, we can calculate total pollution
The aircraft mass at the beginning of taxi out
flight phase mtaxiout is equal to aircraft mass at the quantity. Total fuel spent in all flight phases, as in
end of the landing flight phase, as in gt= gtxin + gTO + g des + gcr + g acc + g cl + g LN + gtxout
mtaxiout= mln - g LN (163) (171)
Total time spent in all flight phases, as in
The taxi operation after landing in aviation is
called taxi out. For pollution calculation we can tt= ttxin + tTO + tdes + tcr + tacc + tcl + t LN + ttxout (172)
calculate pollution simply by multiplying pollution
index by fuel flow in taxi out ground operation and Total amount of NOx emission in all flight
number engine installed and time of taxi out phases, as in
operation, from runway centre line after full stop to mNOx = mtxinNOx + mNOx TO + mNOx des + mNOx cl +
apron full stop.
+ mNOx cr + mNOx acc + mNOx LN + mtxoutNO x
(173)
Total amount of CO emission in all flight phases,

as in
mCO = mtxinCO + mCO TO + mCO des + mCO cl +
+ mCO cr + mCO acc + mCO LN + mtxoutCO (174)

Total amount of HC emission in all flight phases,
as in
Figure 10. The forces acting on transport aircraft during mHC = mtxinHC + mHC TO + mHC des + mHC cl +
landing deceleration
+ mHC cr + mHCacc + mHC LN mtxoutHC (175)
Total amount of CO2 emission in all flight
mHC txout  EIHCtxout  FFtxout  n  ttxout (164) phases, as in
mCO txout  EICOtxout  FFtxout  n  ttxout (165) mCO2 = mtxinco2 + mCO2TO + mCO2 cl + mCO2 acc +
mNOx txout  EINOxtxout  FFtxout  n  ttxout (166) + mCO cr

+ mCO des
+ mCO LN mtxoutco2 (176)
2 2 2
Total amount of CO2 emission during taxi out in Total amount of SO2 emission in all flight
kg, is presented in (167). phases, as in
mtxoutco2  gtxout  3.15 (167) mSO2 = mtxinSO2 + mSO2 TO + mSO2 des + mSO2 cl +
Total amount of sulphur oxides SO2 emission + mSO + mSO + mSO LN mtxoutSO (177)
cr acc
during taxi out in kg, is presented in (168). 2 2 2 2
Total amount of H2O emission in all flight

mtxoutSO2  gtxout  0.0008 (168)
phases, as in
Total amount of water H20 emission during taxi mH2 0 = mtxinH 2O + mH2 0TO + mH2 0 des + mH2 0 cl + mH2 0 cr +
out in kg, is presented in (169).
+ mH 0acc + mH 0 LN + mtxoutH O
2 2 2
(178)

VIII. POLLUTION EMISSION CALCULATION  Flight time price 1000USD/Fhr.

EXAMPLE: CASE B737-300
The final result is shown in form of table

To illustrate process of calculation we examined presented by Figure 11.
aircraft 737-300 in medium range route.
Assumptions on which basis we calculate pollution
are:
IX. CONCLUSION
 ATOM(Actually Take off Mass)=48000kg,
 Total flight distance 1223Nm, In this paper, we describe pollution calculation
 Taxi in 0.2hr, software ATAPC v3.14 (Air Transport Aircraft
Pollution Calculator) based on two pollution
 Take off Flaps Setting 5o, calculation methods, ICAO LTO and BM2. ICAO
 Climb schedule 250/300/0.693, LTO pollution calculation model is good source of
relation between corrected fuel flow FFcor and
 Cruise FL is 350, Cruise Mach number reference emission index REI. ICAO LTO method is
0.720 based on maximum possible pollution data for given
 Descent schedule:0.720/250/250 aircraft engine.
 Landing Flaps Setting 40o, Contrary to ICAO, BM2 is based on real aircraft
performance model, which precisely determine
 Taxi out 0.2 hr, pollution quantity for chosen aircraft flight
operations.
 Fuel price 1 USD/kg and
Figure 11. Layout of final results achieved in software ATAPC v3.14
For BM2 input data can be taken from aircraft The major en route pollution calculator
manufacturer PEM (Performance Engineers properties, adopted by BM2 are flexible pollution
Manual), which guaranty results application in real calculation approach. It can be used on daily basis to
en route flight, but also in take off and landing achieve en route, but as well as local airport
operations. pollution limitation or to minimize pollution
emission.
The takeoff and landing pollution calculator and
en route pollution calculator described in paper, is During strategic decision making, take off, en
tool which allow airline to choose optimal operations route and landing pollution calculation method, must
speed and optimal flight techniques for pollution provide to air operator, for given route network,
emission mitigation. optimal standard operative procedures, which
produce lowest pollution and protect environment.
The major take off, en route and landing
Application of this calculation software can develop
pollution calculator properties, allow application of
strategy for pollution emission reduction and on that
different operations parameter as cruise flight level,
way protect environment. Pollution minimization is
speed schedule, de/rated thrust, different flaps
great difficult to airline, but it can be achieve by
setting, approach technique, etc.
application of different operations techniques such as

de rated take off, thrust setting and approach [7] CAA: Basic Principles of the Continuous Descent
methods. The most important paper contribution is Approach (CDA), Environmental Research and
proposal for application BM2, beside en route flight, Consultancy Department Civil Aviation Authority,
on taxi in, take off, take off climb, approach, landing (available at
:http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/68/Basic_Principles_CD
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Improvement of employees education in Serbian

railways
Slobodan Mitrović Norbert Pavlović

Slaviša Aćimović Slađana Janković
Computer center Sanjin Milinković
Faculty of transport and Traffic Engineering Milana Kosijer
Belgrade, Serbia Railways department
s.mitrovic@sf.bg.ac.rs Faculty of transport and Traffic Engineering
slavisa@sf.bg.ac.rs Belgrade, Serbia
n.pavlovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
s.jankovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
s.milinkovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
m.kosijer@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— Modern Railway system is a climate organizational and technical issues. Therefore,
friendly transport mode. Present situation in Serbian Serbian Railways have a special team of people
railways addresses the need for more efficient way of involved in training employees and working under
employees’ education that includes constant improvement special regulations for training and testing
of knowledge related to new EU regulations and new
technologies. This paper presents some facts of current
employees' knowledge. Different organizational
form of educational process with proposal of its units of the Serbian Railways carried out by different
improvement based on distant and e-learning groups of activities, which have a number of
technologies. Two possible types of proposed resources for education, as well as the needs for
improvement are presented with corresponding analysis. different distribution of locations of centers for
Implementation of these technologies should lead to training employees.These needs affect the huge input
significant savings in costs, time and energy. Hence, it of time and resources of employees during the
should be encouraged by appropriate policy realization process of education and training.
modifications according to new ecological efforts.
To fulfill this type of commitment employees
Keywords— railways; education; e-learning; model; have to travel from places where they work to places
technologies
where there are centers for education. This affects
the time spent for travel as well as consumer travel
resources and fuel spending. Given the large number
I. INTRODUCTION of employees can be assumed that this problem has
both economic and ecological meaning.
Serbian Railways is a company whose activities Internet technologies have long been present in
include carriage of passengers and goods, hauling the business system of the Serbian Railways, where,
the trains and maintenance of traction units, trains as in other cases, were used for electronic
and rolling stock, track maintenance and inspection, communication and data transfer. Therefore,
inspection of other permanent way and station naturally raises the question of the use of Internet
structures and installations, maintenance and technologies in order to develop a new model for
assembling of devices, plants and installations, etc. education and training of employees in the company.
Due to its complex structure of business the This paper presents views on the possibility of
company has 18,651 employee, which were introducing e-learning and distant-learning
circulated in organizational management companies, technology in education system of employees, as a
eight of Corporate Services, two Directorates and a possible solution for this kind of problem.
number of different departments to perform joint
affairs. In the second section a brief overview of the
current situation for the process of education of
The nature of these activities requires continuing employees in the Serbian Railways are presented. In
education and training of employees, which turns the third section of the paper are presented types of
this task into a very complex process, in e-learning, with an overview of technologies that are

needed for their implementation. In the fourth and available resources necessary for
section of the paper is presented the model of implementation of the educational process and, on
implementation of certain types of e-learning in the the basis of available information was initially meant
process of education and training of employees in to be training and taking the periodic examination is
the Railways of Serbia, with a view to possible done in a 15-16 centers. Good side of this organized
savings. In the fifth section appropriate conclusions system is that the entire procedure was built to a
are presented. higher level of quality and process has been got very
serious. However, it turns out that in such an
organized system we have a large number of people
who have to travel much longer to an educational
II. THE CURRENT SITUATION REGARDING THE center. Given that, by regulations, education occurs
PROCESS OF TRAINING EMPLOYEES IN THE SERBIAN outside of working hours of employees and all
RAILWAYS expenses are borne by Railways. The average travel
distance in this case is about 60 km. In order to
As already stated, the Serbian Railways is a reduce maintenance costs of periodic knowledge
company that handle a wide variety of activities, checks and reducing the distance that workers are
employs a large number of people with different required for that purpose to pass, it is decided that
professions. Such a huge system has a permanent the recurrent training and knowledge testing land on
need for the maintenance and development, both in the lower level. This means that the number of
the field of technology and safety, and also in the centers used for the taking of the exam increased to
field of services, especially in order to increase the about 100. In this way, the average travel distance is
current level of integration of the Serbian railway reduced to about 20 km. However, the consequences
system with the railway systems of neighboring of such an organization is that the entire process lost
countries and also The European Union. Therefore, the quality because of the great territorial dispersion
the company recognized a continuing need for and more significant differences concerning the
education and professional development of its conditions in which education and conduct of tests is
employees. Management of the company has got provided.
regulated process of education and knowledge
In addition to the aforementioned real situation, it
testing through a special regulation, that clearly
should be considered an another segment of
defines kinds of professions for which are organized
education, which, according to the authors, there is a
periodic checks of knowledge, and how frequently,
significant probability that it can happen in the near
as well as areas in which education is conducted and
future. The process of approaching of Serbia to the
validated.
European Union includes the adjustment of
Education of employees is carried out in different regulations related to railways. In this sense, should
forms depending on the profession of education be also anticipated the possibility of permanent need
employees and their position and job within the for training of employees in the middle and senior
company. According to current opportunities, the management of the Serbian Railways, both in terms
education process is done the traditional way, which of regulatory changes, and in terms of
includes engaging instructor who conducts training implementation and development of new standards
for employees in specific training centers. Checks of for different technologies, safety and services.
knowledge are also employed in the traditional way, Training middle and senior management would not
using written tests or verbal examination of require involvement of specific sites for education,
candidates. Instructors are assigned to locations that given the location of existing resources,
are centers for education and checks of knowledge, infrastructure and number of employees, except in
depending on the organizational structure as well as the case of special educational events that require the
the number of employees in certain professions. This presence of menagement from all regional centers in
means that some departments of the Serbian one place.
Railways perform centralized classes and all
activities are carried out in a single educational
center (as is the case with Hauling trains
department), and sections that have a higher degree III. TYPES OF E-LEARNING AND TECHNOLOGY
of territorial dispersion are carrying out tasks of NECESSARY FOR THEIR IMPLEMENTATION
education and knowledge assessment in a number of
various centers (such as the train dispatcher or Among the several different definitions for e-
Maneuvering of locomotives executive service, ...) learning, for the purposes of this topic can be noticed
following definition: “We will call e-Learning all
Bearing this in mind Serbian Railways
forms of electronic supported learning and teaching,
management carried out an analysis of general needs

which are procedural in character and aim to effect multimedia presentations, and computer
the construction of knowledge with reference to applications; however, the majority of e-learning
individual experience, practice and knowledge of the now makes use of the web. Self-determined learning
learner. Information and communication systems, is also known as heutagogy. Heutagogy refers to any
whether networked or not, serve as specific media type of self-directed learning; however, nowadays
(specific in the sense elaborated previously) to most of such learning makes use of the Internet or
implement the learning process” [1]. computers technology, therefore, the close
association by some between heutagogy and e-
In accordance with the given definition we can
learning [3].
distinguish the following participants [2]:
 Producers – include the designers, authors, B. Facilitated e-learning
writers, illustrators, photographers, Facilitated e-learning makes use of the
animators, videographers, and other creative capabilities of Learner-Led E-learning and add the
souls who collectively bring e-learning benefit of having an instructor guiding the learner (as
products into being it shown in Fig 3.). This required the use of e-mail,
 Learners go by many names. They are discussion forums, and chat capabilities depending
typically called students. on whether communication will be synchronous or
entirely asynchronous [3].
 The host is the organization that makes e-
learning widely available over a network, so C. Instructor-led e-learning
the learning product is accessible by learners Instructor-Led e-learning makes use of
and those who must administer, maintain and technology to deliver traditional classes’ real-time
support it. (as it shown in Fig 4.). This is done via the use of
The interactions between these participants are teleconferencing, audio conferencing, chat,
shown in Fig 1. In accordance with the above can be audiographic systems (screen-sharing and
distinguished the following types of e-learning [2]: whiteboards), or even via the telephone [3].
 Learner-led e-learning D. Embedded e-learning
 Facilitated e-learning Embedded e-learning provides just-in-time
training. It is usually embedded in computer
 Instructor-led e-learning programs, Help files, Web pages or network
 Embedded e-learning applications. It may even be a component of an
Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS) [2].
 Telementoring and e-coaching
E. Telementoring and e-coaching
Telementoring and e-coaching use the latest

technologies for one of the oldest forms of learning.
They use videoconferencing, instant messaging,
Internet telephones, and other collaboration tools to
help mentors guide the development of protégés.
Mentor relationship tends to be long-term and

focus on career development. Mentors offer more
knowledgeable and perhaps more mature partner
from whom they can learn things not written in
Figure 1. Participants and their activities1 books or taught in classes. Online coaching has a
more short-term, project-specific goal. In online
coaching, the contact between adviser and learner is
A. Learner-led e-learning
more precisely defined. It is usually limited to
Learner-Led E-Learning also called stand-alone specific subject, such as the solution of particular
or self-directed e-learning consist of the delivery of problem or completion of a specific project. The
learning experiences to independent learners. The online coach serves as a technical or business
learners then lead/manage their own learning (as it consultant rather than adviser or confidante on
shown in Fig 2.). Content may consist of web pages, personal matters and overall career growth [2].

their workload and increasing the availability of time

for teaching and mentoring.
Figure 2. Learner-led e-learning1
1
Figure 4. Instructor-led e-learning
The above e-learning model consists of the

following participants:
 Producers - is a special team, formed by the
Serbian Railways, which designs all of forms
of electronic content for e-learning as well as
materials for knowledge checking.
 Learners - all employed persons for whom
there is a basis for education, training and
Figure 3. Facilitated e-learning1 knowledge checking.
 Hosts - ICT infrastructure that belongs to the
Serbian Railways, including communications
systems, networks, server infrastructure,
software resources, LMS platform, streaming
IV. A MODEL FOR IMPLEMENTING CERTAIN TYPES media resources, etc., as well as ICT
OF E-LEARNING IN THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION AND resources of Internet service providers and
TRAINING OF EMPLOYEES TO SERBIAN RAILWAYS other entities that can be rented by the
company in the event that some sites do not
Serbian railways as a system also have significant have the necessary equipment or do not meet
ICT resources, which are the basis for the the set criteria. For example, if certain work
introduction of e-learning in education of employees sites do not have sufficient number of
in this company. The aim of this model for the computers or computers do not have the
implementation of e-learning is to use ICT to create required characteristics, Serbian Railways
conditions for the realization of the process of may enter into a contract with, for example, a
training employees on their job sites, places of local school or other local institution in this
residence or the nearest location where this process area which has Internet connection and space
can be realized. In this way it creates the opportunity for education, to let the premises after
to achieve major savings in time, energy and the working hours for the realization of
degree of involvement of human resources. educational process for employees.
Also, e-learning concept introduces the
possibility of interactive learning process which Bearing in mind the complex organizational
results in increasing the quality of learning and structure of the Serbian Railways, and a variety of
reduces the time required for successfull learning the professions of employed persons in whom there is a
lessons. In this way the need for mobility instructor basis for education, training and knowledge
to certain education centers is minimized, reducing checking, the proposed e-learning model should have

a hybrid structure, which means they should make misuse of identity (theft or replacement) in the
the implementation of several types of e-learning, process knowledge checking. For both problems
where each type to fully meet the needs of a specific there are solutions. Specifically, the low level of
organizational unit. For sectors that have a higher computer literacy and aversion for the process of
degree of territorial dispersion would correspond to introducing new technologies, encourages the
the implementation of facilitated e-learning, assumption that each user interface written in a
instructor-led e-learning, Embedded e-learning foreign language. In the case of the observed e-
types, depending on the profession and education of learning platform, the interface is written in Serbian,
employees. In the case of the departments for highly which resulted in minimizing this form of aversion.
specialized jobs as well as middle and senior Careful planning an user interface with a clear
management could be a suitable implementation of graphical interpretation, supported by an optimal
learner-led e-learning, Embedded e-learning, e- number of extra explanations can influence the
Telementoring and coaching types. It may be noted creation of a satisfactory form of suggestions that
that in both these cases, the type of Embedded e- would incite computer users with insufficient
learning is present, because it is very suitable for knowledge in the direction of the proper use of a
simulated training, or various types of exercises, given interface, which would be a major part for
such as security, diagnostic or other procedures that their attention to be redirected to the educational
have special significance for individual services. content that is the subject of a lesson. On the other
Both types of hybrid structures have an advantage in hand, the introduction of appropriate organizational
reducing the workload of instructors, which directly and technical measures can lead to suppression of
contributes to increasing the quality of their work, any possible misuse of identity. Organizational
and change roles as needed. Namely, in the case of measures are related to amend the Regulations about
e-learning type of facilitated e-learning, the checking employees' knowledge, which should
instructor may become the facilitator by need, or in regulate the issue of knowledge checking by using e-
the case of type Telementoring and e-coaching can learning services, while the technical measures may
become a mentor or coach, if he/she has the include, for example, the use of pin codes, video
expertise in the relevant field. identification and etc.
Implementation of the proposed model is a very
complex task that must be developed in phases, both
V. CONCLUSIONS in organizational and technological terms. One of the
most important pre-conditions, which can be viewed
as a phase, is the completion of the entire ICT
Although today's railways is considered an
infrastructure. Development of certain types of e-
climate-friendly traffic, in large systems such as
learning for different organizational units should be
Serbian Railways there are certain types of complex
done in such way so they meet collection of
activities that can be improved by a variety of
specifications from IMS, AICC, IEEE and
organizational and technological measures. In this
ARIADNE, called SCORM. These specifications
way, can achieve significant savings in energy, time,
aim to make it possible for Learning Management
money and commitment of human resources, making
Systems (LMS), or other with LMS functions, to
these activities more ecological. One such activity is
find, share, import, export, and reuse e-learning
the training of employees in this company, who are
content. In this way it creates a basis for long-term
obliged to, during off working hours, visit the
use of e-learning model, which among other
education centers with the average trip distance of
properties characterized by scalability and
about 20km. Since this company employs more than
sustainability.
18,000 people, it can be concluded that this type of
activity can be affected to a significant consumption
of these resources. Therefore, the introduction of e-
learning technology as a way of improving the ACKNOWLEDGMENT
educational process is a very important step towards
This work is partially supported by the Ministry
achieving significant savings.
of the Science and Technological development of the
During the process of introducing e-learning Republic of Serbia under No. 036012.
technologies in the system of education and
knowledge checking, there is a real possibility of
facing numerous problems, among which can be REFERENCES
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Radosav,"Multimedijalna flash animacija u izradi e-

A computational method for assessing the

impacts of climate-change related weather events
on transport networks
Evangelos Mitsakis, Anestis Papanikolaou, Josep-Maria Salanova, Aifadopoulou Georgia,

Dimitris Margaritis
Centre for Research and Technology Hellas
Hellenic Institute of TransportThermi-Thessaloniki, Greece
emit@certh.gr
anepapanik@certh.gr
jose@certh.gr
gea@certh.gr
dmarg@certh.gr
Abstract — The present paper presents an integrated climate change on transport networks entail serious
method, which aims to fill in the gap of the current losses and damages in all sectors, impairing
research and methodological activities in linking the eventually social stability. This is the main reason
impact assessment of climate change to emergency behind the realization of numerous studies, aiming to
adaptation strategies for transport networks. A sequential
assess the impacts of extreme weather events on
concept for determining the optimal strategies for the
relevant authorities is presented. The problem is analyzed transport networks. Nevertheless, no unified
as a series of five distinct dimensions: the extreme events, approach has been considered so far, capable of
the area extent where extreme events have an impact on, defining accurately all the different parameters
the transport networks as separate modes, the transport within one aggregated method and thus linking the
networks as mode-internal components and finally the problem with its potential solutions.
emergency-adaptation plans. Each problem dimension is
discussed both as an autonomous part and as part of the The general objective of the majority of studies
sequential concept. Finally, the method is presented as a realized has been to identify the best practices or the
mathematical formulation, which may be used by any appropriate adaptation measures for dealing with
interested entity. The main theoretical aspects of the specific, local events. The current paper aims to
proposed method are discussed in more detail. provide a theoretical description and to contribute
Keywords— climate change; adaptation; transport with a detailed identification of the entire series of
networks; emergency management; impact assessment questions that emerge, in order to accurately
determine the optimal adaptation measures for
addressing extreme weather events on transport
I. INTRODUCTION networks.
Over the last years great attention has been paid

to the issue of assessing the impacts of climate II. REVIEW OF THE CURRENT STATE-OF-
change and extreme weather events on the society, PRACTICE AND SELECTED LITERATURE
on several economic sectors and on transportation
networks in particular. It is broadly acknowledged
A. The E.U. and U.S. experience
that transport constitutes a special field of the overall
economic activity. Its role in the economy differs in At a European Union level, in the recently
relation to other fields, due to the fact that transport published White Paper “Adapting to climate change:
is not an end in itself, but usually constitutes the Towards a European framework for action” (COM
means for the completion of other needs. The 2009a) the consequences of climate changes are
demand for transport is therefore considered as identified as difficult for food supply, health,
derived demand, occurring due to activities in other industry, ecosystems‟ integrity and the transport
economic sectors or societal needs. For this reason - sector. In order to avoid climate change and the
and since transport holds an extremely critical part of resulting consequences, two different directions are
the economic activity in any society - the impacts of proposed: reducing greenhouse gas emissions

