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Theory and working: The purpose of hydro electric plant is to provide from water flowing
under pressure. Water flowing under pressure has two forms of energy kinetic and potential.
Kinetic energy depends upon the mass velocity of flow while the potential energy exists as a
result of difference in water level below the points of the turbine connects potential energy &
kinetic energy possessed by water into mechanical power. Thus the turbine is a prime mover
which can be coupled to generator producers. Details of hydro power plant are shown in Fig.
2.1.
Electric power: Hydro electric power can be developed when water continuously flowing
under pressure is available. Dam is constructed to redirect the river water flow. Essential
components of a hydro electric power plant are as follows:
Storage reservoir: The water available from an attachment area is stored in a reservoir so
that it can be run to utilize the turbine for producing power according to requirement.
Dam with control work: Dam is a structure ejected on a suitable site to provide for the
storage of the water and created head. Dam may be built to make an artificial reservoir from
the valley or it may be created in a river to control the flowing water.
Water ways: Water ways is a passage through the water carried from the storage reservoir to
the power houses. It consists of tunnel control, force pipe and penstock. Tunnel is a water
passage made by cutting to mountain to save distance for bay in an enlarged section canal
spread to accommodate the required width of Intake its function is to store temporarily water
rejected to plant.
Penstock: It is a pipe of large diameter carrying water under pressure from storage top tank.
Power house: It is a building to house the turbine penstock and others for operating the
machines.
Spill way: It is a safety valve for dam. Water after a certain level in the reservoir overflows
through spill way without allowing the increase in water level in the reservoir particularly
during rainy season.
Surge tank: This helps in reducing the pressure surges developed due to sudden back flow of
water as load on the turbine it reduced. Otherwise penstock will be damaged by the water
hammer produced by sudden back flow.
Prime mover: It converts the potential energy of water to the mechanical energy.
Head race: Water surface of reservoir level is called head race.
Tail race: Water passing through turbine is discharged through tail race.
(a) Impulse turbine - above 200 m -> high head and low flow rate
(b) Francis turbine -between 30 m to 180 m head (medium head) and
medium flow rate
(c) Kaplan turbine -Low head and high flow rate -> head below the 30 m
(a) Impulse turbine: The water is brought in through the penstock end into single nozzle.
The whole pressure energy of water is converted into kinetic energy. The water coming out of
the nozzle in the form of a free jet is made strike on a series of buckets mounted on the
periphery of a wheel. The water delivered to the wheel on a part of its circumference filling
or striking only few of the buckets at the time. The wheel revolves in open air, there is no
pressure difference in water at the inlet to the runner and the discharge therefore the casing of
an impulse turbine has no hydraulic function to perform.
It is necessary only to prevent splashing and to load the water to the race and also acts as
a safeguard against accidents. This turbine is also known as a free jet turbine. In such type of
turbine
P1 = P2 ; V1>>>V2
Vr1 Vr2 (Neglecting the losses in buckets)
(b) Reaction turbine: The reaction turbine operates with its when submerged in water. The
water before entering the turbine has pressure as well as kinetic energy. All pressure energy is
not transformed into kinetic energy as in case of impulse turbine. The moment on the wheel
is produced by both kinetic and pressure energies. The water leaving the turbine has still
some of the pressure as well as the kinetic energy. The pressure at the inlet to the turbine is
much higher than the pressure at the outlet thus there is a possibility of water flowing through
some passage other than the runner and escape without doing any work. Hence a casing is
absolutely essential due to the difference of pressure in reaction turbine.
(1) Cross head: The difference between the head race level and tail race level when no
water is flowing is known as cross head It is denoted by Hg.
Net head: It is also called effective head and is defined as the head available at the inlet
of the turbine. When water is flowing from head race to the turbine, a loss of head due to
friction between the water and penstock occurs. There are losses due to bend, pipe, fitting,
loss at entrance of pen stock etc. Suppose frictional losses are hf between penstock and
turbine.
so
Net head (H) = Gross head (Hg) + hf(friction head loss)
hf is calculated by hf hf
where D = dia of penstock.
L =length of penstock
V= velocity of water.
Fig 2.3
Construction detail
The main components of a Pelton Turbine are:
(a) Penstock: It is a large size conduit with conveys water from the higher level
reservoir turbine, depending upon low head or the high head installations. A penstock may be
of wood, concrete or steel. For the regulation of the turbine, penstock is provided with control
valves. The entry of debris is prevented by the provision of screens called trash racks.
(b) Spear and Nozzle: At the downstream end of penstock la fitted with an efficient
nozzle that conveys the whole hydraulic energy of water into high speed jet. To regulate the
water flow nozzle is provided with spear or needle while can be moved forward or backward.
This is controlled either by hand wheel or governing.
