Infusion For Pleasure Vessels Guidelines 2006

INFUSION AS A COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE
FOR PLEASURE VESSELS
GUIDELINES
1
Infusion as a composite construction technique for pleasure vessels
Guidelines
CONTENTS
1 - FOREWORD ..................................................................................................................4
2 – DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................5
3 – THE TECHNIQUE OF INFUSION..................................................................................7
3.1 – GENERAL...................................................................................................................9
3.2 – DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD...........................................................................12
3.2.1 – Preparation of the mould ....................................................................................12
3.2.2 – Addition of “inserts” ............................................................................................12
3.2.3 – Application of the mould release agent, gelcoat and skin coat ...........................13
3.2.4 – Laying of the first skin.........................................................................................13
3.2.5 – Laying the core...................................................................................................15
3.2.6 – Laying the second skin.......................................................................................16
3.2.7 – Fabrication of structures.....................................................................................16
3.2.8 – Laying the materials for infusion.........................................................................16
3.2.9 – Creation of the “vacuum” and resin infusion .......................................................19
3.2.10 – Test panel ........................................................................................................23
3.3 – CHARACTERISTICS OF LAMINATES.....................................................................26
4 – ANALYSIS OF THE STEPS ........................................................................................30
4.1 – PREPARATION OF THE MOULD ............................................................................31
4.2 – ADDITION OF “INSERTS”........................................................................................35
4.3 – APPLICATION OF THE MOULD RELEASE AGENT, GELCOAT AND SKIN COAT38
4.4 – APPLYING THE FIRST SKIN ...................................................................................39
4.5 – APPLYING THE CORE ............................................................................................42
4.6 – APPLYING THE SECOND SKIN ..............................................................................51
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CONTENTS
4.7 – BUILDING THE STRUCTURES ...............................................................................53
4.8 – APPLYING THE MATERIALS NECESSARY FOR INFUSION .................................55
4.9 – CREATION OF THE “VACUUM” AND RESIN INFUSION........................................62
4.10 – LAMINATE TEST PANEL .......................................................................................69
5 – THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF INFUSION..............................................................71
5.1 – INFUSION WITH A LARGE MESH NETWORK .......................................................72
5.2 - INFUSION WITH SHAPED CORES ..........................................................................74
5.3 – INFUSION WITH MOULD AND COUNTERMOULD.................................................76
6 - PRECAUTIONS............................................................................................................78
6.1 – HEALTH AND SAFETY OF THE OPERATORS.......................................................79
6.2 – ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION PRECAUTIONS................................................80
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Guidelines
1 - FOREWORD
1 - FOREWORD
The aim of this document is to provide a description of infusion as a composite

construction technique, including the main stages, the characteristics of the method and
the right processes to adopt.
There are various methods of infusion, some of which are patented, with their own specific
manuals that must be complied with in full; these guidelines should be considered merely
a supplement to such manuals.
Infusion is a recent technique in composite construction and, far from being clearly
defined, it is subject to continuous evolution.
In order to be able to use the technique of infusion it is necessary to acquire the relevant
know-how by means of documents like this one, specific manuals and – above all – hands-
on experience enabling operators to produce increasingly advanced precision parts.
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Guidelines
2 - DEFINITIONS
2 – DEFINITIONS
The definitions of some key terms used in this document are now given.
- Resin: term used broadly to indicate any type of thermosetting resin suitable for the
manufacture of composites for maritime applications.
Generally, these resins are divided into three families: polyester resins, vinylester
resins and epoxy resins.
- Reinforcement: glass, carbon or aramid fibre in the form of woven roving,
multiaxial or unidirectional, which is impregnated with resin to obtain the
composites.
- Composite: combination of resin and reinforcement effectively joined by a special
process of lay-up and catalysing of the resin.
- GRP: special type of composite made only using glass fibre reinforcements.
- Single skin laminate: series of reinforcement layers, duly impregnated with resin,
without the interposition of a core.
- Sandwich: lay-up entailing two skins structurally connected by the interposition of a
core of light material.
- Wet lay-up: lay-up entailing impregnation by hand of the reinforcements and their
subsequent positioning on the mould.
- Infusion: lay-up entailing positioning of the reinforcements on the dry mould and
the subsequent transfer of resin by means of a pressure difference caused by
“vacuum”1-assisted resin infusion.
- Depression or “vacuum”: pressure difference that is created between the mould
and the surrounding environment due to the effect of the action of the vacuum
station and the vacuum bag.
- Vacuum bag: flexible membrane of thermoresistant plastic material effectively
connected to the mould in order to contain the “vacuum” during the cure process.
1
The term “vacuum”, commonly used in shipbuilding practice, is generally used in inverted commas in this
document insofar as in fact the technique consists of a depression or pressure difference.
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Guidelines
2 - DEFINITIONS
- Peel ply: removable outside plastic fabric ply moulded onto the surface of a
laminate to provide a chemically clean surface for bonding when it is removed.
- Flow media: membrane of plastic with perforations uniformly distributed between
the peel ply and the aerator. The aim is to enable the passage of air from the lower
to the upper layers.
- Aerator: soft synthetic material intended to prevent the vacuum bag squashing
against the layers below.
- Tacky tape: both sides sealant tape made of pliable material and used to effectively
connect the vacuum bag to the mould and form an airtight seal along the edges of
the bag.
- Vacuum station: station consisting of one or more air suction pumps connected to
the suction lines.
- Suction lines: tubes arranged along the edge of the mould and connected to the
vacuum station.
- Infusion lines: feeder lines connecting the resin storage tanks to the manufactured
part, thus enabling the impregnation of reinforcements.
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Guidelines
3 – THE TECHNIQUE OF INFUSION
The use of composite construction has led to a marked change in the number of vessels
built and their characteristics.
The search for better and better performance has encouraged the use of more advanced
resins and supporting structures made from carbon and aramid fibre.
The use of sandwich laminates is also becoming firmly established and includes
experimentation with cores made from innovative materials.
As will be seen below, in the logic of this evolution efforts have also been directed at
improving lay-up techniques by combining the use of manual lay-up with infusion and
pre-impregnation.
The manual lay-up technique is the one traditionally used to produce GRP and is still
commonly used in shipyards.
The other two techniques instead were developed later and represent a step forward,
aimed at improving the physical-mechanical properties of the final product.
Pre-impregnated composites are glass, carbon or aramid fabrics which already contain the
necessary resin for the thermosetting phase and therefore do not require manual lay-up in
the shipyard.
These fabrics only need to be placed on the mould and cut, then they will be “vacuumed”
and heated to initiate catalysing of the resin.
Pre-impregnated fabrics must be stored at a low temperature prior to use and then heated
to a high temperature to allow the resin to catalyse.
Infusion, on the other hand, a technique which will be extensively described in the
following chapters, consists in laying the glass, carbon or aramid fabric on the dry mould
and then allowing the resin to flow due to an artificially created vacuum.
The laying of fabric without resin makes this operation considerably easier, healthier and
more flexible from a time constraint point of view.
Once all the reinforcements and cores have been properly positioned, a vacuum is created
to draw in the resin from the outside through the vacuum bag and other accessory
materials.
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Guidelines
This is what characterises the infusion method, placing the reinforcement fabrics and
cores on the dry mould and then making the resin flow at a later stage, even considerably
after completion of the first phase.
Also important are the results obtained from the point of view of operator safety and
environmental emissions.
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Guidelines
3 .1 – GENERAL
3.1 – GENERAL
Infusion is an advanced technique for the fabrication of composite parts that are different,
in terms of the construction and the characteristics of the products obtained, from the other
techniques currently in use.
The composites are generally manufactured from two main elements:
Thermosetting resins, the bonding element that incorporates the fibres.