(mitigation actions) and preparing for the recommendations based on the findings for research
unavoidable impacts (adaptation actions). Mitigation and policy actions that could be taken in the next
actions are taken in the form of various years.
environmental policies, but it is recognized that more
B. Performance of transport networks and
than 50 years will be necessary in order to see the
criticality of network components
policies‟ results. The White Paper recognizes that
today‟s approach is disaggregated and highlights the The performance of transport networks and the
need for a more aggregated approach. In the field of criticality of network components have been studied
transport, the rise of sea level is defined as the worst by several researchers. Taylor and D‟Este (2007)
impact of climate change for the infrastructures, have proposed a methodology for obtaining the
especially at coastal areas. Although three scale vulnerability of each component of the network. The
levels are identified (national, regional and local), methodology is applicable on the level of national
the EU level is proposed in the coordination networks. The authors emphasize the differences
procedures due to its strengthened role, transcending between reliability and vulnerability: reliability is
boundaries of individual countries. The EU is related to the connectivity of the network, while
working with other partner countries in the United vulnerability is related to the consequences of
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change failure. In their model nodes are vulnerable and links
towards a post-2012 climate agreement, which will have criticality values. An application of the
address adaptation as well as mitigation. Different proposed method on the Australian road network is
steps are programmed, including the creation of also presented. Kim and Lee (2006) identify the
adaptation tools and a cost-benefit analysis for the crucial infrastructure from national economic
year 2011. With the EU paper “Adapting Climate functional view point, reflecting the spatio-temporal
Change and Water, Coasts and Marine Issues” characteristics of the economy. In their model,
(COM 2009b), accompanying the mentioned White criticality of each link is analyzed for earthquakes,
Paper, special emphasis is placed by the EU on the defining zones and using the national highway
impacts and measures for adaptation to climate network and economic data for calculating criticality
change. Relevant information is presented in the values. Nagurney and Qiang (2009) propose a new
“Impact assessment” paper (COM 2009), also methodology for calculating criticality of network
accompanying the White Paper. The definition of the links, using the total demand of the network and the
term vulnerability therein is the one proposed by difference in the travel time as consequence of the
Alcamo et al. (2007), which is “the degree to which closure of a link. The proposed methodology is
a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, applied on the Sioux Falls network. The notion of
adverse effects of climate change, including climate network vulnerability in relation to extreme events is
variability and extremes” or “the function of the presented in a relevant research study of Schulz
character, magnitude, and rate of climate change and (2007). The author proposes not to act in the
variation to which a system is exposed, its structural vulnerability, as “there is no way to reduce
sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity”. The Impact the hazard or it is unknown (e.g. for terrorist attacks)
assessment paper recognizes the potential impacts of and constructions are already built and maintained in
climate change in Europe, presents a review of an optimal way” but to act in the functional
national adaptation strategies, the costs and the vulnerability, defined as the consequential degree
benefits of adaptation together with a discussion on and duration of capacity reduction. The author
the adaptive capacity for infrastructures. applies the proposed method in order to identify
vulnerable locations of the road infrastructure in a
The economic impacts of climate change in German state, taking the passengers on each link as
Europe have been recently reviewed also by the EEA the potential damage and using the methodology
and the OECD (OECD 2008). These two reports presented in Nagurney and Qiang (2009) for
have indicated that little quantified information on calculating the criticality of each link.
the costs and benefits of adaptation exists and that
most studies focus on a few sectors only by taking C. Impacts assessment of climate change and
into account a limited sub-set of possible climate extreme events on transport networks
change effects. In the study of Eichhorst (2009) a list of events
and related impacts on transport infrastructure is
A relevant report by the Committee on Climate
presented, together with different adaptation
Change and U.S. Transportation of the
measures proposed for several transport modes
Transportation Research Board (2008) has
(road, rail, waterways). The author also proposes a
highlighted the potential impacts of climate change
seven-step framework for developing an adaptation
relevant to U.S. transportation and suggests
strategy for urban transport development, defining
appropriate adaptation strategies and organizational
different tools and guidelines for decision-making,
responses. The report concludes with

which encompass step-by-step guides, wiki-based emergency management adaptation strategies in a

information portals, checklists and several other holistic way.
methods. Additionally, several studies are concerned
with the quantification of the impacts of extreme
events on transport network infrastructures. Relevant III. FOREWORD OF THE SEQUENTIAL CONCEPT
indices coupled with case study results from an FOR DETERMINING THE OPTIMAL STRATEGIES
urban agglomeration are presented in Suarez et al.
(2005). A. The multidimensional character of the problem
The overall objective of assessing the impacts of
climate change on the transport sector and the
society in general, is to determine the optimal
measures and strategies for eliminating or reducing
D. Emergency management their negative economic implications. This objective
A number of definitions of „emergency‟ and reveals the particularity of this problem; the goal is
„disaster‟ have been proposed over time, many of to plan an investment that aims not to produce
them focusing on some measure of the cost of the benefits but rather to reduce losses. Thus, the
event in terms of loss of life or damage. However, problem can be stated as follows:
the Emergency Management Australia Report
(2004) has underlined that the focus of concern with “Which are the optimal adaptation measures‟
emergencies and disasters has moved towards combinations for achieving the maximum reductions
consideration of the situation created by such (cost savings) of anticipated future losses on
phenomena rather than simply of the origin, nature, transport networks (and consequently to society)
size, speed of onset and other physical attributes of due to climate change?”
the hazard, which results in the event itself. In 2007,
the US Federal Emergency Management Agency This seemingly simple question conceals a large
began an initiative which led to a wide international degree of complexity due to its multidimensional
mobilization of emergency management experts, character. In order to determine the optimal
practitioners and academics in order to consider strategies, a sequence of successive, independent
principles of emergency management. This project questions has to be answered, which together
was prompted by the realization that while compose the entire problem. This series of questions
numerous books, articles and papers referred to describes the different dimensions of the problem
“principles of emergency management”, nowhere in and thus the different parameters that should be
the vast array of literature on the subject was there taken into account in the analysis. These questions,
an agreed upon definition of what these principles along with the respective dimensions, can be
were. The group agreed on eight principles to be summarized as follows:
used for guiding the development of a doctrine of  Which are the most severe extreme events
emergency management, namely comprehensive, that will happen? (Event with associated
progressive, risk driven, integrated, collaborative, probability)
coordinated, flexible and professional (EMA, 2007).
 Where will these events take place?
A major finding, which highlights the need for (Location and geographic extent)
the proposed methodology presented in the
following sections of the present paper, lies on the  Which are the transport networks that will be
lack of the consideration of the geographic area affected the most? (Network dimension)
extend. No relevant scientific literature or other  Which are the measures for addressing these
studies exist, at least to the authors‟ knowledge, that events?
include the geographic area extend within the
existing assessment frameworks proposed by  Which is the optimal combination of
various researchers until today. This is one of the measures that should be taken for minimizing
methodological and research gaps that the current the effects?
paper aims to provide contribution and incentives
for further research activities towards this direction. The sequence of questions is shown in the Fig.1,
Furthermore, the literature review conducted within representing the integrated approach of the
the framework of the research presented in this multidimensional problem.
paper has also indicated the complete lack of an
B. Setting the problem
integrated approach and a methodology for
assessing the impacts of climate change related to D The final objective is to provide a
mathematical formulation of all the problem
parameters and namely for the dimensions of the

event, the location, the networks (of same or cause various levels of damages to transport
different modes) and finally the adaptation measures. infrastructures. Criticality of a network element, on
The problem addressed in the current paper can be the other hand, is a term associated to the entire
formulated as: network and is herein defined as the importance of
the specific element in the network‟s regular
operation. A necessary precondition for the
application of the method is that specific thresholds
for the vulnerability of transport infrastructures are
determined, as trigger points of different
vulnerability levels. In this way, for each type of
network infrastructure (road, rail etc), all different
levels of vulnerability are defined. This input is
considered highly important, in order to compute the
respective probabilities of each extreme event for all
levels of intensity in the first step of the method.
Conclusively, as a starting point for the application
of the method, it is assumed that this information is
known or given to the user of the proposed method.
It is apparent that different levels of costs are
Figure 1. Schematic representation of the integrated associated with varying vulnerability intervals.
approach for assessing the impacts of climate Identification of the common link for the analysis.
change on transport networks.
Before proceeding with the description of the
methodological approach, some fundamental
“For a period of the next N years (N= 30, 40 or prerequisites need to be underlined. Following the
50 years) with an available budget B, allocate B in description of the need to have an integrated
such a way, so as to achieve the optimal reduction of approach in the methodology, some basic
the impacts due to future extreme weather events”. considerations regarding the application of the
method are explored. Figure 2 below contains all the
The approach of the problem is based on basic different dimensions of the problem, along with all
principles of economics, according to which a the respective parameters (or levels) of each
certain, limited amount of money (resources) should dimension that should be included in the
be allocated in an optimal way, in order to satisfy methodological approach. In order to include all the
maximum needs. The perspective of this approach different variables in a single top down approach, a
can be understood as the one of a central government „reference unit‟ (common „link‟) must be identified.
or any other organization, which seeks to allocate the This common „link‟ should be capable of providing a
available resources for covering future risks in an unified categorization of every different dimension
optimal way. This problem definition and of the problem.
perspective constitutes the originality and usefulness
of the proposed method; nor does the method try to
match adaptation measures to extreme events neither
does it attempt to determine costs associated with
certain transport modes and extreme events. The
proposed method rather aims to set the problem in a
realistic basis, where the first and most important
step from a central perspective is to determine the
priorities of investing the available resources by
taking into account the impacts of all possible
events, in all areas, for all transport networks and
modes and finally to reduce them by selecting the
adequate, optimal adaptation measures.
C. Basic definitions and assumptions
It is important to provide a definition and
differentiation between vulnerability and criticality. Figure 2. Dimensions and parameters of the
Herein, vulnerability of a network element is defined integrated method
as its physical sensitivity to extreme events. The most suitable parameter capable of
Vulnerability is further associated to specific providing a common classification framework is the
thresholds of extreme events‟ intensity, which may „Area Extent‟ of the extreme events. The categories

of this specific dimension (local, regional, national differentiate the impacts of an extreme weather
and international) match with all the other event are:
dimensions and furthermore provide a sound
- The frequency of the event (referring to the
theoretical basis for examining all the other
potential number of times that the event will
dimensions of the problem. A more detailed
occur during the defined period of analysis)
explanation of each dimension linked to the „area
extent‟ is provided in Table 1. - The intensity of the event (referring to the
way that every event is measured and the
respective thresholds in relation to the
TABELE I. LINKING „AREA EXTENT‟ TO THE transport infrastructure). As an indicative
PROBLEM „DIMENSIONS‟ example, one could mention that extreme
Problem Link to „Area extent‟ heats can be measured in Celsius or
„Dimensio Fahrenheit degrees and three different
n‟ categories could be 40o-45o, 45o-50o and >50o
C.
Extreme Their impacts can be categorized
Events based on the area extent that occurred. The output of this step is the probability of each
Transport The different transport modes can be event occurring in the period of analysis P E. The
Networks considered for each specific area extent. probability of each event is associated with the
The criticality assessment methodology frequency of the event, as well as with the intensity
can also be defined, considering of the event.
different area scales.
B. The „Location‟ dimension
Adaptation The emergency management is The dimension of location reveals the area in
measures classified in relation to the area extent which the event takes place. This is defined as the
of the events, as the corresponding
area that the event causes impacts on the transport
public authority is in charge of the
operation and has the overall networks, resulting to any kind of infrastructure
responsibility. Moreover the adaptation closures, malfunctions and damages. The
plans follow the classification of the classification of the location is described as the
authority and so the classification of reference parameter for categorizing all the
public authorities is based on the „area dimensions and parameters of the problem. Herein,
extent‟ of their jurisdiction. a more thorough explanation of the different
location (or Area) types is provided:
Due to the above mentioned reasons, the - Local level: An event that occurs in a local
dimension that serves as the „common link‟ in the level indicates that its impacts are restricted
analysis, providing a unified classification in one city, one village or in general in a
framework of all events, location of impacts, place that includes only one local public
networks and emergency plans is the area extent of authority (e.g. a Municipality is considered to
the extreme event. belong at the „local level‟).
- Regional level: An event that occurs in a
regional level indicates that the impacts‟ area
IV. DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD of the event covers more than one local
public authority but in the same time the
event is not consider to be a national scale
A. The „Event‟ dimension emergency. Superior public authorities are
The first issue to be addressed before allocating considered responsible for the management
an available budget over a long time-horizon in of such events (e.g. prefectures).
order to reduce negative impacts of extreme weather - National level: In this case the impacts of the
events is the accurate definition of the potential event cover the entire (or almost entire) area
events during this specified period. of a country. The networks affected by the
An event is defined as any extreme weather or event influence transport networks and
natural event that can cause malfunctions on operations of the entire country to a certain
transport networks (fires, floods, precipitation, degree.
hurricanes, storm surges, extreme heats, frost, - International level: This is the highest level of
landslides, wind and hail). In order to respond to an „area extent‟. In this case the impacts of an
event in an optimal way, the exact impacts of the event exceed the boundaries of one country.
event must be predicted. The parameters that

The classification conducted in this step of the network data (ODs, centroids, connectors, links,
analysis is of qualitative nature; it does not entail nodes). For each OD, demand is assigned on the
additional mathematical restrictions for the network according to a user equilibrium criterion.
determination of the optimal adaptation strategies,
Step 2: Network efficiency is computed, based
but rather divides the whole process into four
on Nagurney‟s Unified Network Performance
distinct categories, one for each area extent type.
Measure (Nagurney and Qiang, 2009):
This fact implies that in order to determine the
optimal adaptation measures, the integrated
methodology has to be implemented four separate
times (stages). In the end, the outputs of each stage
of the analysis will be overall evaluated, for the
assessment of the optimal adaptation plans.
C. The „Network‟ dimension where ε is the unified network performance
1) The two phases of the Network dimension measure, G is the network topology, d is the demand
This step of the method is comprised by two vector (OD pairs),
phases; in the first phase an initial distinction is W is the set of OD pairs, dw is the demand of OD
made between the different transport modes, while pair w, λw is the disutility of OD pair w (travel time)
in the second phase the most critical components of and nW is the number of OD pairs for G.
each transport network have to be assessed for the
interventions‟ priority setting. Step 3: One link of the network is removed and ε
is computed again. Iteratively, this process is
2) Criticality assessment for different transport repeated for each link of the network in order to
networks compute ε for each removed link.
The output of the first phase depends on the Step 4: The importance of each network
„economic importance‟ of the respective modes for a component (link) is computed, based on Nagurney‟s
specific area extent. The „economic importance‟ of Network Component Importance
the different transport modes is defined as the total
economic production quantity that is created from
the regular function of each transport infrastructure.
In order to optimally allocate a certain amount of
money to different transport modes, the relative
portion of the economic product of each transport where G - g is the resulting network after
mode is computed. The amount assigned to each component g (link) is removed from network G.
transport mode is equal to its relative portion of the
total social (economic) benefit of transport Step 5: If the removal results in no path
infrastructures for each area extent. Different socio- connecting an OD pair, the demand for that OD pair
economic benefits of modes can be defined as a, b, is assigned to an abstract path with a cost of infinity.
c, d and e while the relative portion R P per transport b) The 'Node‟ criticality assessment
mode is equal to:
The node criticality assessment is applicable to
air and maritime transport networks. Airports and
ports belonging to a certain area extent are ranked
according to an index V of the total value of their
transport operations (e.g. on an annual basis). More
where i={a, b, c, d, e} and B is the benefit. specific, this index is defined as the relative portion
RV per transport infrastructure in relation to the total
a) The 'Link‟ criticality assessment value of all transport infrastructures of the same
The link criticality assessment is applicable to type (airports or ports) for a given area extent and it
road transport networks, in order to determine the is equal to:
most important links related to the efficiency of the
network. The resulting importance - in the form of
an index - for all network links is considered in the
computation of the social costs. The steps of the
respective method proposed to be used are presented
next. where Vi is the value of transport operations for
Step 1: The Origin-Destination demand matrices each transport infrastructure.
are assigned on the road network, using given

c) The 'Combined Link-and-Node‟ criticality gaps in the assessment of climate change impacts on
assessment transport networks, the present paper describes an
The combined link-and-node criticality integrated approach, which can effectively address,
assessment is applicable to rail transport networks. in a sequential way, all the major dimensions of the
For the case of affected railway trucks only, the problem. The area extent has been identified as the
method to be applied is the same as for the link only common parameter, which can provide a
criticality assessment, with the assigned volumes classification framework for the remaining problem
corresponding to passenger trips. For the case of dimensions and respective parameters. The
railway stations, the method to be applied is the proposed method provides a top-down approach
modified link criticality assessment, where the from the central government perspective, addressing
criticality index of each node (railway station) is real world questions and issues about determining
computed by removing simultaneously the links the appropriate combination of measures, in order to
entering or exiting that node. achieve the minimization of the economic losses due
to potential extreme weather events with limited
D. The „Adaptation Measures‟ dimension available resources.
The proposed method defines adaptation
measures as investment combinations of different
adaptation measures groups, associated to respective
impacts of extreme weather events. Specifically, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
having a total budget M, this can be allocated to
different combinations of adaptation measures C n. The method presented in the previous sections of
The aim of each combination Cn is to minimize the the present paper has been developed within the
impacts of specific extreme weather events. The context of the WEATHER project “Weather
final objective is to optimally allocate the available Extremes: Assessment of Impacts on Transport
sources for investment M (budget), so as to Systems and Hazards for European Regions”,
minimize the economic losses due to the impact of funded by the Research Directorate General of the
extreme events. European Union within the Seventh Framework
Programme for research and technological
E. Evaluation framework development.
The proposed method is presented as a
mathematical formulation herein. The objective is to
determine the appropriate measures‟ combinations
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Network Vulnerability: a Method for Diagnosis of

Managing reverse logistics systems as an

element of sustainable development
Branislava Ratković, Nenad Bjelić, Milorad Vidović, Milan Andrejić

University of Belgrade, Faculty of Traffic and Transport Engineering
Belgrade, Serbia
b.ratkovic @sf.bg.ac.rs,
n.bjelic@sf.bg.ac.rs,
mvidovic@sf.bg.ac.rs,
m.andrejic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— In the last decade of the XX century, macro drivers for designing and implementing a
environmental concerns, legislative measures and reverse supply chain are the same as those for
growing public awareness about the environmental sustainable development (economic, environmental
consequences of waste disposal and extraction of natural and social drivers).
resources have led to an increase in recycling and reuse
efforts. Especially, the growth on environmental policy, Reverse logistics covers a range of activities
related to end of life products (EOL), has favored the aimed at the management and handling of materials,
development of reverse logistics systems. However, some products, components, subassemblies or even entire
reverse logistics activities like collection of EOL technical systems to environmentally acceptable
products, may put many side-effects on environment or disposal or environmentally sound treatment. A well-
even they can destroy the positive effects brought by
recycling, remanufacturing and the reuse of new products managed reverse logistics system should be able to
and materials. Namely, because road transport is provide important cost savings in procurement,
currently a significant part of the process in the EOL disposal, inventory carrying and transportation.
collection, it represents a key issue in sustainable A key element of reverse logistics system is the
development, in terms of fuel consumption, kilometers
traveled, air quality, noise pollution, safety and health.
collection or acquisition of used products discarded
Therefore routing represents the key in optimization by last owners or consumers. It is the first and
choices and this research addresses the issue of crucial activity of reverse logistics system that
determining an adequate dispatching strategies in triggers the others activities such as repairing,
recyclables collection. refurbishing, remanufacturing, cannibalization and
recycling [2]. Most papers dealing with collection
Keywords— reverse logistics; collection; routing (key
words) issues in reverse logistics are focused on vehicle
routing problems and its applications on specific
problems. Beullens et al. [3] presents a survey about
collection and vehicle routing issues in reverse
I. INTRODUCTION logistics. Teixeira et al. describes a study of planning
vehicle routes for the collection of three types of
Due the changes in the production and recyclable waste in Portugal [4]. Blanc et al. [5]
consumption patterns nowadays, which resulted in present a network redesign problem for a case of
shortening the products life cycle and earlier LPG-tanks in Netherlands. They applied an integer-
products discarding, increasing environmental programming model to minimize the total costs and
concerns about the disposal of large quantities of to determine the optimal number and the geographic
products have resulted in efforts to take back end-of- location of the degassing locations. Krikke et al. [6]
life (EOL) consumer products. Legislation aimed at discussed an application of remote monitoring of
forcing manufacturers to take back EOL products inventory levels in reverse logistics to improve the
with decreasing landfill space, underscores the collection efficiency of the mandatory collection of
importance of developing efficient methods and dismantled materials.
models for the management of EOL products. The However, some reverse logistics activities may
solution to this problem offers reverse logistics, put many side-effects on environment or even they
because products recovery, in any form, benefits can set aside the positive effects brought by
both from the environmental as well as socio- recycling, remanufacturing and the reuse of new
economic perspective. Researchers agree [1] that the products and materials. One of those activities is

collection or acquisition of EOL products. Although resources are being cut. And of course, besides the
road transport is currently a significant part of the environmental drivers, collection of vehicle waste oil
process in the EOL collection, both in terms of its in many countries is legislative driven e.g. ELV
functional importance and in its contribution to total Directive in EU [8].
cost, it is also a key issue in sustainable
Until recently, in Serbia, there was an absence of
development, significantly affecting the environment
specific legislation and plans to manage EOL
in terms of fuel consumption, kilometers traveled, air
product processes. Namely, in May 2009, an act that
quality, noise pollution, safety and health.
treats different kinds of wastes and EOL products as
From here, the focus of this paper is to consider a part of municipal waste regulations was
the problem of operating recycling collection administered. However, although this document
vehicles, which pick-up recyclables from collection creates a basis, more precise information about
points and transfer them to a recycling facility. procedures that are related to vehicle waste oil will
Specifically, we will consider different dispatching be defined through technical instructions, which are
strategies in collection of vehicle waste oil. Vehicle not yet published [9]. One of the key factors that
waste oil represents only one of the waste fractions influences inefficient ELV management in Serbia is
that result from end of life vehicles (ELVs), but it is the lack of collection networks and adequate
hazardous materials that pose a serious threat to treatment facilities. In general, in Serbia, there are
safety and environment. Due to the low value of the many facilities engaged in vehicle dismantling,
vehicle waste oil and the relatively low volumes which are mostly automotive repair/body shops and
(vehicle waste oil presents only 2% of average motor scrap-yards; however, they are not authorised
vehicle weight) and since recycling takes places on treatment facilities.
centralized level, the transportation cost forms a
As mentioned, the first step in vehicle waste oil
significant part of the total reverse supply chain cost.
recycling is the effective acquisition or collection
Reduction in costs comes partly from a reduction in
from the generators. Collection of recyclables is
unnecessary distance traveled by making use of
normally accomplished by a fleet of trucks and crew
better routes, which in itself can lead to a reduction
that operate together as a collection system. The
in fuel consumption and hence a reduction in
system also includes, a collection infrastructure -
greenhouse gas emissions.
containers located at certain spots, serving as a
Having on mind the objective, the remainder of storage space in which products accumulate before
the paper is organized as follows. In section two the being shipped. Because recycling process requires
characteristics of vehicle waste oil collection is that products are returned in the best possible
presented. Section three describes the simulation condition containers protect waste oil from any sort
model of different dispatching strategies in vehicle of damage and weather conditions impact. Finally,
waste oil collection, while in section four the products need to be transported in a cost-efficient
computational results in the case of Palilula (and environmentally friendly) way to the treatment
municipality are given. Finally, some concluding facilities of the reverse logistics network (Fig. 1).
remarks are given in section five.
II. COLLECTION OF VEHICLE WASTE OIL
Vehicle waste oil is one of the areas of greatest

concern regarding motor vehicles. As mentioned,
vehicle waste oil falls into category of hazardous
waste since contains toxic chemicals and heavy
metals such as benzene, lead, zinc, and cadmium. As
such, proper vehicle waste oil management becomes
essential not only to minimize potential adverse
impacts, but also for promoting energy conservation
and environmental sustainability through diverse Figure 1. Reverse logistics network for the collection
of vehicle waste oil
treatment options. Namely, 67 l of crude oil are
needed to obtain 1 l of motor oil, but only 1.6 l of
waste oil are required to produce the same amount of One of the main assumptions in most papers
motor oil [7]. Also, this oil could be used as an dealing with issues in reverse logistics is that the
alternative fuel and in that way the natural resources volumes of material requiring collection are known.
are being preserved and necessary funds for energy However, uncertainty is one of the main

characteristics of reverse logistics systems caused at collection points and only when collection point
either by a lack of information or control indicates that the container is almost full, a container
mechanisms regarding quantity, timing and quality is being collected the next day. Since pick-up
of returns. This uncertainity was the motive to use operations are being planned always at the beginning
simulation as a tool to managing waste oil collection of each working day, in the model we introduced a
process. Namely, we assume that the volume of penalty for collection points not being able to receive
material requiring collection follows a certain known any vehicle waste oil (unserved demands at
probability distribution, which in our model was collection points). The concept of the reverse
assumed to be Normal. logistics network studied in this paper is shown in
the Fig. 1.
So, in order to satisfy the demands at the
collection points, pick-up tours are organized over
III. THE SIMULATION MODEL OF THE SYSTEM the planning period between the recycling facility
and collection points using a set of vehicles with
limited capacity. The aim of this problem is to satisfy
In this paper, we consider the planning of
the collection point‘s demands while minimizing the
transport activities in a two level reverse logistics
number of routed vehicles, without violating the
network composed of a recycling facility (RF) and
vehicle capacities and storage capacities at collection
set of vehicle waste oil collection points (CP). A
points. In order to determine the best dispatching
collection point i requires a pick-up operation of a
strategies, we consider three scenarios: Scenario A in
certain quantity of vehicle waste oil. Recycling
which the collection point‘s are served in order in
facility uses its own set of vehicles to collect waste
which they reported shortage of capacities; scenario
oil from collection centers. The capacity of recycling
B in which trucks visits to collection points that need
facility for collected materials is assumed to be more
pick-up operation are randomly chosen; and in
than sufficient, but collection truck capacity and
scenario C where the collection points are added to
capacity of containers located at collection points are
the routes according to their closeness to the
limited. We assumed that volume of vehicle waste
previous point in route. Setup, loading and unloading
oil requiring collection at collection point i is
times are incorporated in a route generation.
normally distributed with mean µi and variance σ2i.
However, there is no information on inventory levels
Figure 2. Spatial distribution of collection points at Palilula municipality
Reverse logistics network analyzed in this paper recycling factory is at Pancevo (Rafinery Pancevo) it
consists of fifteen collection points distributed over is provided that vehicle, whose working time is set to
the Palilula municipality (Fig. 2). Since location of 8 hours, can serve each collection point within this

period. Simulation period is 2160 hours, or three Though, more than 80% of routes, as it can be
months. Simulation models are realized in Flexsim seen from table II, are realized with the first vehicle,
3.0 simulation software, and for each scenario ten meaning that serving priority, based on shortage
realizations are conducted. Average value of ten report time, is the main cause for best performances
model runs are considered as relevant characteristics in terms of maximal customer service satisfaction.
of defined routing scenarios. It should be mentioned Furthermore, from table 1 it can be seen that
that we considered situations when three, two and dispatching strategy contained in scenario C
only one vehicle is available for oil collection. outperforms strategy from scenario B for any
number of available vehicles.
Due to its direct impact on number of required
IV. NUMERICAL RESULTS vehicles as well as on indirect impact on time passed
from inventory shortage report to waste oil pick up
A part of data collected during simulation runs,
time, next important performance in managing waste
which is required for analysis of applied strategies, is
oil collection operation is time vehicle spend in
presented in tables I, II and III. Table I contains data
executing collection tasks. Based on data stored in
about average volume of unsatisfied demand at
table III it can be concluded that regardless of
collection points during simulation runs. Data about
number of engaged vehicles dispatching strategy
average vehicles‘ working hours during simulation
based on visiting next closest collection point
period are presented in table II. Information about
outperforms other two strategies.
average number of routes conducted during
simulation, as well as distribution of conducted It should be mentioned that in this case identical
routes on vehicles is shown in table III. loading and unloading times are supposed for each
collection point and that all vehicles are traveling at
From table I it can be seen that in case when only
the same average speed. From results of simulation
one vehicle is used for waste oil collection,
experiments it could be concluded that, in sense of
additional engagement of a vehicle significantly
efficient utilization of available vehicle fleet,
decreases volume of unsatisfied demand for oil
strategy defined in scenario C has proved to give
disposal. With additional vehicle, i.e. when three
best performances. On the other hand, in case when
vehicles are in the system, there is still improvement
the priority is on point‘s penalty minimization,
in performance, but with much lover increment.
dispatching strategy used in scenario A provides best
Therefore, because benefit of additional vehicles
performances.
would have been exceeded by vehicle related costs
three had been the maximum number of vehicles we
considered in the model. Beside that, from table II it
can be seen that, no matter what dispatching strategy V. CONCLUSION REMARKS
was applied, less then 1% of all routes required
engagement of third vehicle. From table I it can be,
Originally perceived as simply the management
also, noticed that regardless of the number of
of returns, the modern objective of any ‗green‘
engaged vehicles dispatching strategy described as
reverse logistics process is to provide an
scenario A provides best performances in terms of
environmentally-friendly method of recovering and
customer service levels. The reason for this result
re-using materials at the end of the life-cycle of a
lays in the fact that collection points are served by
product. Increasing reverse logistics flows
each vehicle in exact order in which they reported
introduce new issues in the areas of collection and
shortage of available capacity, leaving less time for
vehicle routing. Since collection of discarded
disposal demands to occur. However, since one of
products represents a crucial activity in any reverse
dispatching objectives, besides achieving as high as
logistics system, in this paper we discuss different
possible customer service levels, is minimization of
dispatching strategies in vehicle waste oil
used vehicles, this principle is not always obeyed.
collection, in order to minimize transportation cost
Namely, in cases when one vehicle is not capable of
which in itself can lead to a reduction in fuel
serving all customers‘ requests during a working
consumption and hence a reduction in greenhouse
day, tasks are assigned to the second vehicle only
gas emissions. Of course, research presented here,
after whole working time of the first vehicle is
could be understood as the beginning of more
fulfilled.
detailed research, since it does not take into account
Therefore, the first task of the second vehicle is all characteristics of reverse logistics system, like
served approximately at the same time as the first uncertainty in return flows, nor potential
task of the first vehicle. The same stands for the case environmental impact of the waste oil which is
when three vehicles are required. hazardous material.

