1.

State Kirchoff’s law

a) Current law - The sum of currents going towards a node is equal to the sum of
currents leaving the node or the total current entering a junction must equal the total
current leaving the junction.
After all, no charges can simply disappear or get created, so current can't disappear or
be created either. A junction is any place in a circuit where more than two paths come
together. The diagrams below represent several possible circuit junctions and show the
currents entering and leaving a junction. In this example you will notice that 11 Amps of
current enter the junction and 4 and 7 Amps leave the junction. This makes a total of 11
Amps entering and 11 Amps leaving
b) Voltage law - The sum of voltages in loop is equal to zero.

Kirchhoff's second law it says, around any loop in a circuit, the voltage rises must equal
the voltage drop.

Another way of thinking about this is to consider that whatever energy a charge starts
with in a circuit loop, it must end up losing all that energy by the time it gets to the
end. Or by the time a charge makes it to the end of a circuit, it must have given all its
energy to do work.
The diagrams below represent several possible circuits or loops within a circuit. This is
a simple circuit showing the potential differences across the source and the resistor. So
According to Kirchhoff's 2nd law the sum of the potential differences will be zero.
2. Define Bus way.

Bus way provides flexible power distribution solutions for a variety of applications. In the
old days, the power company sent electricity through electrical cable made of copper
wires. This was replaced by the much safer busway system. The electricity is sent
through a modular "track" style system which can be set up in a variety of ways.
The busway is insulated with a protective coating to prevent accidental electrocution
and placed inside a protective enclosure.
There are two kinds of busways. They are
1) Feeder busway, used to send electricity to a far-off place.
2) Plug-in busway. This uses a collection of outlets and could be considered a kind of
extension cord for an electrical system.
Once a busway connects your building to the electrical grid, bus plugs are installed to
control electrical distribution within the home or office. Bus plugs can be circuit
breakers, fuse boxes, or special-purpose bus plugs.
3. what is single phase and three phase supply, explain with figures.

Electricity is either connected at 230 or 240 volts called a single-phase, which accounts
for the majority of domestic appliances and 400 or 415 Volts called as three-phase.
The latter is better suited to providing for powerful appliances and fixed plant, and is
more commonly used by industrial and larger commercial users.

Single-phase comes to the home with two wires: active and neutral. The neutral wire is
connected to earth at the switchboard. Three-phase has four wires: three actives (called
phases) and one neutral. The neutral wire is earthed at the switchboard.
4. Draw the layout of a typical substation.

A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system.

Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several
other important functions. Between the generating station and consumer, electric power
may flow through several substations at different voltage levels.

The various components found in a substation include: instruments for measuring

current and voltage, for interrupting a line’s current, or arresters, which protect
transformers from a voltage spike caused by lightning; control devices, such as
disconnect switches and busbars, which are used to switch energy from one line to
another .Other instruments, such as reactors, capacitors and compensators, are also
used to control the voltage in substations.

5. Explain need for earthing.

Earthing is a safety device used to prevent a shock due to leakages arising from weak
insulation, breaking of the element or otherwise. Earthing in electricity is the process of
installing a protective earth wire into the surface of the earth to limit chances of an
electric shock occurring, in electrical objects with insulation faults.

Many electrical appliances, including cookers, washing machines and refrigerators,

have metal cases. The earth wire creates a safe route for the current to flow through, if
the live wire touches the casing.

An electric shock can happen if the live wire inside an appliance becomes loose and
touches the metal casing. However, the earth terminal is connected to the metal casing,
so that the current goes through the earth wire instead of causing an electric shock. A
strong current flows through the earth wire because it has a very low resistance. This
breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance.
6. What are distribution boards?

A distribution board may be used to distribute either single or three phase supplies
depending on the installation specifics. A distribution board is a panel or enclosure that
houses the fuses, circuit breakers, and ground leakage protection units used to
distribute electrical power to numerous individual circuits or consumer points.
The board typically has a single incoming power source and includes a main circuit
breaker and a residual current or earth leakage protection device. The distribution board
offers protection to users and equipment from electrical shock or fire resulting from
ground faults.

Distribution boards consist of a panel or enclosure supplied with a single incoming

electrical feed cable. The power is then split among several small circuit breakers or, in
the case of older boards, fuses which in turn feed power to different consumption points
or circuits. The core function of any distribution board is to allow individual circuits to
draw power from correctly rated circuit breakers and for those circuits to be isolated
without causing a disruption to the rest of the supply.
7. What are the types of wires used in residential buildings?

Each wire has its specific use to accommodate the load and conditions it is exposed to.
1. Triplex Wire

Triplex is an aerial cable to feed the power pole.