There are many types of thermosetting resins on the market for boat builders to choose
from; the three main families are polyester resins, vinylester resins and epoxy resins.
These resins are referred to as thermosetting insofar as they are initially in the liquid state
but, after the addition of the catalyst, they polymerise to a permanently solid and infusible
state upon the application of heat.
Reinforcements consisting of inert fillers added to the resin to enhance its resistance and
stiffness.
The most widely used reinforcements for composites intended for boatbuilding are glass,
aramid and carbon fibre.
The fabrication of GRP parts in boatbuilding, or of composite parts in general, is

historically tied to the introduction of wet lay-up, which entails impregnating the fibres by
hand and then placing them in position on the mould.
This technique is still widely used in shipbuilding today both for the fabrication of parts with
single skin laminates and for the fabrication of parts with sandwich construction, i.e. lay-up
consisting of two reinforcement skins with the interposition of a core of light material.
However, at the same time alternative methods have been perfected for the fabrication of
composites with the union of the two different components – resin and reinforcements –
described above.
In addition to the wet lay-up, today there are two more families of composites: pre-
impregnated composites and composites made from infusion.

Guidelines
3.1 – GENERAL
Pre-impregnated composites are not dealt with in this document; however, it is specified
here that in this case the resin is not added by hand to the fibres during the lay-up
process.
In pre-impregnation the resin is already present together with the fibres at the time of lay-
up insofar as it has been added beforehand in the factory.
The operator must lay the pre-impregnated composites and cut them appropriately without
worrying about adding resin.
However, as already mentioned, pre-impregnated composites need to be stored at a very
low temperature prior to use and, once at ambient temperature, the laying time is very
specific.
Moreover, once all the layers have been laid, the manufactured part must be heated to a
high temperature to allow the resin to catalyse properly.
This technique allows good quality manufactured parts to be obtained with a high content
of reinforcements and, therefore, good physical-mechanical properties.
On the other hand, composites made from infusion form the subject of this document and
will be examined in the following chapters.
In general terms, infusion is a technique for the fabrication of composites entailing
positioning of the reinforcement fibres on the dry mould, i.e. without resin, and the
subsequent transfer of resin by means of depression.
More specifically, inside the mould an area of pressure is formed lower than that of the
surrounding atmosphere, which is able to draw resin via specially provided vacuum
channels from the resin reservoirs to the mould.
This depression, widely referred to as a “vacuum”, is obtained by covering the mould with
a membrane of plastic material, commonly called a “vacuum bag”, effectively connected to
the mould so as to contain the vacuum and prevent the entry of air.
Air is sucked out from the area between the vacuum bag and the mould by means of an
electromechanical pump and suction lines; the removal of the entrapped air results in
better adhesion of the vacuum bag to the mould with squashing of the fibres and formation
of the depression needed to convey the resin.
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Guidelines
3.1 – GENERAL
Once the resin has started flowing into the mould, it needs to cover the entire surface of
the mould, thus impregnating all the fibres, in a shorter period than the time required for
catalysing.
This is because the resin must remain in the liquid state throughout the process of infusion
to allow the complete impregnation of all the zones; only at this stage can the process of
catalysing begin, whereby the resin polymerises to a permanently solid state upon the
application of heat.
In general the resin flows from the storage tanks to the mould by means of suitably sized
and positioned feeder lines.
Once inside the mould, however, the resin needs to be able to flow freely and
arrangements must be provided to this end in accordance with the type of infusion
adopted.
VACUUM BAG
AERATOR
FLOW MEDIA
INFUSION LINE
PEEL PLY
SUCTION LINE
SECOND SKIN
TAPE FOR
VACUUM BAG CORE
FIRST SKIN
MOULD
MOULD
FLANGE
INFUSION LINE
SUCTION LINE
SUCTION SUCTION LINE

STATION
FIGURE 1 – DIAGRAM OF THE INFUSION PROCESS

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Guidelines
3 .2 – DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD
3.2 – DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD
As in the other methods of lay-up, the fabrication of manufactured parts by means of the
technique of infusion entails the use of moulds on which dry fabrics – i.e. not wet with
resin– are placed.
3.2.1 – Preparation of the mould

The process starts with the preparation of the mould, which is assembled, if it consists of
more than one piece, and covered with a peel ply facilitating removal of the finished
product when the lay-up is completed.
It is important to note from the outset that a mould that is suitable for the process of
infusion has special characteristics, described in detail in 4.1, such as:
- substantial strength in order to withstand the depression necessary for the transfer
of the resin:
- a perimeter flange for attachment to the vacuum bag:
- the absence of airways, above all in the case of a mould consisting of more than
one piece, which would otherwise make it impossible to create the pressure
difference.
3.2.2 – Addition of “inserts”
After the mould has been prepared, “inserts” can be incorporated in the finished moulding,
thus modifying its shape.
This practice is widely used in the fabrication of parts for boatbuilding because the
modification of moulds is costly and manufacturers prefer to adopt simpler, non-permanent
methods.
Also in the case of inserts, as will be seen in 4.2, certain precautions should be taken:
- the inserts must not prevent the flow of the resin so they must be carefully sized,
especially in height,
- they must be effectively connected to the mould so that they will not become
dislodged due to the effect of the pressure generated by the vacuum bag,
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Guidelines
- they are to be adequately structured both to prevent them from imploding due to the
effect of the depression and to prevent the surfaces from warping,
- they are to be solid or perfectly sealed to prevent the ingress of resin,
- they are to adhere perfectly to the mould, without leaving any voids which would be
filled with the resin thus forming excess thicknesses.
3.2.3 – Application of the mould release agent, gelcoat and skin coat
The mould release agent is a product which is generally used to avoid damaging the
mould during forming as a result of friction.
A homogeneous layer of mould release agent is applied over the entire mould being
sure to use products which are compatible with the resins to be infused.
At this stage the gelcoat can be applied, if it is a female mould surface and such
application is required by the finished product.
The gelcoat is generally applied to the mould using paint rollers and ensures a good
surface appearance for the composite part following removal of the mould.
This operation does not have any special features in the case of infusion and is the
same as that carried out for wet lay-up; however, it is advisable to ensure that the
gelcoat is perfectly compatible with the resin that will be used for infusion.
After the application of the gelcoat the next step is the application of the skin coat, i.e. a
layer of material with wet lay-up intended to enhance the surface appearance of the
finished product.
As will be seen in 4.3, the skin coat is normally used in the lay-up of the hulls or decks
of vessels while it is not applied for parts of limited dimensions or those which do not
require a superior surface appearance.
3.2.4 – Applying the first skin
At this stage the fabric for the lay-up is applied; see also 4.4.
As already mentioned, the materials used in infusion are generally glass, aramid or
carbon fibre or combinations thereof.
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Guidelines
A special characteristic of the method of infusion is the laying of the fabric on the dry
mould, i.e. without resin, which will be added at the end of the process.
This means that the laying of the material is particularly convenient in that it is
lightweight and easy to handle, cut, place in position and – if necessary – remove.
Consequently, manufacturers can use fabrics that weigh more per square metre than
they would with hand (wet) lay-up, thus reducing the number of layers that need to be
applied.
In the case of parts of complex shape or which have a marked slope, great attention is
to be paid to the adhesion of the fabric, which, once laid, must be effectively secured in
place such that it will not shift, bend or buckle.
There are different ways of fastening fabrics laid on the dry mould. The most common
method involves spray adhesive consisting of substances that are compatible with the
resin used.
Alternatively, particularly long and thin pins specifically manufactured to this end can be
used for the same purpose.
The laying of fabrics in the infusion method is a step that can be prolonged over time
insofar as it is not constrained by the period required for the catalysing of the resin;
however, it must be ensured that this process is carried out in a suitable environment
which is free of dust or other substances capable of temporary suspension in air that
would inevitably be deposited on the fabrics and end up being incorporated in the
laminate, altering its physical and mechanical properties.
The technique of infusion can generally be used for the production both of single skin
laminates and of sandwich laminates, i.e. those consisting of two skins connected by
the interposition of a core of light material.
It should be remembered, however, that because of the special nature of infusion as a
method of construction, the thickness of the laminates is substantially reduced
compared to wet lay-up; consequently, it is advisable to restrict the use of single skin
laminates to limited areas in order to prevent possible instability.
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Guidelines
3.2.5 – Applying the core
Once the first skin has been laid, the core can be placed in position in the case of
sandwich construction.
The panels forming the core are made from lightweight material such as PVC, and they
are intended to separate the inner and outer skins while increasing the strength
modulus of the laminate.
The cores that can be used in the method of infusion have certain characteristics which
are described in more detail in 4.5; briefly:
- the core must allow the resin to flow on both faces of the sandwich2;
- the core must allow the resin to circulate from one face to the other 3;
- in the case of particularly concave or convex moulds it must be ensured that the
cores adhere perfectly to the laminate, if necessary by preforming them;
- the different panels constituting the core need to be carefully shaped so as to avoid
leaving voids along the edges which would give rise to excess resin;
- the material forming the core needs to be compatible with the resin used, in order to
prevent the possibility of damaging chemical reactions.
Unlike other methods, in infusion the core is not glued to the skins but is simply
positioned on the first skin and subsequently covered with the second skin.
During infusion the resin crosses the core so as to impregnate both skins.
When the process is complete, the adhesion between the core and the skins is
guaranteed by the “resin pins” which are formed as the holes in the core are filled.
Any inserts made of different material from the core (e.g. wood) may be included
provided that they are of limited size and do not constitute an obstacle to the flow of the
resin.
2
Other methods of infusion involve cores with resin flow channels made by cuts in the faces.
3
In general the transfer of resin from one side to the other of the core is brought about by suitably spaced
and sized holes.
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Guidelines
3.2.6 – Applying the second skin
The laying of the second skin is an operation entirely similar to the one already
described for the outer skin.
Therefore, attention must be paid to correctly positioning the fabrics and ensuring that
they are kept in position.
Provision is also to be made to prevent particles capable of temporary suspension in
air from being deposited; to this end, the process is to be carried out in a clean work
environment fitted with suitable ventilation systems.
In the case of composite parts of large size, during laying of the fabrics and the core it
is important not to tread on the freshly laid material as this could cause shifting which
may not be immediately visible.
3.2.7 – Building structures

