Chapter 5 Equations of Continuum Mechanics 57

c) Axisymmetric problems:
In an axisymmetric problem, geometric (and loading) conditions have axial
symmetry and are identical in any cross-section containing the axis of
symmetry. In Geotechnical Engineering, typical examples are: single piles;
single circular flat footings and caisson foundations; boreholes and vertical
shaft excavations.

5.2 Example of a boundary value problem formulation

As an example we consider a 2D plane strain problem of surface subsidence
above a rectangular cut-and-cover tunnel in rock (Figure 5.1a). The trench
above the tunnel (with the depth H and width 2B) has been filled with the
backfill. The backfill (with the unit weight J ) settles over time under its own
weight. The following simplifying assumptions will help us to obtain
analytical solution for the surface subsidence of the backfill (Figure 5.1b):
- the backfill material is isotropic linear elastic (with Young’s modulus
E and Poisson’s ratio Q )
- the shear stress Wr along the sides of the trench is uniform;
- the tunnel roof provides uniform vertical support p.

z z
H
J
rock u
w J
H B B W r W r

0 x -B 0 B x
p

(a) (b)
Figure 5.1: Cut-and-cover tunnel in rock: a) schematic layout; b) forces
acting on the backfill

5.2.1 Equilibrium
The stress tensor in this problem has 3 independent components
V x , V z and W xz W zx , related by the following equilibrium equations:
wV x wW xz wV z wW xz
 0  J (5.5)
wx wz wz wx
where  J is the body force (gravity).
58 Part I: Introduction to Continuum Mechanics

5.2.2 Compatibility
The strain tensor in this problem also has 3 independent components
1 1
H x , H z and J xz J zx , related to the two displacement components
2 2
u and v by the following compatibility equations:
wu ww wu ww
Hx Hz J xz  (5.6)
wx wz wz wx
Alternatively, it is possible to eliminate the displacements and replace 3
equations (5.6) by one compatibility equation:

w 2 J xz w 2H x w 2H z
 (5.7)
wxwz wz 2 wx 2

5.2.3 Numbers of variables and equations

Within a two-dimensional continuum a solution is required for 8 variables (3
stresses components: V x , V z , W xz ; 3 strain components: H x , H z , J xz ; and 2
displacements: u, w ). The equilibrium equations (5.5) provide 2 equations
which involve only the stresses, and the strain definitions (5.6) provide 3
equations which involve the strains and displacements. For a solution to the
problem we are thus missing 3 equations, and this is where the constitutive
relations come in.

5.2.4 Constitutive equations

Because we defined the properties of the half-space as linear-elastic, the
constitutive relations in this problem are given by the well-known Hooke’s
Law (see Chapter 10):
­Vx ½ ­ Hx ½ ª M Ko M 0º
° ° ° ° «K M
®Vz ¾ D® H z ¾ D « 0 M 0 »» (5.8)
°W ° °J ° «¬ 0 G »¼
¯ xz ¿ ¯ xz ¿ 0

where D is the stiffness matrix. The parameters M, K 0 and G are alternative

elastic constants, which can be expressed via the elastic Young’s modulus E
and Poisson’s ratio Q (Chapter 10):
E 1  Q 
M (5.9)
1  Q 1  2Q 
Q
K0 (5.10)
1 Q
Chapter 5 Equations of Continuum Mechanics 59

E
G (5.11)
21  Q 

5.2.5 Initial and boundary conditions

Initial values of the stresses, displacements and strains are zero. These zero
values obey both the equilibrium (5.5) and the compatibility (5.6) equations.
Three types of the boundary conditions are imposed:
a) Kinematic boundary conditions:
Assuming that rock is rigid and that vertical tunnel walls do not deform,
neither horizontal nor vertical displacements are allowed at the two
points, where a vertical tunnel wall meets the backfill:
u  B, 0  u B, 0  0 w B, 0  wB, 0  0 (5.12)
b) Static boundary conditions:
Stress free backfill surface:
V z  x, H  W xz  x, H  0 (5.13)
Tunnel roof is frictionless and provides a uniform support p :
V z  x, 0  p W xz  x, 0 0 (5.14)
c) Mixed boundary conditions:
Assuming that rock is rigid, no horizontal displacement on the rock-
backfill interface is allowed:
u  B, z  u B, z  0 (5.15)
while the mobilized shear resistance on this interface is W r :
W xz B, z  Wr W xz  B, z  Wr (5.16)