TABLE I. COLLECTING POINTS‘ PENALTIES [RECYCLABLE UNIT]

No. of
available
vehicles 3 2 1
Scenario A B C A B C A B C
Penalty 3947.97 4192.558 4108.845 4006.489 4356.725 4198.6 11599.13 14140.08 12413.15
TABLE II. REALIZED ROUTES DATA

3 vehicles available 2 vehicles available 1 vehicles available
Total no.
of routes 2814 2802 2826 2812 2798 2773 2523 2582 2610
Vehicle Scenario Scenario Scenario
number A B C A B C A B C
1 82.82% 82.31% 82.86% 83.96% 81.77% 84.64% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%
2 17.08% 17.44% 16.89% 16.04% 18.23% 15.36% 0% 0% 0%
3 0.10% 0.25% 0.25% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
TABLE III. REQUIRED NUMBER OF VEHICLES‘ WORKING HOURS [H]

Scenario
No. of available vehicles
A B C
3 602.9296 605.0821 594.4911
2 603.5277 604.2059 585.908
1 546.7334 554.7815 545.935
[2] M. Thierry, M. Salomon, J. van Nunen, and L.N. van

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Wassenhove, ―Strategic issues in product recovery
management‖, Cal. Manage. Rev. USA, vol. 37, pp.
114-135, Winter 1995.
This paper was supported by the Ministry of [3] P. Beullens, ―Location, process selection, and vehicle
routing models for reverse logistics‖, Ph.D. thesis,
Science and Technological Development Republic Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium. 2001.
of Serbia, through the project 36006, for the period [4] J. Teixeira, A. P Antunes, and J.P. Sousa,
2011 – 2014. ―Recyclable waste collection planning—a case
study‖, Eur. J. Oper. Res. , vol. 158, pp. 543-554,
November 2004.
REFERENCES [5] H. M. le Blanc, H. Fleuren, and H. R. Krikke,
―Redesign of a recycling system for LPG-tanks‖, OR
Spectrum Berlin/Heidelberg, vol. 26 pp. 283-304,
March 2004.
[1] A. El korchi, D. Millet , ―Designing a sustainable [6] H. Krikke, I. le Blanc, M. van Krieken, and H.
reverse logistics channel: the 18 generic structures Fleuren, ―Low-frequency collection of materiales
framework‖, J. Clean. Prod., vol.19, pp. 588-597, disassembled from end-of-life vehicles‖ Int. J. Prod.
April –May 2011. Econ., vol. 111, pp. 209-228, February 2008..

[7] EPA. Managing Used Oil: Advice for Small http://www.environ.ie/en/Legislation/Environment/

Businesses. Report 530EPA-F-96-004, November Waste/WasteManagement/FileDownLoad,1433,en.p
1996. df. Accessed 14 April 2011
[8] European Parliament and Council. Directive [9] Waste Management Regulations (2009) Ministry of
2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Environment and Spatial Plannig. Republic of
Council of 18 September 2000 on end-of life Serbia.
vehicles. Official Journal of the European http://www.parlament.rs/content/lat/akta/akta_detalji.
Communities. asp?Id=562&t=Z#Accessed 14 April 2011

Supporting regional rail decision makers to

award green: The ECORailS Project [1]
Martin Schipper
Energy Technology Division
TSB Innovation Agency Berlin
Berlin, Germany
Abstract– Railways are one of the most environment- 2050 [4]. Along with this efforts it is also
friendly means of passenger transport. Modal shift foreseeable that the energy and CO2 prices will
towards rail transport can be an appropriate measure for influence and increase the general pricing such as by
reducing energy consumption, CO2 emissions, pollutants the internalizations of environmental costs.
and noise. Furthermore railways are is the strategic key
area for the sustainability of transport in general,
Furthermore, railways have still considerable energy
whereas the inherent advantages of rail transport are and environmental potentials to be realized, like at
most prominent in terms of energy efficiency. However, organizational/management level (efficient driving,
the rail sector has not yet realized all their energy- scheduling) and for technological aspects (traction,
efficiency and environmental potentials. The project Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning – HVAC,
ECORailS focuses on improving the green performance auxiliary power, recuperation, etc.). It is important
of regional passenger railways and the particular to emphasize that the potentials are not simply
steering capabilities of regional Public Transport realized as add-ons, as several target conflicts
Administrations(PTAs). between technologies exist (like e. q. the energy
potentials of new technologies versus their weight,
Keywords– Regional Passenger Railways; Energy
Efficiency and Environmental Criteria; Tendering; certification issues, a. s. o.), as well as perceived
Procurement; Public Transport Administrations conflicts between energy efficiency and other
quality criteria (punctuality, comfort, speed).
Because of this framework and influencing
I. STARTING SITUATION TODAY : INCREASING factors the situation today is that energy efficiency
PRESSURE ON REGIONAL LEVEL TO AVOID and environmental criteria are often not considered
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS for a tendering or procurement decision. Moreover,
uncertainties exist about the real economical and
environmental potential of measures, as well as the
legal implications for implementing respective
A. Frameworks and influencing factors for technologies or services.
regional passenger railways
Urban traffic today is responsible for 40% of B. The role of Public Transport Administrations
CO2 emissions and 70% of emissions of other In most European countries, regional rail
pollutants arising from road transport [2]. Against services are today coordinated by regional or
this background and despite the fact that several national Public Transport Administrations (PTAs).
new approaches to power engines and fuels for cars Regional governments or purposely founded
(e. q. by gas, hydrogen, fuel cells, hybrid engines, management bodies usually organize train services
electric cars or bio fuels) arise, railways still offer by Public Service Contracts (PSC). This
one of the most significant alternatives for a competency is more and more transferred from
ecological, economical and socially affordable national to regional and local governments due to
transport mode. the liberalization and decentralization of the railway
sector itself. However, PTAs in Europe face
Railways in general have lost ground in the last growing budget constraints for regional rail
decades compared to other transport sectors, as for transport due to stressed public budgets.
example public transit busses [3]. Furthermore, the Furthermore, the rising energy prices and
necessary CO2 reduction to limit the global environmental costs will lay additional burden to the
temperature raise by 2°C is very ambitious and administrations to save costs while realizing
target to up to 80% or more emission reduction by ambitious environmental targets.

The contracts define the extent and the quality of used to choose, to concretize and to evaluate energy
services as well as the price the PTA has to pay to efficiency criteria as well as noise and pollutant
the contracted Train Operating Company (TOC). criteria, and show present and future potentials and
The quality of services (including e.g. energy solutions for saving energy in regional passenger
consumption) depends to a great extent on the rail transport [6].
quality of the rolling stock which is used. If the
Four Administrations from Berlin-Brandenburg
TOC procures the rolling stock, it must fulfill the
(Senate Department from Urban Development),
qualitative requirements of the PTA. Some PTAs
Lombardy (Region of Lombardy supported by the
procure rolling stock themselves and provide it to
Agenzia della Lombardia Orientale per i Trasporti e
the contracted TOC; thus the PTA can influence the
la Logistica), Øresund (Trafikstyrelsen) and
quality of the fleet directly.
Timisoara (CFR) have undertaken tests of the
Wherever European PTAs are committed to Guidelines which led to an energy reduction
environmental goals, have sufficient and reliable potential of 5% compared to current awarding and
funds, and respect some basic principles of 10% compared to actually used rolling stock.
passenger-friendly service concepts, regional Furthermore, stakeholder forums have been built up
railway passenger services have become a great at all four test sites and Europe wide with altogether
success in terms of increasing numbers of 14 further Administrations and Administration
passengers and enhanced service quality. Associations, 13 Train Operators and Infrastructure
Managers, and seven Vehicle Suppliers. In these
forums knowledge from the different stakeholders
could be gained on the needs, requirements and
II. PROJECT SCOPE OF ECORAILS expectations in European awarding processes as
well as the practicability and impact of the
Guidelines.
Today many possibilities exist both for PTA and
TOC to realize higher energy and environmental
standards. During the procurement of rolling stock,
consumption criteria or bonus-malus systems can be
applied. Furthermore, energy aspects can be III.MARKET INTRODUCTION TOPICS FOR THE
included in all aspects of infrastructure charges AWARDING OF REGIONAL RAIL TRANSPORRT
paying for the real amount consumed. In order to
gain a system wide reduction, energy consumption The technological potentials in the railway
assessments can be undertaken for example by market for green applications are high. Over 80
reference lines or technological specifications. technologies and operational measures could be
Additionally, standardized methods and a related identified of which only about 15% is required
energy labeling can support or further improve these today in awarding. The reasons are besides the fact
activities [5]. of high investment costs also a low information
basis about the existence or potentials of the
However, the regional government provides the
applications, and the insecurity if legal restrictions
decision making on a system-wide level and sets the
exist when awarding ambitious standards.
framework conditions for all relevant stakeholders
in the respective policy fields. The respective Additionally, over one third of the technologies
steering capacities of Public Transport refers to solutions already available in the market or
Administrations can be implemented by used while the majority of the operational measures
procurements or tenders (both summarized by the is already available in the market , like e. g.
term awarding) as a market-based instrument for
decisions. Many PTAs already have their
experiences with quality criteria. However, criteria  Technologies for the reduction of the energy
concerning energy efficiency and environmental consumption (re-use, storage, etc.)
effects have their own challenges as described in the  Optimisation of comfort functions (i. p.
previous chapters. This is the reason why the parked trains)
ECORailS consortium took the effort to elaborate
Guidelines for involving energy-efficient and  Training programs to raise the personnel’s
environmentally-friendly criteria into the tendering awareness (EE driving, etc.)
and procurement by regional rail decision-makers.
The Guidelines comprise the main economical,  Train formation (i. p. mass reduction)
ecological and political arguments and contain a
comprehensive list of relevant criteria. They can be

An important feature which could be identified is  PTAs need to rely more and more on real energy
that one third of the short-term technologies and data measured during the contract duration,
below 10% of the operational measures will mean which supports the payment of fair and
medium or high operating and/or investment costs. transparent prices to the TOCs. For this reason
About 2/3 of the technologies (short term as well as common activities for gaining the real energy
long term horizon) and operational measures will level are to be agreed between both stakeholders
give significant reduction in the vehicle running
costs. [7]
 The benefit models for energy and CO2 savings
A further key dissemination topic of ECORailS
should include both new and existing railway
was that ambitious energy and environmental targets
are possible to be requested from a legal point of fleets, and therefore consider also phase-in and
view. To be obeyed are the principles of the phase-out strategies. This would lead to a
European Treaties: significant cost reduction on the side of TOCs
and the suppliers while offering already
significant green reduction potentials.
 Non-discrimination
Finally topics of the contracting phase could be
 Proportionality covered by future activities, offering itself chances
for realizing further profound energy and
environmental improvements.
 Transparency
REFERENCES
 Equal treatment [8]
[1] ECORailS – Energy Efficiency and environmental

criteria for the awarding of regional rail transport
services and vehicles – has be co-financed by the
Intelligent Energy Europe programme of the EACI.
IV. LESSONS LEARNT FROM ECORAILS : The project has been implemented between 2009 and
ESTABLISHING LONG TERM APPROACHES FOR 2011 with alltogether 15 partners, coordinated by the
REALISING ENVIRONMENTAL TARGETS IN REGIONAL TSB Innovation Agency Berlin GmbH. A general
overview can be found at www.ecorails.eu
RAILWAYS [2] European Commission: Green Paper „Towards a new
culture for urban mobility“ (COM(2007)55)
Despite the fact that the several stakeholders [3] For further information see for example: Allianz pro
Schiene & Institut für Umweltforschung:
have expressed energy and CO2 reduction targets, “Datenbank Umwelt & Verkehr” 2008,
the actors involved in an awarding process have to http://www.allianz-pro-
find intersecting compromises since several political schiene.de/umwelt/umweltdatenb
[4] ECORailS has benefited from a number of projects
and competitive targets are affected during this which set different basic results:ECORailS has
process. Besides the organizational approach to benefited from a number of Framework Programme
implement several stakeholder forums at regional and Intelligent Energy Europe projects: PROSPER
(http://www.railway-
and European level, the content-oriented activities procurement.org/prosper/uicleaflet.htm) resulted into
have focused on win-win situations for PTAs and the UIC Leaflet 345 “Environmental specifications
TOCs but also industry. This includes the following for new rolling stock”. TRAINER
(http://w3.disg.uniroma1.it/Trainer/) identified and
aspects: disseminated the potentials for energy efficient
driving and other energy applications for railways.
Railenergy (http://www.railenergy.org/) had the
 The targets for awarding have to be outcomes of joint UIC/UNIFE Technical
Recommendations “Specification and verification of
communicated in long-term before the awarding energy consumption for railway rolling stock”, a
process itself, which usually has a restricted time calculator for identifying the costs and potentials of
frame of some months. In order to realize energy energy measur ass essments.
[5] See for exam(AR4)
efficient and environmentally friendly http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publicatio
technologies and introduce them into the market ns_and_data_reports.shtml (Last access: 7th of April
2
(including standardization and certification [6] See www.ecorails.eu
steps), a multi-years announcement of awarding [7] As sources see for example: EVENT Project,
targets should be established by the PTAs. A “Evaluation of Energy Efficiency Technologies for
Rolling Stock and Train Operation of Railways”,
long-term communication also avoids legal http://www.railway-energy.org/tfee/index;
insecurities by settling issues in time, and by TRAINER Project - TRAining programmes to
INcrease Energy-efficiency by Railways
giving knowledge in advance (http://w3.disg.uniroma1.it/trainer/) (manual and

video); Christian Lauszat, Re-use of waste heat, [8] European Commission: EU regulation no.2007/1370
Energy Efficiency Days 2009, in Tours/France; “on public passenger transport services by rail and by
Claus Doll, Fraunhofer-Institute Systems and road”, on force since December 200
Innovation Research, Michael Krail, University
Karlsruhe, Institute for Economic Policy Research,
Policy scenarios to meet Germany’s GHG reduction
Targhets, NIAM / APRIL meeting ULC 8-9 ian.2009

Intermodal Technology Application on the

Belgrade-Bar Railway Line
Gordan Stojić, Jovan Tepić, Ilija Tanackov, Siniša

University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sremac, Dušan Tešić
Technical Sciences University of Novi Sad, Faculty of
Novi Sad, Serbia Technical Sciences
gordan@uns.ac.rs Novi Sad, Serbia
Abstract— Intermodal transport is a well known manipulation technologies implemented at ports and
philosophy and has become practically the only strategic terminals.
solution to global commodity distribution problems. The
goal for European railways is the development and It is necessary to achieve the balance between the
implementation of technology that can be commercially benefits of providing transport for economic
competitive with road transport, whilst providing development and the society in general, and the
compatibility with road and water transport, as well as adverse effects brought upon by its expansion. One
handling technologies at ports and terminals. Ministry of of the main challenges of the future transport system
Science and Technological Development of Serbia development, in addition to information technology
recognized the current trends, and has selected the and intermodality, is the integration of
intermodal transport as a possible solution for the
expected increased transport demand in Serbia. environmental requirements and goals.
Intermodal transport allows fast and safe transport of Currently, the key motivation behind the
large quantities of goods, whilst reducing road development of the concept of the future transport
congestion, number of traffic accidents and pollution. It system in the European Union is the need to create
also requires technology that can, at present, be
successfully accommodated and implemented by the
conditions for accelerated intermodal transport
transport sector in Serbia. Intermodal transport also development.
contributes towards raising the standard of Serbian Intermodal transport involves specialized
transport services to the European level. Due to intermodal units and suitably modified means of
underdeveloped terminals in Serbia, intermodal
transport, as well as terminals, terminal networks,
technology A (transport of complete road vehicles) is
identified as particularly suitable for application. transport infrastructure, transport organizations and
Namely, it does not require special loading devices at the operators, logistics chain strategies and telemetric
terminal; using a simple and inexpensive equipment systems. These intermodal transport components are
(ramps and crossovers) instead. This paper presents affected by extremely strong interdependencies,
detailed characteristics of intermodal technology A, whereby any changes in one area can affect other
including its advantages and disadvantages, and subsystems.
technical requirements for its introduction on the
Belgrade-Bar railway line. The concept of intermodal land transport primary
relies on rail-based services. However, even when
Keywords— intermodalni transport, Modalohr, direct or shuttle trains are a part of the system,
decision-making intermodal trains are not particularly fast. Mean
velocities of liner feeder or intermodal trains are far
below those achieved by trucks [1]. The expediency
I. INTRODUCTION of door-to-door transport that includes Liner, Feeder
and CBA trains is significantly hindered by the
lengthy reloading operations within intermodal units.
Combined intermodal transport has become the
norm and practically the only strategic solution to the The overall economic cost in a intermodal
global commodity distribution problems. The central transport system is also affected by the reloading
aim of the European railways is to identify a subsystem.
technology that can be commercially competitive
The combination of reloading costs and economic
with road transport, whilst providing compatibility
quantification of the intermodal transport temporal
with road and water transport, as well as
characteristics are not always beneficial.
Nevertheless, within the European land transport

system, the change in the intermodal transport height of 4.0 m, 18.75 m length and 42.0 t weight.
volume has a positive trend. The importance of The maximum load per carriage axle is 10.0 t, and
intermodal transport is indirectly confirmed by an the maximum loaded velocity is 100 km/h.
increase in intermodal freight transport research [2], Loading/unloading at 5 km/h velocities is feasible
the studies on the distribution of intermodal cargo and typically requires 20 minutes. Total cargo
flows in the market [3], the intermodal transport cost transfer time is 40 min.
structure analysis [4], models for the optimal choice
of the intermodal terminal locations in the network
[5][6][7], analysis of the conditions of competition
within the intermodal transport system [3][8][9] etc.
Relationships between the network and terminals
[10] and the requirements placed upon terminal Figure 1. RoLa carriage small diameter wheels, front
characteristics, such as input flows (cargo volume, reloading platform, and the RoLa plateau for
loading unit composition, the layout characteristics, loading road transport units
operating conditions, equipment, trans-shipment
systems, etc.) [11] result in a complex and sensitive The key direct RoLa system benefits are:
terminal cost structures [12]. The terminal operating
costs are inversely proportional to the volume of • relatively low investment into terminals, as well
work; thus, the onus is on the initiation of new as rapid, horizontal and autonomous handling of
intermodal markets with small initial freight flows intermodal units,
and their integration in the intermodal transport • reduction in the cost of consumables and road
system [13]. Intermodal distribution techniques in transporter fiscal obligations,
developed European markets favor swap bodies with • increased radius per driver (the driver can rest
during the RoLa transport), and
78%, whilst the rolling road semi trailers participate
• increased market for railway transport.
in the intermodal market with 14% and 8%,
respectively [14]. These proportions are significantly The key indirect RoLa system benefits include:
different in the developing intermodal markets, as is • higher quality of logistics services ("door to
the case of Eastern Europe, where semi trailer door," or "Full Service Packet"),
transport accounts for less than 1% in the overall • lower specific energy consumption of transport,
volume [15]. • lower merchandise packaging costs,
This paper presents a comparison of the • lower storage costs,
Belgrade-Bar railway line technical parameters with • more cost-effective transport,
those required for the introduction of "RoLa" and • increased road traffic safety by eliminating RoLa
"Modalohr" technologies. trucks, resulting in reduced disability and
insurance premiums,
• increased capacity for movement of goods,
II. ROLA AND MODALOHR VEHICLE-VEHICLE irrespective of the prescribed rules governing
TECHNOLOGIES maximum permitted duration of continuous
driving per single driver (EU Directive
A. RoLa 2009/5/EC-amending Annex III to the Directive
RoLa (Rollande Landstrasse, Rolling Highway) 2006/22/EC and Council Regulations (EEC) No.
is an intermodal technology in which complete road 3820/85 and 3821/85),
units (road tractor + semi trailer) are identified as • reduced erosion of road networks and road
intermodal units. maintenance costs in the equivalent of one truck
The core technical base comprises of special per 10,000 passenger cars, reduced CO2
railway vehicles manufactured by Saaks and emissions in the equivalent of 2.7 kg CO2 per 1
Saadkms with the floor height of only 447 mm, kg of fuel with oxygen absorption of 4.0 kg, etc.
requiring wheel diameters of only 355 mm. This and
technical feature is the biggest problem in the overall • reduced noise caused by the movement of trucks
concept behind the RoLa technology, as the wheel through urban areas, etc.
load is about 2.5 times higher than for standard
diameters. In addition, the overall dimensions of the The main shortcomings of the RoLa system are:
installed braking equipment are rather small. Swivel • high maintenance costs associated with
stands are designed with 4 or 5 axes. However, the specialized carriages,
advantage is that such carriages can be loaded with • road tractor transport ―dead weight,‖
complete road transport units, subject to maximum • restrictions on free profiles, and

• longer travel distances. a cylinder. The carriage opening systems are part of
the equipment that remains fixed on the terminal site,
Intermodal unit loading and unloading processes
which ensures cost effectiveness, due to the high
in RoLa system are governed by the FIFO (First in -
carriage to terminal ratio. Furthermore, maintenance
first out) principle. Therefore, RoLa technologies are
of ground-based stations is much easier than that of
only applicable for direct trains that do not require
on-board systems. Thus, opening systems are
changes in the composition in the intermediate
comprised of simple, proven and reliable
stations.
components [16].
RoLa requires UIC GC loading profile.
B. Modalohr
Modalohr intermodal transport technology is a
new Rail-Road technology that has retained all the
advantages of RoLa, whilst avoiding its major
shortcomings. Thus, the small diameter wheels and
the transport of truck "dead weight" are eliminated.
Trucks are transported at the user request only,
whilst preserving the concept of autonomous and
horizontal reloading.
Modalohr transport concept belongs to the
huckepack transport technology A. Therefore, it can
be used for transporting complete road vehicles as Figure 2. Modalohr railway vehicle
an alternative to RoLa transport technology.
Modalohr carriages are characterized by low floor
heights, and are designed specifically for the
transport of complete road vehicles, trailers and
semi-trailers. They have multi-part structure (two-
piece or tripartite) with a rotatable cargo area that
supports lateral loading. An example of Modalohr
railway carriage is shown in Figure 2.
Modalohr technical specifications include low-
floor articulated double-sided railway carriages with
lateral "herring-bone" truck loading for
simultaneous, rapid trans-shipment. Modalohr
systems can accommodate most standard semi-
trailers and trucks. Maximum allowed semi-trailer
length is 13.7 m, or 14.0 m when cooling unit is
included. Maximum road tractor length is 6.2 m,
semi-trailer height is restricted to 4.0 m and its load
to 38 t. The wheel diameters in middle swivel
section are 920 mm, with 22.5 t load per axle. End-
components have a wheel diameter of 840 mm and Figure 3. Modalohr basic principles and dimensions
allow for 17.0 t of load per axle.
As already mentioned, the devices used to rotate Modalohr terminals are technically more complex
the carriage cargo platform are a part of the terminal and expensive compared to RoLa. They require
fixed equipment. They are manufactured using facilities for the lateral displacement of sunken
reliable components, approved through an extensive platforms between swivel systems. The operation of
battery of analyses and tests. This equipment is these systems is controlled from the ground by the
operated by experienced terminal staff, whereby operating personnel responsible for monitoring the
truck reloading is monitored from the ground. Each vehicle reloading operations. Depending on the
rail carriage is equipped with a safety lock that frequency of Modalohr trains, three types of
ensures cargo safety while the train is in motion (Fig. terminals are proposed [16] (Table 1).
3). Large and Medium terminal types are bilateral,
In order to ensure high rolling-stock reliability whilst Low type is unilateral and can execute
and low maintenance costs, the carriages are simple simultaneous reloading of 50% of cargo. Modalohr
mechanical assemblies that do not include a motor or is characterized by the lack of rigid FIFO discipline

of the RoLa service. Simultaneous loading and [17] on the Large terminals, compared to 40 min
unloading result in the reloading time of only 15 min required by RoLa systems.
TABLE I. MODALOHR TERMINALS ADAPTED ACCORDING TO TRAFFIC VOLUME

Terminal dimensions
terminal (train of
movements on
Number of
750 m length)
Capacity
Type of
frequency
Train
terminal
Wid
Length, L
th
(m)
(m)
Ty
pe 1 to 2 trains 57
Large 800  L 0
per hour m
1
Ty 1 train per
pe Mediu every 2 hours 200  L  31
1 to 2
m to 1 train in 6 400 m
2 hours
Ty
pe 1 to 3 trains 120  L  20
Low 3 to 6
per day 200 m
3
The key advantages of the Modalohr technology are: - reduced noise and environmental pollution
1. From the road transport perspective: caused by exhaust gases,
• no need for investment in special transport - increased road safety, and
equipment, allowing all road vehicles to utilize - decreased road congestion, increasing the
this system, capacity for passenger vehicles, etc.
• all road vehicles not exceeding 4 m height
The disadvantages of the Modalohr concept:
restriction can be transported,
• expedient and straightforward reloading process, • High terminal construction costs, due to:
etc. - the need for special ramps and devices for
2. From the rail transport perspective: rotating carriage cargo platforms (requiring
• use of existing railway lines, a substantial initial investment), and
• low railway carriage maintenance costs, - extensive parking area that can
comparable to those of conventional cars, simultaneously accommodate a large
• low reloading costs at the terminal, number of trucks.
• a smaller number of tracks in the terminal are • Economic justification for the distances of 350 to
required, due to efficient reloading, 1200 km.
• low exploitation costs stemming from:
Finally, the Modalohr concept requires UIC GB1
- high locomotive and cargo productivity due
loading profile.
to the short retention time in the terminal,
- lateral or horizontal reloading that can take
place on an electrified track (as opposed to
vertical loading), without the need for III. BEOGRAD-BAR RAILWAY LINE
composition decoupling, and CHARACTERISTICS
- small number of railway staff required at
the terminal, as the road vehicle drivers can
Railway line Beograd–Bar is 466.5 km long.
perform the complete reloading process.
• Mutually independent and more efficient road Due to the extremely challenging terrain through
vehicle loading. which it passes, Belgrade-Bar railway was built as a
3. From the state and government perspective: single track system, with 22.5 t axle load. Depending
• Decreased number of heavy goods vehicles on on the configuration of the terrain through which it
the main roads, resulting in: passes and the curvature radii, the train velocities on
inter-station rail sections vary from 75 to 100 km/h.

