Distribution of the Earth’s water

Earth is known as the “Blue Planet” because 71 percent of the Earth’s surface is covered with wa-
ter. Water also exists below land surface and as water vapor in the air. Water is a finite source. The
bottled water that is consumed today might possibly be the same water that once trickled down
the back of a wooly mammoth. The Earth is a closed system, meaning that very little matter, includ-
ing water, ever leaves or enters the atmosphere; the water that was here billions of years ago is
still here now. But, the Earth cleans and replenishes the water supply through the hydrologic cycle.

The earth has an abundance of water, but unfortunately, only a small percentage (about 0.3
percent), is even usable by humans. The other 99.7 percent is in the oceans, soils, icecaps,
and floating in the atmosphere. Still, much of the 0.3 percent that is useable is unattainable.
Most of the water used by humans comes from rivers. The visible bodies of water are referred
to as surface water. The majority of fresh water is actually found underground as soil moisture
and in aquifers. Groundwater can feed the streams, which is why a river can keep flowing
even when there has been no precipitation. Humans can use both ground and surface water.
WHAT IS SURFACE WATERS
Surface water is far easier to reach, so this becomes the
most common source of potable water. About 321 bil-
lion gallons per day of surface water is used by humans.
About 77 billion gallons of groundwater are used each
day. Problems also exist in contamination of the water
supplies. This further limits the amount of water avail-
able for human consumption. Water is found in many
different forms and in many different places. While the Distribution of the water on Earth
amounts of water that exist seem to be plentiful, the avail- Ocean water: 97.2 percent
ability of the water for human consumption is limited. Glaciers and other ice: 2.15 percent
WHAT IS GROUNDWATER? Groundwater,: 0.61 percent
Groundwater is the water found underground Fresh water lakes: 0.009 percent
in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. Inland seas: 0.008 percent
It is stored in and moves slowly through geolog- Soil Moisture: 0.005 percent
ic formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers Atmosphere: 0.001 percent
Rivers: 0.0001 percent.
HOW MUCH DO WE DEPEND ON GROUNDWATER?
Groundwater supplies drinking water for 51% of the total
U.S. population and 99% of the rural population.Ground-
water helps grow our food. 64% of groundwater is used
for irrigation to grow crops.Groundwater is an important
component in many industrial processes.Groundwater
is a source of recharge for lakes, rivers, and wetlands.

The 15 nations with the largest estimated annual The 15 nations with groundwater having the larg-
groundwater extractions (2010) est share in total annual freshwater withdrawals,
ranked by all water use sectors
What Are The Uses Of Groundwater?
Groundwater is water that is found underground in cracks of the ground above aquifers. This is lo-
cated in the fractured rock of the earth below the saturated zone of the planet. The aquifers are
replenished by water that percolates into aquifers from rain and domestic uses.
Although it is a cheaper and more substantial source of water, groundwater faces a significant
challenge of pollution as a result of poor waste management on land. In turn, this leads to acid-
ifying of groundwater hence making it unsuitable for various uses. However, groundwater is less
susceptible to pollution compared to water whose origin is above the ground, e.g., rivers.

Sources Of Groundwater
The primary source of groundwater is precipitation. When water from rain reaches the ground, it
percolates into the ground and with time reaches the aquifers based on the lowest layer of the
earth. Depending on the porosity of the land, aquifers in different areas are expected to hold more
or less water. Porosity is the gapping existent between particles of soil in the field. For instance, clay
soil has lesser spacing thus absorbs water at a slower rate than loam and sand.

How To Access Groundwater

Knowing that groundwater is based deep within the ground, taping it includes digging deep into
the ground. This is achieved by putting drills into work thus breaking into the aquifer. The hole dug
on the ground is known as a well. Since water from aquifers flows at a lesser pressure, pipes are sunk
into the hole, and powerful machines used to suck the water. To maximize the stability of the well
and thus to hold the pressure, wells are made of sturdy materials that withstand various conditions
without crumbling. Before digging the wells, one should visit multiple authorities to get licenses for
the procedure.

Additionally, wells are fitted with material that prevents contamination of the aquifers thus the as-
surance of clean water.