2. Main Feeder Wires
These wires are usually type THHN( thermo plastic High heat resistant ) wire and are
rated for 125% of the load required. These are usually black insulated wires.
3. Panel Feed Wires

These wires are also type THHN, like the main feeders. A typical 100-amp service
would have a #2 THHN set of wires. They would then be rated at 125 amps. This would
protect the wires if the amperage was a full 100 amps.

4. Non-Metallic Sheathed Wire (NM)

This wire, commonly called Romex, is a plastic coated wire that has either two or three
conductors and a bare ground wire. This is the typical wiring used in most homes. The
rating for this wire is either 15 amps, 20 amps, or 30 amps, depending on the
installation.
5. Single Strand Wire
Single strand wire is insulated and many of these can be pulled into the same pipe

8. Define Circuit breakers.

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an

electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to
detect a fault condition and interrupt current flow. Unlike a fuse which operates once
and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or
automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes,
from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear
designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.
9. Write a short note on series and parallel circuits.

A series circuit is a circuit where there is only one path from the source through all of
the loads and back to the source. This means that all of the current in the circuit must
flow through all of the loads.

One example of a series circuit is a string of old Christmas lights. There is only one path
for the current to flow. Opening or breaking a series circuit such as this at any point in
its path causes the entire circuit to "open" or stop operating. That's because the basic
requirement for the circuit to operate a continuous, closed loop path is no longer met.
This is the main disadvantage of a series circuit. If any one of the light bulbs or loads
burns out or is removed, the entire circuit stops operating.

A parallel circuit has more than one resistor (anything that uses electricity to do work)
and gets its name from having multiple (parallel) paths to move along . Charges can
move through any of several paths. If one of the items in the circuit is broken then no
charge will move through that path, but other paths will continue to have charges flow
through them. Parallel circuits are found in most household electrical wiring.

10. Outline features of outdoor lighting.

Outdoor lighting can not only highlight the architecture façade and landscape, it also
provides safety by deterring intruders and making paths navigable at night. The most
common types of outdoor lighting are
Outdoor Lighting Types
1) Ceiling Lights

Usually hung above a door or patio dining table, ceiling lights come in the form of
pendants which offer a dramatic look.

2)Wall Lights

Often used to illuminate architectural elements of a home, outdoor wall lights can be
found near doors and garages. Wall lights create a well-lit, welcoming atmosphere for
guests.

3) Landscape and Path Lighting

Path lighting illuminates walkways, stairs, and steps with lights that often resemble
small post lights. Landscape lighting showcases plants, trees, shrubs, and flowers.
Small spotlights and well lights are common for landscape lighting. Landscape lights
can also be used to highlight architectural features like columns. Most landscape and
path lights can be used in both capacities. Solar-powered options for an energy-
efficient option can also be used.

4) Flood Lights

Offering maximum safety and security, flood lights cast light across a wide area. Placing
flood lights about 9 feet high so that they can't be easily accessed. Mounting flood lights
up high also assures a wide field of light.
5) Post Lights

To make a aesthetic statement post lights are placed near a driveway entrance. Post
lights are also commonly found around pools, patios, and in backyards that are used for
entertaining.

6) Deck and Step Lights

Deck lights are used on decks or porches to illuminate steps, railings, or posts. Step
lights are also used on steps in gardens or on walls to cast light on walkways.
11. Explain utilization factor.

The term utilization factor in lighting refers to what percentage of the actual light
physically reaches the surface of the room. The utilization factor of a room can be
affected and changed by several different components of the room. It is important to
understand the utilization factor of lighting when lights are installed in a room, so that
the amount of light in the room could be known how much lighting one needs.
Room Size

• Utilization factor is affected by the size of the room. The larger the room, the
smaller the utilization factor for each light. Hence the brightness of each light
should be considered before the installing, to ensure there is adequate lighting

12. What are Escalators?

An escalator is a mechanized moving stairway, common in places with a lot of foot

traffic or where a conventional staircase would be very long and tiring to climb.
Escalators can often be seen in shopping malls, museums, multi-story parking garages,
and subway station. Escalators are often installed in pairs, with an up escalator and a
down escalator adjacent to each other, while a single escalator may be changed to go
up or down according to the direction of heavier traffic at different times of the day.

Most escalators also include a handrail that moves in with the stairs. To move from one
end of an escalator to the other, a person may simply stand on one step until one
reaches the end, or one may climb or descend the escalator like conventional stairs.
Many escalators in busy areas are wide enough to accommodate two columns of
people, and those who wish to stand conventionally remain on one side of the escalator.
13. Define Depreciation factor ( LLD)

The lumens (light output) of a lamp are reduced after many hours of burning. Lamp
Lumen Depreciation also takes into account the inevitable percentage of lamp failures
(burnt out light bulbs) or ballast failures that riddle an older space.