Some methods allow the fabrication of hull and deck structures during the one session
of infusion.
These structures, described in detail in 4.7, must be compatible with the flow of resin
and must not represent a barrier to its circulation.
In general the structures are made using a core of lightweight material, usually
polyurethane, and several layers of reinforcement fibres.
In order for structures to be fabricated by infusion they must be:
- of limited size so as to avoid obstructing the flow of the resin;
- positioned mainly in the direction of the flow of the resin;
- of limited height so that they will not be damaged by the pressure of the vacuum bag;
- made of fabrics compatible with the infusion resin.
It should be remembered that the core of the structures differs from that of the laminate
insofar as the former does not have any flow channels or holes, so the resin only flows on
the surface of the fabrics covering this core.
3.2.8 – Appplying the materials necessary for infusion

After having laid all the fabrics foreseen in the lay-up plan, the next step is the positioning
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Guidelines
in place of the materials for the process of infusion, see also paragraph 4.8.
As already mentioned, there are various methods; while differing in terms of certain
technical aspects they all share the same basic principles of operation.
In general, it is necessary in all cases to arrange some suction lines connected to one or
more vacuum pumps.
These suction lines are generally arranged along the outer edge of the mould and are
connected to the vacuum station; in the case of manufactured parts of limited size it is also
possible to arrange just one suction line on one side, namely the side opposite to the resin
feed, so as to create a fixed path for the circulation of the resin.
During infusion the fabrics and the core are impregnated by the resin due to the pressure
difference which is created between the mould and the vacuum bag.
The resin is infused by this vacuum pressure and flows throughout the surface of the part.
This is made possible by controlling the resin path around the part; the different methods
of infusion have differing approaches to how this is accomplished.
In some methods the resin flows in through resin inlets arranged in the surface of the core.
These channels extend transversally and longitudinally, creating an orthogonal grid, where
the channels meet there are holes enabling the resin to flow from one face to the other.
The cross section of channels and their spacing vary in relation to the height of the core
and the type of part to be manufactured.
CUTS
RESIN FLOW HOLES
FIGURE 2 – INFUSION WITH SHAPED CORES
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Guidelines
Other methods of infusion involve the flow of resin in resin channels arranged not in the
core but above the outer skin.
Thus, the cores have only holes while the two faces are smooth.
In these cases, the resin flows along resin channels spaced according to the complexity of
the surface and is conveyed by means of a large mesh network which is laid throughout
the part and arranged above the second skin.
These in-bag vacuum lines generally consist of spiral tubing, sometimes called “spiral
wrap”, which simultaneously enables the flow of resin and prevents the vacuum line from
squashing, which would obstruct the flow of resin.
By the same token, the large mesh network allows a space between the laminate and the
peel ply so the resin front will be able to flow effectively.
RESIN FLOW
SECOND SKIN
HOLES
CORE
FIRST SKIN
FIGURE 3 – CORE WITH HOLES FOR RESIN FLOW
INFUSION
RESIN LINE
FRONT FIRST VACUUM BAG
SKIN
SECOND SKIN
CORE
RESIN
FRONT
MOULD
SKIN
COAT
FIGURE 4 – INFUSION WITH MESH NETWORK AND OUTSIDE CHANNELS
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Guidelines
At this point, both methods need the peel ply, flow media, aerator and vacuum bag.
The peel ply is a plastic fabric ply which provides a barrier between the laminate and the
layers above and prevents the resin from reaching the latter.
The flow media is a membrane of plastic with perforations uniformly distributed to enable
the passage of air from the lower to the upper layers.
The aerator is a synthetic material intended to prevent the vacuum bag squashing against
the peel ply, which might otherwise cause sudden changes in local pressure.
This is vital in order to ensure an even vacuum throughout the surface of the laminate and
avoid localised defects where the vacuum bag sticks to the peel ply, preventing the
circulation of air, altering the vacuum and preventing the impregnation of the fabrics.
3.2.9 – Creation of the “vacuum” and resin infusion
Now it is necessary to prepare the vacuum bag, which is securely fastened to the mould
by means of a perimeter flange, always required for moulds used for infusion.
The surface of contact between the mould and the vacuum bag, i.e. the flange, must be in
optimum condition and perfectly clean, so that the vacuum bag attaches perfectly to the
mould, forming an airtight seal.
The vacuum bag is effectively connected to the flange, which runs all the way along the
edge of the mould, by means of thick pliable material known as “tacky tape”.
Before placing this both sides sealant tape, the two strips of protective film must be
removed.
One side of the tacky tape sticks to the mould and the other side to the vacuum bag; the
fact that it is thick and pliable means that it will provide an effective barrier against the
ingress of air from the outside.
It is important to note that the correct placement of the tacky tape is vital for the creation of
the pressure difference needed to successfully carry out the process of infusion.
The vacuum bag must be laid with great care and must not be trodden on or damaged
during placement; it is subject to tiny perforations which are very hard to see but can make
it impossible to generate the right pressure difference.
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Guidelines
It is also important to build a vacuum bag made from just one piece rather than an
assembly of several parts.
Large size vacuum bags suitable for most manufactured parts are readily available on the
market; in those cases where the size of the infusion zone is such as to require two bags,
two sheets of bagging film should be joined using tacky tape and exercising extreme care.
The laying of the vacuum bag obviously includes the suction lines connected to the
vacuum pumps; it should also be considered that, once the pressure difference has been
generated, the bag will stick with force to the mould.
This means that the bag must be large enough to allow its complete adhesion without it
being overly tight and tearing.
On the other hand, if the vacuum bag used were to be too big, this could lead to local
excess resin, which would also be potentially fatal.
In general, the surface of the vacuum bag should be slightly larger than the surface of the
mould.
When the vacuum bag has been placed in position, the vacuum pump connected to the
suction lines can be switched on.
This operation should be carried out with the resin flow regulators turned off so as to
ensure that infusion does not begin too early.
When the vacuum pump is operating, the air in the space between the vacuum bag and
the mould is sucked out and the bag presses against the mould.
The time need to create the vacuum varies according to the size of the part and the
strength of the pump; for large-scale infusion jobs it may be wise to use several pumps,
thus also providing additional protection in the event of a breakdown during the process.
It is also advisable only to use vacuum pumps specially designed for this purpose, which
are readily available on the market.
The pressure level obtained is to be monitored using pressure gauges, also known as
vacuum gauges, which must be arranged in different places, well clear of the suction lines.
The pressure gauges have a pointer that moves on a graduated scale and are attached to
a small perforation in the vacuum bag by means of a suction cup.
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Guidelines
The vacuum pressure is monitored as it increases using the gauges and will then be kept
at a constant level that depends essentially on the strength of the pump and the efficiency
of the system.
It is not possible to give a standard vacuum pressure level valid for all cases but it can be
said that the minimum required is 0.4 bar while 0.55 bar is an optimum level.
Once the maximum vacuum pressure has been reached, it should be maintained constant
for a period long enough to ensure that the system is stable; the recommended time is 15
to 30 minutes, during which there should be no appreciable variations in the level.
The monitoring operation can be carried out by means of “sniffers”, which are microphones
used to detect tiny air leaks, or by covering suspicious areas with foam that will cause
bubbles in the event of an air flow.
It is important not to begin infusion until you are absolutely certain that the required
vacuum pressure has been obtained because the process of infusion is not reversible.
There are also systems of infusion that have an alternative to the vacuum bag in the form
of a sort of countermould which is joined to the mould to generate the required vacuum.
This variation is generally used for mass production of parts of limited size.
In most cases the countermould is formed by a reusable semirigid membrane joined to the
mould along the aforementioned flange.
The advantage of this method is a good finish on both sides of the laminate and a shorter
cycle time due to elimination of the vacuum bag building operations.
The next step is infusion of the resin; once you are sure that the previous operations have
been successfully completed, the flow regulators on the infusion lines can be switched on
allowing the resin to be conveyed from the storage tanks to the mould.
Obviously, the resin must catalyse before it can infuse and set.
The time required for the resin to catalyse depends essentially on the temperature and the
type of resin and catalyst.
This interval of time, from the introduction of the catalyst until gel formation – also called
“gelation time” – needs to be carefully planned for.
It needs to be considered that the rate of infusion – and hence the time required for
impregnation of the entire surface – depends on the size and shape of the part, the
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Guidelines
method used, the vacuum pressure obtained, the physical characteristics of the resin and
the air temperature.
Operators need to be aware of all these factors before they can proceed with infusion.
The gelation time must be greater than the interval required for infusion of the whole part
making allowance for a suitable safety factor.
If thermosetting of the resin commences before it has reached all areas this will be fatal for
the infusion process and all of the material involved.
In order to obtain the right gelation time operators often use additives in order to increase
or reduce the interval (accelerators or retarders).
It should also be remembered that you will need to provide a sufficient quantity of resin in
the reservoirs in order to ensure that the supply does not finish before the process is
completed.
The resin tanks must be placed near the mould so as to shorten the resin path as much as
possible.
It is also necessary to secure the infusion lines to prevent them from moving during the
process, becoming disconnected from the reservoirs and causing a potentially fatal intake
of air.
In the case of large size composite parts there are normally many infusion lines, which are
switched on at different times in relation to the resin path.
In general the infusion path starts in the centre and proceeds outwards towards the
perimeter for large size parts, while for flat panels of limited size the path starts on one
side and proceeds to the opposite side, where the suction outlet is positioned.
During infusion it is important to monitor the speed of the resin front, which is usually
clearly visible below the vacuum bag.
To accomplish this, all you need to do is mark the current position of the resin front with a
marker pen on the vacuum bag at regular intervals.
A note is made of the distance travelled by the resin flow between one recording and the
next in order to detect any variation in infusion speed.
Of course, this speed will be greatest at the start of the process and gradually slow down
before reaching a constant final minimum.
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Guidelines
This decrease is accompanied by a reduction of the vacuum pressure measured by the

