●GEOLOGY

-Is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the pr
ocesses by which they change over time.

-Geology describes the structure of the Earth on and beneath its surface, and the processes that
have shaped that structure.

-Geology provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and t
he Earth's past climates.

●BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

Geology is divided into following sub fields:

GEOLOGY – The study of physical features and the processes that act on their development.

CHRONOLOGY: Studying layers of rock as it relates to geologic time

TECTONICS: Applying the principles of plate tectonics to geology

NATURAL RESOURCES: Examining rocks, terrain and material as natural resources

SEDIMENTOLOGY: Understanding erosion, movement and deposition of sediments

TOPOGRAPHY: Mapping terrain and processes that act on it

ASTROGEOLOGY: Classifying rocks and land forms outside Earth

•Branches focused on time

STRATIGRAPHY – How layering of rocks and strata are analyzed to measure geologic time.

PALEONTOLOGY – How organisms evolve and their interactions in their environment by studying
fossil records often found in rocks.

MICROPALEONTOLOGY – How microfossils are characterized.

PALEOMAGNETISM – How to reconstruct previous magnetic fields in rocks including the direction
and intensity to explore pole reversals in different time periods (past and future).

GEOMORPHOLOGY – How landforms, physical features and geological structures on Earth were c
reated and evolved.
PALEOSEISMOLOGY – How geologic sediments and rocks are used to infer past earthquakes.

MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY – How sedimentary and volcanic sequences are dated by geophysically

correlating samples of strata deposited with the Earth’s magnetic field polarity.

GEOCHRONOLOGY – How old rocks and geological events are dated using signatures inherent i
n rocks.

•Branches focused on moving plates or tectonics

TECTONICS – How Earth’s crustevolves through time contributing to mountain building, old core
continents (cratons) and earthquakes/volcanoes.

VOLCANOLOGY – How volcanoes erupt, the anatomy of a volcano and related phenomena (lava,
magma) erupt and form (past and present).

SEISMOLOGY – How seismic waves travel through and around the Earth from earthquakes.

NEOTECTONICS – How Earth’s crust deforms and has moved in recent and current time.

TECTONOPHYSICS – How Earth’s crust and mantle deforms specific to its physical processes.

SEISMOTECTONICS – How earthquakes, active tectonics andindividual faults are related to seismic
activity.

•Branches focused on Natural Resources

PETROLOGY – How types of rocks (igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology) form in th
eir specific environment.

MINERALOGY – How chemical and crystalline structures in minerals are composed.

GEMOLOGY – How natural and artificial gems are identified and evaluated.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY – How atoms are arranged and bonded in crystalline solids.

SOIL SCIENCES – How soils relate as a natural resource including theirformation factors, classifica
tion, physical, chemical and fertility properties.

PEDOLOGY – How soils are classified based on their biological, physical and chemical properties.

EDAPHOLOGY – How soils influenceplant growth and living things.

AGRONOMY/AGROLOGY – How the field of agriculture involves science such as crop production,
biotechnology and soil science.

HYDROGEOLOGY – How groundwateris transported and is distributed in the soil, rock and Earth’s
crust.

POMOLOGY – How fruits grow and are cultivated.

•Branches focused on sediments deposit

SEDIMENTOLOGY – How sand, silt and clay are deposited and the processes that act on it.

SURFICIAL GEOLOGY – How surface sediment (till, gravel, sand, clay, etc) overlying bedrock was
formed such as during glacial retreat or in lakes associated in these periods.

GLACIOLOGY – How ice and glacial deposits have reconstructed landforms as well as how existin
g (polar) glaciers behave and are distributed.

GEOPHYSICS – How physical processes and properties relate to Earth and its surrounding space.

BEDROCK GEOLOGY – How the intact, solid rock beneath surficial sediments formed including ag
e (stratigraphic sequences), morphology and rock properties (folds, faults, fractures).