Lumen depreciation is the measure of the reduction in light output over a lamp’s
lifespan. Many factors can cause a drop in lumen production, including dust,
surrounding temperature, and a technology’s inability to handle lighting controls. The
best lighting technology will have the least amount of lumen depreciation over the
longest lifespan.
 14. Define MSCP and MHCP.

Mean Spherical Candle power(M.S.C.P): is measured at the design voltage and is

the total amount of light given off from a light source in all directions .
Mean horizontal Candle-power, M.H.C.P: The average value of the candle power of
a light source in all directions in a horizontal plane through the source .

15. State the advantages of MV and SV lamps.

A sodium-vapor lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses sodium in an excited state to

produce light. There are two varieties of such lamps: low pressure and high pressure.

A mercury-vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp that uses an electric arc through
vaporized mercury to produce light.
Mercury vapor lamps were the first high intensity discharge lamps to be commercially
available. Most models produce a bluish-white light. Mercury vapor lamps have been
used as outdoor lighting for streets and parking lots and have also been used as indoor
lighting in factories and gymnasiums. They are much more energy efficient than
incandescent lamps and have a much longer life.

16. Explain the usage of conveyors

A conveyer belt is a mechanism that is comprised of two or more pulleys on which a

loop of material rotates. In most cases, one of the pulleys is powered and it moves the
belt forward. When reaches the second pulley, it rotates causing a continuous circular
motion.

17. Derive equation for luminous intensity.

Luminous intensity is the ability to emit light into a given direction, or it is the luminous
flux that is radiated by the light source in a given direction within the unit of the spatial
angel. If the point light source emits Ø lumens into small spatial angel ß, the luminous
intensity is I=Ø/ß.
The unit of luminous intensity is candela.

18. What is coefficient of utilization?

A coefficient of utilization (CU) is a measure of the efficiency of a luminaire in
transferring luminous energy to the working plane in a particular area. The CU is the
ratio of luminous flux from a luminaire incident upon a work plane to that emitted by the
lamps within the luminaire.
As a ratio, the coefficient of utilization is unit less.
For example, some of the light emitted by a luminaire may exit away from the desired
plane and is therefore wasted. A CU measures the light actually reaching the desired
plane as a percentage of the total light produced by the fixture
Measure of the effectiveness of an electric (incandescent) lamp in delivering light.
Highly efficient lighting fixtures have CU values above 0.9, and the inefficient ones
generally fall between 0.2 and 0.4 CU.

19. What are the special features for physically disabled persons in elevators?
Alarm button, Door interlocks, Chain safety, Emergency switch, Sensors, Telephone
systems etc. Though all these are important for the security of the physically disabled
person but make sure it should be convenient to operate by the disabled person.

20. What is colour temperature?

Color Temperature is a measurement in Degrees Kelvin that indicates the hue of a

specific type of light source. Color Temperature suggests realistic colors for the lights
in a 3D scene. It is a term used to describe the color of a given light. For instance, heat
the metal to "red hot" and its temperature describes the red color. Heat it more and you
get "yellow hot," "white hot," eventually even "blue hot."

Color temperature is always measured in degrees Kelvin. The Kelvin scale is the
temperature scale normally used in physical sciences. it is like the more familiar
Fahrenheit or Celsius scales, except 0º on the Kelvin scale is Absolute Zero - the
temperature at which there is no heat energy left in an object.

21. What is colour rendering?

 Color rendering relates to the way objects appear under a given light source. The
measure is called the "color rendering index", or CRI. A low CRI indicates than
objects may appear unnatural under the source, while a light with a high CRI rating
will allow an object's colors to appear more natural. For lights with a "warm" color
temperature the reference point is an incandescent light. For lights with a cool color
temperature the reference is sunlight. The table below lists typical color rendering
index ratings for a variety of lights, including compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs.

CRI
22 high pressure sodium lighting street lighting
62 common 4 foot fluorescent tube office
80-85 compact fluorescent lighting (warm white) residential
85 premium 4 foot fluorescent tube retail
80-90 solid state LED lighting residential
95 incandescent light bulb residential

22. Explain luminous efficiency.

The luminous efficiency is defined by the ratio of the luminous flux emitted by a specific
source of light and the energy consumed by it in a time unit.