The railroad is largely mountainous in character, Loading profile is a virtual space located in the
with a maximum incline of 13 ‰ between Belgrade transverse plane perpendicular to the track axis,
and Užice, Užice and Priboj 17 ‰, and 25 ‰ from within which all railway vehicle components or
Bijelo Polje to Podgorica (Fig. 4). loaded items must be contained. Thus, establishing a
single loading profile enables the use of freight and
passenger vehicles from various railway companies
within the international railway transport system
International Union of Railways (UIC).
The free and loading profiles on the Belgrade-Bar
railway line are given in Table 2.
Figure 4. Longitudinal section Beograd – Bar

TABLE II. FREE AND LOADING PROFILE ON THE
BELGRADE-BAR RAILWAY LINE
Of the entire line length, 114437 m, or 24%, is
located in 254 tunnels. The longest tunnels are Dimensions
Beograd-Bar
"Sozina," which is 6171 m long, "Zlatibor" with railway Free Loading
6169 m, "Trebešica" 5170 m, "Goleš" 4964.3 m, profile profile
"Ostrovica" 3831 m, and "Mojkovac" 3243 m.
Profile height 5800 mm 4650 mm
On the Belgrade-Bar railway line, water and
Profile width 4000 mm 3150 mm
altitude barriers have been overcome with 206
concrete bridges, with a total length of 10760 m, as
well as 28 steel bridges of 3833 m total length. In the period from 22/02/2005 to 06/04/2005, a
There are 234 bridges, with a total length of number of tests were conducted on the potential use
14593 m. The largest and most attractive bridge is of railways for the transport of road vehicles on the
"Mala Rijeka"—498 m in length, followed by railway lines of "Serbian Railways" (JP "Železnice
"Ljubovija"—450 m, "Uvac"—303 m etc. Srbije"), using RoLa technology. The main
conclusion of this study was that the tunnels along
Observed through a geographic prism, the the Belgrade-Bar would present an obstacle in the
Belgrade-Bar railway line is very important in that it development of this system (due to bottlenecks). In
is the only rail link with the coast for almost the addition, the tunnels on the section Belgrade-Valjevo
entire eastern half of the former Yugoslavia, which cannot support this type of transport without a
significantly shortens the Panonian part of the complete reconstruction. Specifically, the
journey for 50% of the countries. The railway is dimensions of this section do not meet the RoLa
extremely important for cargo transport between requirements, due to the encroachment into the
southern Italy and Romania and beyond. tunnel, mainly by the electric network conductor
contacts. The Belgrade-Valjevo section comprises 39
tunnels of 18843 m total length.
IV. INTERMODAL TECHNOLOGY The Valjevo-Vrbnica (state border)-Bar section
IMPLEMENTATION POTENTIAL ON THE BEOGRAD- has the potential for implementing RoLa technology,
BAR RAILWAY LINE subject to speed restrictions on certain sections and
frequent profile checks on the same. In this section,
A. Implementation potential from the aspect of cargo of dimensions exceeding the load profile upper
railway profiles limit of was transported on several occasions, under
To ensure the safe and free rail transport, free and exceptional circumstances, exceeding dimensions
loading profile railway dimensions must be required by RoLa system.
accurately defined. This implies that regular use of RoLa technology
Free railtrack profile refers to the limited space over the entire section is not feasible without the
located in a vertical plane perpendicular to the track railway reconstruction.
axis. To ensure the free passage of railway vehicles, Given that the loading area in Modalohr railroad
this profile must be free from any items, objects or vehicles is located at only 10 to 18 cm above the top
parts incorporated into the track above or below the edge rails, the existing loading profile does not
rail line. Due to the driving dynamics and other prohibit the application of this technology.
safety reasons, free profile is higher than the vehicle
profile.

B. Implementation potential from the aspect of railway line would thus support all intermodal
maximum load transport technologies.
Belgrade-Bar railway line belongs to the category Given that Serbian railways do not operate low-
D4, with the maximum permitted load of 22.5 t/axle, floor carriages required for implementation of RoLa
or 8.0 t/m. technology, their acquisition requires significant
The comparison of these values with the technical financial resources (160000 to 180000€, depending
requirements of RoLa and Modalohr vehicles on the type of car and the manufacturer). As an
implies that the permissible load on this line does not alternative, such carriages could be rented, but the
affect the selection of railroad transport vehicles feasibility of this approach would be highly
implemented as a part of these technologies. dependent on their rate of use. Finally, such carriages
could be manufactured and assembled in domestic
In other words, railway vehicles as a part of facilities, whereby the production of the most
intermodal transport technology A (RoLa and complex components could be outsourced to external
Modalohr) meet the requirements of the maximum manufacturers.
allowed load on the Belgrade-Bar railway line.
In addition to the aforementioned investments,
C. Other technical aspectsof implementation the introduction of this technology requires resources
for opening required terminals, including the cost of
The maximum permitted train length on the
purchasing reloading barriers, expansion of road
Belgrade-Bar railway line does impose a limit on
vehicle parking areas etc. However, these costs are
RoLa and Modalohr train dimensions. The train
negligible compared to the previously outlined
length required for the introduction of the huckepack
investments.
technology A on this line depends on the maximum
gross weight of the train and the number of Investments incurred by Modalohr technology
locomotives in the composition. implementation on the Belgrade-Bar railway are
substantially lower than those required by RoLa
The technical base within the road transport
technology. Given that the technical characteristics
certainly exists, as the technology A does not require
of this railway line meet the requirements for
special construction of road vehicles. On the other
application Modalohr technology, no reconstruction
hand, at present, the carriages operated by Serbian
is needed; thus, the investment is limited to the
Railways are not of low-floor type required for this
purchase of rail vehicles and terminals required by
transport method. In addition, no loading/unloading
this technology.
terminals are in place, and no huckepack company
that would manage this transport system has been The cost of Modalohr low-floor carriages is
identified. considerably lower than that of RoLa type, i.e. it is
comparable to the cost of conventional rail vehicles.
Moreover, the maintenance costs are lower, as
stipulated by their construction.
V. SOCIO-ECONOMC ASPECTS
On the other hand, the costs of opening Modalohr
A. Economic aspects terminals are higher than required by RoLa
Given that the Belgrade-Bar railway line technology, due to the need for devices for rotating
technical characteristics do not satisfy the conditions vehicle swivel platforms, potential expansion of road
for unimpeded RoLa train traffic, its reconstruction network and parking areas. Nonetheless, the cost is
is necessary. Feasibility study for rehabilitation of still lower than for other huckepack transport
the Belgrade-Bar railway was conducted in 1990s; technologies. Rotating device maintenance is
however, it was not followed by further research. cheaper and easier than that of low-floor for "Rolling
Road" vehicles. In addition, the terminal retains the
In 2006, a new feasibility study was carried out basic advantages of intermodal technology A in
by the Ministry of Capital Investments, in terms of quick and easy reloading.
collaboration with the "Serbian Railways,"
concluding that 288 km of railway line within Serbia In introducing the huckepack technology A, it is
required reconstruction [18]. This work would very important to define the appropriate tariffs. The
include the removal of bottlenecks on the rail line, shipping price must be sufficiently low to make the
bridges, tunnels and other weak spots, as well as system attractive for road transport companies,
modernization of signaling safety systems and whilst enabling investment repayment. However, in
telecommunications, in order to increase the line the initial period, operating costs are expected to
capacity and meet the European standards. The total exceed the income obtained through tariffs. Hence,
investment value of the project is estimated at 556 based on the experiences of countries with the
million USD. The reconstructed Belgrade-Bar advanced huckepack technology A, only in the

medium term, the road vehicle rail transport can be primarily due to the tunnel dimensions (the
expected to provide a balance of costs and revenues. Belgrade-Valjevo section in particular), and the
Thus, given that this technology requires significant absence of low-floor carriages required by RoLa.
financial resources, the state support is mandatory. Thus, application of RoLa technology requires a
significant investment into the railtrack
B. Sociological aspects reconstruction as well as the purchase low-floor
In this context, the role of the state is reflected in carriages. On the other hand, the RoLa terminal
the definition of the statutory provisions that would investments are minimal.
contribute to the intensification of such transport
systems, primarily by limiting the movement of There are no obstacles to introduction of the
freight transport road vehicles and the redirection Modalohr concept of intermodal technology A from
towards environmentally friendly transport modes. the standpoint of the technical characteristics of the
Belgrade-Bar railway line. Investments in
The introduction of the intermodal technology A infrastructure and equipment for opening Modalohr
on the Belgrade-Bar railway line would result in the terminals, as well as for carriage procurement are not
reduction in the number of heavy goods vehicles on substantial. Thus, with respect to investments, the
the Ibar highway, with the following effects: introduction of this technology would be a favorable
 Higher utilization and increased capacity for option, when compared to RoLa. In addition, all the
passenger cars, benefits are preserved, including: a fast and easy
manipulation in the terminal, road congestion
 Reduction in traffic noise, reduction, favorable environmental factors (noise
and pollution reduction), road safety, and others.
 Increased transport safety and the reduction in
the number of traffic accidents, Finally, the introduction of intermodal technology
A in Serbia would provide benefits to road transport
 Reduced road surface wear, resulting in lower operators, Serbian Railways and the state itself.
maintenance costs
 Fewer traffic delays on the highway, and
 Less environmental pollution due to the reduced ACKNOWLEDGMENT
number of road vehicles, especially those that
use diesel fuel D-2, etc.
The authors acknowledgement the support of
Of the above-mentioned effects, road safety and
research project TR 36012, funded by the Ministry
environmental protection (noise and environmental of Science and Technological Development of
pollution) stand out as the most important. Serbia.
VI. CONCLUSION
Intermodal transport technology is certainly one REFERENCES

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Volume 152, Issue 2, 16 January 2004, Pages 410-
419

Technological and Capacity Optimization

of the Novi Sad Marshalling Station
Gordan Stojić, Ilija Tanackov, Jovan Tepić, Siniša

University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sremac, Marija Stanić
Technical Sciences University of Novi Sad, Faculty of
Novi Sad, Serbia Technical Sciences
gordan@uns.ac.rs Novi Sad, Serbia
Abstract– Marshalling stations are centers where admission into the station, preparing for decoupling,
railway transport components spend considerable time in the composition decoupling, monitoring the wagon
the process of the fulfillment of their demands. They accumulation process, preparation for shipment of
perform a maneuvering operation, consisting of accumulated freight, and train dispatch. Therefore,
composing and recombining the train components. They
are placed at points of large scale loading and
optimization process within the marshalling stations
unloading, as well as at railway line connection or is of great importance for the more efficient transport
intersection points and major traffic nodes. Marshalling of goods and reduction in overall transport costs,
stations, according to their characteristics, can be which can directly affect the rail transport
considered complex technical - technological systems. competitiveness. In other words, the marshalling
They service trains that require the processing, station optimization has a direct influence on supply
preparation, dissolution, accumulation, re-assembling, as chain efficiency, as it is a very important link.
well as locomotive servicing and shipping. At each stage,
the system is comprised of the three basic components: Optimizing the use of railway infrastructure is a
input, service and output, as well as frequent queues. complex and difficult task. The capacities of one
These serve as guidelines in identifying the key railway station, in specified time period and terms,
Queuening model components. This work presents are enabling receipt, processing and dispatch trains.
modeling of the technology and capacity of the Defining capacity is needed to define the time tables,
marshalling station admission park, based on Queueing the traffic organization and technological processes,
theory. The loading park models were based on non- their optimization, planning of investments etc. The
Markov Queueing model and developed on the example
basic problem which arises is how to dimension
of marshalling station in Novi Sad.
capacities, so the train service can be carried out
Keywords– modeling, optimization, marshalling without problems. Accordingly it’s necessary to have
station, Queueing model in mind that, infrastructural facilities and resources
are extraordinarily expensive, as at the building and
procurement point as same as the maintaining point.
I. INTRODUCTION Also notable are the costs of labor.
This means that their improper dimensioning can
In the transport from the source to the destination affect on the railway profitability because railway
station, vehicles (as well as transported goods) are capacity is not static, and it’s extremely dependent
retained in marshalling stations for shunting. on the way of use.
Specialized railway stations that are equipped with In literature there are many methods and models
facilities for the effective execution of the large-scale for dimensioning of railway capacity.
maneuvering tasks, as well as the decoupling and the
formation of freight trains, are referred to as The International Union of Railways (UIC),
marshalling stations. proposed the UIC method it calculates capacity in
line sections to identify bottlenecks. It takes into
Marshalling stations are also points that can slow account the order of trains, and a buffer time is
down the transport of goods, primarily due to the inserted to achieve an acceptable quality of service.
unavoidable of wagon accumulation prior to This method was officially dropped some years ago
processing. Inefficiency introduced by marshalling and is no longer recognized as a standard. It has been
stations into transport of goods is also due to other superseded by more general recommendations that
activities the trains are subjected to or involved in. establish a link between railway capacity and railway
Such activities include train preparation for quality [1]. In their last recommendation, the

International Union of Railways presented the Queuing Theory based on mathematical modeling of
compaction method (UIC 406 method) as the best technological processes and computer simulation [7].
way of performing a capacity study. The capacity
Analytical models for determining the capacities
calculation is based on the compression of timetable
don’t take into account technological processes and
graphs on a defined line or line section.
don’t provide multivariate solutions. Accuracy of
The paper [1] provides an overview on the main these models is much smaller in relation to others.
concepts and methods for capacity analyses, and Graphical models directly depends exclusively on
presents an automated tool that is able to perform the train schedules and standardized technological
several capacity analyses. Theese analyses are times duration of the activities and operations. These
related to certain determination of capacity of certain models are tested within each change of train
railroads sections but not for facilities of railway schedule. The application of the Queuing Theory
stations. gives good results in the analysis and determination
of stochastic systems. The main problem in applying
In the work [2] for traffic congestion controls
this theory is the choice of best suited queuing
uses a queue thresholds. For the queuing theory is
system to solve the set of problems. A specific
used the system GE/GE/1/N approximation.
problem is determining the exact distribution of the
Developed to study the spread of traffic congestion
input stream and the time of its serving.
in complex networks. Then, for modeling the spread
of traffic congestion in complex rail networks in [3] Optimization methodologies used in practice tend
is used a Weight-evolving traffic network model to combine two or more basic techniques.
which is based on Barrat–Barthelemy–Vespignani
This paper presents the technology and capacity
(BBV) model. This paper simulates and analyzes the
modeling of the marshalling station admission park
process of the emergence and spreading of
based on the queuing theory.
congestion, which is triggered by adjusting of data
generating speed and data sending ability of the
network.
The railway traffic managment is presented in II. TECHNOLOGY AND CAPACITY MODELLING
paper [4], in which new extended equation for train OF THE MARSHALLING STATION ADMISSION PARK
traffic, and its impact on the length of the braking
distance when several trains are in traffic, is Due to the complexity associated with modeling
presented. For this purpose, numerical and technology and capacity of the entire marshalling
simulation analysis, are performed. station, in this paper, only the technological
processes in the admission park are modeled (AP).
The technology and railway station capacity
These technological processes result in a less
modeling are presented in the following works [5],
dependent technological unit [5] [10]. In this paper,
[6], [7] and [4]. In the work [5] presents a simulation
two models of the admission park are developed,
model for technology and capacities optimization for
based on non-Markov Queueing model, using the
interim stations (transit stations) with usage of the
example of the Novi Sad marshalling station.
Non-Markovian systems queueing theory. To
simulate the railway traffic at the stations (into the
A. Non-Markov Queueing Model М/ Ek /1/∞
railway transit stations), in [4] Cellular Automata is
used, and in the [6] hybrid Petri nets-based The timetable is governed by the train input flow
simulation model. In the work [7], marshaling yard into the marshalling station. Based on the timetable
station model is presented, where the station analysis using the historical data, in the Novi Sad
optimization is the main question, and is based on marshaling station, on average, treatment
the simulation modeling of the technological (decoupling) of 20 freight trains was planned.
operations such as train formation and unformation. The technological process is based on two
The analytical modeling of the technological maneuvering units operating within the admission
operations in the marshaling yards it is made in the park. Under such an arrangement, one unit is
work [8]. working on processing compositions in the
The simulation modeling for other types of traffic admission park, whereas the other conducts the same
is applied for investigating the dynamic behavior of operations in the transit station. At the marshalling
the transfer process at the ports [9]. station Novi Sad, there are two shunting
locomotives, one of which is used for train
In general, the models for dimensioning of decoupling, and the other for supplying wagons to
railway facilities can be: analytical, graphical, the sidings.
models which are using theory of probability and
mathematical statistics and models of applied

Based on the train traffic chart analysis, the key the marshalling station are determined (Table I).
parameters of the intervals between train arrivals into
TABLE I. TRAIN INPUT STREAM AND PROCESSING PARAMETERS IN THE MARSHALLING STATION NOVI SAD AP
Distribution The arrival of trains Operation of trains

parameters Sign Value Sign Value
Expected
M(I) 61.85 min M(top) 26.55 min
value
0.97 2.26
Intensity λ μ
trains/h trains/h
4579.88 173.25
Dispersion D(I) D(top)
min2 min2
Standard
σ(I) 67.675 min σ(top) 13.16 min
deviation
Coefficient of
νul 1.094 νop 0.5
variation
The shape
kul 0.83 kop 4.06
parameter
The degree of
occupancy of the ψ 0.43
system
For the calculation of parameters, the theoretical The average number of customers in the queue,
exponential distribution for the arrival at the station i.e. those awaiting the service is given by:
of trains to be serviced is assumed. Based on the χ 2    k  1
test, a theoretical hypothesis is postulated and k r  M (nč )   0.47 (1)
subsequently verified. 2  k  1  
Based on the analysis of the station technological where k is the Erlang distribution serving time
process, the AP servicing time parameters were parameter.
determined (Table I). Using the calculated Average waiting time:
parameters, composition processing in the admission
  k  1
park is described using the Erlang theoretical tč   0.0757 (h)  4.54 min  (2)
distribution of the fourth order. The χ2 test verified 2  k    2  
the original theoretical hypothesis.
The above established composition processing Average number of clients in the system is given
time distribution law is also discussed in the paper by:
  k  1   k  1
[10]. In these studies, it was determined that for 
marshalling stations on the Serbian railways, the k  M ( ns )    0.63 (3)
processing time followed the Normal or Erlang 2  k  1   2k
distribution, and less frequently exponential
distribution. Dispersion of the number of clients in the
In this paper, the following Queueing model was system:
applied: Poisson input stream-Erlang time servicing
(М/Ek/1/∞) in order to test technologies of the   k  1
D ( ns )   2  4  k   1  k  0.3 (4)
12  k 2  1  
2
previous operations in the AP. By introducing
constraints on the train processing activities in the
AP, the model is treated as a Single-server Queueing
model. The last step in this cycle is the calculation of the
objective function, which consists in minimizing the

total annual cost of the AP operation, comprised of Nr - average number of the decoupled trains in
the costs of keeping the wagons in the queue due to one day;
waiting on the completion of the preceding
The first step determines the duration of the
operations, performing the previous operations, as
composition treatment, by individual operations in
well as labor costs associated with performing the
System 1. This requires determination of the
operations. Operational costs in the AP can be
minimum number of parties performing each
determined by applying (5).
function. It was established that one member of staff
E  365 N r  m  C kč  (t zd  t čob )  is required to perform each of the following:
 
 12  4.5  ( xCkp  yCtp  zC pm )  113251.05 €
(5) commercial examination (x), the final technical
inspection (y) and the preparation of the
composition for the maneuver (z).
where: The model is further based on the principle of
m - average number of wagons in the train; changing the number of parties (x, y and z), from the
tzd – occupancy time of a single-track composition, minimum upwards, until the optimal solution is
based on the technological process of AP operation found.
in hours; The next step is to, for specific conditions (based
Ckč – cost of wagon hours 0.77€; on the technological process), establish the duration
of appropriate activities and define the activity on
Ckp - monthly cost of the party in a commercial the critical path, i.e. the activity of the maximum
review 440.95 €; duration:
Ctp - monthly cost of the party in the final
technical inspection of 403.225 €;
t ob  t ob
kr
 max t ob
kp
 tp
, t ob , t obpm  (7)
Cpm - monthly cost of the party in the preparation

for maneuvering the composition 334.97 €. For processing operations in the AP of the
marshalling station Novi Sad, it was shown that the
B. Marshalling station as a network of Queueing preparation of the composition for the maneuver
models – System 1 and 2 was the activity on the critical path, corresponding
to the duration of 0.5 h (30 min).
Queueing model network of a non-gravitational
station with parallel admission park position, as is In order to determine the queuing time prior to
the case of the marshalling station Novi Sad, processing, first, it is necessary to determine, in
comprises 6 or 7 systems [10]: relation to the critical activity, the following:
• System 1 - "admission park, input sections",  Party occupancy coefficient on the critical path
( krpr ):
• System 2 - "admission park, decoupling",
• System 3 - "marshalling-output park, re- N r  t ob T prkr
coupling",  pr
kr
  pr   (1  )  0.45 (8)
24 24  T prkr
• System 4 - "finishing operations in the
marshalling-output park",
where T prkr is the length of latent period in the
• System 5 - "servicing the shunting locomotives
operation (2 h).
in the marshalling-output and transit park",
• System 6 and 7 - "marshalling-output park,  Processing time coefficient of variation
output sections". (  ob )which is equal to the processing time
Based on the technological connection between coefficient of variation on the critical path
System 1 and 2, it follows that the output flow of (  ob
kr
)for marshalling station input flows, and
System 1 is the input to System 2. The intensity of can range from 0.2 to 0.35 [10]. In this study
the input stream is (λ): the value of  ob   ob
kr
 0.3 was adopted.
Nr
  0.83 (trains / h) (6) Queuing time prior to processing is calculated
24 applying (8).
 pr  (1   ob
2
)
where: t ob
  tob  0.22 (h) (8)
2  (1   pr )
č

The next step is to determine the number and the  i   iz2  ob

2
  t i  3.5 (min)  0.058 (h)
t či  (13)
dispersion of the number of compositions that are 2  1  i 
i
waiting for completion of preceding operations:

Average number of compositions waiting for the
 Expected value of the number of compositions decoupling in the AP is:
in the queue, as given by:
M (nčrf )    tči  0.048 (14)
N
M (n )  r  tčob  0.18
ob
č (9)
24
Dispersion of this number of compositions is:
 Dispersion of the number of the compositions in  2
D(nčb )  M (nčrf )  M (nčrf )  0.05 (15)
the queue, as given by:
  2
D(nčob )  M (nčob )  M (nčob )  0.21 (10)
where:
By applying (5), the goal function for this model i
M ml - number of shunting locomotives;
is obtained and is given by Е=124380.63 €.
The values derived for System 1 are used as t ii - average technological interval; value for the
input parameters in the calculation of the System 2 decoupling system is 20 min.
determinants, adopting the following values: To determine the optimal mode of operation in
 Number of parties x, y and z, the AP, taking into account the cost of wagon
processing and retention, is necessary to examine
 Composition processing duration on the critical several variants of engagement of staff in the
path t ob , composition processing (x, y, z), based on the
condition that a single shunting locomotive is
 Processing time coefficient of variation  ob . conducting preceding operations. Employing a
System 1 output flow coefficient of variation, second shunting locomotive in performing preceding
which is also the input to System 2, is given by [10]: operations would not be feasible at the station Novi
Sad, due to the technology involved in simultaneous
 izl  1 pr2  (1  ob
2
)  0.9 (11) operation of two locomotives and a number of
intersections within the existing rail track system.
By changing the number of parties engaged in the
Decoupling system occupancy is given by: process (x, y, z), System 1 determinants can be
calculated, and for each variant, the function Е is
N r  tii
i   0.28 (12) determined.
1440
In the present work, eight variants were tested
(Table II).
Average composition waiting time prior to
decoupling is:
TABLE II. AP PROCESS ORGANIZATION COSTS FOR EACH VARIANT

Variant
ψpr
t čob M (nčob )
x
E
z
(min) (€)
I 1 1 1 0.45 13 0.18 124380

II 2 1 1 0.45 13 0.18 148192
III 1 2 1 0.45 13 0.18 146155
IV 1 1 2 0.38 8.4 0.116 135724
V 1 2 2 0.3 4.62 0.064 152102
VI 2 2 1 0.45 13 0.18 169966
VII 2 1 2 0.38 8.4 0.116 159535
VIII 2 2 2 0.23 9.7 0.13 182996

Minimal organizational costs are identified for where:

Variant I.
tfp - time required to identify and plan the route
The above analysis shows that, within the total (5 min);
operational cost of System 1 and 2, the defined
tui - the time of entry into the train station (4 min);
composition processing technology in the
marshalling station Novi Sad is optimal. However, t1 - coupling dismantling time (7 min).
this conclusion may be affected by the analysis of
Number of tracks in AP:
the entire operational technology of the observed
marshalling station (in the present work, only N r t zk
K pp   M (nčob )  M (nčrf ) 1,5  D(nčob )  D(nčrf )
System 1 and 2 are analyzed). Nonetheless, given 24 (18)
that extant empirical evidence suggests that the  1,72 (tracks)
effects of the remaining marshalling station systems
(Systems 3 ÷ 10) do not significantly affect the
operation of System 1 and 2, they can be considered where Kpp=2 (tracks) is adopted.
and analyzed as a single, independent marshalling
station segment [5] [10]. This is due to the fact that,
after the composition decoupling in System 2,
trains—as integral units—cease to exist. III. MODEL RESULTS ANALYSIS
The total wagon retention time in AP conditions
[10]: Even though there are some differences in the
input flow and queue intensity, the results have
 System 1 and 2 optimal performance: shown that the degree of system occupancy in both
models is approximately the same (Table III). These
t pp  tčob  t zd  tči  trs  t1 findings suggest that the station could accommodate
 59.5 (min)  0.99 (h) (16) more trains to be processed with existing staff and
rail track facilities. Even the annual composition
processing costs of the preceding operations did not
 • Track occupancy time due to AP activities: differ significantly.
t zk  t fp  tui  t zd  trs  t1
(17)
 52 (min)  0.87 (h)
TABLE III. COMPARATIVE REPRESENATION OF MODEL RESULTS