LITHOLOGY – How rocks are classified based on their physical and chemical properties.

•Branches focused on land forms

OROGRAPHY – How topographic relief in mountains are distributed in nature.

TOPOGRAPHY – How physical features (natural and artificial) are arranged on the landscape.

HYPSOMETRY – How height and depth of physical features are measured land from mean sea l
evel.

•Branches focused on outside of the Earth

ASTROGEOLOGY – How geology relates to celestial bodies like moons,asteroids, meteorites and co
mets.

AREOLOGY – How geology is composed on Mars.

SELENOGRAPHY – How physical features on the moon formed such aslunar maria, craters and
mountain ranges.

EXOGEOLOGY – How geology relates to celestial bodies like moons, asteroids, meteorites and co
mets.

●ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

-Engineering geology is the application of the geologyto engineering study for the purpose of ass
uring that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation and main
tenance of engineering works are recognized and accounted for.Engineering geologists provide g
eological and geotechnical recommendations, analysis, and design associated with human develo
pment and various types of structures.

•Development of Engineering Geology

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•Relevance/Importance of Geology to Civil Engineering

Most civil engineering projects involve some excavation of soils and rocks, or involve loading th
e Earth by building on it. In some cases, the excavated rocks may be used as constructional ma
terial, and in others, rocks may form a major part of the finished product, such as a motorway
cutting or the site f or a reservoir. The feasibility, the planning and design, the construction and
 costing, and the safety of a project may depend critically on the geological conditions where t
he construction will take place.

●EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

-The internal structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells: an outer silicate solid crust, a hig
hlyviscous asthenosphere and mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantl
e, and a solid inner core. The mass of Earth is about 6×10^24 kg.

-The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as rheology,
or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle
,outer core, and the inner core. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lo
wer mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth are at the follo
wing depths below the surface:

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●EARTH ENVELOPES

□Gaseous Envelope/Atmosphere

-Earth's atmlsphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth and retained by the Earth's
gravity. The current molecular composition of Earth’s atmosphere is diatomic nitrogen (N2), 78.08
percent; diatomic oxygen (O2), 20.95 percent;argon (A), 0.93 percent; water (H20), about 0 to 4 pe
rcent; and carbon dioxide (CO2), 0.04 percent. Inert gases such as neon (Ne), helium(He), and kryp
ton (Kr) and other constituentssuch as nitrogen oxides, compounds of sulfur, and compounds of o
zone are found in lesser amounts.

-In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temper
ature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even i
ncrease with altitude in some regions. Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric str
atification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, the atmosphere has four primary layer
s, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. From highest to low
est, the five main layers are:

•Exosphere - 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)

The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the exobase, which
is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to a
bout 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it merges into the solar wind.

•Thermosphere- 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)

The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesop
ause at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to thethermopause at an altitude rang
e of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–3,300,000 ft).The lower part of the thermosphere, from
80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth's surface, contains theionosphere.

•Mesosphere-50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)

The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above th
e stratosphere and below the thermosphere. Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to them
esopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on E
arth and has an average temperature around − 85 °C (− 120 °F; 190 K).

•Stratosphere-12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles)

The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere
and is separated from it by the tropopause. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Ear
th's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas.

•Troposphere-0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles)

The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere.

□Hydrosphere

-The hydrosphere is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a pl
anet, minor planet or natural satellite. Although Earth's hydrosphere has been around for longer t
han 4 billion years, it continues to change in size. This is caused by seafloor spreading andcontin
ental drift, which rearranges the land and ocean. It has been estimated that there are 1,386 milli
on cubic kilometres (333,000,000 cubic miles) of water on Earth. The total mass of Earth's hydros
phere is about 1.4 × 10^18 tonnes, which is about 0.023% of Earth's total mass.