gauges.
It is important to ensure that the resin speed does not slow down so much that the infusion
time exceeds the resin gelation time.
The process can be deemed successfully concluded when the whole surface of the part
has been saturated with resin; at this stage the flow regulators on the infusion lines can be
turned off followed by the vacuum pump.
The flow regulators must be switched off before the vacuum pump so that excess resin will
not be conveyed to the mould due to system inertia.
In fact, it is advisable to keep the vacuum pump running after the flow regulators have
been turned off for the time necessary for the resin to polymerise to a permanently solid
state; this will result in better quality compact laminates.
At this stage, the process is complete; however, it must be remembered that the resin has
not totally catalysed, even though it has already set, and that you will need to wait for an
additional period, which varies from 6 to 24 hours, before you can remove the vacuum
bag, the aerator and the peel ply and actually see the laminate.
3.2.10 – Laminate Test panel
If the part to be infused is of structural or other importance it is necessary to arrange a

panel for testing in order to determine the physical properties of the laminate.
This is the so-called “test panel”, see also paragraph 4.10.
It is to be produced at the same time as infusion of the main part so that the conditions of
the latter are faithfully reproduced.
Where substantial areas of the part are to be removed during the process of fitting-out of
the vessel, for example the cut-out for the bow thruster, the discarded laminate can be
used for this purpose.
More commonly, it is advisable to select a surplus area, i.e. an extension of the mould,
from which to obtain the test panel.
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Guidelines
If the lay-up plan is quite varied, it is recommended that operators should make several
test panels; if, on the other hand, the lay-up is fairly uniform it is sufficient to have one
panel of at least 50 cm x 50 cm.
When the laminate has been exposed it can be visually inspected and its quality can be
tested using special equipment.
The visual inspection is used to determine whether all the areas have been impregnated
by the resin; in fact, the dry laminate, i.e. without resin, differs from that which has been
properly saturated in terms of consistency, colour and thickness.
Mechanical devices can be used to conduct non-destructive examinations in order to
determine the hardness of the laminate, by means of instruments called durometers, or its
physical qualities more generally by means of ultrasonic equipment.
The most important checks are those carried out on specially prepared test panels used to
determine the physical-mechanical properties of the laminate.
Broadly speaking, the most important test results are:
- ratio of reinforcement to resin in the laminate
- tensile strength of two skins
- compression strength of two skins
- bending strength of two skins
- interlaminar shear strength of skins and between skins and core
- shear strength of the core
- resin content in the core
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Guidelines
VACUUM BAG
AERATOR
FLOW MEDIA
PEEL PLY
SECOND SKIN
CORE
FIRST SKIN
SKIN COAT
MOULD
FIGURE 5 – LAY-UP FOR INFUSION, SEQUENCE OF LAYERS
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Guidelines
3.3 – CHARACTERISTICS OF LAMINATES
Laminates obtained by infusion have specific characteristics which distinguish them from
other laminates such as those obtained by wet lay-up.
The first substantial difference is the reinforcement fibre to resin ratio in terms of the fabric
weight by resin.
This ratio is normally expressed as Gc.
In laminates with wet lay-up, Gc is normally in the range between 0.4 and 0.5 (for fabrics
of E-glass fibre); this means that for every kg of composite there is from 400 to 500 gm of
fibre while the rest is resin (from 600 to 500 gm).
Therefore, more than half of the weight of the finished part consists of resin.
The minimum prescribed limit for Gc is 0.3, namely at least 30% of the weight of the
laminate must consist of reinforcement fibre.
In actual fact, the sole purpose of the resin is to compact and bind the fibres, whereas the
latter perform the structural function by reacting to the stresses generated externally.
In composites made by infusion the resin content is lower than the quantity indicated
above.
Again taking as an example laminates made from E-glass fibre, the average Gc obtained
varies from 0.6 to 0.7, which means from 600 to 700 gm of reinforcement for every kg of
composite.
The difference in weight of the finished part is appreciable because the amount of fibre
foreseen by the structural calculations remains virtually unchanged while the quantity of
resin accompanying it is drastically reduced.
For ease of comprehension see the following table, which shows the variation in total
weight of a laminate of 1 m2 consisting of fabric of E-glass fibre of 1200 gm/ m2 as a
function of Gc.
As Gc changes from 0.3 to 0.7 the total weight of the laminate is more than halved despite
retaining the same quantity of reinforcement fibre.
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Guidelines
Wet lay-up (E-glass) Lay-up by infusion (E-glass)