The unit: lumen/watt (lm/W)

Examples of luminous efficiency of various light sources:

• light bulb: 8-10 lm/W

• halogen lamp: 16 lm/W

• fluorescent lamp: 45-104 lm/W

• white LED: 26-100 lm/W

• metal halide lamp: 85-115 lm/W

• high pressure sodium lamp: 150 lm/W

• low pressure sodium lamp: 200 lm/W

23. What is Busbar?

In electrical power distribution, a busbar is a strip or bar of copper, brass or aluminum

that conducts electricity within a switchboard, distribution board, substation, battery
bank or other electrical apparatusor hollow tubes as these shapes allow heat to
dissipate more efficiently due to their high surface area to cross-sectional area ratio. .
Its main purpose is to conduct a substantial current of electricity.

The size of the busbar is important in determining the maximum amount of current
that can be safely carried. Bus bars can have a cross-sectional area of as little as 10
mm² but electrical substations may use metal tubes of 50 mm in diameter (1,000
mm²) or more as bus bars.
A busbar may either be supported on insulators, or else insulation may completely
surround it. Bus bars are protected from accidental contact either by a metal
enclosure or by elevation out of normal reach. Neutral busbars may also be insulated.
Earth bus bars are typically bolted directly onto any metal chassis of their enclosure.
Busbars may be enclosed in a metal housing, in the form of bus duct or busway,
segregated-phase bus, or isolated-phase bus. Busbars may be connected to each
other and to electrical apparatus by bolted or clamp connections. Often joints
between high-current bus sections have matching surfaces that are silver-plated to
reduce the contact resistance.
24. Explain 3 different methods of illumination.

White light can be generated in many different ways. Depending on the light
requirements, object size, installation dimensions etc., different lighting is used:
1) Halogen incandescent lamps
2) LED illumination
3) Fluorescent light (high frequency)
4) Metal halide light sources (as "cold light" sources with fiber optic transmission)
5) Xenon strobe lamps

LED lighting plays an important role in lighting for its durability, mechanical
robustness, ideal arrangement capability in almost any housing shapes are ideal for
machine vision purposes. Its light colour is not only white, but also red, green or blue,
infrared or even ultraviolet. This allows for applications which would not be possible
using other types of illumination.
25. What is luminous flux?

Luminous flux is the quantity of the energy of the light emitted per second in all
directions. It is a quantitative expression of the brilliance of a source of visible light,
which is electromagnetic energy within the wavelength range of approximately 390
nanometer s (nm) to 770 nm.
The unit of luminous flux is lumen (lm).
Reduced to base units in the International System of Units (SI), 1 lm is equivalent to 1
candela steradian (cd · sr).

One lumen is the luminous flux of the uniform point light source that has luminous
intensity of 1 candela and is contained in one unit of spatial angle (or 1 steradian).
Steradian is the spatial angle that limits the surface area of the sphere equal to the
square of the radius.

Example is shown in the figure for 1 m radius of the sphere. Since the area of sphere is
4pr² then the luminous flux of the point light source is 4p lumens.
26. What is Energy efficient lighting?

By installing new lighting technologies, one can reduce the amount of electricity
consumed and energy costs associated with lighting.
There are several types of energy efficient lighting and affordable lighting technology.
The following are a few examples of energy-saving opportunities with efficient lighting.
In comparison between CFLs in place of incandescent bulbs,
Compare the light output, or Lumens, and not the watts.
Watts refers to the amount of energy used, not the amount of light.
In other words, if the incandescent bulb to be replaced is 60 Watts, this is equal to 800
Lumens. And a CFL that provides 800 Lumens or more is equal to about a 13watt
Compact fluorescent lamp.

27. Short note on CFL

Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) are smaller versions of standard fluorescent lamps.
They consume much less energy but provide light that is comparable to incandescent
lights. Also, they can generally directly replace standard incandescent bulbs .CFLs
provide 75-80% energy savings. An incandescent wastes 90% of its energy generating
heat. In comparison to using 100-watt incandescent, one 27-watt* CFL can save
730,000 watts over its lifetime. A CFL also has a 10,000 hour life.
Over its lifetime, one single CFL bulb prevents 1 ton of carbon dioxide from heating the
atmosphere. It will also prevent the emission of 8-16 pounds of sulfur dioxide which
causes acid rain. CFLs also reduce nitrogen oxide emissions which contribute to
atmospheric ozone and can cause severe health hazards. A compact fluorescent light
bulb (CFL) is a fluorescent light bulb that has been compressed into the size of a
standard-issue incandescent light bulb.
 28. Why 4 wire systems is used in distribution system?

They are normally used to distribute domestic supplies since they can provide an
earthed neutral .The advantage of a 4 wire system is that when a fault occurs, there
is more flexibility to keep the system running since it may only affect one of the
phases.

29. What are different artificial light sources?

An artificial light sources any source of light that is manufactured by human beings.
Some examples could be candles, incandescent light bulbs, and fluorescent lamps.