Parameters of system М/Ек/1/∞ System 1
λ- intensity of the input stream (trains/h) 0.97 0.83
μ- intensity of servicing (h ) -1
2.26 2

kr - average number of compositions waiting 0.47 0.18
t č - average waiting time (min) 4.54 13.2

ψ- the degree of occupancy of the system 0.43 0.45
E - Operational costs in the AP (€) 113251.05 124380.63
The slight discrepancy was found only in the timetable, there are gaps in terms of utilization of
duration of waiting for the commencement of staff and the station capacity.
treatment (4.54 min and 13.2 min) and average
According to the train timetable, most
number of customers in the queue (0.47 and 0.18).
compositions arrive for treatment in the marshalling
However, the value of these parameters is very
station Novi Sad in the period from 17:41h to 19:19h
small.
(period of peak demand). The existence of this peak
In this paper, the application of Queueing theory period is the cause of queues forming before the start
has shown that, with respect to a defined of treatment. Thus, in order to reduce waiting times
composition treatment technology, for the given as well as the corresponding costs, more workers
could be utilized in the period of peak demand, if

necessary. Further improvements can be achieved by

better timetable organization, i.e. by distributing the ACKNOWLEDGMENT
train arrivals to the marshalling station more evenly.
The authors acknowledgement the support of
research project TR 36030, funded by the Ministry
of Science and Technological Development of
IV. CONCLUSION Serbia.
In the process of distribution, from the place of

production to that of consumption of goods,
REFERENCES
significant time is spent in marshalling stations. The
marshalling stations are crucial components of the
supply chain, especially when it comes to un- [1] Baublys, ―Principles for modelling technological
streamlined and unpackaged flow of goods processes in transport terminal‖, Transport Research
Institute, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University,
transported by rail. Therefore, in terms of Transport, 24 (1), 2009, pp. 5-13
distribution time and costs, it is crucial to optimize [2] Awan, ―Analysis of multiple-threshold queues for
the work in marshalling stations. congestion control of heterogeneous traffic
The paper presents the marshalling station AP streams‖, Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory
14, 2006, pp. 712–724
technology and capacity modeling by applying
[3] Liu, Q. Zhang, X. Zhang, ―Emergence and
Queueing theory to optimize the AP operations. The disappearance of traffic congestion in weight-
models were tested on the example of the evolving networks‖, Simulation Modelling Practice
marshalling station Novi Sad, located on Corridor X. and Theory 17, 2009, pp. 1566–1574
To define the optimal marshalling station [4] J. Xun, B. Ning, P. Li Ke, ―Station Model for Rail
Transit System Using Cellular Automata‖,
operation mode in the AP, two models were defined: Commun. Theor. Phys., Beijing, China, Vol. 51,
non-Markov Queueing models (model M/Ek/1/∞), 2009, pp. 595–599
whereby the compositions are processed [5] M. Čičak, G. Stojić, S. Vesković, ―Simulation
(decoupled), and the model that describes the model for defining of technology and capacities of
marshalling station as a network of Queueing railway station‖, XXIII Simpozijum za operaciona
models. istraživanja, Zlatibor, Srbija, 1996, pp. 683-686
[6] F. Kaakai, S. Hayat, A. El Moudni, ―A hybrid Petri
Both models have shown that the defined AP nets-based simulation model for evaluating the
technology and capacity in the marshalling station design of railway transit stations‖, Simulation
meet the predetermined schedule. Moreover, there Modelling Practice and Theory 15, 2007, pp. 935–
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conducted in order to reduce the composition the Development of a Simulation Model for a
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[10] M. Čičak, S. Vesković: ―Modelling of technologies
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monography, Faculty for traffic and transportation,
Belgrade, 1992 (in serbian)

Climate change and environmental regulations

for better transport
Dr Nataša Tomić-Petrović,
Faculty of transport and traffic engineering,
Abstract— There are many changes around us and as I. INTRODUCTION

we know, the challenges of environmental protection are
very complex and have to be observed continuously,
In November 2010. for the first time China was
because production, processing, transportation and
utilization of fuels are global polluters and these host on a scientific meeting of the Union climatе,
pollutions do not recognize state borders. Disharmony of and this meeting was held as a preparation for the
the speed of development of the law and technology World Summit on climate held in Mexican city
requires that regulations are more actual in accordance Cancun. The great progress was noticed in Cancun
with the needs of time we live in. Daily life is becoming in relation to the meeting in Copenhagen, but still
increasingly dependent on energy consuming devices. legal solution of pollution was postponed.
The transport sector is the fastest growing consumer of Nevertheless, participants of the Summit have
energy and producer of greenhouse gases, even if adopted a compromise text, made by the hosts of the
advances in transport technology and fuel have resulted meeting, emission was stressed. All participants,
in marked decreases in emissions of certain pollutants.
including represantatives of China, Japan and USA
Among renewable energies, the most important sources
are biomass and waste. In 2001, the European have expressed support to the draft of agreement,
Commission (EC) adopted a policy to promote bio-fuels but the mechanism for carrying out of promises that
for transport. The EC adopted its second strategic energy countries-participants have given was not
review in 2008. We are conscious that renewable energy established. It is important that Fund for assistance
has an important role in reducing carbon dioxide to developing countries was founded. The aim of the
emissions. The Integrated energy and climate change Green climate fund is to collect considerable
Strategy adopted in December 2008. provided a further resources before 2020 in order to protect poor
stimulus for increasing the use of renewables to 20% of countries from the consequences of climate changes
total energy production by 2020 (including a 10% and to make possible for them to develop new,
biofuels target for transport). This Strategy foresees the
cleaner technology. It is well known that China as
share of renewables, such as bio-fuels, in total fuel
consumption rising to 10% in 2020. These steps give us greatest consumer of energy in the world and the
hope that climate friendly transport will prevail all over greatest polluter of environment because of its
the world. There are many factors that produce impacts economic developent, is in front the big challenge to
on energy use within the transport sector, such as, overall reduce emission of gas that create greanhouse effect.
economic growth and lifestyle choices, the efficiency of Inhabitants of China will orient themselves more
individual transport modes and the take-up of alternative and more on non-fossil sources of energy, but many
fuels. The growth in the demand for energy from the have doubts about realization of these promises.
transport sector has been accompanied by an expansion
in personal travel (increase in motorization rates, the In the world experts dealing with climatology
development of low-cost airlines, the expansion of
have noticed that air flows on the North earth´s
tourism too).Time has shown that legal and other social
norms can be the significant factor in prevention of anti- hemisphere are slowed down because of climate
ecological behavior. Government of the Republic of change, growth of cities, but also because of
Serbia in 2009 adopted Strategy for introduction of afforestation. This all seems now like circulus
cleaner production in the Republic of Serbia. This vitiosus. Till the end of 21st century in Serbia is
Strategy represents direct realization and working out of expected increase of middle annual temperature for
the National Sustainable Development Strategy. 4 to 6 Celsisus degrees. (See: Road sign toward
Keywords— transport; climate change; regulation; sustainable development, National Strategy of
environment sustainable development, Ministry of science and
technological development, Belgrade, page 443).

There are many changes around us and as we Sustainable Development Strategy (“Official
know, the challenges of environmental protection Gazzete of the Republic of Serbia“, no. 57/08). The
are very complex and have to be observed Strategy precisely defines also the area of economic
continuously, because production, processing, environmental impacts, such as: industry, energy,
transportation and utilization of fuels are global transport, forestry, mining, agriculture, hunting and
polluters and these pollutions do not recognize fishery and tourism.
neither state borders nor eco-system borders.
For Serbia the most important is IPA Fund that
Disharmony of the speed of development of the law
together with construction of institutions finances
and technology requires that regulations are more
also the regional development and crossborder
actual in accordance with the needs of time we live
cooperation, in addition traffic, environment and
in. Daily life is becoming increasingly dependent on
general economic development. The state
energy consuming devices. The transport sector is
established last year the Fund for environmental
the fastest growing consumer of energy and
protection from which is subsidized recycling
producer of greenhouse gases, even if advances in
industry, but for big and expensive projects the
transport technology and fuel have resulted in
resources are needed from EU funds.Useful
marked decreases in emissions of certain pollutants.
knowledge is transfered by experts from Slovenia,
Slovakia and other EU countries.
II. INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE AND SERBIA In order to determine the state of environment of
interest for the whole country, in Federal Republic
Among renewable energies, the most important of Yugoslavia the monitoring of cross-border
sources are biomass and waste. In 2001, the pollution was introduced that included: level of air
European Commission adopted a policy to promote pollution, soil pollution, biodiversity, pollution of
biofuels for transport. The European Commission forests, pollution of waters, coastal sea of interest
adopted its second strategic energy review in for the whole country, international waters, climate
November 2008. We are conscious that renewable changes, ozone layer, radiation, as well as obligation
energy has an important role in reducing carbon from international contracts.
dioxide emissions. The Integrated energy and Collecting of objective and comparative data will
climate change Strategy adopted in December 2008. enable better diagnosis and analyses of existing and
provided a further stimulus for increeasing the use future problems, evaluation of factors influencing on
of renewables to 20% of total energy production by the functioning of forest ecosystem and production
2020 (including a 10% biofuels target for transport). of woods, as well as reaction of ecosystem on air
This Strategy foresees the share of renewables, such pollution, climate changes, fires, anthropogenic
as biofuels, in total fuel consumption rising to 10% interventions etc.
in 2020. (Eurostat, Europe in figures, Eurosat
yearbook 2010, 564.) These steps give us hope that In the meantime European Union has adopted
climate friendly transport will be support in every more strict regulation regarding substances reducing
kind of transport all over the world. ozone layer comparing to Protocol from Montreal
(Regulation (EC) no. 1005/2009).
There are many factors that produce impacts on
energy use within the transport sector, such as, Protocol on registers of emissions and transfer of
overall economic growth and lifestyle choices, the pollutants in Kiev (Ukraine) on the Fifth Ministerial
efficiency of individual transport modes and the Conference “Environment for Europe” in 2003 was
take-up of alternative fuels. The growth in the signed by 36 member states of UNECE and
demand for energy from the transport sector has European Community, as well as at that time
been accompanied by an expansion in personal existing Union of Serbia and Monte Negro and it
travel (increase in motorisation rates, the
came into effect on 8th of October 2009. On that
development of low-cost airlines, the expansion of
tourism too). Conference, “Кarpatian Conference” which
Republic of Serbia has ratified at the end of year
Time has shown that legal and other social norms 2007 was also adopted, by making a Law on
can be the significant factor in prevention of ratification of the Framework Convention on
antiecological behaviour. Government of the protection and sustainable development of Кarpates.
Republic of Serbia in 2009 adopted Strategy for By the accession to this Convention development of
introduction of cleaner production in the Republic of wide cooperation in many areas was enabled to our
Serbia (“Official Gazzete of the Republic of country.
Serbia“, no. 17/2009). This Strategy represents
direct realization and working out of the National

Action plan for enforcement of the National VI. Production of the first national
Strategy of sustainable development for the period communication of the Republic of Serbia
from year 2009 to year 2017 ("Official Gazette of toward the Framework Convention of UN
the Republic of Serbia", number 22/2009) was on climate changes and National Strategy
adopted in the Republic of Serbia in 2009. By this for the climate protection (2010).
action plan the measures and/or activities were
established for enforcement of the National Strategy Some studies demonstrate that the number of
of sustainable development of the Republic of cars in the world will increase from 700 millions
Serbia which was adopted by the Government on today to more than 3 billions till year 2050. From
the 9-th May 2008. Action plan refers to the whole year 1990 in the European Union the percent of
period to which Strategy refers to, i.e. on the period growth of greenhouse gasses emission was the
highest in the transport sector.
from year 2009 to year 2017.
By this Action plan on the basis of aims set by

the Strategy, are defined: III. CONCLUSION
1) specific measures and /or activities for Considering that besides continuous influence of
enforcement of Strategy; air pollution we should be afraid also from further
2) competent institutions and partners in probable and still not completely recognized
enforcement of measures and /or activities; pressures, like climate changes coming from the
3) deadlines for enforcement of mesures and greenhouse effect, the measures for reduction of
/or activites; irrational utilization of energy should be undertaken.
4) total expenses of enforcement of measures Some experts think that, having in mind the
immediate global policy, but also negative climate
and/or activities and sources of financing.
changes on the Planet, unless it wants to lag behind
Measures that should be taken to prevent climate developed part of the world, Serbia should decide to
changes and protect ozone layer are: produce and apply other types of energy.
I. Harmonization of national regulation in the
Green economy is now a chance, but very soon
area of climate changes and protection of will also be the obligation, and ecological
the ozone layer with EU regulations catastrophe in Japan has urged all of us to think
(deadline for application 2011.) about the kind of environment we spend our life in.
In Serbia, for example, the treatment of waste
II. Making of National Programme of waters is just at the beginning, because only about
environmental protection as the action plan 4% of waste waters is processed and till 2021. the
for the protection of air and atmosphere – construction of five facilities for their processing is
Making of National Programme – Strategy planned. Electronic and electrical waste is also
of climate changes (deadline for application dangerous and must be collected and treated
was 2009.) spacially, as well as nuclear. States decide forms of
electric energy according to available fuels, as well
III. Making of National Strategy of sustainable as under pressure of energy lobbies and in the last
utilization of natural resources and goods as 30 years the most influential was nuclear lobby that
well as plans, programmes and bases for is now the strongest.
climate changes (deadline for application
was 2010.) Public health of population in the Republic of
Serbia in the previous period has been exposed to
IV. Analysis of national capacity for application numerous adverse effects and beside individual
of Kyoto Protocol and UNFCCC.(2009, characteristics, is to great extent affected by
2010). environmental factors and social and economic
determinants. Air pollution (caused not only by
V. Formulating and/or revision of regulation transport), water and food contamination, noise and
from the area of collecting and processing radiation present main causes of health deterioration
of data from environmental protection occurring due to environmental pollution.
statistics in accordance with methodology
IPCC, CORINAIR. (2010.).

REFERENCES [4] Road sign toward sustainable development, National

Strategy of sustainable development, Ministry of
science and technological development, Belgrade;
(Putokaz ka održivom razvoju, Nacionalna Strategija
održivog razvoja, Ministarstvo za nauku i tehnološki
[1] Barrett JP, “Clean Energy and jobs: a comprehensive razvoj, Beograd).
approach to climate change and energy policy“.
Economic Policy Institute: center for a Sustainable
Economy, 2002.
[2] Eurostat, Europe in figures, Eurosat yearbook 2010.
[3] National sustainable development Strategy,
Government of the Republic of Serbia, Summary.

A View on the Liberalization of Railway

Passanger Transport
Slavko Vesković, Milan Marković, Ivan Belošević, Miloš Ivić

Milana Kosijer, Sanjin Milinković
Vojvode Stepe 305, 11000, Belgrade, Serbia
s.milinkovic@sf.bg.ac.rs
Abstract— Regardless of the environmental, security

and other advantages of passenger rail transport, its I. INTRODUCTION
market share compared with road, had been drastically
reduced in the second half of the twentieth century. The Regardless of the environmental, safety and other
reasons are the impact of historical, traditional and
national reasons on the railway companies: a very high
advantages of passenger transport by rail, its share
level of state intervention that has become on transport market is dramatically reduced in the
counterproductive: the costs are subsidized without plans second half of the twentieth century. The reasons lie
for reform. Passenger traffic is developed under the in the presence of historical, traditional and national
pressure of the increasing mobility. Due to improper influences on the railway companies:
transportation system results are congestions, poor
quality of transport services, and hence the - high level of state intervention in the business of
recommendation of the European Council for the the national railways (counterproductive)
revitalization of railways in terms of optimal use of - the costs are subsidized and there is no stimulus
infrastructure, modernization of services and integration for change.
of rail transport in the single European market.
Integrated transport strategy for trans-European network All national railways in Europe were the state
is based on the principle of gradual opening of the organizations that carried out the economic and
transport market. Of particular importance is the social policies, often burdened with obligations to
strategic goal for creating the financially sound basis for provide public passenger transport services at lower
railways. We emphasize the following measures: prices than the actual costs and to finance the
establishing mechanisms for stable financial operations;
establish contractual relations with the state where the exploitation and development of the infrastructure.
liability of passenger transport and the provision of This reduced their profitability and weakened market
infrastructure provides adequate compensation position. The national railway company has a
according to previously defined standards; implementing monopoly, no competition, innovation and
the concept of Obligations of public transport in efficiency. It is also integrated, and represents
passenger traffic, (fee for the railway companies for the operators and infrastructure managers. The
difference between the approved tariff and the actual cost regulatory framework is a national, i.e. national
of transportation). The reforms taken by the states markets were protected, there is no competition from
primarily interested in facilitating the burden of debts of other national rail Operator, with there is no
national railway companies were aimed at opening the domestic market.
market of railway services and development of
competition in the railway sector in order to obtain - the Differences between the railway networks
benefits of "market forces" and reduction of interventions disrupted the development of rail transport at the
in the railway sector. In order to create a harmonized regional level. At the same time, road traffic has
market environment where the carriers of different modes grown due to the fact that in the field of rail transport
of transport could be affirmed on the basis of equal
conditions of competition necessary to introduce the
is not achieved market integration and optimization.
principle of charging all expenses incurred. The total Loss of competitiveness of rail transport in modal
cost that Transportation Company creates in the split competition, growing trade deficit and the debt
performance of services, are not only operating costs and burden of states companies have launched a reform.
infrastructure, but also external costs of transport.
Aim of the reforms was to ease the debt burden of its
Keywords— railway, passenger transport, market national railway company, and had a goal to:
liberalization, obligation of public transport, traffic
extern costs  open the market of railway services
 liberalization of the railway sector;

 development of the competition in the railway Protection of the environment introduced in the
sector in order to quality of service; policy of the Union (Transport Council has defined
its strategy for 1999 year for undertaking measures
 reduction of state intervention in the railway to: increase in CO2 emissions, emissions of
sector; pollutants and their effects on human health of noise
Market integration has demanded the removal of in the transport of) the European Council in
barriers that are existing in the internal transport Gothenburg 2001 and it is based on the balanced
market and harmonization of the railway sector in development of different forms of transport.
terms of technical and legislative framework: For achieving sustainable transport systems [9]
- Interoperability (technical standards) some of the proposed measures to be taken are:
- Security (common safety standards), 1. Establishing a system of charging for external
costs and the cost of infrastructure for all transport
- Regulation (common legal framework, standard modes;
contracts).
2. Change in transport means distribution: from
The first task is the transformation of the state road to railways;
railway organization in conducting business
operations in domestic European/international the 3. Construction of trans-European transport
transport markets. The role of government is to network, with priority to eliminate bottlenecks in the
create conditions for the development of railway network (rehabilitation of railways a top
transportation system that meets the needs of society priority in the common transport policy);
and support market mechanisms. 4. Integration of rail transport in the single
In order to create a harmonized market market.
environment in which the carriers of different modes The success of shift to all forms of transport will
of transport are affirmed on the basis of equal depend on the most on the possibilities to establish a
conditions, the competition must take into account single railway market and allow the competition
all generated expenses. The total cost generated in arrival of new railway undertakings. Revitalize the
the performance of services are consisted not only rail sector means to introduce competition and
with the direct costs of transportation, the cost of availability of railway infrastructure companies.
infrastructure, security, control, exploitation and
compensation of damages caused by accident, but Liberalization process of railway transportation
also with compensational costs for damage caused to began with the opening of markets for international
the environment [10]. transport of goods, "open access" - for international
operators and groups for combined transport of
01/01/1993. Liberalisation of railway transport
passenger service was introduced from 1.1.2010.
II. EUROPEAN POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK after the adoption of the Third Railway Package.
IN THE FIELD OF RAILWAY TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORT
The Commission has proposed to open up the
market through the regulated competition to
In year 1985 (The second intergovernmental guarantee transparency, quality and participation of
conference) Commission drew up the so-called public transport (services of general economic
White Paper on the future development of common interest that meet certain conditions, for example
transport policy, published in year 1992 which frequency and accuracy, sufficient capacity,
proclaimed the Four Freedoms of the EU - free privileges for certain categories of users). National or
movement of people, goods, capital and services. local government organized public transport (to meet
The basic principle is to open the transport market. certain requirements to provide criteria for the
Key role in the development of rail transport market protection of health and safety of passengers, the
is Directive 91/440/EEC on the development of the availability of services, level of transparency and
Union in order to strengthen entrepreneurship and cost of transport and the limited duration of services)
competitiveness of rail transport. in the form of public service contracts to be
Maastricht Declaration of year 1992 have concluded by tender for a period of 5 years .
strengthened political, institutional and financial The third railway package (adopted in December
foundations of transport policy and promoted the 2007.) introduces the liberalization of international
idea of trans-European network and later services and rules on passenger rights, certified
development of transport infrastructure plan, with engineers.
financial assistance of the Union.

Directive 2007/58/EC of 23.10.2007. amending services, including separate accounts, as well as the
Directive 91/440/EEC and 2001/14/EC (the first reorganization of railroads in the market-oriented
railway package): the objective is further opening the company in accordance with the relevant EU
market of railway services (expansion of access legislation. Managers should ensure fair and
rights) without going into the Public Service transparent conditions for access to rail
Obligation and the application field of the infrastructure. Of particular importance is the
international passenger traffic within the EU (transit strategic goal to set the railways at financially sound
Union is off). basis. Most important measures are:
Regulation (EC) 1371/2007 on the rights and • Establishing legal and institutional conditions
obligations of rail passengers to replaces the repealed for infrastructure managers and railway companies,
Regulation 1191/69 and 1107/70. to provide conditions for a stable financial
management and strive to constantly improve their
Regulation (EC) br.1370/2007, of 23.10.2007. on
financial situation.
services of public passenger transport on railways
and roads, with aim of defining the code of practice Establish a contractual relationship with the state,
of the competent authority in the field of public and the liability of passenger transport infrastructure
transport, to guarantee the delivery of services of and ensuring adequate compensation is given
general interest. according to the defined standards of performance
that are monitored.
The legal basis for the liberalization of railway
traffic in the Republic of Serbia is defined in the Law • Establishment of independent and competent
on Railways (2005.) [8]. Right to transport national institutions responsible for issuing licenses
passengers on the railway infrastructure may be to railway companies and issuing safety certificates;
performed by a public company (carrier) and a
• Implement the concept of Obligations of public
private company registered for performing activities
transport in passenger traffic, with the compensation
of public transport (Articles 20 -27), and the carrier
of costs to the railway companies in difference
which establishes the obligation to perform
between the tariff approved and actual cost of
transportation of passengers as well as activities of
transport [10].
public interest (Article 70. to 77). Further activities
that more closely regulate this area by additional Public funds transferred to the railway company
legal forms and regulations are missing. from activities related to the provision of passenger
transport services in the form of obligations on
public of transport, will be shown separately in the
accounts and cannot be transferred to activities
III. PROCEDURES AND BENEFITS OF relating to the provision of other services. Public
LIBERALIZATION funds paid to railway companies and infrastructure
managers cannot communicate with each other. Such
Passenger traffic is developed under the growing financial support is associated with the demands on
pressure of increasing mobility of society. performance that are monitored and goals related to
reducing costs to improve competitiveness of rail
The inadequacy of the transport system results
compared to other transport modes.
with congestions, poor quality of transport services
and the constant delays, and hence the Determine the level of reform often causes
recommendation of the European Council for the confusion and conflicting opinions. Estimates are
revitalization of rail for optimum use of given based on experience, intuition and subjective
infrastructure, modernization of services and the assessments of institutions and experts. Institution
integration of rail transport in the European market. can be: the Government, ministries, agencies,
Integrated transport strategy for trans-European companies themselves, EU agencies, financial
network is based on the principle of gradual opening institutions (WB, EBRD, IMF ...). In addition, there
of the transport market. is often uncertainty about the input data required for
certain decisions. This suggests that there is a range
From there comes a gradual harmonization of
of estimates of parameters characterized by
domestic legislation with EU railway laws in line
uncertainty, subjectivity and imprecision. There is a
with national programs, with the gradual
similar problem with the evaluation of the railway
restructuring of the national railway sector.
reform. The theory of fuzzy sets (fuzzy - indistinct
Opening the market for rail transport implies gradual
sets) is a very convenient device for the treatment of
establishment and implementation of legal and
uncertainty, subjectivity, ambiguity and uncertainty
institutional framework for the separation of
[2].
infrastructure management and provision of transport

TABLE I. DEFINING AND LEVELLING CRITERIA BY THE METHOD OF RAILWAY REFORM

No Criteria “Low” reforms “Medium” reforms “High” reforms
New The new law refers to a New laws on a strictly
No new reform
1. regulations on commercial orientation to commercial basis (market
laws
Railway the market liberalization liberalization)
Traditionally state-
Organizati Public company or
2. owned enterprises Private companies
onal form limited company
(single company)
Separation of main Corporate separation of the
Managem Managed by the
3. sectors inside the main functions of businesses
ent Structure government
enterprise (independent businesses)
There is no
Market
minimal competition / Partial privatization / The right of access to
competition
4. privatization only the competition in the rail infrastructure and the third group
and
input-output elements market operator
privatization
of the market
The
Coverage from the
obligation of Lump sum to cover the Contracted on the basis of
5. income in freight
public deficit in passenger traffic detailed financial data
traffic
transport
Adaptatio The weak level of Intermediate level of The high level of adaptability
6. n to changes adaptability of workers adaptability of workers of workers
Commerci
In the development
7. al business / Well developed
phase
processes
WB experts defined the criteria for evaluating the which state law allows access to the market. Second
reform of railway and made their grade (Table 1). In index - ACCESS index, with weight 0.8 (80%), is
accordance with certain criteria, reforms of the the number of obstacles that emerges in practice and
railway system, in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the percentage of accessibility to domestic market
in 2005. on the basis of statistical analysis are (law in action). Specific index, the COM Index,
considered as: compares the level of competition. Countries are
• Low: Albania, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Macedonia, grouped into three groups (Figures 1 and 2):
Moldova, Turkey, Turkmenistan, etc..; • advanced level of liberalization: United
Kingdom, Germany, Sweden and the Netherlands,
• Medium: Armenia, Croatia, Czech Republic,
• liberalization in progress : Austria, Denmark,
Georgia, Latvia, Russia, Uzbekistan, Serbia,
Montenegro and BiH; Switzerland, Spain,
• delayed liberalization: Luxembourg, France,
• High: Estonia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Greece and Ireland.
Poland, Romania and Slovak Republic. Parameters by which it is possible to evaluate
In year 2007. there was a study about assessing compliance and inconsistency of restructuring and
the level of liberalization in the EU 27 [1]. The study liberalization of the railway can be viewed from
applied benchmarking method for evaluation of legal three levels [2]:
and practical obstacles to access to the railway  level of institutional and regulatory
market. arrangement of states in the railway sector;
Ranking list of countries in terms of liberalization of  level of dynamics and the achieved state of the
rail transport market was performed using LIB Index process of restructuring of state railway company;
(index of liberalization), which was obtained based  level of establishing of the rail market , the
on the existence of external operators (external number of operators or carriers in passenger traffic,
railway undertakings-RU). It was determined on the and their participation in the railway market.
basis of two sub-indexes in the five levels. First LEX
Index, weight 0.2 (20%), analyzes the extent to

existence of regulatory authority and the existence of

Public Service Obligation (PSO ) .
To assess the impact of regulatory measures to
liberalize markets and establishing market balance,
in the literature we can found model of computable
General Equilibrium (CGE) and benchmarking
analysis [4,5]. Statistical analysis (CGE) does not
take into account the uncertainty and the
comparative method is based on the concept of
benchmarking and innovative utilization of good
practices and experiences. SWOT analysis is widely
used. It involves the application of intuition and
subjective assessments and is not used as a direct
method of research, but as a summary of methods of
reasoning on the current position [6]. This suggests
that it is appropriate to use the theory of fuzzy logic
to evaluate the level of railway reform.
Figure 1. Scoreboard for the liberalisation of railway IV. FUZZY MODEL TO DETERMINE THE LEVEL OF
market [2] LIBERALIZATION
A. Definition of fuzzy variables