□Biosphere

- is the global ecological system integrating allliving beings and their relationships, including their
interaction with the elements of thelithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, andatmosphere. The bios
phere is postulated to have evolved, beginning with a process ofbiopoiesis (life created naturally
from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds) or biogenesis (life created from living
matter), at least some 3.5 billion years ago. The biosphere is a system characterized by the co
ntinuous cycling of matter and an accompanying flow of solar energy in which certain large mol
ecules and cells are self-reproducing.

□Lithosphere

-is the rigid, outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet, or natural satellite, that is defined by its
rigid mechanical properties. On Earth, it is composed of the crust and the portion of theupper m
antle that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or greater.

●SOLID EARTH ENVELOPES

Solid earth refers to "the earth beneath our feet" orterra firma, the planet's solid surface and its i
nterior.It contrasts with the Earth's fluid envelopes, the atmosphere and hydrosphere (but includes
the ocean basin), as well as the biosphereand interactions with the Sun. It includes the liquid core.
•Earth Crust

-The Earth's crust is the Earth's hard outer layer. It is less than 1% of Earth's volume. The crust is
made up of different types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.

-The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins (5–10 km) and are compos
ed of dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks, likebasalt. The thicker crust is continen
tal crust, which is less dense and composed of (felsic) sodiumpotassium aluminium silicate rocks, li
ke granite.

-Igneous rocks make up over 90% of Earth's crust by volume. This is not noticeable because the
y are mostly covered by sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

•Earth Mantle

-mantle is a layer inside a planetary body bounded below by a core and above by a crust. Mantle
s are made of rock or ices, and are generally the largest and most massive layer of the planetar
y body.

-Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of Earth. The Earth's
mantle is a layer of silicate rock between the crust and the outer core. Its mass of 4.01 × 1024kg is
67% the mass of the Earth. It has a thickness of 2,900 kilometres (1,800 mi)making up about 84
% of Earth's volume. The mantle is divided into upper and lower mantle,which are separated by
the transition zone. The lowest part of the mantle next to the core-mantle boundary is known as
the D" layer.

•Earth Core

The Earth's core is the part of Earth in the middle of our planet. It has a solid inner core and a li
quid outer core. The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 °C in the outer regions t
o 6100 °C near the inner core.
-The outer core of the Earth is a liquid layer about 2,260 kilometers thick. It is mad e of iron an
d nickel. This is above the Earth's solid inner core and below the mantle. Its outer boundary is 2,
890 km (1,800 mi) beneath the Earth's surface.

-The inner core of the Earth, as detected byseismology, is a solid sphere about 1,216 km (760 mi) i
n radius, or about 70% that of the Moon. It is believed to be an iron–nickel alloy, and may have
a temperature similar to the Sun's surface, about 5778 K (5505 °C).

●ROCK CYCLE (GEOLOGIC CYCLE)

The rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that describes transitions through geologic time amon
g the three main rock types: sedimentary,metamorphic, and igneous. Each rock type is altered wh
en it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions.

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□Transition to igneous rock

When rocks are pushed deep under the Earth's surface, they may melt into magma. If the condit
ions no longer exist for the magma to stay in its liquid state, it cools and solidifies into an igne
ous rock. A rock that cools within the Earth is called intrusive or plutonic and cools very slowly,
producing a coarse-grained texture such as the rock granite. As a result of volcanic activity, mag
ma (which is called lava when it reaches Earth's surface) may cool very rapidly while being on t
he Earth's surface exposed to theatmosphere and are called extrusive or volcanic rocks. Any of t
he three main types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks) can melt into mag
ma and cool into igneous rocks.