Gc Reinforcement Resin Total Gc Reinforcement Resin Total
(gr/mq) (gr/mq) weight (gr/mq) (gr/mq) weight
(gr/mq) (gr/mq)
0,3 1200 2800 4000 0,6 1200 800 2000
0,4 1200 1800 3000 0,65 1200 646 1846
0,5 1200 1200 2400 0,7 1200 514 1714
Gc is reduced in laminates made from infusion because the resin is not applied manually,
wetting the fibres with rollers or impregnating units.
When during infusion the resin reaches the fibres, the latter are compressed by the
vacuum bag so the quantity of resin infused depends on the type and warp of the fibre
rather than on the skill of the operator as in the case of hand lay-up.
In any event, it should be remembered that the low content of resin is generally an
advantage in terms of quality of the laminate, weight and costs, provided that there is
sufficient resin to properly impregnate all the fabrics; failing this, they will not acquire the
necessary properties.
In the event of undersaturation, as well as having poor physical-mechanical properties the
fabric will tend to form layers that do not adhere properly to each other, which results in
vulnerability to interlaminar shear stresses.
In particular, some reinforcements, such as those made from aramid fibre or unidirectional
carbon fibre, tend by their nature to draw little resin with the risk of undersaturation;
conversely, fabrics such as mat draw a large amount.
For this reason, it is advisable to avoid a lay-up involving a succession of layers using
such fibres; in this case it is necessary to alternate each layer of aramid or carbon fibre
with an E-glass fibre layer that contains mat.
Alternatively, it is possible to obtain composite fabrics made from aramid or carbon fibres
joined with E-glass fibres.
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Guidelines
The high Gc obtained by infusion is one of the reasons for the reduced thickness of the
laminates using this method.
The other main reason is the presence of the vacuum bag that compacts the fibres.
Consequently, infusion results in more compact laminates with less resin and smaller
thickness than in a wet lay-up.
The compactness of the laminate is generally a positive characteristic insofar as it avoids
the occurrence of internal microcracking, which can give rise to phenomena such as
osmosis that may lead to the deterioration of the composite.
The fact that thicknesses are smaller for any given reinforcement makes infusion a
particularly suitable method for sandwich panels, i.e. those made with two skins
structurally connected by the interposition of a core.
As is common knowledge, sandwich construction is a high strength structure in which the
tensile and compression stresses are absorbed by the skins while the shear stresses are
absorbed by the core.
For any given quantity of fibres in the skins, the latter have a reduced thickness if they are
made by infusion, though this is generally of little significance, provided that the Rule
minimum thicknesses are complied with.
The same cannot be said for single skin laminates; in this case the compactness of the
laminate is still a positive factor but the lower thickness may give rise to phenomena of
instability or excessive buckling due to the low strength modulus which the section may
generate.
For these reasons, infusion is generally used to make parts with sandwich construction,
which may possibly have isolated zones in single skin laminate of reduced dimensions and
constituted, as well as by the connection of the two skins, by local additional
reinforcements which increase the thickness.
In wet lay-up, the core is glued to the skins by a special substance commonly known as a
binder and forming a thin layer between the first skin and the core.
It is noted that the layer of binder is generally present only between one skin and the core
in a traditional lay-up.
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Guidelines
In infusion, on the other hand, the adhesion between the two skins and the core does not
depend on the binder but on the resin itself, which impregnates the first skin, crosses the
core and then saturates the second skin.
The resin path, which is ensured by holes evenly distributed in the core, functions so that
when the process is complete the two skins are joined by resin pins crossing the core.
This characteristic gives the sandwich construction excellent interlaminar shear strength
between the core and skins and good strength against buckling of the core.
It should be noted, however, that the quantity of resin needed to fill the holes in the core
contributes to increase its weight in relation to the use of the binder, which normally has a
smaller influence.
The amount of resin left in the core depends on its thickness and conformation.
If, for example, you decide to use a core splice construction, i.e. the joining together of a
number of honeycomb sections held together by a thin surface network, there will be a
high content of resin because the void spaces inside increase above all if there are curved
surfaces.
In this case, consideration should be given to the option of using panels that are simply
perforated and subjected to hot preforming, or using two overlapping panels of reduced
thickness if this is possible with the method being used and if void spaces are not created
between the panels.
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Guidelines
4 – ANALYSIS OF THE STEPS
4 – ANALYSIS OF THE STEPS
The following paragraphs describe the main steps involved in the infusion method for the
lay-up of composites.
It is stressed that the success of the process depends on the thorough preparation and
execution of each of these steps.
Infusion is a process that is technically more complex than wet lay-up and it is intended to
produce laminates with better characteristics; however, it is also noted that the process
cannot be stopped or reversed once you have reached the final stage of feeding in the
resin.
It is therefore pointed out that all the instructions given below should be followed in order
to avoid pitfalls which may be potentially fatal.
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Guidelines
4.1 – PREPARATION OF THE MOULD
The mould is the first element that acts in the process and it must meet certain basic
requirements; failing this, the quality of the manufactured part may be impaired.
In most cases, it is not necessary to prepare new moulds if you move from traditional lay-
up techniques to infusion provided that the following instructions are adhered to subject to
any minor changes required.
In general, you can use “male” or “female” moulds made of GRP or other material as long
as they have the required characteristics.
The first property that a mould for infusion needs to have is strength.
As already stated, resin is drawn inside the mould thanks to the pressure difference
artificially created by the vacuum station and with the assistance of the vacuum bag.
The vacuum subjects the mould to stress so that it may buckle or even break.
If it breaks, the process fails because the loss of pressure means the resin is no longer
drawn in, while in the case of buckling the final product will be subject to grave defects
concerning its geometry.
Usually, moulds are made from GRP with external reinforcement structures; in these
cases it is sufficient to increase the reinforcement structures, halving the distance between
their centres.