Let’s define A as a fuzzy output variable that is
an estimate of the level of evaluation railway
liberalization where there is uncertainty about the
dynamics of execution, number of reform steps
taken, the implementation of defined transport
policy, social and political reasons preparedness of
authorities for the implementation of reforms, policy
changes, etc.
Figure 2. Comparative analysis of state of

liberalisation of railway market
One of the most recent estimation of the level of

liberalization and reform of the railway market was
made in year 2009. by using SWOT analysis [3] that
was related to the estimation of the level of
liberalization of the railway market (Figure 3). It can
be determined that the biggest market liberalization
was achieved in G. Britain, Sweden and Germany,
then by Romania, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Switzerland,
Hungary, and with the process started in France (EU
members except Switzerland). In Serbia level of Figure 3. SWOT analysis [3]
liberalization is unsatisfactory. For evaluating the
level of implementation of the EU Directive basic
criterion includes the division of the national railway
company to independent companies. In the analysis,
in addition to market liberalization and the
implementation of EU directives, following criterion
were taken into account: new laws on railways, open
access to infrastructure, independence from the state
in the management of railway companies, the Figure 4. Output – Fuzzy set A

If the level of liberalization can be: "low", The number and type of criteria is an important
"medium" and "high" with valuation score 0 - 10 element by which the level of reform of railway
(e.g., for 5 points with the degree of membership of systems can be estimated. Let’s define the following
0.5 we can argue that the level of liberalization is criteria for evaluating the reform of the railway
low, and with 1 that liberalization is medium (Figure system:
4).
K1 - New regulations; K2 - Improved
As indicators for assessing the reforms the management structure; K3 - Open access to
following input variables will be taken into account: infrastructure; K4 - Open access to operators; K5 –
Market economy; K6 - PSO; K7 – Reduce of
 Preparedness of the countries for the redundancies.
liberalization of railways;
Suppose that the estimation of the level of reform
 Fulfillment of criteria for railway reform; is "unsatisfactory-unic", "small-smic", "satisfactory-
 The number of railway operators. saic" and "great - gric" implementation of criteria
(Figure 6).
Practice and review of the experience of
European countries shows that there are two Suppose that the market may be "small",
approaches in the process of restructuring: gradual "medium" and "large" number of Railway
and radical. Gradual approach means a longer Undertakings-Rus. Let D is a fuzzy variable that
transition period, and a radical means "fast" and estimates the number of operators in the railway
"sharp" transformation of the railway company in system (Figure 7).
terms of its organization and relationship with the Algorithm for approximate reasoning to
state authorities. determine the level of reforms railway consists of 24
Let fuzzy variable B shows the phase state of rules (the weighting factor determines the strength of
readiness for the liberalization of the railway market. logic for each rule):
Suppose that there are "unprepared" and "Prepared” If (PREPARATION is UNPREPARED) and
state for liberalization (Figure 5). (CRITERIA is UNIC) and (Railway Undertakings is
SMALL) then (Railway Reform is LOW) – weight:
(1)
If (PREPARATION is UNPREPARED) and
(CRITERIA is UNIC) and (Railway Undertakings is
MEDIUM) then (Railway Reform is LOW) –
weight: (0.5)
If (PREPARATION is UNPREPARED) and
(CRITERIA is UNIC) and (Railway Undertakings is
LARGE) then (Railway Reform is LOW) – weight:
(0)
Figure 5. Membership functions of input variable B
Figure 7. Membership functions of input variable D
B. TEST RESULTS
Defuzzification, which includes choice of one
value of output variables, was done with the "middle
of the maximum" method. Results of the model are
the levels of the liberalization of the railway market
Figure 6. Membership function of input variable C for the randomly selected country (Figures 8, 9 and
10). Based on the results it can be concluded that

Serbia is among countries with "low" level of

liberalization of the railway market. Similar results
were obtained with the model with Centroid
defuzzification.
V. CONCLUSION
Evaluation of the level of liberalization of the

railway market and railway reforms is an important
process which shows in which stage the countries
are. Synchronization of reform level is very Figure 10. Defuzzification process – Serbian example
important for countries in the region, because it can
help to establish a stable transport market. This is Synchronization of railway reform was
especially important for the railways which are on encouraged through various institutions and
the pan-European transit routes and corridors. The estimates of the level of reforms and liberalization
European rail system must not be "fragmented" on are often required in the opinion of experts or by
unsynchronized national railways because it does not using inappropriate methods. The relevant
contribute to creating a single European transport parameters used in the methods include a large
market, and thus the desired liberalization. It may extent the uncertainty, subjectivity, ambiguity and
also lead to reduced quality of railway services and vagueness.
the competitiveness of railways in the market. This paper presents a new way of evaluating the
liberalization of the railway market (passenger
transport aspect) based on the theory of fuzzy sets.
Model shown in this paper can be applied to other
economic sectors, such as e.g. assessment of
liberalization of markets in general or its individual
elements, the level of implementation of various
reform areas, etc..
REFERENCES
[1] IBM Business Consulting Services: Summary of the

Study Rail Liberalisation Index 2007, Market
Opening: Rail Markets of the Member States of the
European Union, Switzerland and Norway in
Figure 8. Output variable A in function of input comparison, Brussels, October 2007.
variables B, C i D – example of Serbian refo rm [2] G. Stojić, I. Tanackov, S. Vesković, S. Milinković:
"Modelling Evaluation of Railway Reform Level
Using Fuzzy Logic", Volume 5788, pp. 695-702.,
ISBN: 978-3-642-04393-2, Springer-Verlag Berlin,
2009
[3] SEETO: Exchange Of Information On Regional
Legal Framework For Access To Railway Network
And Draft Regulatory Manual, First Railway Reform
Workshop For Task: Access To Railway Network,,
Belgrade, Serbia, February 2009.
[4] Balistreri, E. J., Rutherford T. F., Tarr D. G.:
Modeling services liberalization: The case of Kenya,
Economic Modelling 26, 2009 ]
[5] Feraboli, O.: A Dynamic General Equilibrium
Analysis of Jordan’s Trade Liberalisation, PhD
dissertation, Chemnitz University of Technology,
Faculty of Economics and Business Administration,
Germany
[6] Dulanović, Ž., Jaško, O.: Organizaciona struktura i
promene, FON, Beograd, 2009.
[7] EU Council Directive 91/440/EZ (2001/12/EZ),
2001/13/EZ, 2001/14/EZ, 2004/49/EZ, 2004/50/EZ,
Figure 9. Evaluation of the railway reforms for some Directive EZ No.881/2004
countries [8] In Serbian : Law on Railways (Zakon o železnici
(Sl.Glasnik RS 18/2005))
[9] The White Book – Time to Decide, Brussels, 2001.

[10] Railway Reform in Europe, CER, 2005. Transport Consult GmbH Austria and Swedish
[11] Suggestion on Law for establishing the Agency for Maritime Agency, juni 2006.
railway transport Skopje, Macedonia, 2008. [13] European Railway Policy. Project „First Alignment
[12] Organisation of railways regulatory function, AB with the transport Acquis“, Federal Ministry of
Ångpanneföreningen (the AFGroup) Sweden in Transport, Construction and Urban Affairs,
consortium with Swede rail member of the AF Germany, Wolfgang Kupper, 2007.
Group, Swedish National Road Consulting AB,

Lessons from a Survey of an Electric Park and

Ride Bus about Sttitudes to Sustainable Transport
Andree Woodcock
Centre of Excellence in Product and Automotive Design
Coventry School of Art and Design, Coventry University, Coventry, UK
a.woodcok@coventry.ac.uk
Abstract— Sustainability and sustainable transport The current trial was conducted at the request of
form the background to the evaluation of an electric park the Park and Ride (PnR) service operator to inform
and ride bus operating in a small, historic town in the their decision to use electric vehicles on the service.
UK. The town has a steady stream of tourists who come It shared many attributes of other studies which
in to the city centre on diverse forms of transport to visit
tourist attractions and attend the theatre. The high levels
have used urban buses as high profile technology
of congestion and pollution experienced at peak time lead demonstrators, to raise awareness about
to conflict between road and pedestrian traffic, and sustainability, new forms of energy, gather attitudes
between residents, tourists and shopkeepers. A of the public towards specific issues about public
multistakeholder survey was undertaken to gather transport and people‟s willingness to adapt their
insights the perception of transport problems and to travel behaviour. In particular the aims were to
determine the acceptability and usefulness of an electric ascertain the opinions of different stakeholders
Park and Ride bus. towards traffic problems and evaluate the driver and
Keywords— electric bus, evaluation, atttiudes to passenger experience of the proposed electric buses.
pollution Results relating the study of the e-bus have been
published previously in [4]. This paper considers
attitudes expressed to towards pollution in general,
pollution in relation to transport, and willingness to
I. INTRODUCTION consider different transport solutions.
Sustainability and sustainable development are

part of the ongoing debate about global warming
and other environmental problems. Sustainable II. METHOD
transportation may be defined as a transportation
system or vehicle that is environmentally A mixed method approach was used which
sustainable for all people affected [1]. It should included: 1)Semi - structured interviews with
encompass local and global emissions, noise, road drivers to consider issues which may have arisen
space, the total energy and material costs, economic specifically because of the use of the electric bus; 2)
factors as well as more human centred ones such as An ergonomic audit of the proposed bus; 3) Semi-
travelling convenience and comfort. structured interviews to ascertain attitudes towards
the use of electric buses in the city with retailers,
Today‟s transport solutions are nonsustainable pedestrians/residents, tourists and passengers on the
on a number of dimensions - CO2, climate change
park and ride service; 4) Observations of journeys
and oil dependency, traffic congestion and road on both the electric and diesel PnR buses to discover
space, exhaust emissions, noise, as well as in terms issues which might be related to vehicle design or
of human factors. [2] argue the need for total
fuel type.
transport planning that takes in to account the
perspectives and preferences of different Sampling was opportunistic bearing in mind the
stakeholders, such as: pedestrians, residents, need to include participants from a wide range of
aesthetics and environmental quality as well as the demographics. The study was conducted over 6 days
needs of commuters. Although the creation of to coincide with the weeklong trial of the electric
sustainable urban transport systems should begin bus. The electric bus was designed to make a
with urban planning and the embedding of a green statement, advertising its presence with low energy
infrastructure [3] improvements to existing systems logos on a white livery. A press release was
can be made at a reasonable cost. organised later in the week, so as to not interfere
with data collection. Data was collected from

passengers and drivers on the electric bus for four inability to park cars for long periods of time, poor
days. outside eating environments. Retailers were
disheartened and spoke of the city as dying because
of the transport problems and the opening of the
new retail centre.
III. RESULTS
At a personal level, journey times were
lengthened and pre-planned, appointments missed,
Results are based on over 300 interviews – 167
alternative forms of travel or travel destinations
with passengers (134 on the electric bus), 108
found (e.g. on foot, use of PnR). Pedestrians had to
pedestrians (visitors and residents) and 41 retailers –
be constantly alert for traffic dangers. Drivers
and 150 independent observations of approximately
reported feeling stressed, anxious and irritated. In
70 bus journeys, 116 of which were on the electric
the interviews one shopkeeper related a near fatality;
Park and Ride (PnR) bus. This section presents an
the researchers witnessed many near misses – with
overview of the results from the surveys; more
cyclists being unnoticed, lorries mounting
detailed consideration will be given to the results
pavements, people stepping out in front of traffic.
concerning attitudes towards pollution and transport
Bus and car drivers were worried about people
at the end of the paper.
stepping out in front of their vehicles. It can be
A. Perception of Ttranport Problems in the City assumed that the quietness of the electric bus may
add to these problems.
Although the city has a conservative, senior
profile, many younger visitors come there on school The traffic problems had a detrimental effect on
trips. Spending any time as a pedestrian is a the quality of life for visitors, residents and retailers.
frustrating experience, with conflicts with other The retailers rated the traffic problems as
pedestrians, bus queues and vehicles. Although moderately severe (with an average score of 5.5 out
understanding that the city does not have as severe of 7). PnR passengers rated at 4.5, residents 4.22
problems as some cities, the transport was generally and visitors at 3.94. Some PnR passengers selected
viewed as poorly managed, and the old town was this mode of transport because of their concern over
seen as not being able to cope with the amount of the transport problems. The majority of pedestrians
vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Traffic problems interviewed had never used the PnR scheme.
clearly discouraged visitors and residents from
making casual trips into the centre. B. Attitudes Towards Pollution
Concerns about pollution were raised
75% of residents and shopkeepers, 67% of
spontaneously by less than 5% of those interviewed.
passengers on the PnR and 51% of the visitors
Pollution could be in the form of vehicle emissions,
thought there were transport problems. Particular
dust and noise and when prompted people were
issues included congestion on narrow pavements
worried about the effects of these on their health and
caused by bus and coach queues (the lack of a
that of their children. However, health issues were
central bus/coach station was a frequently expressed
more likely to be mentioned in association with
complaint). The idling of buses and coaches in the
driving related stress. The PnR passengers expressed
high street added to the congestion, noise and
a higher level of concern about pollution than other
chemical pollution. Although not a major issue,
groups. However, for all groups there were a
some retailers were worried about levels of pollution
surprisingly large minority who were not concerned
– where diesel fumes entered food shops, and tables
about pollution in general (28%) or in the city
had to be cleaned of dirt from vehicles several times
(47%). Many felt that solutions were beyond their
a day.
control requiring legislation and input from
The most frequent complaint concerned manufacturers, that vehicles were only a small part
congestion due to number of vehicles, lack of bus of the problem, and were gradually becoming more
station, coaches idling on major thoroughfares, environmentally friendly. If an electric bus was
width of the streets, parking policy, age of the town. available, few would specifically change their travel
The amount and expense of parking annoyed most arrangements to catch it, and this was contingent on
of the respondents. Parking was expensive and time the convenience of the service.
restricted necessitating drivers moving their cars.
Retailers were concerned that the traffic problems C. Attitudes Towards Different Transport Solutions
(high cost of parking, congestion, duration of Each suggestion had its advocates and
parking) were responsible for the reduced footfall opponents, for example visitors rated an increase in
and hence reduced business. Many were able to cite the number of bicycle paths more highly than any
specific instances of loss of trade through transport other group, and residents preferred fare reduction,
problems, such as cancelled bookings in restaurants,

whereas retailers and PnR passengers preferred an travelled elsewhere. PnR had a number of
extended PnR service. Traffic calming and car supporters but was not seen as a viable alternative
sharing were the least preferred. Clearly, one because of operational issues.
solution would not suit all stakeholders. Pooling the
data, the solutions were ranked as follows (form E. The Operation of the Park and Ride
most to least preferred)): extended PnR, fare Those over 65 years old formed over 40% of the
reduction, e-buses, more cycle paths, more car free passengers interviewed. The PnR scheme was
zones, free bikes, car sharing, traffic calming. applauded by all who used it. This included the
However, it may be assumed that the score for helpfulness of the staff and drivers, the terminus, car
electric buses was inflated because of the focus of park and the service itself. There was a perception
the study. that the PnR was underused by those unwilling to
From these results it could be assumed that adopt to new ways. Of those interviewed, 20% used
uptake of car sharing would be low and impossible the PnR several times a week, 60% used the service
for tourists. Those who commented had experienced occasionally. The main reasons for using it were
similar schemes and found that they were difficult to location (40%), to save parking charges (35%), time
operationalise. Traffic calming was perceived to (18%) and to reduce pollution (approximately 5%).
add to the complexity of the road environment and Of the visitors interviewed, some were keen
would not deter cars from entering the city – just advocates of PnR services. Parking and free travel
reducing the speed of the vehicles when they were were clear incentives.
in the town centre. The streets were too narrow for Several problems were noted which if addressed
the introduction of network of cycle paths. would lead to a more effective and extended service.
Parking was not offered as a proposed solution. The location was only convenient for those on one
The current situation was exacerbated by lack of side of the city. This was a cause of some
space, high charges, limited time and overzealous resentment. Although there were plans to locate a
enforcers. Indeed during the course of the study a second service this had not been implemented.
plan was advertised to reduce city centre parking Many commented that the service could be extended
charges. The lack of parking spaces added to the throughout the year and after 7 o‟clock in the
buildup of traffic as cars rotated round the city in evening. Stopping the service early meant that if it
search of spaces. With better parking offered at the was busy, workers may not be able to get to the
nearby retail centres, these were thriving at the terminus, and those tourists who wanted to stay in
expense of the city centre shops. centre for the evening had to park in the town. Other
suggestions included increasing the coverage of the
D. The Role of Public Transport service to the estates, starting earlier and improving
signage to the PnR.
Most respondents were critical of public
transport -its frequency, cost, reliability and
F. Atttiudes to Electric Buses
scheduling, the failure to provide good road and rail
connections to other cities, buses which ran empty The electric bus scored highly as a potential
yet congested the centre, and the removal of the solution for those who were specifically concerned
bus/coach station. Without this, tourists did not have about pollution. However reservations were
a gathering point, buses and coaches congested the expressed about whether this was true saving when
streets when they were waiting for passengers, or to the extra electricity generation was considered, and
commence their service, frequently with their whether this bus was just a token gesture. The e-bus
engines running – thereby contributing to noise and was rated twice, once with other transport solutions
pollution. Long bus queues blocked pavements and (as noted above) and specifically in relation to its
access to shops. ability to alleviate pollution. On a scale of 1 to 7,
this was rated consistently by stakeholders, with
The poor service provided by public transport averages between 5.5 and 5.8. The bus drivers felt
was seen as offering little incentive for travellers to that electric buses represented the future. Few
switch modes of transport. Many would have liked respondents answered the question regarding
to have used public transport if it formed a viable whether they would catch an e-bus if one were
alternative. Given that many of residents were used available. Of those who did answer, 62% of the
to a certain level of independence and luxury in shopkeepers, 40% of the visitor, 50% of the
travel – they were seen as being unlikely to switch residents, and 46% of the passengers said they
to a service so markedly inferior to their preferred would try to catch one. However, these responses
mode of transport. Parking restrictions were not were mostly qualified by statements relating to
seen as an effective deterrent. If people were convenience and timetabling.
concerned about the parking and congestion they

G. Evaluation of the Electric Bus high profile trial, with the bus operating as part of
The electric bus was an upgrade of the existing the PnR fleet, a standby bus was maintained.
diesel model. The bus looked new, clean, small, A pilot run was conducted to understand
modern and efficient. Passengers were impressed by problems inherent on the route, and to ascertain
the interior design of the bus, its spaciousness, new whether drivers had any particular problems related
upholstery, cleanliness etc. A comparative study to ergonomics. Diagnostic research was undertaken
was made with the diesel bus in terms of overall ride on 8 trips, with photography and conversations with
quality. Passengers rated the electric bus more the driver, to understand the interaction with the
favourably on all measures: ride quality, noise, vehicle, issues that arose, and how the bus compared
vibration, overall speed, acceleration/braking and with its diesel counterpart. Follow up interviews and
comfort. On a score of 1 to 7 (with 7 being the focus groups were conducted. The main results are
highest), the average score for the diesel bus was 5.6 as follows.
the electric bus 6.2. Just over 60% agreed that the
electric bus was more comfortable and 75% that it The electric bus rolled back on hill-starts and it
was quieter. was difficult to pull off smoothly on a hill,
especially when space was restricted. This could be
The research team spent approximately 4 hours a danger if pedestrians walk between buses, and are
on the diesel PnR and found no problems with its unseen by the driver. In the diesel bus, roll back
operation, with the rest of the time spent on the does not occur. Once „drive‟ is engaged and the
electric bus. Some of the fears expressed by the handbrake disengaged, the bus will either „creep‟
drivers prior to the study about the charging were forward on the level or stay still on an incline. This
confirmed. Owing to problems with the generator, removes roll back problems and makes the bus
on one occasion the e-bus did not receive the full easier to move in tight spaces or busy traffic.
charge, on another worries about the amount of
charge meant that the bus was taken out of service The diesel bus was noisier and vibrations were
early. felt through the base of the driver‟s seat to the
spine/lower back; all drivers complained of this.
However, the greatest concern was in relation to Engine vibrations caused the wing mirrors-
the performance of the bus over the three main trial especially on the driver‟s side- to vibrate, and this in
days. On all days the bus „cut out‟ and had to be turn caused the image in them to be distorted and
restarted. The drivers adopted different strategies to oscillate. On the other hand, the electric bus had
prevent this happening –from avoiding hard very little noise and no drivetrain vibrations or
breaking to avoiding breaking when possible. When harshness. However, the lack of engine sound meant
the bus stalled in traffic (e.g. at traffic lights or in that pedestrians could not hear the bus at low
queuing traffic) traffic built up behind it, which speeds, in a busy, noisy town centre environment.
added to the driver‟s stress. The beeping noises
when the bus „cut out‟ alarmed passengers. The diesel bus, scored highly in terms of
Additional problems experienced on the last day of predictability. The electric bus „cut out‟ and had to
the trial including rumbling, rubbing and grating be restarted. There appeared to be little consistency
noises, jerking after a hill start, skidding and in this and it became a source of anxiety for the
wobbling. driver. The diesel bus did not do this and so inspired
more confidence in terms of driving predictability
H. Ergonomics Audit of the E-Bus and safety. Drivers were concerned about whether
the electric bus would run out of energy. The
Bus drivers play an important role in the
instruments did not provide sufficient information
development of new transport as they are at the
about the range left, energy usage in different
frontline and introduce the technology to the public.
conditions (e.g. weather conditions, passenger loads,
If bus drivers are confident and positive passengers
use of electrical systems on-board, driving style).
will receive a more positive experience. Attitudes of
The economy gauge was not useful for urban
bus drivers to fuel cell buses have been studied
driving.
previously (e.g. [5]). Bus drivers must be
comfortable with the technology if they are to use it Other issues noted on both buses included an
and be ambassadors. A limited survey was overly large steering wheel for smaller stature
conducted with the PnR drivers. The five drivers drivers; driver‟s seat which was poor for lumbar and
were enthusiastic and saw the electric bus as the thigh support and adjustability; poorly positioned
future for the fleet. The reservations they expressed stalks for indicator/lights/horn which had little
prior to the trial concerned whether the bus would tactile coding or space between them; rear „three
have enough charge for the duty cycle. As this was a quarter‟ blind spots, especially problematic on the
nearside for seeing cyclists. This was aggravated by

poor demisting of the side windows which obscured others) to understand the multifaceted nature of
the mirrors. transport problems, and work towards a solution that
would accommodate most people. However, while
The advantages of the electric bus were
consultation is occurring, resources are reduced, and
reductions in cost and pollution, quietness,
the city centre continues to dies, as more people
acceleration and torque, better instrument layout and
avoid using it.
larger wing mirrors. The instrumentation provided
on energy consumption was limited in this trial. Whilst the purpose of the survey was not to look
Issues were raised about the reliability of the brakes at people‟s attitudes towards environmental issues, it
and electrical system, hill starts and quietness. is believed that the answers many of the respondents
gave can be interpreted in accordance with general
models of pro-environmental behaviour and social
dilemma theory. One group of users on park and
IV. DISCUSSION ride buses were clearly pro-environmentalists who
always used park and ride services when they could.
Part of the rationale for introducing electric park Many respondents also recognized the make-up of
and ride buses was to provide sustainable public the car drivers – who were conservative and
transport for visitors and residents. Although the affluent, and who would never swap to public forms
consortium commissioning this research felt that of transport.
pollution from transport was a major issue, little
For such groups, more research is needed on
evidence was found to support this – with less than
understanding the social dilemma of car driving
5% raising this spontaneously. When prompted
(e.g. [9]) and how to enhance collective well being,
around, 65% of the visitors and residents expressed
at the expense of one‟s own convenience. In the
concern over pollution, but less were concerned
case of transport universal co-operation (using
about it as a problem in the city. Where respondents
sustainable public transport) is superior to universal
were concerned about pollution they cited general
defection (using private transport) and will bring
issues such as asthma, or their children‟s health,
about a common abstract goal (a sustainable,
rather than specific relationships. This accords with
healthy environment). However, there are numerous
[6] conclusions that the effects of air pollution are
factors which mitigate against individual action.
assumed, though specific links poorly defined.
This was exemplified by one participant who felt
that anything he (or the general public) could do was
The importance of local issues was stressed by irrelevant when placed against the larger picture of
many of the respondents who could point to specific energy consumers and polluters.
instances where pollution from vehicles affected
[10] also pointed out the use of „assurance‟ in
quality of life. For example, where exhaust fumes
prisoner‟s dilemma problems of this type. Here,
from waiting coaches blew into food outlets, or was
people will only act in an environmentally favorable
breathed in by pedestrians; where particulate matter
way if they believe that others will co-operate. This
prevented tables from being positioned outside. This
co-operation may be gained from others by a series
accords with [7]‟s conclusions that tangible and
of sanctions (e.g. parking and speeding fines). In
observable features of air pollution influenced
[10]‟s research transport measures that require
public perception of air quality. Retailers who
economic or behavioural sacrifices, although they
experienced such issues were more likely to rate the
may be more effective in the long term, are rejected
pollution problems in the city more severely than
in favour of ones that do not necessarily require any
those who did not.
change of personal habits (such as catalytic
Localism, and the need to take into account the converters on cars, better public transport,
community‟s experiences and feelings were legislation on manufacturers).
evidenced in preferences for different forms of
The e-bus was considered as a possible solution,
transport solutions. For example, out of towners
and those who travelled in it rated it highly.
wanted more cycle ways, whereas those living and
However, potential passengers would not „go out of
working in the city saw this as exacerbating the
their way‟ to use one, in preference to a service
problem. [8] argued that environmental issues are
which was more convenient. This may be
irreducibly moral, civic and communal problems,
interpreted as being indicative of the individual
requiring the discourse of citizenship. Local
utility vs collective welfare dilemma. The traveller
institutions may understand regional identities and
desires the collective good – environmental quality-
needs and can accommodate local differences,
but often tries to shun their own responsibilities in
diversity and innovation. Clearly, this research was
achieving this, and „hopes‟ that others will bring
one in a series of attempts by the council (and
about the collective good.