30. Write a note on lighting for stores.

First of all measure the store’s lighting using a good light meter. In fact light levels in
the range of 75-150 fc* are recommended for maximum visibility. Maintaining light levels
is recommended.

A lower ambient lighting level coupled with accent lighting can create a “gallery” type
atmosphere. The very role of the ambient lighting is to set the mood and tone for the
room. Its main characteristic is that it has no visible source. Accent Lighting is lighting
that emphasizes an area of or an object in a room. This lighting adds to the drama or
style of a room by highlighting certain aspects of a room's decor.
* foot-candle, fc is a non-SI unit of illuminance or light intensity

31. A note on Energy conservation in lighting.

Good energy management can easily cut lighting energy by half. The reductions in
waste heat also decrease the need for air conditioning. Compact fluorescent lamps
are in preference to incandescent bulbs.

Fluorescent lamps are three (3) times more efficient and last ten (10) times longer.
Rooms can be light-zoned in non-reading and non-working areas reduced lighting
(25 watts – 40) watts can be used. Dimmer switches can save energy when used
with incandescent lighting fixtures. Use high-pressure sodium or metal halide lamps
for outdoor/external lighting · Turning off all lights when not in use is another way on
energy conservation .
 32. A short note on street lighting.

A Street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source
of light on the edge of a road or walkway, which is turned on or lit at a certain time every
night. Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells to turn them on at dusk,
off at dawn, or activate automatically in dark weather. In older lighting this function
would have been performed with the aid of a solar dial. It is not uncommon for street
lights to be on poles which have wires strung between them, or mounted on utility poles.

33. State the Cosine law of illumination.

Lambert's law: The law that the illumination of a surface by a light ray varies as the
cosine of the angle of incidence between the normal to the surface and the incident ray.
The law that the luminous intensity in a given direction radiated or reflected by a
perfectly diffusing plane surface varies as the cosine of the angle between that direction
and the normal to the surface.
34. Illustrate any 8 standard lighting and electrical symbols used in lighting plan.
35. What are the non-conventional sources of energy with a view on Energy
conservation?
Energy generated by using wind, tides, solar, geothermal heat, and biomass including
farm and animal waste as well as human excreta is known as non-conventional energy.
All these sources are renewable or inexhaustible and do not cause environmental
pollution. More over they do not require heavy expenditure.

1. Wind Energy:

Wind power is harnessed by setting up a windmill which is used for pumping water,
grinding grain and generating electricity. Areas with constantly high speed preferably
above 20 km per hour are well-suited for harnessing wind energy.

2. Tidal Energy:

Sea water keeps on rising and falling alternatively twice a day under the influence of
gravitational pull of moon and sun. This phenomenon is known as tides. It is estimated
that India possesses 8000-9000 MW of tidal energy potential.

3. Solar Energy:

Sun is the source of all energy on the earth. It is most abundant, inexhaustible and
universal source of energy. Solar energy is used for cooking, water heating, water
dissimilation, space heating, crop drying etc.

4. Geo-Thermal Energy:
Geo-thermal energy is the heat of the earth's interior. This energy is manifested in the
hot springs. India is not very rich in this source,

5. Energy from Biomass:

Biomass refers to all plant material and animal excreta when considered as an energy
source. Some important kinds of biomass are inferior wood, urban waste, biogases,
farm animal and human waste.

36. What is subtractive colour?

A subtractive color model explains the mixing of a limited set of dyes, inks, paint
pigments or natural colorants to create a wider range of colors, each the result of
partially or completely subtracting (that is, absorbing) some wavelengths of light and not
others. The color that a surface displays depends on which parts of the visible spectrum
are not absorbed and therefore remain visible.

Subtractive color systems start with light, presumably white light. Colored inks, paints,
or filters between the viewer and the light source or reflective surface subtract
wavelengths from the light, giving it color. If the incident light is other than white, the
visual mechanisms are able to compensate well, but not perfectly, often giving a flawed
impression of the "true" color of the surface.

37. What is meant by capsule lift?

Capsule Elevators act as Architectural highlights on prestigious buildings. They can be
called the ornaments of a building as they enhance its beauty and bring life into it. Their
design, features and infinite options add its optimum travel comfort. They have
aesthetically attractive interiors with large glass viewing panel.

The design provides an extremely silent operation. It is also reliable and economical
with minimum maintenance. The VVVF(Variable Voltage Variable Frequency)
close loop microprocessor controller incorporated with the system makes the whole
operation very sophisticated. The range of lifts is from 8 persons to 40 persons for a
three-sided glass capsule. 5 sided glass capsule is available for a minimum lift size of
13 persons.
38. Write a note on discomfort Glare.