(c) Runner and Bucket: The turbine rotor called runner is actually a circular disk
carrying a number of cup shaped buckets and which are equidistantly around the periphery of
the disk. For low heads buckets are made of cast iron and for higher head these are made of
stainless steel. Further the inner surface of the buckets is polished to prevent the factional
resistance of the water jet The water is equally distributed to the hemispherical buckets by the
ridge or splitter There is a cut or notch on the side of bucket which ensures the face of bucket
to the jet only when it is in a proper position. This position occurs when the face of the bucket
and jet are at 90o to each other.
y
A
Control
surface
Turbine Torque
shaft on shaft
x z
Vj
Entering jet
Nozzle
A
Exiting jet
(nil velocity)
(d) Casing: Outflow from the runner bucket is in the form of splash which scatters in
all directions. To prevent this and to guide all the water to the tall race, casing is provided all
around the runner. It also acts as a safeguard to avoid accidents.
(e) Hydraulic brake: Larger pelton wheels are actually equipped with small brake
nozzle which when opened directs a jet of water on the back of buckets, therefore bringing
the wheel quickly to rest after it is shut down (as otherwise it would go on revolving by
inertia for a considerable time)
Conversely when the load is decreased the direction of movement of Servomotor piston is
such that nozzle output area decreases and that allows smaller quantity of water to impinge
upon the turbine runner. To safe guard against excessive water hammer pressure, a deflector
arrangement is used. The deflector moves along the line of jet and diverts the flow harmlessly
to the tail race. The spear shuts off. The control of the deflector is linked by governor.
An auxiliary nozzle is also provided for breaking the runner with the reasonable
period of time after shut down.
In the Fig. 2.8 (a), (b) are shown the shapes of buckets of the pelton wheel. Jet of
water from the nozzle strikes the buckets of the splitter, which splits up the jet into two parts.
These parts of the jet glide over the inner surfaces and come out at the outer edge.
Work done from the jet of water to the buckets determined by applying the
momentum equation.
U1 = U2 = U
Blade velocity or bucket velocity considered along the direction tangential for the pitch
circle.
Vr1 , Vr2 = Relative velocity at inlet and outlet.
K=
Where u =
K=
Or Vr2 = KVr1
Vr2 = (U – KVr1(cos β2)) ………(3)
Value of Vr1 from equation (1)
Vr2 = [U – K(V - u) cos β2] ………(4)
Exerted force = Rate of change of momentum
= ρθ (Vu1 – Vu2)
= ρθ[(V - u)+K(V - u)cos β2]
Workdone (Wnet) = Fx x u
Wnet = ρaVu(V - u)(1+K(cos β2)) ……..(7)
(ηH) ……(9)
(ηH) ………..(10)
(ηH) = ……….(11)
= ( )
(ηH) = [2V – 4u] = 0 ………..(12)
0.
V =2u.
Or = ½ = 50% ……………(13)
Max (ηH) =
…… ………(14)
=
ηH Max = …………….(15)
ηh
theoretical
actual
Nozzle efficiency = =
(η Nozzle) = [ ]2 ……………(16)
Velocity coefficient (Cr ) : Ratio of the velocity of jet and the (υ) theoretical velocity
is called the velocity coefficient. It is represented by Cv, value of Cv varies between 0.9 to 1.
ηnozzle = Cv2
(i) Hydraulic efficiency or wheel efficiency: It is the ratio of power developed by the
turbine runner to the net power supplied by the water at the entrance to the turbine (nozzle
outlet).
η H=
Hydraulic losses:
Leakage losses
ηH
ηH …………..(18)
(iii) Mechanical efficiency mech: Mechanical efficiency of the turbine is the ratio of the
power available at the turbine shad to the power developed. Mechanical losses are due to
bearing friction and other factors.
Mechanical Losses
Bearing friction
mech =
(iv) Volumetric efficiency (ηv): It is the ratio of the quantity of water actually
striking the turbine runner and the quantity of water supplied to turbine.
ηv
(v) Overall efficiency (ηo): It is the ratio of power available at the turbine shaft to the
water power available at the entrance level.
ηo = ηv x ηmech x ηH x η nozzle
Reservoir Penstock Nozzle Turbine Shaft End Generater
End End End
(1) Velocity coefficient or velocity ratio (Cv), It is defined as the ratio of the jet
velocity and the theoretical velocity of water.
Cv
Value of Cv varies between 0.9 to 1.
(2) Speed ratio (Cv): It is defined as the ratio of the peripheral velocity of runner and the
theoretical velocity of water.
(3) Jet ratio (m): It is the ratio of dia. of runner wheel (D) and the dia. of
the jet (d).
m= …………….....(22)
ηo
Q …………….(24)
(6) Assuming a suitable value of jet ratio (m) dia of the jet can be calculated.
D= …………(27)
If the n value is fractional, it is rounded up to next higher number and keeping the
value of m more or less same.
Usually, the power developed by a pelton wheel with single nozzle is quite low and
insufficient. Therefore, to develop more power under constant head (H), more discharge
should strike the buckets
β2 Vf2 θ2 β2 θ2
Vu2 U2
U2
Vr2
V2 Vf2
U2 Vu2
Vu2 = Negative
Turbine is directly coupled with generator so that it is running with constant speed
(u), so u is constant when load changes,
speed ratio = constant means jet velocity does not change so adjust to a change
Pt =
= 9.81/4 x π x d2 x Cv x x h x ηo ………(33)
and u = = Cu
N = ………..(34)
Ns = = ………….(35)
Ns = 499 Cu …………..(36)
Ns=(203√N)m …………….(38)