Many authors have commented that a shift in Research is urgently required to understand
personal behaviour, in particular the decisions that attitudes to environmental issues and how these
people make about transport choice is required, if translate into behaviours. Systems can then be built
durable improvements are to be achieved (e.g. [11]). to scaffold and reinforce environmentally friendly
The decision to introduce an alternatively fuelled behaviour.
vehicle has to be considered in terms of the attitudes
of potential passengers to the service, towards
environmental issues in general and local factors. REFERENCES
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Abstracts
Abstracts submitted in the Belgrade Conference
Session A
F ut ure Resea rch Prior it ies in Clima te

F r i e n d l y Tr a n s p o r t

SEETRANS 2011: main conclusions and its

potential relevance towards a climate-friendly
transport and mobility
Fedor Cerne
Ministry of Transport, Republic of Slovenia
Abstract— Climate-friendly transport and mobility is The intention was not just to organise the event, but to
one of the dominant objectives within transport policy. start with the process of regular gathering of transport
SEETRANS conference, which will take part in Ljubljana researchers and research organisation. Most of the
on 12th and 13th of April this Year was not designed as a environmental problems are able to be resolved only in a
specific, towards climate changes oriented event. The broader context. A single country can‟t do much
leading idea was to bring the transport researchers first concerning for example transit, rationalises in logistics.
of all from the CEE countries together and offer them the It is important to open the floor to all individual
opportunity to establish new, or join the existing research researchers and organisations which might contribute to
networks within the EU research area. The event was all emerging objectives, climate changes are one of them.
designed within the FP6 project TRANSLO, first focusing When designing the whole process it was one of the
to strengthen the networks within Slovenian research presumptions that CEE region is a potential pool of good
community as a mechanism to improve results within project ideas which needs to get a chance within the EU
FP7. The idea of TRANSSLO PLUS was to assured research area. This might become reality by offering a
sustainability of already achieved results and to go structured area of dialogue, a chance to present
further towards the CEE region where quite a similar set themselves and the ideas, and to have time to start a
of challenges, problems and needs were expected. needed networking.
SEETRANS is the most visible result of that approach.

Impact of transport on climate and other

elements of Belgrade area environment
Lana Ristic and Ana Repac

Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning
Abstract— Transport has a negative impact on on the technical inspection. However, the technical inspection
nature and the quality of human environment. This is and also by the owners of motor vehicles are not paying
especially manifested through: pollution of air, soil and enough attention to this problem. The result of joint
water, noise, conversion of natural to the technical action Auto-Moto Association of Serbia, Ministry of
environment (various forms of environmental Interior of the Republic of Serbia - of Traffic Police and
degradation), increasing pollution etc. All this the Association technical review: "Proper vehicle-driving
contributes to the disruption of ecological balance, which safely" from 7.11.- 12.11.2005. show that out of 1444
is difficult to maintain a dynamic balance of a complex vehicles 135 vehicles possessed faulty device for emission
system. Air pollution through emission of harmful of exhaust gases, which means that every 10th vehicle
substances from motor vehicles (carbon monoxide, had faulty device. The reasons for increasing emission of
nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, etc..), soot and dust from polluting substances through the exhaust gases can be
combustion and friction tires and increased noise found in poor quality of fuel, increased traffic load on
deteriorate living conditions and negatively affect the roads, obsolete rolling stock, etc. Given the fact that our
human health. Environmental pollution from traffic is not country is still using gasoline with high percentage of
locally connected as pollution from industry, because lead additives (lead content ≅ 0.4 g / l), as well as
motor vehicles are mobile (power source is mobile), so increased traffic levels in Belgrade in recent years,
there is outstanding interest in greater international initiate research through the study of spatial distribution
cooperation. Vehicle manufacturers have already of pollution of urban land by lead from vehicle emissions
intervened with other certain systems of constructive near roads. Impact of roads on the environment depends
solutions and thus contributed to reduce the adverse on many factors, primarily on the existing environmental
impact (unleaded petrol, etc.).. By increasing the level of potential, ranking in the network of roads and traffic
urbanization and purchasing power of citizens and volume. This means that the needs and structure of the
therefore increase the level of motorization, rising the process of environmental research depend on conditions
number of vehicles on the roads, more frequent traffic such as: width of the operation, content and level of
jams on the roads, increasing the number of traffic details. The goal of environmental risk assessment of
accidents, adverse impacts on the environment etc. traffic impact on the climate and other environmental
Emission of polluting gases through the exhaust system of elements in the Belgrade area and its surrounding is
motor vehicles was one of the reasons that legislators protection and improvement of living conditions quality
respond by introducing the criteria and procedure of in the territory.

Session B
Policy Interventions in climate friendly

transport

Green Urban Transport for Shopping (GUTS)
Kuo-Ming Chao, Weidong Li

Institutions: Coventry University
Abstract— The aim of this research is to transform aimed at scheduling goods shipping and shoppers
urban shopping behavior to green, efficient and transportation effectively and efficiently. Its design is to
enjoyable experiences. It can reduce the number of utilize the existing urban shopping subareas and park
shoppers taking their cars to the city centre and revive and ride areas. A park and ride area provides car park
urban commercial activities by providing an advanced and secure lockers to store the shopper‟s goods for
technology infrastructure and effective management collection. Each urban subarea includes a number of
system to encourage them to shop in the city centre, but shops or retailers and each has a smart locker system
leave their cars outside of the urban areas. The proposed and secure containers. So, the shopper can leave their
system is intelligent, reliable and integrated logistics shopping bags in containers and deposit in a secure
transport and shopping system. It does not consider the locker. The container is an intelligent container, which
effective and efficient goods delivery, but it also consider will be tagged with a wireless ID (such as RFID). When
the shoppers‟ convenience. It provides a real-time the container is secured in the locker, the system in the
demand-oriented shopping and transport system. GUTS locker can notify the logistic service system, which can
can encourage the shoppers to park their cars in the start to schedule goods dispatching. Each shopper will be
rural areas (i.e. park and ride) to reduce urban traffic issued a readable ID card to book their secure containers
and it also guarantees the quality of shopping and and lockers. In order to reduce possible bottlenecks in the
transport services in terms of performance, reliability, delivery during the peak time, these containers will be
security, and convenience. It offers two types of services: collected and dispatched regularly. A smart baggage
transport and shopping services. In terms of transport train which has a number of intelligent slots to ensure
services, the shoppers can go to and leave the urban that the number of containers needs to be collected and
areas rapidly, so the waiting time for public transport where they should be delivered are correct. This also
and goods delivery services can be minimized. For the applies to the buses which also deliver containers to the
shopping services, the shoppers can reduce their burdens collection areas in park and ride. The collection areas
to carry their bags and have their goods delivered to also have lockers to store these containers according to
their car parks safely and timely. In other words, the the customer ID. The proposed system can minimize the
shopping bags become virtual bags in the process. The number of shoppers carrying their bags, as it provides
proposed approach shares a number of features with secure and speedy delivery services to the park and ride
airport luggage transfer system, but it includes its areas. Dedicated public transports can take the shoppers
advantages and overcome its disadvantages. In addition, in and out to urban areas. The shoppers can collect their
the concept for flight and luggage services cannot be goods from the secure lockers located in the car parks, so
applied directly to urban shopping services due to the shoppers can have their flexibilities and conveniences
differences between these two domains. GUTS is an in transport.
intelligent and fault tolerance logistic system which is

Strategy to reduce CO2 emissions by buses for

Public Transport in EU
Slobodan Misanovic
City Public Transport Company ''Belgrade''
Abstract— This paper describes the experience in the ethanol, bio-gas) Biodiesel (FAME) is the product of
exploitation of energy efficient and environmentally clean esterification of vegetable oil made from rapeseed seed,
buses in the system of public transport EU countries. soybean, sunflower, flax, peanut, etc..It is used alone or
Starting from the fact that in addition to passenger cars blended with fossil diesel (B100, B20, B5 or B2 - the
only in the 50 largest cities of EU in use around 55,000 number indicates the percentage of biodiesel in a blend).
buses, led to the adoption of a series of increasingly When combustion emits 70% less GHG emissions (gases
stringent standards that apply to limit emissions and "greenhouse"), and significantly lower emissions of
CO2. Today the five largest bus manufacturers particulates, Directive 2003/30 / EC adopted a decision
(Mercedes, MAN, Volvo, IRISBUS, SCANIA) produces binding on all members of the EU that member states
about 12,000 buses per annum, representing 60% of undertake to provide the minimum proportion of biofuels
world production of buses. These figures show that bus and other renewable fuels in their markets. Use of diesel-
transport subsystem powered by diesel fuel because of its electric hybrid vehicles The main advantages of using
historic investment in developing vehicles and hybrid buses are: Lower consumption of diesel fuel,
technologies, will remain the most dominant form of lower emissions of CO2 and gases, lower noise and
transportation in the next 20 years. In parallel with the vibration. At this point, most hybrid buses represented in
EU over their bodies as the European Commission the United States and Canada where the end of 2009.
launched a series of strategic issues in the field of years in service was 2872 diesel-electric and 160 CNG-
development of alternative fuels and further reduce electric buses. In Europe, currently running the 151 and
exhaust emissions. Directive EC33/2009 Since December the hybrid bus in 2011. year. Many cities and companies
2010. in EU countries apply the EC Directive 33/2009 are planning significant procurement of these buses, so it
concerning the promotion of energy efficient and is estimated that at the end of 2011. in Europe be 476
environmentally clean vehicles in road transport, which hybrid buses in operation. Application of technology Fuel
are used in public sector such as buses for public cells - Project CUTE-ECTOS-STEP-CHIC The project
transportation base year 1990. year. The concept of CUTE (Clean Urban Transport for Europe) - ECTOS
development with a diesel powered buses Combustion of (Ecological City Transport System) - STEP AND CHIC
1 kg of diesel fuel deliver 3.2 kg of CO2. Improvements to pristekao is an initiative of the EU Commission for
diesel engines in terms of reducing emissions of CO2 and Energy and Transport in cooperation with Daimler
include: - Improved control injection (over 1500 bar) Chrysler - Evobus with the aim to review the technical,
resulted in significant reduction in emissions of environmental and economic aspects of using fuel cell
particulate matter (PM) and noise of 2-3 dB less than the technology in vehicles for public transport. It is estimated
conventional injection. - Chargers variable geometry that just this type of alternative fuel is a possible solution
turbo (VGT) - Combustion control electronic control time to the problem of energy globally. This is by far the
and duration of injection which leads to reduction of largest project of its kind in the world, with the idea that
emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Improving the experiences from this project definitely decide the future
quality of components (surface area of cylinders, pistons, strategy of this type of alternative facilities for the period
rings, etc.). Use of renewable bio-fuels ( biodiesel, after the 2025th year.

Climate and environmental friendly

transportation: Active moss biomonitoring of
trace element atmospheric pollution in the
Belgrade urban area
Mira Aničić (1), Milica Tomašević (1), Marina Frontasyeva (2), Zdravko Špirić (3)
(1) Institute of Physics, University of Belgrade, (2) Frank Laboratory of Neutron Physics, Russia
(3) Institute for Applied Ecology – Oikon, Croatia
Abstract— Trace elements are persistent and widely concentration on their content in the moss tissue. Also,
dispersed in the environment and, interacting with moss vitality during the exposure period of five months
different natural components, remain a major risk for was assessed determining the pigments contents and
human health and ecosystems. Most of trace elements are indexes (Chl a/b, D665/D665a) and applying colour
present in all aerosol fractions, including the high-risk (TTC) test. Up to 60 trace elements content were
respirable particulate matter (< PM2.5). Within urban determined in the moss bags samples combining three
areas, emissions from road traffic (exhaust emissions, analytical methods (INAA, FAAS, HR-ICP-MS). The
non-exhaust particles from vehicles and resuspended moss element accumulation capability was also tested in
road dust) comprise a substantial proportion of primary relation to atmospheric bulk deposition. The most of the
air PMs. Quantification of the magnitude of trace investigated elements showed a statistically significant
element emissions is problematic and implies a lot of increase of the elements concentration with the time of
measurements in the urban environment, i.e. monitoring exposure regarding the initial content of elements in
of suitable tracer elements and following source unexposed moss. However, some physiologically active
apportionment. The use of native moss as biomonitors is elements (Nа, P, Nа, P, Cl, K, etc.) were depleted from
a convenient way of determining levels of trace elements moss tissue with time due to damaging of cell walls and
atmospheric deposition, as an complementary and leaking of the elements. The majority of measured
possibly alternative to instrumental monitoring elements was accumulated more efficiently by wet moss
techniques. To clarify the peculiarities on the influence of bags (especially Cu, Sr, Zn, Cr, Al, Fe, Pb, Cd) and
exposure time on trace element accumulation in moss depletion of physiologically active elements was
bags technique (active biomonitoring), moss Sphagnum diminished comparing to dry ones. A significant
girgensohnii Rusow were exposed in bags in the urban correlation between moss and bulk deposition was
area of Belgrade. Different treatments, with (wet) and obtained for some of the elements (especially V and Ni).
without (dry) irrigation, were applied to the exposed According to the obtained results, S. girgensohnii moss
moss bags. Moss bags was exposed in several bags may be applied as an appropriate biomonitor of
experimental set-ups at representative urban sites for five certain trace elements atmospheric deposition in urban
3-months periods (July, 2005-October, 2006), as well as, areas. Also, wetting of moss bags during exposure period
at one sub-urban site for 1 up to 5 months (July- improved element accumulation abilities and sensitivity
November, 2007) to examine effects of spatial and of the moss.
temporal variations of the trace elements atmospheric

Sustainable mobility: a chimera or a social

imperative? Should policy-making intervene for
the realization of sustainable mobility?
Dimitris Micharikopoulos, Elena Tavlaki

Institute of Social Innovation, Arachni Ltd
Abstract— During the last 200 years, the choices the transport modes. But for a genuinely sustainable
society has made for modes and technologies of transport future, far more radical change, affecting many
transportation has redefined the contemporary living and aspects of society, is needed. The recognition that we
provided an unprecedented personal freedom and global need to do something about these interconnected
interaction. It also true, that this enhanced mobility has a problems came initially with the realization that
high cost to society, to the environment and to the deteriorating urban air quality, prompting a wave of
economy. Issues such as fuel prices, congestion, legislation aimed at controlling automobile emissions.
accidents, parking restrictions are just a few of the This has now extended into other areas, including car
implications of the dramatic increase in personal production and use. Regulation now applies to safety,
mobility; with the most critical issue of CO2 emissions noise, end-of-life vehicles and fuel efficiency, regulatory
contributing to climate change on the environment. controls on waste management in the maritime sector and
Sustainable mobility refers to an integrated approach, certification of aircraft and rail vehicles. It is not a
where the limitations of environmental and social costs of fiction but in the future it is likely to take an increasingly
traffic movements should not undermine the aspirations holistic or life-cycle perspective of reducing noise and
for economic growth and immense personal mobility. The carbon footprint at European level. Therefore, regulation
pursuit of sustainable mobility is a contemporary is an effective means of controlling the environmental
challenge, as it has to reconcile the constantly impacts of transport. Indeed, the regulatory approach
augmenting social demands for increasing mobility and towards emissions standards, the regulatory approach,
the avoidance of environmental degradation. Sustainable has created vehicles that are much improved in many
mobility has its roots to sustainable development; where respects. A modern car, driven under the right
the economic growth does not lead to environmental conditions, could be up to 95–99% „cleaner‟ in terms of
decline. It is often considered that technology alone could toxic emissions than its equivalent of 40 years ago.
solve this problem. Technologically breakthrough Sustainable mobility is a vital parameter for achieving
solutions are perceived as a mean to an end. Electric and the aim of the sustainable development, where the
hybrid cars, increased fuel efficiency, reducing balancing of economic health, social equity and
dependence on oil from the current level of 98%, by using environmental resilience, serves as the integrative
alternative fuels and improving the energy efficiency of concept which offers a long term perspective and
modes of transport, could reduce carbon impact of these provides opportunities for win–win solutions.

The management of port-transhipment processes
Prof. dr. sc. Đorđe Nadrljanski dr. sc. Mila Nadrljanski Ljubo Djula, dipl.ing
Faculty of Management Novi Sad
Abstract— The basic objective of this paper is to the ways of improving the computer-supported decision-
present an overview of important theoretic methods, making in maritime management is to focus on
models, techniques and tools which have been used, both connecting these techniques, i.e. designing the sort of
in science and practice, in modern management of port approaches in the mathematical modelling of complex
systems, and to provide adequate proposals to enhance issues that would benefit from the advantages of the
port resources management. Optimisation and simulation techniques and reduce their individual shortcomings.
are basic techniques in addressing the issues related to Apart from statistical and operations research methods,
managing transhipment processes. The former, i.e. the artificial intelligence, based on the theory of learning,
optimisation, includes approaches and methods has improved the potentials of using the already acquired
belonging to mathematical programming. The latter, i.e. knowledge (through expert systems) and information
simulation, is less rigorous from the mathematical point (through neuron networks), with the aim of making
of view and closely refers to all the methods which efficient management decisions. The task of a system
explore the possibilities and seek the best solutions to the optimisation is to choose the best alternative from a
set tasks, with no criteria that have been set in advance number of likely and favourable variants, by acquiring
and precisely defined for completing the search the criteria leading to the optimum solution to the
procedure. As both of these techniques, individually and optimisation task. Key words: optimisation, artificial
mutually, have their advantages and shortcomings, one of intelligence, mathematical modelling, simulation.

Creation of a Mobility Manager for mountain

areas: the Access Interreg Pilot Project in
Valsassina (Italy)
Authors: Chiara Bresciani*, Federico Lia*, Cristina Pellegrino**, Roberto Zaggia***

*Poliedra – Politecnico di Milano, Italy, **Lombardia Region, Italy, ***Finlombarda, Italy
Abstract— The maintenance of a spatially and populated surrounding municipalities, but since the
socially equal accessibility to services of general interest public transport is rather poor, the 74% of them travel by
(SGI) is a core issue to the functionality of mountain car by their own. Therefore, ACCESS pilot action aimed
areas and any regional development strategy both on a at reducing reliance on cars of manufacturing employees,
national as well as on a transnational level. Within this suggesting and promoting smart choices about other
frame ACCESS, an INTERREG IV B project within the forms of transport, informing and motivating people to
Alpine Space Programme of the European Commission, change their travelling behaviour, through the creation of
aims at improving the accessibility to services of general a local expert figure: the Mobility Manager for mountain
interest in sparsely populated mountain areas, mainly by areas. His tasks consist in gathering workers‟ issues,
finding new forms of organisation of SGI, using liaise with industries managers and elaborate soft and
information and communication technologies (ICT) and sustainable actions for overcoming issues. The innovative
fostering demand oriented, integrated mobility systems. choice of relying on local institutions – the Mountain
ACCESS is a following project of the former PUSEMOR Community – allows the SMEs to benefit of an
(Public Services in Sparsely Populated Mountain instrument, the Mobility Management, that is usually
Regions) and involves 9 partners from 5 alpine countries: affordable only by bigger companies in metropolitan
Switzerland, Austria, France, Germany and Italy. The areas with hundreds of workers. The training of the
project started on 01/09/2008 and it will end on Mobility Manager for mountain areas has been provided
31/08/2011. ACCESS pilot project in Italy concentrated by organizing focused lessons and with an “on field”
on the creation of a mobility manager in three low-access working experience: he involved SMEs for evaluating
mountain areas: Alta Valtellina, Valsassina and Valli del travelers behaviors via questionnaires, he analyzed the
Verbano. This idea is particularly innovative since the Valsassina transport network and came out with a
Italian law introduced the duty of having a mobility feasibility study for the implementation of a enterprise
manager only in big companies in metropolitan areas. based car-pooling system. Local stakeholders, involved at
One of the most representative pilot project is the one different stages of the project, will now have the
developed in Valsassina, which is a narrow valley possibility of tailoring and integrate new flexible
located within the pre-Alpine strip: many middle-sized measures for improving quality of life of Valsassina
manufacturing industries attract everyday commuters employees.
who mostly live in the mountainous and scarcely

Impact of CO2 Pricing and Biodiesel on

Container Transport in the Netherlands
Authors: M. Zhang*, M.van den Drist**, B. Wiegmans*

* OTB Research Institute, Delft University of Technology,
P.O. Box 5030, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands
**Delft University of Technology, Faculty Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering
Abstract— This paper analyzes the impacts of CO2 container movement statistics 2006. The scenario
pricing policies and using biodiesel on container analysis shows that the impact of CO2 pricing is limited
transport of the Netherlands in terms of reducing CO2 in terms of both reducing CO2 emission and modal shift.
emission and modal shift from road to intermodal A price of €200 per ton CO2 emission results in only
transport. The paper presents a GIS-based flow 8.33% of CO2 emission reduction. €90 per ton CO2
estimation model which is developed and applied to achieves 4% of CO2 reduction, but results in an increase
quantify, visualize and evaluate various scenarios. The of system cost of 3.60%. With the same extra system cost,
model presents the detailed Dutch container transport by using biodiesel (B30) the CO2 emission can be
network with connections to an overall European reduced by 19.57%. Biodiesel is also preferable from
network. It simulates the container flows among 57 user‟s perspective. Using B30 increases the fuel cost by
origins/destinations and the possible transshipment at 25%, while CO2 price at rate €90 causes a fuel cost
terminals. The model is validated based on the Dutch increase of 38%.

Session C
Evaluating policies and measures in

climate friendly transport

Expert and public attitudes to sustainable

transport options
Lorraine Whitmarsh, Dimitrios Xenias

Cardiff University
Abstract— Government adoption of strict targets on measures, however, experts prioritised economic and
curbing CO2 emissions will have profound impacts on technological measures while the public prioritised
individual choices. Transport accounts for a large, and behaviour change and improvement of public transport.
growing, proportion of total CO2 emissions in the EU, Study 2 was a replication and extension of Study 1 in four
with approximately 80% coming from road transport, ways: we added new quantitative measures of
including car use. This, in conjunction with other aspects preferences (e.g. Advanced Hierarchical Processing,
of unsustainability of current transport systems (e.g., AHP), in addition to traditional ranking scales and
accidents, air pollution, inaccessibility), means aforementioned qualitative measures; we included salient
sustainable transport policies need to be defined and psychological and behavioural measures (e.g.,
implemented. While expert and special interest (e.g., environmental values, perceived responsibility, past
industry) groups are likely to be involved in defining such behaviour); we added a telephone follow-up interview to
policies, the general public will experience and enact assess medium-term attitude and behaviour change; and
them. In the light of high-profile examples of public we recruited new but comparable samples of transport
protests against transport policies (e.g., the UK fuel duty experts (N=42) and general British public (N=40).
protests) it is critical to gain an understanding of how Results from both samples broadly replicated findings
citizens understand transport problems and their from Study 1 in the comparable measures; i.e. in
attitudes to potential solutions for tackling them, and how quantitative measures, experts preferred economic and
these understandings and attitudes differ from expert/ technological solutions and the public focused on
professional groups. In two mixed methods studies we behaviour change and improvement of public transport,
investigated (a) understanding of, and attitudes to while in qualitative measures the experts generally
sustainable transport and relevant policies and agreed with the public about the importance of modal
technologies in an expert and a public sample and (b) shift (albeit in written answers as opposed to oral
areas of convergence and divergence between samples, feedback in Study 1). The replication of these expert-
between individuals, and depending on the alternative public discrepancies has important implications for
elicitation methods we used. In Study 1, we compared public engagement in policy-making as well as the risk
attitudes to sustainable transport between an expert perception literature. However, we also note significant
sample (i.e. policy, academic, and industry transport variation in attitudes and perceived responsibility in
experts, N=44) and a general British public sample respect of sustainable transport according to individuals‟
(N=30). We employed qualitative (interviews, values, suggesting that expertise alone does not fully
deliberative workshops) and quantitative (attitudinal account for variation in attitudes. Finally, we highlight
scale, preference ranking) methods. Both expert and variation in findings according to method, and argue for
public samples identified reduction in transport demand the value of mixed methods research.
as their priority in qualitative measures. In quantitative

The Political Economy of the European Union

Environmental Governance: Voluntary
Agreement to Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions
from New Cars
Elah Matt
School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, UK
Abstract— The attempts of the European Union to maintained. ACEA agreed to enter a voluntary agreement
reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from new cars up in 1998. This agreement was not legally-binding and did
to 2008 were characterised by the employment of New not threaten the European car industry‟s operations. The
Environmental Policy Instruments (NEPIs). The (unsuccessful) implementation of the agreement resulted
advocacy and adoption of NEPIs are emblematic of a in incremental technological advancements, but
wider putative shift from „government‟ to „governance‟, maintained dependence on fossil-fuelled cars within
which implies changes in the relations between public European society. The process of policy re-design
and private policy actors. While the promotion of NEPIs reflected upon the growing power of environmental
in the European Union (EU) has been widespread, their interest groups, but ultimately upon the close relations
adoption has been much sparser. One high-profile between the car industry and political actors. The result
exception is the voluntary agreement between the EU and was the uptake of targets and deadlines that were less
the Association of European Car Manufacturers (ACEA) ambitious than previously recommended. Thus, it can be
to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from new cars. This seen that economic interests outweighed environmental
agreement, which came into force in 1998, was considerations. Understanding how these governance
concluded in 2008. The voluntary targets were not met by arrangements shaped the policymaking process can
the carmakers, and the EU subsequently introduced contribute to the design of more effective policy
mandatory regulations in 2009. The literature on policy interventions in the future. The main recommendations of
instruments in general, and on NEPIs and voluntary this research suggest that the EU needs to adopt more
agreements in particular, can explain the technical ambitious medium and long-term CO2 emissions
reasons for the agreement‟s failure. However, it is not reductions targets that will encourage the uptake of low
geared to examine how the complex relations between carbon technologies. In order to ensure that economic
public and private policy actors shaped the policy and environmental interests are compatible, the EU must
process and outcomes. This understanding is important in seek international agreement on these targets. Fiscal
order ensure the success of future policy interventions. measures can also be employed to promote the renewal
This paper sets out to explore the ACEA agreement from of the European car fleet. However, the reliance of
a Neo-Gramscian political economy perspective. A neo- European society on car use needs to be addressed. This
Gramscian approach contributes to understanding the can be done through a combination of demand-side
complex relations between public and private actors measures, the promotion of a modal shift, and policy
involved in EU car governance. Applying this interventions to address motorists‟ behaviour.
perspective, it is possible to observe a process of
contestation and compromise between various policy
actors, in which the dominance of economic actors was

Towards a Climate-Friendly Urban Transport in

Skopje: Problems and Prospects
Valeriy Kokot
Embassy of Ukraine in the Republic of Macedonia
Abstract— The purpose of this paper is to analyze the has in the process of implementation the necessary
factors affecting the development of a climate friendly reforms in the urban transport sector. The results of this
transport in the city Skopje. The analysis shows Skopje‟s paper are useful to policymakers from the Western
approach to public transport that offers the plan for Balkans and Eastern Europe in case of implementation
development of sustainable urban system and intelligent innovative transport concepts for environmentally
traffic management, technical solutions increasing the friendly, resource-saving, secure and efficient urban
use of alternative fuels for reducing emissions and mobility. Keywords: Climate Friendly Urban Transport,
pollution, as well as the problems and prospects that city Intelligent Traffic Management, Urban Mobility.