---Secondary changes

Epigenetic change (secondary processes occurring at low temperatures and low pressures) may b
e arranged under a number of headings, each of which is typical of a group of rocks or rock -f
ormingminerals, though usually more than one of these alterations is in progress in the same ro
ck.Silicification, the replacement of the minerals by crystalline or crypto-crystalline silica, is most c
ommon in felsic rocks, such as rhyolite, but is also found in serpentine, etc. Kaolinization is the de
composition of the feldspars, which are the most common minerals in igneous rocks, into kaolin (
along with quartz and other clay minerals); it is best shown by granites and syenites. Serpentinizati
on is the alteration of olivine to serpentine (with magnetite); it is typical of peridotites, but occurs i
n most of themafic rocks. In uralitization, secondary hornblendereplaces augite; chloritization is the
alteration of augite (biotite or hornblende) to chlorite, and is seen in many diabases, diorites an
d greenstones.Epidotization occurs also in rocks of this group, and consists in the development o
f epidote from biotite, hornblende, augite or plagioclase feldspar.

□Transition to metamorphic rock

Rocks exposed to high temperatures and pressures can be changed physically or chemically to f
orm a different rock, called metamorphic. Regional metamorphism refers to the effects on large
masses of rocks over a wide area, typically associated with mountain building events within orog
enic belts. These rocks commonly exhibit distinct bands of differing mineralogy and colors, calle
d foliation. Another main type of metamorphism is caused when a body of rock comes into con
tact with an igneous intrusion that heats up this surrounding country rock. This contact metamor
phism results in a rock that is altered and re-crystallized by the extreme heat of the magma an
d/or by the addition of fluids from the magma that add chemicals to the surrounding rock (met
asomatism). Any pre-existing type of rock can be modified by the processes of metamorphism.

□Transition to sedimentary rock

Rocks exposed to the atmosphere are variably unstable and subject to the processes of weatherin
gand erosion. Weathering and erosion break the original rock down into smaller fragments and
carry away dissolved material. This fragmented material accumulates and is buried by additional
material. While an individual grain of sand is still a member of the class of rock it was formed
from, a rock made up of such grains fused together is sedimentary. Sedimentary rocks can be f
ormed from thelithification of these buried smaller fragments (clasticsedimentary rock), the accum
ulation and lithification of material generated by living organisms (biogenicsedimentary rock - fossi
ls), or lithification of chemically precipitated material from a mineral bearing solution due to evap
oration (precipitatesedimentary rock). Clastic rocks can be formed from fragments broken apart fr
om larger rocks of any type, due to processes such as erosion or from organic material, like pla
nt remains. Biogenic and precipitate rocks form from the deposition of minerals from chemicals
dissolved from all other rock types.
●TYPES OF ROCK

A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is ca
tegorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition and the way in which it is formed.
Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and sedimen
tary rocks. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust.

•Igneous rock

-is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma orlava. This magma may be derived fr
om partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle orcrust.

-Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories:

Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust.
A common example of this type is granite.

Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or fragmental ej
ecta, forming minerals such as pumice or basalt.

-About 64.7% of the Earth's crust by volume consists of igneous rocks, making it the most plent
iful category. These have diverse properties, depending on their composition and the temperatur
e and pressure conditions in which they were formed.

•Sedimentary rock

-Sedimentary rocks are formed at the earth's surface by the accumulation and cementation of fr
agments of earlier rocks, minerals, and organisms or as chemical precipitates and organic growt
hs in water (sedimentation). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary roc
ks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consists of limestone (6%), sandstone a
nd arkoses (12%).Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks form under the influen
ce of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata and may
be referred to as stratified rocks.

•Metamorphic rock
-are formed by subjecting any rock type—sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older meta
morphic rock—to different temperatureand pressure conditions than those in which the original ro
ck was formed. Metamorphic rocks compose 27.4% of the crust by volume. The three major clas
ses of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation mechanism. An intrusion of magma that
heats the surrounding rock causes contact metamorphism—a temperature-dominated transforma
tion. Pressure metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried deep under the ground; pressur
e is dominant, and temperature plays a smaller role. This is termed burial metamorphism, and it
can result in rocks such as jade. Where both heat and pressure play a role, the mechanism is t
ermed regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-building regions. Depending o
n the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general categories. Those that possess
a texture are referred to as foliated; the remainders are termed non-foliated.