Uses Of Groundwater
Domestic applications- once groundwater is extracted from the aquifers, it is channeled to homes,
therefore, being used for various purposes. Unlike water from several sources, groundwater has less-
er contaminants than its counterparts and thus requires lesser treating. Additionally, groundwater is
a reliable source of water as it is less likely to get depleted.
Irrigation- since the water channeled from wells is available in large volumes, it can be put into use
for irrigation. Even better, water derived from aquifers is mineral rich and free of toxicants thus more
gain for your plants. Even better, the aquifers produce endless amounts of water hence sustainable
water supply. Due to this, you can maintain your plants in good shape and provide water in the
quantities required.
Since groundwater is cheaper, one gets to save a substantial amount of money and thus more
significant profit margins.

Industrial uses- most industries, especially in the manufacturing field require a significant amount of
water to produce goods. For many sources of water, like rivers, providing sufficient amounts of wa-
ter for this and other uses may prove to be a hard task. However, aquifers hold a massive amount of
water thus can be used for the same. Due to the continuous flow of water, groundwater provides
ongoing functioning of the industries hence sustainable production.
Advantages Of Groundwater
Less pollution- unlike other water sources that are based on the ground, underground is
less likely to be polluted. This makes it a better choice over the other sources of water as
it will lead to minor damage to the earth. Additionally, water from aquifers is way cleaner
than that of its counterparts as it undergoes sieving when percolating the layers of the
earth.
A large volume of water- since many aquifers remain untapped, aquifers provide more
substantial amounts of water than other sources. Additionally, with the right capacity of
machines used, groundwater comes at a higher pressure hence is well suited for various
uses.
Lesser loss of water to evaporation- since aquifers are based beneath the ground, aqui-
fers, unlike other water sources are less affected by the scorching Due to this, levels of
water in the aquifers remain high even in droughts hence providing sustainable amounts
of water. Due to this factor, the aquifers provide enough water in droughts, therefore, en-
suring that all human activities proceed with ease.
Additionally, water from aquifers meets the requirements with changing seasons. For in-
stance, in the summer, water in aquifers is cool hence can be used to cool oneself or
machines. In the winter, the water is warm and less likely to freeze thus the sustainable
production of water for various uses.

Cheaper than other sources of water- unlike rivers that require massive dams to be built
to hold adequate amounts of water for various uses, groundwater is less expensive to tap.
This is because machines needed to drill and develop wells are way cheaper hence sav-
ing a right amount of money.
Water from aquifers lacks dissolved minerals thus is soft. This makes it suitable for domestic
uses as one requires lesser soap when washing. Additionally, soft water is tolerant to the
skin and thus raising minor harm to the body. However, this offers fewer advantages to the
farmer as minerals absent in the water are vital for the growth of plants.

Disadvantages Of Groundwater
Among the major problems when it comes to drilling groundwater is the inadequacy of
required technology. For instance, various countries have some aquifers sited under their
land but lack the sophisticated technology to tap into the pool in the aquifers. Addition-
ally, the technology required for this is quite expensive thus making it hard to be accessed
by more impoverished nations. Also, overdrawing of water in aquifers will lead to crum-
bling of the ground thus exposing people to various challenges.
What is surface water and what affects its availability?
Surface waters include streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and wetlands. The term stream is
used here to represent all flowing surface water, from brooks to large rivers. Surface wa-
ters and their associated ecosystems provide habitat to many plant and animal species.
Because surface waters are on the land surface, they are easily developed for use and
provide about 78 percent of the United States’s total off-stream water use.

Stream flow varies in response to climatic factors and human activities. Some streams
have a small annual discharge for the large size of their drainage area, such as the Colo-
rado River, and some have a greater demand for their water than they can supply without
reservoir storage. Because of their importance as a water source, flow rates for selected
streams are continuously monitored by stream gages. Discharge is the amount of water
moving down a stream per unit of time. Discharge is the product of the average velocity
of flowing water and the cross-sectional area at a selected site on a stream. Average ve-
locity is determined by measuring flowing water at many locations and depths across the
selected measurement site. The cross-sectional area and the average velocity at each
of these measured locations are multiplied to calculate discharge at that point. The dis-
charges for all locations are added to obtain the total discharge of the stream.
Streams are a dynamic part of the environment and are good indicators of what is
happening in a watershed. Stream flow in a watershed includes all water contrib-
uted from headwater areas, stream banks, channels, flood plains, terraces, con-
nected lakes, ponds, wetlands, and groundwater. Because watersheds are complex
systems, each tends to respond differently to natural or human activities.