Defining future Sutainable mobility patterns

based on social behaviour analysis
Eleni Anoyrkati, Efstratios Arampatzis, Fedias Papadopoulos

Coventry University Enterprises Ltd, Tero Ltd, E&F Ltd
Abstract— Transport is the backbone of the and harmonisation of data in travel behaviour. This will
European economy, accounting for about 7 % of GDP lead to a unified set of data that will serve as reference
and more than 5% of total employment in the EU. At the material for future exploitation of existing studies and
same time, transport presents major problems in terms of baseline information (or data) 2. Defining demand and
congestion, safety and environmental impact. In the EU, supply factors that shape the transportation system and
compared with 1990 levels, no other sector has the mobility patterns. This will aim to give an outlook on
growth rate of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) as have future developments by modelling and scenario
been as high in transport. According to the European simulation, and 3. Defining the potential decarbonisation
Environment Agency, transport accounted to close to a of the passenger transport system and ensuring the
quarter (23.8%) of total GHG emissions and slightly sustainability of the system. The decarbonisation
more than a quarter (27.9%) of total CO2 growth rate of potential and co-benefits of best practices/solutions will
GHG emissions in the EU27 in 2006. Today be based upon an analysis of ICT and co-modality
consideration of passenger needs and the carbon-neutral options with an impact assessment of the research
objective are essential elements of EU policies. The results. To implement the above research agenda, what is
challenge is to understand future changes in the required is a combination and utilisation of
passenger's travel system that would lead to more multidisciplinary expertise in the fields of climate friendly
sustainable method/mode(s) of travelling, as people can transport, foresight, modelling, socio-economics, mobility
travel in a more efficient, safer and cleaner manner, behaviour, intelligent transport systems, and transport
without compromising mobility. A scientifically policy development. Multidisciplinary research will
documented insight of the transport system and people‟s enable the identification of a set of strategies,
travel choices is to be provided towards this, including recommendations and policy measures, scientific analysis
the study of social behaviour, mobility patterns and of social behaviour, mobility patterns and business
relative business models. National travel data for demand models, for integrating and optimising transport system,
and supply factors are available for different EU based on the modelling of the assessment of the impact of
countries. Because of their different origin, it is difficult co-modality and ICT solutions for transport. This is
to use them properly and build upon them, as they need to necessary to achieve the EU goal of establishing a
be harmonised. To enable us analyse demand and supply transport system that meets society‟s economic, social
side of the transportation system national data need to be and environmental needs, and is also conducive to an
integrated into a harmonised database We suggest inclusive society and a fully integrated and competitive
achieving such an insight through the implementation of Europe.
three main blocks of activities: 1. Identifying the gaps

Master Plan of the Northern Italy Waterway

System: An Alternative for a Climate Friendly
Transport
Guido Piccoli Director

ALOT Scarl - Agency of East Lombardy for Transports and Logistics
Abstract— All transport modes using fossil fuels term perspective also for enhancing the efficiency of the
produce emissions that have a negative impact on logistics and freight transport chain and improve the
climate, but inland navigation has a relatively positive overall planning and coordination of operational
record and strict standards and innovation will further activities an investment roadmaps by joining all existing
improve the score in the future. Climate change and local plans and projects in a unique framework. Another
congestion stand among the most favorable externalities objective is to extend the reach of the Northern Italy
affecting transport in Europe. Inland Navigation though, Waterway System to the Adriatic Sea by joining with the
could represent an answer to both of these issues, with a Short Sea Shipping system, thereby enhancing a new
remarkable effectiveness both in terms of environment corridor from Cremona (the Western part of the Italian
and traffic. Also for this reason EU is promoting inland river system) up to Greece and further to the Black Sea,
navigation through different financing programs. One of one of the main export area of Mediterranean Sea to
them id the TEN-T grant that has supported the North Italy. The Master Plan takes into account not only
elaboration of a Master Plan to support the preparation the planning of infrastructural interventions to overcome
of infrastructural improvement of the Northern Italy bottlenecks but also a logistic analysis of the whole
Waterway System. Thanks to its east-west geographical supply chain, including the multimodal nodes and the
development, the waterway constitutes a precious waterway as part of a trans European axis interchanging
alternative to rail and road traffic, answering to the with railways (PF1 and PP6) and MoS (PP21) in the
congestion problem of the first, and to the whole Adriatic Sea, as well as its connection to the rail/road
externalities produced by the second. This is one of the Berlin/Palermo axis. The expected output is a strategic
activities of a global action (2009-IT-91405-S) started in action plan including analysis of surveys results and
December 2009 and with a duration of 48 months whose identification of current bottlenecks (not only
partners are the Province of Mantua, Sistemi Territoriali infrastructural, also possibly legal, regulatory,
spa and the Interregional Agency for the Po River environmental, commercial or operational) and a
(AIPo). The global project generally aims at the strategy including short mid-long term objectives and the
development of the Po River and connected canals methodology with a strong consultation process with
towards class Va and at its multimodal interconnection public and private stakeholders. For what the
with existing road, rail and sea network of European environmental aspects are concerned, the Master Plan
relevance. The Master Plan aims to provide a framework analyses not only the positive impacts of the modal shift
for the implementation of the global project for the towards inland navigation, but also how the inland
development of the Northern Italy inland waterways navigation sector can monitor the external effects of its
(from the Porto Nogaro Port in Friuli Venezia Giulia activities.
region to Cremona Inland Port in Lombardy) with a mid-

Economic Aspects of Nuclear Based Ships
Edvard Tijan, Dragan Cisic, Dario Ogrizovic

Abstract— There is the need for measures for The US-built NS Savannah commissioned in 1962 and
governing carbon dioxide emissions, while the entry into decommissioned 1970, was a technical success, but not
force of firm International Maritime Organization economically sustainable. The German-built Otto Hahn
controls in 2020 provides a strict deadline against which cargo ship and research facility sailed 126 voyages in 10
the industry can balance the benefits of a range of years without any technical problems, but proved too
technology enhancements and fuel options. There is no expensive to operate and was converted to diesel. As the
flawless technological fix to lower emissions using technology and economic environment has been changed
traditional diesel or LPG fuels, and nuclear energy is in last 40 years, authors calculate economic aspects of
emerging as a practical option. Although development of nuclear merchant ships, with comparison to traditional
nuclear merchant ships began in the 1950s, the result diesel powered ships.
mostly was not commercially successful.

Appendix A: List number of papers and authors by countries
No. Country Number of papers Number of authors

1. Austria 1 3
2. Croatia 11 23
3. Cyprus 2 2
4. Finland 1 1
5. Germany 4 7
6. Greece 6 14
7. Hungary 1 1
8. Italy 9 19
9. Liechtenstein 1 3
10. Macedonia 1 1
11. Netherlands 2 4
12. Portugal 1 3
13. Poland 1 1
14. Serbia 39 76
15. Slovenia 1 1
16. Spain 3 5
17. Russia 1 1
18. UK 10 19
Totally: 95 184
i
Appendix B : AUTHORS' INDEX
A
1. Ahmadi S. (Leicester, UK) 55
2. Aleksić D. (Belgrade, Serbia) aleksicdejan@sbb.rs 282
3. Alli G. (Milano, Italy) alli@elet.polimi.it 27
4. Andrejić M. (Belgrade, Serbia) m.andrejic@sf.bg.ac.rs 313, 411
5. Aničić M. (Belgrade, Serbia) 465
6. Anoyrkati E. (Coventry, UK) e.anoyrkati@coventry.ac.uk 1, 17, 476
7. Arampatzis E. (Coventry, UK) 476
8. Archontaki S. (Greece) drc@danaos.gr 168
9. Aćimović S. (Belgrade, Serbia) slavisa@sf.bg.ac.rs 262, 397
B
10. Bakalar G. (Rijeka, Croatia) goran.bakalar@xnet.hr 319
11. Bankosegger D. (Vienna, Austria) db@hitec.at 144
12. Barić M. (Rijeka, Croatia) leteca.utoka@gmail.com 325
13. Belošević I. (Belgrade, Serbia) i.belosevic@sf.bg.ac.rs 35, 39, 440
14. Bjelić N. (Belgrade, Serbia) n.bjelic@sf.bg.ac.rs 313, 411
15. Böhm M. (Vienna, Austria) martin.boehm@austriatech.org 144
16. Bojković N. (Belgrade, Serbia) n.bojkovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 45
17. Bojović N. (Belgrade, Serbia) nb.bojovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 45
18. Bresciani C. (Milano, Italy) 1, 468
19. Bruglieri M. (Milano, Italy) 191
20. Brusić P. (Rijeka, Croatia) pbrusic@net.hr 355
21. Bukša A. (Rijeka, Croatia) 319
22. Butorac D. (Rijeka, Croatia) 325
C
23. Caprile E. (Milano, Italy) elena.caprile@polimi.it 144
24. Carrizosa E. (Seville, Spain) ecarrizosa@us.es 270
25. Carvalho D. (Lisbon, Portugal) daniela.carvalho@tis.p 81
26. Castells i Sanabra M. (Barcelona, Spain) 296
27. Cerne F. (Slovenia) 459
28. Chao K-M. (Coventry, UK) 463
29. Chiclana F. (Leicester, UK) 55
30. Ciccarelli D. (Milano, Italy) 200
31. Čičević S. (Belgrade, Serbia) s.cicevic@sf.bg.ac.rs 337
32. Čišić D. (Rijeka, Croatia) dragan@pfri.hr 17, 346, 478
33. Čokorilo O.( Belgrade, Serbia) oljav@sf.bg.ac.rs 172, 379
34. Colorni A. (Milano, Italy) 1, 200
35. Costaki J. (Athens, Greece) jfcostaki@hotmail.com 332
36. Čubranić-Dobrodolac M. (Belgrade, marjana@sf.bg.ac.rs 337
Serbia)
D
37. Dapčić I. (Rijeka, Croatia) ivan.dapcic@yahoo.com 355
38. Davidovic T. (Belgrade, Serbia) tanjad@mi.sanu.ac.rs 191, 270
iii
39. Djukić A. (Belgrade, Serbia) adjukic@rcub.bg.ac.rs 206
40. Djula Lj. (Novi Sad, Serbia) 467
41. Dorčić M. (Rijeka, Croatia) 51
42. Dovas K. (Thessaloniki, Greece) 362
43. Drist M. (Delft, The Netherlands) 469
44. Droege P. (Vaduz, Liechtenstein) 115
45. Đorić V. (Belgrade, Serbia) v.djoric@sf.bg.ac.rs 355
E
46. Elizondo D. (Leicester, UK) 55
F
47. Frencia C. (Porto, Portugal) chiara.frencia@inovamais.pt 81
48. Frontasyeva M. (Russia) 465
G
49. Gavanas N. (Thessaloniki, Greece) ngavanas@civil.auth.gr 362
nicosgavanas@gmail.com
50. Genske D. (Vaduz, Liechtenstein) 115
51. Georgia A. (Thessaloniki, Greece) gea@certh.gr 403
52. Gil Aizpuru J. (Barcelona, Spain) 110
53. Gojkovic Bukvic N. (Bari, Italy) natasagb@gmail.com 369
54. Gongora M. (Leicester, UK) 55
55. Goodyer E. (Leicester, UK) eg@dmu.ac.uk 55
56. Gruber R. (Wuppertal, Germany) robert.gruber@wupperinst.org 11
57. Grujičić D. (Belgrade, Serbia) d.gruicic@sf.bg.ac.rs 355
58. Gvozdenović S. (Belgrade, Serbia) slobodg@sf.bg.ac.rs 172, 379
H
59. Hall S. (Hull, UK) stephen.hall@2004.hull.ac.uk 216
I
60. Ivanović I. (Belgrade, Serbia) i.ivanovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 355
61. Ivić M. (Belgrade, Serbia) 35, 39, 440
62. Ivković M. (Belgrade, Serbia) markivkovic@jp.ptt.rs 120
J
63. Janković S. (Belgrade, Serbia) s.jankovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 397
K
64. Kamburow C. (Berlin, Germany) c.kamburow@izt.de 60
65. Kaplanović S. (Belgrade, Serbia) s.kaplanovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 248
66. Kilibarda M. (Belgrade, Serbia) m.kilibarda@sf.bg.ac.rs 313
67. Klomp – de Boer R. (Marknesse, ronald.klomp@nlr.nl 69
Netherlands)
68. Köhler J. (Karlsruhe, Germany) J.Koehler@isi.fraunhofer.de 81
69. Kokot V. (Embassy of Ukraine, 475
Republic of Macedonia)
70. Kosijer M. (Belgrade, Serbia) m.kosijer@sf.bg.ac.rs 35, 397, 440
71. Koska T. (Wuppertal, Germany) thorsten.koska@wupperinst.org 11
72. Kulmala R. (Finland) risto.kulmala@vtt.fi 144
iv
L
73. Lazić B. (Belgrade, Serbia) bratislav.lazic@pupin.rs 127
74. Lee S. (Cardiff, UK) leess@cardiff.ac.uk 90
75. Li W. (Coventry, UK) 463
76. Lia F. (Milano, Italy) 1, 468
77. Lianakis E. (Thessaloniki, Greece) 362
78. Ljevaja D. (Serbia) draganljevaja@yahoo.com 373
79. Lučić J. (Belgrade, Serbia) 232
80. Lué A. (Milano, Italy) lue@poliedra.polimi.it 1, 200
81. Lufčić M. (Rijeka, Croatia) 104
M
82. Macura D.( Belgrade, Serbia) d.macura@sf.bg.ac.rs 45, 154
83. Manojlović A. (Belgrade, Serbia) a.manojlovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 289
84. Maras M. (Rijeka, Croatia) 104
85. Maraš V. (Belgrade, Serbia) v.maras@sf.bg.ac.rs 1, 17, 133
86. Marchionni G. (Milano, Italy) giovanna.marchionni@polimi.it 144
87. Margaritis D. (Thessaloniki, Greece) dmarg@certh.gr 403
88. Marković M. (Belgrade, Serbia) 39, 262, 440
89. Martínez de Osés X.(Barcelona, Spain) Fmartinez@cen.upc.edu 110, 296
90. Matt E. (UK) 474
91. Mazur K. (Poland) 238
92. Micharikopoulos D. (Arachni, Greece) 466
93. Milinković S. (Belgrade, Serbia) s.milinkovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 35, 39, 397, 440
94. Mirosavljević P.( Belgrade, Serbia) perami@sf.bg.ac.rs 172, 379
95. Misanovic S. (Belgrade, Serbia) 464
96. Mitrović S. (Belgrade, Serbia) s.mitrovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 397
97. Mitsakis E. (Thessaloniki, Greece) emit@certh.gr 403
98. Mladenović N. (Belgrade, Serbia) nenad@mi.sanu.ac.rs 270
99. Momčilović V. (Belgrade, Serbia) v.momcilovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 289
N
100. Nadrljanski D. (Novi Sad, Serbia) 467
101. Nadrljanski M. (Novi Sad, Serbia) 467
102. Neumann H. (Vaduz, Liechtenstein) 115
103. Ninković D. (Belgrade, Serbia) 276
104. Nocerino R. (Milano, Italy) 200
105. Nolte R. (Berlin, Germany) r.nolte@izt.de 60
O
106. Ogrizović D. (Rijeka, Croatia) dario@pfri.hr 346, 478
P
107. Papadopoulos F. (Coventry, UK) 476
108. Papanikolaou A. (Thessaloniki, Greece) anepapanik@certh.gr 403
109. Paruscio V. (Milano, Italy) 200
110. Passow B. (Leicester, UK) 55
111. Pavlović N. (Belgrade, Serbia) n.pavlovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 35, 39, 262, 397
112. Pejčić-Tarle S. (Belgrade, Serbia) s.tarle@sf.bg.ac.rs 45
113. Pellegrino C. (Lombardia Region, Italy) 468
114. Perić Hadţić A. (Rijeka, Croatia) ana@pfri.hr 17, 346
v
115. Petrović-Vujačić J. (Belgrade, Serbia) pjelica@yahoo.com 248
116. Piccoli G. (Italy) 477
117. Pjevcevic D. (Belgrade, Serbia) danijela@sf.bg.ac.rs 254
118. Politis I. (Thessaloniki, Greece) 362
119. Popović D. (Belgrade, Serbia) d.popovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 120, 127
R
120. Radivojević G. (Belgrade, Serbia) gordana.radivojevic.@pupin.rs 127
121. Radmilović Z. (Belgrade, Serbia) z.radmilovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 1, 17, 133
122. Radonjic A. (Belgrade, Serbia) a.radonjic@sf.bg.ac.rs 254
123. Raičević V. (Belgrade, Serbia) 262
124. Ratković B. (Belgrade, Serbia) b.ratkovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 313, 411
125. Ratković I. (Rijeka, Croatia) 51
126. Redţić N. (Belgrade, Serbia) nebojsa.redzic@sepa.gov.rs 289
127. Repac A. (Serbia) 460
128. Ristic L. (Serbia) 460
129. Roksandic S (Belgrade, Serbia) sanja@mi.sanu.ac.rs 191, 270
130. Rossetti S. (Brescia, Italy) silvia.rossetti@ing.unibs.it 161
131. Rudan I. (Rijeka, Croatia) rudan@pfri.hr 308
132. Rupp J. (Berlin, Germany) j.rupp@izt.de 60
S
133. Salanova J. (Thessaloniki, Greece) jose@certh.gr 403
134. Savaresi S. (Milano, Italy) savaresi@elet.polimi.it 27
135. Schipper M. (Berlin, Germany) 417
136. Schwillinsky S. (Vienna, Austria) stefan.schwillinsky@austriatech.org 144
137. Šćulac D (Rijeka, Croatia) darjan.sculac@hotmail.com 51
138. Sedmak A. (Belgrade, Serbia) 276
139. Šelmić M. (Belgrade, Serbia) m.selmic@sf.bg.ac.rs 154
140. Senior M. (Cardiff, UK) 90
141. Smagas K. (Nicosia, Cyprus) kostas@geoimaging.com.cy 17, 346
142. Smokrović M. (Rijeka, Croatia) 325
143. Špirić Z. (Croatia) 465
144. Spirić Z. (Zagreb, Croatia) zspirc@oikon.hr 17
145. Sremac S. (Novi Sad, Serbia) sremacs@uns.ac.rs 282, 421, 429
146. Stanić M. (Novi Sad, Serbia) 429
147. Stankovic I. (Belgrade, Serbia) 276
148. Stojić G. (Novi Sad, Serbia) gordan@uns.ac.rs 262, 282, 421, 429
149. Stojiljković B. (Belgrade, Serbia) 172
150. Studer L. (Milano, Italy) luca.studer@polimi.it 144
151. Stylianidis E. (Nicosia, Cyprus) 17, 346
152. Szendro G. (Budapest, Hungary) szendro@eik.bme.hu 81
T
153. Tanackov I. (Novi Sad, Serbia) ilijat@uns.ac.rs 282, 421, 429
154. Tavlaki E. (Arachni, Greece) 466
155. Teodorović D. (Belgrade, Serbia) dusan@sf.bg.ac.rs 154
156. Tepić J. (Novi Sad, Serbia) jovan.tepic@uns.ac.rs 282, 421, 429
157. Tešić D. (Novi Sad, Serbia) 421
158. Tiboni M. (Brescia, Italy) michela.tiboni@ing.unibs.it 161
159. Tijan E. (Rijeka, Croatia) etijan@pfri.hr 17, 346, 478
160. Tomas V. (Rijeka, Croatia) 319
161. Tomašević M. (Belgrade, Serbia) 465
vi
162. Tomić-Petrović N. (Belgrade, Serbia) 436
163. Trifunović J. (Belgrade, Serbia) j.trifunovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 289
U
164. Urošević D. (Belgrade, Serbia) draganu@mi.sanu.ac.rs 270
165. Usabiaga Santamaría J. (Barcelona, jusabiaga@cen.upc.edu 296
Spain)
V
166. Valčić M. (Rijeka, Croatia) mvalcic@pfri.hr 304
167. Varelas T. (Greece) drc@danaos.gr 168
168. Vasov Lj. (Belgrade, Serbia) lj.vasov@sf.bg.ac.rs 172
169. Vesković S. (Belgrade, Serbia) veskos@sf.bg.ac.rs 35, 39, 262, 440
170. Vidović M. (Belgrade, Serbia) m.vidovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 120, 411
171. Vieira J. (Lisbon, Portugal) joao.vieira@tis.pt 81
172. Vujičić A. (Belgrade, Serbia) avujicic@dunav.com 180
173. Vukelić M. (Rijeka, Croatia) mario.vukelic@net.hr 104
174. Vukmirovic M (Belgrade, Serbia) milena.vukmirovic@arh.bg.ac.rs 206
W
175. Whitmarsh L. (Cardiff, UK) whitmarshle@cardiff.ac.uk 1, 17, 473
176. Wiegmans B. (Delft, The Netherlands) 469
177. Woodcock A. (Coventry, UK) a.woodcok@coventry.ac.uk 448
X
178. Xenias D. (Cardiff, UK) 1, 17, 473
Y
179. Yang Y. (Leicester, UK) 55
Z
180. Zaggia R. (Finlombarda, Italy) 468
181. Zhang M. (Delft, The Netherlands) 469
182. Zobenica R. (Belgrade, Serbia) r.zobenica@sf.bg.ac.rs 133
183. Zrnić N.( Belgrade, Serbia) 180, 232
184. Ţuškin S. (Rijeka, Croatia) szuskin@pfri.hr 304
vii

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University of Belgrade

Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering

SHAPING CLIMATE FRIENDLY

Published by: University of Belgrade – The Faculty of Transport

Covers: 200 examples

Print in: SaTCIP Ltd.

Abs-2. Ristic L. (Serbia), Rapec A. (Serbia) 460

Abs-4. Misanovic S. (Belgrade, Serbia) 464

Abs-6. Micharikopoulos D. (Arachni, Greece), Tavlaki E. (Arachni, Greece) 466

Abs-12.Kokot V. (Embassy of Ukraine, Republic of Macedonia) 475

Abs-13.Anoyrkati E. (Coventry, UK), Arampatzis E. (Coventry, UK), Papadopoulos F. (Coventry, 476

Abs-14.Piccoli G. (Italy) 477

Belgrade, June, 2011

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport i

Preface by Project Officer

ii REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

Preface by Project Coordinator

The REACT project aimed to support multi-stakeholder international collaboration in climate-friendly

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport iii

A Strategic Research Agenda for future research

Chiara Bresciania, Alberto Colornib, Eleni Anoyrkati

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport 1

2 REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

 most of the criteria can be assessed by means of

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport 3

4 REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

Figure 4. The web questionnaire page, available

Experts in climate-friendly transport filled in

1. Assess the potential contribution to reducing

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport 5

TABLE I. CRITERIA PREFERENCES TABLE TYPE STYLES

6 REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport 7

Reduction of air pollutants NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

design of lightweight materials and highly aerodynamic profiles

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

Assessment of Carbon Reductions from

Robert Gruber, Thorsten Koska

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport 11

respect means the total amount of vehicle kilometres

12 REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

n number of traffic modes i 1

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport 13

14 REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport

REACT - Supporting Research on Climate Friendly Transport 15

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Low-Carbon Transport Research in Europe:

Lorraine Whitmarsh Zoran Radmilović, Vladislav Maraš

Abstract— Previous research highlights some of the I. INTRODUCTION

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B. What objectives are prioritised in transport

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Electric vehicles integration in multi-business

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 Car Tracking & Localization

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private cars are not damaged/stolen during their

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200.000 railway id. card)

Zoran Radmilović, Dragan Čišić (eds.) - Shaping Climate Friendly Transport in Europe_ Key Findings & Future Directions, REACT 2011, Proceedings-University of Belgrade – The Faculty of Transport and Tr

Zoran Radmilović, Dragan Čišić (eds.) - Shaping Climate Friendly Transport in Europe_ Key Findings & Future Directions, REACT 2011, Proceedings-University of Belgrade – The Faculty of Transport and Tr