A simple method for making sure that the moulds are sufficiently structured is to carry out
a vacuum test without laminates and without proceeding with infusion.
This way you can build the vacuum bag, which can be used again later, prepare the
suction lines, attach the bag to the mould and create the pressure difference, or vacuum
as it is usually called.
By keeping the pump switched on for a sufficient length of time you can check by means of
a visual inspection whether the mould is subject to deformation.
If the mould begins to show signs of deformation, it is advisable to immediately switch off
the pump, so as to avoid damage, and take action in order to increase the stiffening
structures.
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Guidelines
For moulds made of wood or other materials the same principle applies; in particular with
regard to wooden moulds prepared to manufacture a limited number of parts, it is good
practice to opt for oversized structures insofar as the wood is subjected to the stresses
caused by the vacuum pressure and to the temperatures generated by the catalysing of
the resin and this has a tendency to result in deformation.
In addition to being sufficiently rigid, it is necessary to ensure the mould is airtight
throughout its surface.
This property, which is not usually required for traditional lay-up, is vital in the case of
infusion.
For moulds made from GRP and built from the one piece this does not normally represent
any problem.
Conversely, airtightness is harder to guarantee for moulds built from several pieces
assembled together; in this case you need to make sure that the coupling flanges match
perfectly and in any event seal them using suitable pliable materials specially designed for
this purpose.
In the case of wooden moulds, in order to prevent air leaks it is sensible to add a layer of
GRP, formed by one or two fabrics of limited basic weight, to the surface of the mould.
After applying these layers you can build the body and add the finish to the mould.
This operation creates an airtight barrier, thus avoiding the otherwise inevitable air leaks
that the wooden boards would spring.
It should be borne in mind that, even if of limited size, the thickness of this lay-up must be
taken into account when designing and building the mould so that the geometry of the
finished part is not altered.
For moulds made of other materials, you need to check that the porosity will not allow air
to enter from the outside.
Also, great care must be paid to ensuring that no holes are made in the mould and to
sealing any existing perforations.
It is common to fasten inserts incorporated in the mould using screws: this practice is
extremely dangerous because it can easily create passageways between the inside and
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Guidelines
outside of the mould which are hard to detect on initial visual inspection but which can
cause serious problems once the vacuum is created.
Finally, a mould to be used for lay-up by infusion must have a perimeter flange, allowing
correct positioning of the suction lines and attachment of the vacuum bag.
This flange must run all the way along the edge of the mould and be sufficiently large to
comfortably accommodate the suction line connected to the vacuum pump and the tacky
tape.
The minimum dimensions of this flange are about 150 mm and its surface must be kept in
good condition so that it adheres perfectly to the bag.
This flange may be added to already existing moulds that do not have one; in general
operators are advised to create a locating dowel or keyway for the suction lines and a
“tooth” marking the end of the lay-up.
The suction line keyway has a semicircular cross-section and is used to house and secure
the lines, which might otherwise become dislodged under the effect of the vacuum, tearing
the vacuum bag.
The sole aim of the “tooth” is to clearly mark the boundary between the mould and the
perimeter flange; due to the fact that during the lay-up step it is impossible to lay the
fabrics with perfect accuracy and usually the flange is partly invaded, having a clearly
identifiable boundary facilitates the trimming operations for the finished part.
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Guidelines
DEFORMATION
FIGURE 6 – DEFORMATION OF THE MOULD
SUCTION LINE
TACKY TAPE
VACUUM BAG
AERATOR
MOULD
KEYWAY FOR
SUCTION LINE
FIGURE 7 – DETAIL OF THE MOULD FLANGE
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Guidelines
4.2 – ADDITION OF INSERTS
4.2 – ADDITION OF “INSERTS”
“Inserts” are parts, generally made of wood, placed inside the mould to modify its
geometry quickly and reversibly.
Typical examples of the use of inserts are the creation of ventilation inlets and slots for
skylights or glazed frames.
This operation is also possible in the case of lay-up by infusion provided that certain
simple precautions are taken.
The inserts must be sufficiently structured so that they will not buckle or even implode
due to the effect of the pressure difference.
As for the mould, a key property of inserts is their capacity to withstand the stresses
generated by the difference in pressure between inside and outside.
In addition, inserts must not be used if they have internal cavities, unless they are
perfectly sealed.
Failing this, the resin would penetrate inside the insert and fill it giving rise to extremely
hazardous accumulation with the possibility of the occurrence of exothermic peaks which
may trigger combustion processes.
Even if combustion is prevented, the accumulation of resin inside one or more of the
inserts could mean there is insufficient resin to impregnate all the fabrics; in any case, all
the excess would need to be removed at the end of the process, which is a difficult and
costly operation.
The attachment of the inserts is also very important; you must ensure that they are
securely fastened to the surface of the mould and that they adhere perfectly to it.
Poor attachment would cause the inserts to shift during vacuum bagging; however, it
should also be remembered that screws are not to be used to fasten inserts because this
could create airways.
Even if the screws do not reach the outer surface of the mould, they may reach voids
which could be present in the thickness of the laminate forming the mould, which is
generally not particularly compact.
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Guidelines
These air pockets may be in communication with others, which in turn communicate with
the outside, this proving fatal for the vacuum pressure.
This is not a remote contingency and represents a serious obstacle to the success of the
infusion process insofar as the ingress of air from outside is very slow and practically
impossible to stop once you can no longer get inside the mould.
In the event of poor adhesion between the surface of the insert and the surface of the
mould, void spaces could form and be filled with resin during infusion.
This would result in the formation of excess resin with the risks described above.
ACCUMULATION
LAY-UP OF RESIN
INSERT
MOULD
FIGURE 8 – RISK OF ACCUMULATION OF RESIN IN INSERT SLOTS
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Guidelines
LAY-UP DEFORMATIONS
INSERT
MOULD
FIGURA 9 – RISK OF DEFORMATION OF INSERTS
ACCUMULATION
LAY-UP OF RESIN INSERT
MOULD
FIGURE 10 – RISK OF ACCUMULATION OF RESIN FOR INSERTS NOT