The physical characteristics of a watershed (land use, soil type, geology, vegeta-
tion, slope, and aspect) and climate control the quantity and quality of water that
flows from them. Changes to any of these characteristics can affect water quantity
and quality. For example, the removal of vegetation by natural causes such as fire
can change the water storage and infiltration characteristics of a watershed. Be-
cause burned areas contain less vegetation to slow runoff and hold soil in place,
the rate and quantity of water that runs off the surface to streams increases, and
so does erosion. During heavy rains, the increased runoff and erosion can result in
increased chance of flooding, mudslides, and impaired water quality.

Water seeks the path of least resistance. As water flows through a watershed, it
picks up and deposits sediments, soil and rock particles, creating stream corridors.
These corridors, which consist of stream channels, banks, and flood plains, are af-
fected by natural and human activities that occur within watersheds. The physical
processes of sediment transport and deposition are critical to the formation of the
stream corridor.
The transport of sediment within and from a watershed is one of the major processes that
help shape the surface of the Earth. Sediment particles are classified by size, with smallest
being clay and the largest being boulders. Smaller particles are usually carried in suspen-
sion while the larger materials are moved along the channel bottom by rolling, sliding, or
bouncing.

One of the major activities of a stream is to transport materials within and out of a wa-
tershed. Sediment transport rates of a stream are a function of stream power, which is a
measure of the combined effect of the slope at the streambed (higher slopes generate
higher stream velocities) and discharge (volume of water). Where stream power is re-
duced, a stream’s sediment carrying power is also reduced, and a portion of the sedi-
ment is deposited. For example, sediment is deposited following the peak, or highest, dis-
charge of a flood. Sediments can be deposited in channels for short periods of time and
moved again or remain stationary as in alluvial fans or in large reservoirs. Stream channels
and their flood plains are constantly adjusting to changing water quantities and sediment
supplied by their watersheds. Long-term changes in runoff and sediment load may lead
to long-term changes in channel characteristics.

OVER UTILIZATION OF SURFACE AND GROUND WATER

1. Pollution

Pollution is a major cause of water shortage. Water is polluted when industrial wastes are
deposited into water bodies thus making it unfit for human consumption. Oil spillage and
fecal matter also makes the water contaminated. It cannot be used for drinking. This
makes it scarce.

2. Overuse of Water

When water is overused, shortage occurs. Some people use too much water especially
for irrigation purposes. It therefore becomes inadequate for other equally important uses.

3. Water Wastage

Wastage of water is also a major cause of water shortage. Some people leave their taps
running even when they are not fetching water. All this is lost to the ground. The resultant
problem is lack of enough water.
4. Drought

When drought strikes an area, there is usually no rain for a long period of time. This makes
rivers to dry. Other water sources such as streams, ponds, e.t.c also dry up. People there-
fore do not have enough water for domestic and industrial use.

conflict5. Conflict

Conflict contributes to water shortages in areas. When people are fighting over control
of water sources like rivers, some will not have access to it.

6. Distance

In some areas especially arid regions, people stay far away from oasis and other sources
of water like boreholes. Traveling there takes a lot of time. It is also a burden to carry water
from such distant places to homes. This discourages them from going to fetch water. The
result is water shortage.