Glare is a visual sensation caused by excessive and uncontrolled brightness. It can be

disabling or simply uncomfortable. It is subjective, and sensitivity to glare can vary
widely. Older people are usually more sensitive to glare due to the aging characteristics
of the eye.

Discomfort glare is the reduction in visibility caused by intense light sources in the field
of view, while discomfort glare is the sensation of annoyance or even pain induced by
overly bright sources. Compare the glare from the streetlight shown in to the glare from
the luminaries. Reducing glare is an effective way to improve the lighting.
39. Write the uses of PABX.

A private automatic branch exchange (PABX) is an automatic telephone switching

system within a private enterprise. Originally, such systems - called private branch
exchanges (PBX) - required the use of a live operator. Since almost all private branch
exchanges today are automatic, the abbreviation "PBX" usually implies a "PABX."

• PABX(Private Automatic Branch Exchange) system is an automated version of

the traditional phone system. It works in a similar fashion, without the
interference of a live human voice or manual intervention.
• PABX system emerged from the need to eliminate the traditional way of
communication via the traditional phone system that required a live person to
answer and route calls to the appropriate extensions.
• PABX system serves three roles - establish connections between users,
monitoring calls and ability to transfer calls including integration to other devices
like fax machine.
• PABX system is capable of direct inward dialing (DID) and programmable speed
dialing. Voice mail, call forwarding, call distribution, automatic ring backs, call
hold music and night services are additional features.
40. Explain Semi direct lighting.

Semi-Direct is 60 to 90 percent of the light is directed downward with the remainder

directed upward. eg a desk lamp

Lighting Systems: These are:

(i) Direct lighting is thrown towards the ceiling where it is diverted to the room through
diffuse reflection. This lighting suitable for drawing offices, workshops. Illumination
will be depressive to the eye.
(ii) Semi direct lighting 50% of the light is sent from the source direct the reading
plane and 30% is send upward.
(iii) Semi indirect lighting 40% light is sent upward and 40% is sent directly on the
surface.
41. Explain Travelator.

A moving walkway is a slow conveyor belt that transports people horizontally or on an

incline in a similar manner to an escalator. These are slow conveyor belts that move
people horizontally or up slight inclines. Escalators usually take us to different level of
stairs. For Ex: 1st floor to 2nd floor or vice versa. But travelator is used for same level or
little inclined. Mainly used for little longer distance than where escalator is used. For Ex:
One building to another, in airports. Travelators can be called a moving sidewalk,
moving pavement, walkalator, travelator, or moveator.
42. Note on automated surveillance system in an industry.

An appliance that enables to capture images and allows videos or extract information
to be compressed, stored or transmitted over communication networks or digital data
link. Digital video surveillance systems are used for any type of monitoring. It is a
system that is used to reduce the need for human work in the production of goods and
services.. They help to increase productivity and the quality of the goods produced.
43. Define incandescence.

Incandescence is the emission of light (visible electromagnetic radiation) from a hot

body as a result of its temperature. The term derives from the Latin verb incandesce, to
glow white. Incandescence is a special case of thermal radiation. Incandescence
usually refers specifically to visible light, while thermal radiation refers also to infrared or
any other electromagnetic radiation.
44. What is vertical illumination, give examples?

Very important part of room lighting is the vertical illumination, reflecting the habit of an
eye to react to sunshine and daylight coming from above. With correct vertical lighting a
person feels safer and fares better at recognition of shapes and faces. The diffused light
reflected from the walls adds to this feeling. The usual standards do not take soft
diffused and reflected light into account.

Horizontal illumination is not perceived as strongly by a human eye and therefore is

much less important to human well-being.

The vertical spaces have to be lighted sufficiently enough to make the occupant feel
comfortable. For the correct light to be used when working it is important for walls to be
of white colour, otherwise the reflected light would take on different properties than
normal light.
45. What is emergency call system?
Automatic Emergency Call (eCall) is a system giving an automatic message to an
emergency call centre in case of a crash of the vehicle.

The eCall system installed in the vehicle can overcomes these problems by sending an
automatic message containing the location of the vehicle on the basis of an in-built GPS
location device. The message will go to the 'Public Safety Answering Point' (fire brigade,
police or ambulance call centre), where a decision is made on the appropriate response
to the alert. This process saves valuable time
 46. A Brief note on Telecom systems / Explain the significance of Telecom
systems in Building automation.

A telecommunications system is any system for communicating at a distance. Radio

broadcasts are not considered to be telecommunication because it is strictly one-way;
telecommunications systems are two way.
Telephone systems have to make a physical connection between the telephone and the
telephone of the person needed to communicate with. This meant that there are lots of
(mechanical) switches needed and lots of cables; any single phone call would take up
two wires (one each way) at a minimum.
Modern IT based telecommunications systems can transport a lot more information by
using a variety of techniques, such as data compression and packet switching. Because
the switches are electronic rather than mechanical they cause less interference, they
operate a lot faster and hardly wear out.