ADHERING TO THE MOULD
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Guidelines
4.3 – APPLICATION OF THE MOULD RELEASE AGENT, GELCOAT AND SKIN COAT
4.3 – APPLICATION OF THE MOULD RELEASE AGENT,

GELCOAT AND SKIN COAT
The application of these layers does not differ from that used in other methods of lay-up.
The mould release agent is a product applied to the whole mould surface to facilitate
release of the moulded article once the lay-up process has been completed.
The correct use of the mould release agent helps keep the mould in excellent condition
and prolong its life.
The gelcoat is a resin-based product, it is an integral part of the finished laminate and it is
used to provide an improved surface appearance.
The gelcoat is applied using a paint roller or brush and, in the case of hulls or decks, also
helps form a protective barrier against external agents.
The skin coat normally consists of two layers of mat with wet lay-up and is used on the
surface of the part to hide overlapping fabrics or their warp, commonly referred to as
“markings”.
With regard to the infusion method in particular, the fabrics are compressed by the vacuum
bag and therefore the “markings” are particularly evident; for this reason, operators are
advised to use a skin coat with at least two layers of mat 450.
The skin coat also has the structural function of dissipating any slight knocks that the
vessel may be subjected to; since the mat fibres are not permanently bound to each other
they are able to absorb the impact and protect the lay-up underneath.
The mould release agent, gel coat and skin coat must be compatible with the resin that will
be adopted for infusion; to this end you are advised to contact the coating manufacturer or
to conduct tests on lay-ups of limited extension.
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Guidelines
4.4 – APPLYING THE FIRST SKIN
The reinforcement fabrics are laid on the dry mould in the infusion method, as already
stated, thus facilitating their positioning and enabling the use of fabrics with basic weight.
In wet lay-up, the fabrics need to be sufficiently wet with resin before being placed on the
mould, with obvious difficulties in handling the reinforcement and limited time to complete
the operation.
This is because it is necessary to complete the lay-up before the process of resin
catalysing begins; this constitutes a constraint, especially in the case of large size parts.
Also, you need to cut the fabrics into pieces that can be impregnated and handled by the
operators.
On the other hand, when the fabrics are laid on the dry mould it is not necessary to make
pieces of limited size; all you need to do is lay the fabric from the roll in which it is
marketed, placing it on the mould and cutting only when you reach the outer edge.
In addition, you can use reinforcements with substantial basic weight, thereby reducing
the number of layers to be positioned and enabling a shorter cycle time.
Finally, the fabrics can be repositioned; since they are laid on the dry mould you can adjust
their position until you are absolutely sure that they are in the right place.
All this makes it possible to comply with all the design specifications, such as the amount
of overlap between fabrics or the size of local reinforcements.
As already mentioned it is possible to use fabrics of glass, carbon or aramid fibre, though it
should be remembered that each one has a different resin content.
It is not advisable, for example, to design a lay-up plan with a long succession of layers of
aramid fibre because there would be a risk of not impregnating them properly.
Similarly it is recommended that operators should not plan a series of layers consisting
only of glass mat because, in contrast, this would lead to a high concentration of resin.
For these reasons, it is good practice to alternate aramid or carbon layers with glass layers
so as to obtain a good balance.
It is also possible to purchase fabrics made from other types of fibres and which are
accordingly balanced from the point of view of the resin required.
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Guidelines
The laying of fabrics on the dry mould may last many hours, or even some days in some
cases; however great care is to be exercised so that the work environment where the
mould is processed is kept clean in order to prevent residues of fibre or dust from being
deposited on the fabrics and incorporated in the lay-up.
More specifically, if the laying of materials lasts for an extended period it is sensible to
cover the mould with plastic tarpaulins between work sessions.
It is also a good idea to cut the fabrics outside the mould to prevent fibre residues from
falling inside.
Moreover, it is important not to tread on the freshly laid laminates because it is highly likely
that they would be accidentally soiled or moved, creating weak areas.
Given the possibility of working with dry fabrics, the ideal solution is to cut them
beforehand and then store them before laying them quickly.
Based on knowledge of the geometry of the mould it is possible to prepare all the pieces
before commencing the laying operations; indeed, there are traders who can supply pre-
cut fabrics.
Finally, it must be ensured that the fabrics do not shift during the following steps.
In some cases there are steep areas so the fabrics may bend and buckle under the effect
of their own weight.
In order to fasten the fibres in position, inert spray adhesive compatible with the resin is
used.
It is recommended that operators should use only adhesives approved by the resin
manufacturer and whose effectiveness has been tested.
Alternatively, pins specifically manufactured to this end can be used to join the fabrics.
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Guidelines
INCORRECTLY
FASTENED FABRICS
FIRST SKIN
SKIN COAT
MOULD
FIGURE 11 - INCORRECTLY FASTENED FABRICS
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Guidelines
4.5 – APPLYING THE CORE
The core interposed between the two skins generally consists of light material, such as
PVC, and is mainly intended to separate the skins and increase the strength modulus.
In wet lay-up the core is placed on the skin previously laid and already polymerised to a
solid state, glued to it by a substance called a binder.
The binder is laid by hand, taking care to create a homogeneous layer, followed by
application of the panels forming the core.
In lay-up by infusion, on the other hand, the core is simply placed on the skin previously
laid and not yet impregnated, without adding any substance.
It is the resin, infused at the end of the process, which provides the means of joining the
skins and the core.
In general, the cores used for infusion have specific characteristics that make them
suitable for this process.
The first of these properties is that they must allow the resin to circulate from one face to
the other so that both skins are impregnated.
To this end the panels forming the core are provided with perforations for the flow of
resin, appropriately sized and spaced.
Core with hole

First skin
FIGURE 12 – POSITIONING OF THE CORE

Photo reproduced by kind permission of A.C.T.
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Guidelines
The resin will flow through these holes, from the lower skin to the upper skin and, as well
as impregnating both skins, it will permanently fill the channels, thus forming resin pins that
guarantee adhesion between the two skins and giving the core excellent mechanical
properties.
In particular, compared to gluing with a binder, the sandwich construction made from
infusion has greater interlaminar shear strength between skins and core and better
properties with regard to shear strength and squashing of the core.
Consequently, the holes enabling transfer between both faces of the panels play a vital
role that is an integral part of the system.
Of course, the final weight of the sandwich will be affected by the weight of the resin
needed by the core proportionally to the density of the perforations and their height, which
is actually the height of the core.
A very simple way of determining a priori how much resin will be needed for the core is to
calculate the volume of each suction line and multiply it by the number of holes per square
metre; the weight is established by multiplying this volume by the specific weight of the
resin.
In some cases, you can also use a core splice construction, i.e. honeycomb sections held
together by thin layers of fabric on one face; these panels are particularly suitable for
curved surfaces.
It must be remembered that not all the infusion methods allow for this type of core and
that, in any event, the resin that reaches the core will be markedly better than is the case
with simply perforated panels.
In the case of curved surfaces, then, it is preferable to adopt other strategies such as
preformed panels or overlapping panels of reduced thickness.
In the former case, you need to shape the perimeter of the panel so that it coincides
perfectly with the others, ensure that it adheres perfectly to the mould using mechanical
means and heat it so that its deformation is made permanent.
Usually, once shaped, adhesion of the panels to the mould is ensured by means of
wooden slats, adjustable tape, or even by vacuum bagging.
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Guidelines
When you are sure that the panels have adhered to the mould and that their perimeters
are effectively shaped and do not have void spaces or overlaps, the environment or the
zone involved can be heated to make the deformation permanent.
Once the deformation is permanent and the work area has returned to ambient
temperature, the vacuum bag can be removed, ahead of its use for final infusion, as can
the other means used to keep the panels in shape.
If it is not possible to carry out the foregoing method, operators may consider adopting
another strategy to support the geometry of the mould, namely using two or more
overlapping panels of reduced thickness.
If, for example, the lay-up plan includes a core of 30 mm thickness but in some places it is
not possible to ensure adhesion of the panels to the mould, sometimes you can use two
overlapping panels of 15 mm thickness or three panels of 10 mm.
Clearly, panels of lesser thickness are more easily deformed; on the other hand, they give
rise to problems such as one panel sliding on another and the non-alignment of the
perforations.
If you use two overlapping panels, and even more so in the case of three panels, they are
easier to bend, but the upper panel will have a different radius of curvature from the one
below, the difference being its thickness, and therefore a greater projected length; the
latter means that the upper panel tends to stick out beyond the perimeter of the panel
below and create a jagged perimeter zone that needs to be trimmed in order not to have
voids in the material with the consequent risk of accumulation of resin.
Also, the holes in the lower panel will no longer be aligned with those in the upper panel,
creating problems for the resin path, which will proceed in a zigzag pattern.
Therefore, operators are advised to use this strategy only for limited areas and only after
acquiring the necessary experience by means of tests on sample panels.
Some infusion methods involve resin flow channels made by cuts in the faces of the core.
In other methods, the channels consist of spiral tubing, sometimes called “spiral wrap”,
through which the resin flows so as to reach all zones.
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Guidelines
In any case, the material forming the core must be compact and not have internal
cavities, which would be filled completely with resin; for this reason no honeycomb or
similar materials may be used.
In addition, it needs to be ensured that the core consists of degassed material, i.e.
material that has been subjected to a processing cycle whereby any gas inside the heated
compound is allowed to escape.
Degassing is very important because, as already pointed out, during the polymerising
process the resin produces heat, which would favour the release of the gas entrapped in
the core, leading to bubbles that would be entrapped in the sandwich.
These bubbles are the reason for frequent localised problems, which are both structural
and related to appearance.
You are reminded that special attention must be paid to eliminating all the void spaces
that could be created by laying the core.
More specifically, each panel should be suitably shaped along its edge so that it matches
perfectly with the adjoining edges and there are no exposed areas.
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Guidelines
NON-ALIGNED
PANELS
CORE
MOULD
ACCUMULATION
FIRST
OF RESIN
SKIN
FIGURE 13 – RISK OF ACCUMULATION OF RESIN BETWEEN INCORRECTLY

ALIGNED PANELS
In this regard, operators are reminded that some firms market manufactured core panels
that are pre-cut and pre-formed on the basis of the geometry of the part to be made.
Similarly, it is dangerous to create partial overlaps between adjoining panels, as this could
give rise to cavities below.
OVERLAPPING
PANELS
CORE
MOULD
ACCUMULATION
FIRST
OF RESIN
SKIN
FIGURE 14 – RISK OF ACCUMULATION OF RESIN BETWEEN