7. Restriction by Governments

Some governments especially those that govern by dictatorship may restrict citizens from
accessing certain water sources.

deforestation

8. Destruction of Water Catchment Areas

Water catchment areas such as forests are continually being destroyed through deforest-
ation to pave way for human settlement. This problem has been brought about by rapid
population increase. As a result, there is not enough rain thus causing water shortage.
What Are the Effects of Water Shortage?
A lack of water affects more than just physical health. Let’s see how drought can affect
us in other ways.
– Lack of adequate drinking water

Water is important to our health. When there is shortage, people lack enough clean water
to drink.
– Lack of education

When there is water shortage in an area, children often abandon school to help their par-
ents look for water. Some of them grow too weak to go to school.
– Hunger

Water shortage makes it difficult to grow crops especially in dry areas that depend on
irrigation. When crops are not planted, there won’t be enough food for people.
– Diseases and Parasites

Water is used for different domestic purposes including bathing. When there is shortage,
people may not bath. Their bodies will be dirty hence susceptible to infection by diseases
and attack by parasites.
– Sanitation Problems

Lack of enough water makes cleaning of dishes, clothes and other household items diffi-
cult. They will remain dirty and unhygienic. This will have a negative effect on the health
of an individual.
Drought
A droughts, very simply defined, is an extended lack of rainfall. The World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) warns how it is easy to miss oncoming signs of drought because of
the constant fluctuations of rain between seasons and in overall climate. (WMO) It is also
easy for drought to be amplified by lack of preparation and overuse of water resources.
But the effects of drought are able to last long after the drought itself is done because of
the damaging nature to crops, soil, etc, especially in cases of severe, extreme, or excep-
tional drought.

bnormally Dry (D0)

Going into drought

Short-term dryness slowing planting and growth of crops or pastures

Above average fire risk
Coming out of drought

some lingering water deficits

Pastures or crops not fully recovered.

Moderate Drought (D1)

Some damage to crops and pastures

High fire risk
Streams, reservoirs, or wells low: some water shortages developing or imminent and volun-
tary water use restrictions requested.

Severe Drought (D2)

Crop or pasture losses likely

Very high fire risk
Water shortages common: water restrictions imposed

Extreme Drought (D3)

Major crop/pasture losses

Extreme fire danger
Widespread water shortages or restrictions

Exceptional Drought (D4)

Exceptional and widespread crop/pasture losses

Exceptional fire risk
Shortages of water in reservoirs, streams, and wells, creating water emergencies.
Floods

Like droughts, the growth of number and magnitude of floods is directly connected to
rainfall patterns, which effects the volume of water in lakes, rivers, canals, the ocean,
and even sewers. “A flood is a situation in which water temporarily covers land where it
normally doesn’t.” (FloodSite) According to the WMO, floods can appear in a variety of
forms, ranging from small flash floods to large coastal or urban floods. Some main triggers
include:

Severe thunderstorms
Tornados
Tropical cyclones
Monsoons
Melting ice/snow
Dam breaks

Floods directly impact the lives of humans, bringing damage and destruction wherever
they go. According to the International Federation of Red Cross, floods are the greatest
cause of homelessness and affected about as many people as droughts do. (WMO)

Although more data is needed to confirm exactly how climate change and rising temper-
atures have affected the increase in floods, the European Environmental Agency does
remark that the trend of rising temperatures will in fact intensify the water cycle by caus-
ing greater evaporation and thus a higher volume of rainfall (EEA). Water can only be
absorbed into the ground so fast, which means that when more water falls, the likelihood
of floods increases.

The observed increase in damage costs from extreme weather events is mainly due to
land use change, increases in population, economic wealth and human activities in haz-
ard-prone areas and to better reporting. To confirm the exact role played by climate
change in flooding trends in past decades, it would be necessary to have more reliable,
long-time series data for rivers with a natural flow regime(EEA).
DAMS BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

Dams are some of the most impressive and well-noticed aspects of modern infrastructure.
Throughout history, dams have played an important role in the growth and expansion of
civilization. Many ancient city planners relied on dams to funnel water through their cit-
ies even if it was far away, while military leaders used dams to alter the terrain that they
planned to fight on. However, their existence is contentious.

Floodwaters can provide valuable nutrients to the soil and easily replenish water supplies,
but can also destroy homes and property if not properly controlled. As a result, dams are
constructed to store water and control the amount of water moving down a stream or
river.

When President Franklin Roosevelt opened the Hoover Dam in 1935, he remarked how “I
came, I saw and I was conquered.” The Hoover Dam was the largest concrete structure
on the planet at the time. In the following decades, nations like Pakistan, India, Spain and
Switzerland constructed dams. Currently, the Nurek Dam in Tajikistan is the largest in the
world.