47. Mention a few Building automation systems.

Building Automation Systems (BAS) are centralized, interlinked, networks of hardware

and software, which monitor and control the environment in commercial, industrial, and
institutional facilities. While managing various building systems, the automation system
ensures the operational performance of the facility as well as the comfort and safety of
building occupants.

Typically, such control systems are installed in new buildings or as part of a renovation
where they replace an outdated control system.

Generally, building automation begins with control of mechanical, electrical, and

plumbing (MEP) systems. For instance, the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) system is almost always controlled, including control of its various pieces of
equipment such as:

• Chillers

• Boilers

• Air Handling Units (AHUs)

• Roof-top Units (RTUs)

• Fan Coil Units (FCUs)

• Heat Pump Units (HPUs)

• Variable Air Volume boxes (VAVs)

Other systems that are often controlled and/or brought under a complete automation
system include:

• Power monitoring

• Security

• Close circuit video (CCTV)

• Card and keypad access

• Fire alarm system

• Elevators/escalators

• Plumbing and water monitoring

 48. What is classification of lighting?

• Incandescent:

• Incandescent is warm color lighting that does not require a ballast. It is instantly
on and although light bulbs are inexpensive, constant replacement and high
electricity use make them an expensive lighting source. Incandescent lights give
off significant amounts of heat as well. The halogen bulb has a tungsten filament,
providing incandescent lighting in a different manner.

2. Fluorescent

Fluorescent lighting uses ballast (control the voltage) and mercury perform the lighting
function efficiently. Recent changes to the straight fluorescent bulb brought the compact
fluorescent light .These bulbs are energy-efficient and although they contain mercury

3. LED

Light-Emitting Diode or LED lighting uses 75 percent less energy and lasts 25 times
longer than incandescent lighting. LEDs are solid-state lighting (SSL) that decrease
lighting electricity demands by 33 percent

4. High Intensity Discharge

Used in stadiums and automobile headlights, sales rooms and focused decorator
lighting, the high-intensity discharge lights use sodium, mercury and metal halide.
These lights contain significant quantities of mercury and some lead in the base, but
recommends that they can be disposed of as universal waste, like fluorescent lighting.
They do not require dangerous waste disposal. Energy Savers include metal halide,
high sodium and mercury vapor lighting in the high intensity discharge group. The color
rendition is high quality, but the life is shorter than the mercury vapor or high-pressure
sodium lighting.

5. Outdoor Solar

Outdoor solar lighting collects sunlight in solar cells and converts it to electricity.
These lights produce free electricity in areas where sunlight is available. Foliage and
 obstructions may keep the solar lighting from performing well and shorten the life of
the battery.

49. Write a short note on Transformer and switchgear in a substation.

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy between two circuits through
electromagnetic induction. A transformer may be used as a safe and efficient voltage
converter to change the AC voltage at its input to a higher or lower voltage at its output
without changing the frequency. Other uses include current conversion, isolation with or
without changing voltage and impedance conversion.

A transformer most commonly consists of two windings of wire that are wound around a
common core to provide tight electromagnetic coupling between the windings. The core
material is often a laminated iron core. The coil that receives the electrical input energy
is referred to as the primary winding; the output coil is the secondary winding. An
alternating electric current flowing through the primary winding (coil) of a transformer
generates a varying electromagnetic field in its surroundings which induces a varying
magnetic flux in the core of the transformer. The varying electromagnetic field in the
vicinity of the secondary winding induces an electromotive force in the secondary
winding, which appears as a voltage across the output terminals. If a load is connected
across the secondary winding, a current flows through the secondary winding drawing
power from the primary winding and its power source.In an electric power system a
switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnect switches, fuses or circuit
breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. Switchgears are used
both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream.
This type of equipment is directly linked to the reliability of the electricity supply.

This helps to minimize any disruption to the continuity of service when a section is not
functional, during a fault or maintenance period.

50. What is spectral energy distribution?

A spectral energy distribution (SED) is a plot of brightness or flux density versus
frequency or wavelength of light
51. What is power factor and how to improve same?

Power factor is the ratio between the KW (Kilo-Watts) and the KVA (Kilo-Volt Amperes)
drawn by an electrical load where the KW is the actual load power and the KVA is the
apparent load power.
It is a measure of how effectively the current is being converted into useful work output
and more particularly is a good indicator of the effect of the load current on the
efficiency of the supply system.