5.2.6 Solution
Let us assume that the backfill experiences no horizontal displacements:
u  x, z  0 (5.17)
This automatically satisfies boundary conditions (5.15) and the symmetry
requirement u 0, z  0 . This is, of course, not sufficient: if the assumption
(5.17) is wrong, the resulting stress field will violate static boundary
conditions.
Assumption (5.17) is substituted into the compatibility equations (5.6)
and constitutive relationship (5.8), leading to the following simplifications:
60 Part I: Introduction to Continuum Mechanics

ww ww
Hx 0 Hz J xz (5.18)
wz wx

ww ww ww
Vx K0M Vz M W xz G (5.19)
wz wz wx
Substitution of equations (5.19) into the first equilibrium equation (5.5)
gives:
2
K 0 M  G  w w
0 (5.20)
wxwz
which is only possible, if w x, z  can be decomposed as follows:
w x, z  f x   g z  (5.21)
Then substitution of equations (5.19) and (5.21) into the second equilibrium
equation (5.5) gives:

w2w w 2w
M G J (5.22)
wz 2 wx 2
and

w 2 g z  w 2 f x 
M G J (5.23)
wz 2 wx 2
This must be true for any z and x , which is only possible when both terms
in the left hand side are constants:

w 2 g z  w 2 f z 
A1 const B1 const (5.24)
wz 2 wx 2

MA1  GB1 J (5.25)

Integrating equations (5.24) we obtain:

g z  f x 
1 1
A1z 2  A2 z  A3 B1x 2  B2 x  B3 (5.26)
2 2
so that

w x, z 
1 1
A1z 2  A2 z  B1x 2  B2 x  C (5.27)
2 2
The five coefficients in the above equation are found by substituting
expression (5.27) into equations (5.19) and satisfying boundary conditions
(5.12)-(5.16) and equation (5.25):
Chapter 5 Equations of Continuum Mechanics 61

w x , z 
1 § W ·§ z·
¨ J  r ¸¨ H  ¸ z 
B ¹©
1 Wr 2
2 ¹ 2G B
B  x2   (5.28)
M ©
This results in the following stress field (equations 5.19):
§ W ·
¨ J  r ¸ H  z 
x
Vz Vx K 0V z W xz W r (5.29)
© B¹ B

where the pressure on the tunnel roof is found from the global equilibrium:

§ W ·
p ¨J  r ¸H (5.30)
© B¹
Since both the displacement and stress fields satisfy all the necessary
equations and boundary conditions, our initial assumption u  x, z  0 has
been proven to be correct.
The surface subsidence is then given by the following parabola:

w x , H 
1 § W · 2 1 Wr 2 2
¨J  r ¸H 
2M © B¹ 2G B
B x   (5.31)

with the maximum displacement (Figure 5.2):

H2 ª1 § W · 1 Wr § B · º
2
wmax w0, H  « ¨J  r ¸  ¨ ¸ » (5.32)
2 «¬ M © B ¹ G B © H ¹ »¼

For a deep tunnel ( H !! B ) this can be approximated by

H2 § W ·
wmax | ¨J  r ¸ (5.33)
2M © B¹
This problem will be used in Chapters 6 and 7 to illustrate application of
finite elements and finite differences methods, respectively.

z
wmax
rock
J
H B B

0 x

Figure 5.2: Cut-and-cover tunnel in rock: settlement of the backfill.