Today, dams like the Hoover Dam, or the Three Gorges Dam in China, are used to create
electricity, or facilitate water for irrigation and flood prevention. China currently holds the
record for the most dams, according to the Economist.

Pros of dams
Hydroelectric power:

One of the most beneficial aspects of dams is the potential to create hydroelectric pow-
er. Hydroelectric power is created when water passes through a dam via a turbine. Hydro-
electricity is one of the most studied forms of alternative energy, as it is relatively reliable
and stable, and most hydroelectric power plants have low maintenance and operational
costs. According to FEMA, hydroelectric power currently amounts to 8 to 12 percent of
current electricity needs, and overall creates about 100,000 megawatts of electricity.
Controlling waterways:
Flooding can be disastrous for many communities, especially if nearby water resources are
hard to control. Dams are able to re-divert waterways to other areas to keep communities
safe or open up more land to build on. Flood control dams specifically mitigate floodwa-
ters by impounding water and then safely diverting the water towards other places.
Great source of irrigation:
The presence of a dam creates a reservoir that can be used as a great source of water,
specifically for farm and industrial activities. Dams have been used for centuries for irri-
gation. The Aswan High Dam in Egypt gives local farmers protection against the harsh
droughts and famines of the desert by controlling the water supply of the mighty Nile river.
FEMA says about 10% of cropland in the United States is irrigated by dam water.
Environmental Protection:
Some dams help protect the environment by trapping hazardous materials in water and
capturing sediment that could contain harmful or toxic substances. Some dams also have
mine tailing impoundments, which help facilitate the processing of minerals in an environ-
mentally friendly way. FEMA says dams also help facilitate the nation’s waterways, making
river transportation seamless and easy, and reducing the risk of water-borne accidents or
other problems, which could negatively affect the environment.
Cons of dams
Risk of sediment buildup:
When water rushes through a dam and its internal turbines, it can create a great spot for
sediment layers to be trapped and congregate, which then can pollute the water and
disrupt the ecology of the water environment.
Damaging to environment:
Rushing floodwaters replenish the nutrients in the soil in water, which is beneficial to all
plant and animal life in rivers and other waterways. When water is diverted due to a dam,
it can greatly disrupt the delicate natural ecosystem. Some flora and fauna are able to
adapt to the changing conditions, but many will not, and could be destroyed in the new
environment. After the Aswan High Dam in Egypt was built, scientists noticed a marked
decline in fish production around the area, as the amount of nutrients and food was now
less than before the dam. Fish ladders have been build at some dams to help fish migrate,
but some are not able to use the ladder properly, especially if they are used to fast-mov-
ing water.
Erosion of surrounding soil:
After the construction of many dams, erosion of the surrounding land has been noticed.
The large reservoir at China’s Three Gorges Dam has eroded nearby shoreline, which has
led to landslides along the side of the reservoir. The Nile Delta has experienced erosion
due to the reduction of sediment after the construction of the Aswan High Dam. Much of
the sediment has fallen into the reservoir, which means there is less land around to farm
and work on.
High Cost & Risk for Disaster:
The cost of building a dam often reaches astronomical levels. The engineering and tech-
nical aspects, along with the actual construction, is a time intensive and laborious process
that has to be done with absolute precision. China’s Three Gorges Dam was built in an
area with seismic activity, and small cracks have already been found in the infrastructure.
A dam collapse or break would be an absolute catastrophe, especially from one the size
of the Three Gorges Dam. After Hurricane Harvey hit Texas, dams in the Houston area were
pushed to their limit by massive floodwaters.

According to the Texas Observer, worries are that water could overflow from some of the
dam’s spillways, and not be controlled. If a dam were to be removed, rivers and other wa-
terways would most likely try to reclaim its old channel, which means that expensive river
training structures, like bank protection and bendway weirs, would have to be deployed
in order to keep the river on a certain path. This is often hard to do and relies on the ac-
curacy of hydraulic modeling studies and other advanced analytics.

It can be hard to imagine what civilization would be like without the presence of dams
to control waterways and build reservoirs of water. Even though dams are a major part of
modern infrastructure, their positives and negatives on society and the environment are
still being studied.