All current flow will causes losses in the supply and distribution system. A load with a
power factor of 1.0 result in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load with a
power factor of 0.5 will result in much higher losses in the supply system.

A poor power factor can be the result of either a significant phase difference between
the voltage and current at the load terminals, or it can be due to a high harmonic
content or distorted/discontinuous current waveform. Poor load current phase angle is
generally the result of an inductive load such as an induction motor, power transformer,
lighting ballasts, welder or induction furnace.
A distorted current waveform can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed drive,
switched mode power supply, discharge lighting or other electronic load.

A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be improved by the addition of
power factor correction, but, a poor power factor due to a distorted current waveform
requires an change in equipment design or expensive harmonic filters to gain an
appreciable improvement.

52. What is double earthing?

Two separate earth connections. If one fails, the other is intact, so the operator is safe.

53. What is short circuit and discuss its effects.

A short circuit is simply a low resistance connection between the two conductors
supplying electrical power to any circuit. This results in excessive current flow in the
power source through the 'short,' and may even cause the power source to be
destroyed.
If a fuse is in the supply circuit, it will do its job and blow out, opening the circuit and
stopping the current flow. A short circuit may be in a direct- or alternating-current (DC or
AC) circuit. If it is a battery that is shorted, the battery will be discharged very quickly
and will heat up due to the high current flow.
Short circuits can produce very high temperatures due to the high power dissipation in
the circuit. If a charged, high-voltage capacitor is short circuited by a thin wire, the
resulting huge current and power dissipation will cause the wire to actually explode.

54. What are the types of Earthing?

The basic idea of a safety from electrical disaster is the same everywhere. The case of
the equipment is connected to an earth pin on the mains outlet. This is then connected
through the house wiring and switchboard to an electrically solid earth point, which is
called EARTHING

There are various ways of doing EARTHING:

• Conventional EARTHING
* Pipe Earthing,
* GI Plat Earthing,
* Cast Iron plat Earthing,
* Copper plat Earthing
• Maintenance Free EARTHING
Conventional Earthing:
The Conventional system of Earthing calls for digging of a large pit into which a GI pipe
or a copper plate is positioned amidst layers of charcoal and salt. The Conventional
system of GI pipe Earthing or copper plate Earthing requires maintenance and pouring
of water at regular interval.

Advantages of Free earthing:

1. Maintenance Free: No need to pour water at regular interval- except in sandy soil.
2. Consistency: Maintain stable and consistent earth resistance around the year.
3. More Surface Area: The conductive compound creates a conductive zone, which
provides the increased surface area for peak current dissipation. And also get stable
reference point.
4. Low earth resistance. Highly conductive. Carries high peak current repeatedly.
5. No corrosion. Eco Friendly.
6. Long Life.
7. Easy Installation.
55. Visual Task—define and explain.

Task lighting is lighting which is focused on a specific area to make the completion of
visual tasks easier. It is differentiated from area and mood lighting, which are designed
simply to illuminate various regions of a space, sometimes creating specific desired
effects.

Visual tasks are easier to perform when the work area is well lit. Task lighting also
eases eye strain when it is installed with care, which can make the work environment
more pleasant. In industries where eye strain is a major issue, like computing,
appropriate lighting can also keep workers healthy and happy.

In kitchens, task lighting ensures that work spaces are well illuminated so that people
can clearly see what they are doing, allowing people to read recipes while they cook, for
example, or ensuring that people clean their counters properly.

In places like living and dining rooms, it is often situated over tables and chairs to make
it easier for people to see each other or to read. In the workplace, this type of lighting
helps reduce eye strain from computers and from focusing on work which can range
from sewing to welding cars together

56. What are the various measurements of illumination?

Illumination is that which produces no strain on the eye.

Light - Radiant energy which produce a sensation upon the human eye.
1) Luminous Flux (Flux of Light): Light energy radiated/send from a luminous body.
Unit - Luman
2) Light intensity is measured in units called footcandles. Fc
3) Ten footcandles (10 fc) equals the amount of light that ten candles throw on a surface
one foot away. In the metric system, the standard unit of illumination is the lux (lx). One
lux is equal to 0.093 fc. To convert footcandles to lux, multiply by 10.764
57. Explain the function of Diesel Generator.

An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy obtained from an

external source into electrical energy as the output. A generator does not actually
‘create’ electrical energy. Instead, it uses the mechanical energy supplied to it to force
the movement of electric charges present in the wire of its windings through an external
electric circuit. This flow of electric charges constitutes the output electric current
supplied by the generator.
This mechanism can be understood by considering the generator to be analogous to a
water pump, which causes the flow of water but does not actually ‘create’ the water
flowing through it.