OVERLAPPING PANELS
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Guidelines
Other critical points are the sharp edges and transitional zones from sandwich to single-
skin laminate.
Sharp edges usually have a radius of curvature joining the two surfaces. If the radius of
curvature is large, it is necessary to ensure that the core ends before the start of the
rounded zone, with a bevel of 45°, and provide a single-skin laminate or a core of lower
thickness for this area, if the corner radius allows this.
It should be remembered that a single-skin laminate made from infusion has a particularly
reduced thickness so it is possible that weak points will be created in the sharp edges in
this way. Operators are therefore advised to always taper the core in the transitional zones
to a single-skin laminate, so that the stresses are dissipated gradually, and to consider
providing local reinforcements in way of these points.
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Guidelines
CORE
BEVEL
MOULD
CORE
SKINS
CORE
BEVEL
LOWERED
CORE
SKINS
C
O
R
E
FIGURE 15 – DETAIL OF THE SHARP EDGE WITH CORE OF

REDUCED THICKNESS
CORE
BEVEL
MOULD
CORE
CORE BEVEL
SKINS
REINFORCEMENT
SKINS
C
O
R
E
FIGURE 16 – DETAIL OF THE SHARP EDGE WITH LOCAL

REINFORCEMENT
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Guidelines
If, on the other hand, the corner radius is very small it is possible to join the ends of the
panels, possibly slightly bevelling one of them if the surfaces are not perpendicular to each
other, as often happens.
When the ends of the panels are joined, the sandwich is also present in the sharp edge
and therefore there is increased stiffness.
Sometimes it is necessary to provide inserts in the core made from different materials,
for example wood, in order to create zones of greater strength.
This practice is also possible with the infusion method as long as certain precautions are
adopted.
The insert must be well shaped and not leave void spaces in the surrounding area, it must
be made from material without internal cavities and it must be restricted to a very limited
area.
You are reminded once again that the resin needs to cross the core and that if inserts are
used without holes, these constitute an obstacle to the resin flow; this is why operators
should always perforate the inserts so that they become homogeneous with the material of
the core.
Despite the holes, it is advisable to limit the use of inserts to small clearly restricted areas;
in this regard it is noted that sandwich construction from infusion has excellent properties
as far as concerns resistance to squashing on account of the internal resin; thus, some
inserts can often be dispensed with.
You are advised to carry out tests on sample panels in order to obtain accurate data in this
connection.
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Guidelines
MOULD
CORE
SKINS
ROUNDED CORNER
C
SKINS O
R
E
FIGURE 17 – DETAIL OF THE SHARP EDGE WITH CORES JOINED AT THE

ENDS
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Guidelines
4.6 – APPLYING THE SECOND SKIN
Laying the second skin is an operation that is entirely similar to application of the first skin,
as described above.
The fabrics are always laid on the dry mould, due care being taken to ensure that they are
positioned according to the lay-up plan and without moving the materials already in place.
In particular, operators are reminded not to tread on the part when it is still to be
impregnated with resin because this could lead to serious damage such as squashing of
the core or shifting of the materials beneath.
As for the first skin you are advised to ensure that the fabrics are securely fastened to the
core, above all in steep areas, so that they do not bend and buckle under the effect of their
own weight.
If applicable, it is also advisable to use inert spray adhesives that will not interfere with the
process of the resin polymerising process or to use the special pins mentioned previously.
Also, operators are reminded that the process must be carried out in a suitable
environment which is free of dust or other substances capable of temporary suspension in
air that would inevitably be deposited on the part and end up being incorporated in the
laminate; as already stated, if the laying of fabrics lasts for an extended period it is
necessary to cover the mould with plastic tarpaulins.
FABRICS NOT
FASTENED PROPERLY
SECOND SKIN
CORE
FIRST SKIN
SKIN COAT
MOULD
FIGURE 18 – FABRICS NOT FASTENED PROPERLY

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Guidelines
Second skin
Structure lay-up
FIGURE 19 – APPLYING THE SECOND SKIN

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Guidelines
4.7 – BUILDING THE STRUCTURES
Some infusion techniques offer the possibility of also laying several structures on the dry
mould and then infusing them at the same time as the part.
Readers are reminded that the structures generally consist of a core of polyurethane
covered with layers of reinforcement fibres.
It is stressed that the polyurethane, or the core of structures more generally, must be
compatible with the infusion resin, although the latter will not cross the core in the same
way as the core of the sandwich laminate.
Rather, in most cases the core of the structures has the sole aim of modelling the
associated laminate but does not have perforations or flow channels for the resin, and
therefore constitutes a barrier to the circulation of the resin.
Consequently, infusion should only be used to make structures that are compatible with
the relevant resin infusion plan.
More specifically, structures transverse to the infusion flow are to be avoided because they
constitute an obstacle and the resin will not impregnate the adjacent fabrics properly.
The height of the structures is another factor to be taken into account, both because the
top may not be reached by the resin, and because the action of the vacuum bag could
lead to major deformations.
If you need to lay such structures, ensure that they are arranged parallel to the resin flow
and that their height does not lead to the aforementioned problems.
In some cases, in order to prevent deformations, it is advisable to support the structures
outside the vacuum bag.
This entails completing all the steps up to the laying of the vacuum bag and then, before
the vacuum is created, inserting – transversely to the structures to be built – some baffle
plates made from lightweight material, for example polyurethane, which need to be
suitably shaped so as to avoid deformations.
As is the case with the core of the sandwich laminate, great care must be exercised so as
not to leave void spaces between the structures and the material beneath, which could
otherwise lead to the accumulation of resin.
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Guidelines
It is also stressed that it is extremely important to correctly position the fabrics of the
structures and to secure them effectively; failing this, they could shift during the final steps
of the process causing particularly serious corrugations in the case of unidirectional
reinforcements.
FIGURE 20 – STRUCTURES DEFORMED BY THE EFFECT OF THE “VACUUM”
Hull’s structures
FIGURE 21 – BUILDING THE STRUCTURES

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Guidelines
4.8 – APPLYING THE MATERIALS NECESSARY FOR INFUSION
Once the materials that will form the part have been positioned (all laid dry) on the mould,
the next step is the positioning of the materials that make infusion possible.
In this regard, a vital role is played by the resin infusion channels, which are generally
formed by tubing connecting the resin reservoirs to the part.
The infusion lines are fitted with flow regulators, which must be kept turned off during
creation of the vacuum and then switched on to begin the actual infusion of the resin.
Once it has reached the part, this piping is connected to other infusion channels located
under the vacuum bag in contact with the material to be impregnated.
This part of the piping usually consists of perforated spiral tubing, also called “spiral
wrap”, which simultaneously enables the flow of resin and prevents the vacuum line from
being squashed by the effect of the vacuum bag.
The basic difference between the infusion channels outside the vacuum bag and those
arranged underneath it is that the former convey the resin from the reservoirs to the mould,
and accordingly consist of closed tubes, while the latter convey the resin throughout the
part, and therefore consist of spiral tubing, or wrap, located on top of the second skin.
At this stage, however, a distinction needs to be made between the methods that use
cores with surface inlets and holes, thereby favouring the circulation of the resin, and
those that use perforated cores only, with distribution of the resin depending only on
external channels and on a network arranged throughout the surface.
In the former case there is a special type of core which, as well as being perforated, has a
series of perpendicular inlets facilitating the resin flow with only a few external channels
connecting the resin reservoirs.
The distance between these parallel channels varies depending on the complexity,
geometry and type of the core but by way of guidance it ranges from a minimum of 1 metre
to a maximum of 3 metres.
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Guidelines
This means that in the space between one infusion line and another the resin will travel
thanks to the inlets on the faces of the core and will circulate from one skin to the other by
means of evenly distributed holes.
Using this system, after positioning the skins and core, it is necessary to lay only the
infusion channels, the peel ply, the flow media, the aerator and the vacuum bag; these are
described below.
If, on the other hand, a shaped type of core is not used, the infusion channels consist of
spiral wrap and need to be arranged at a shorter distance; in this case, the resin will be
conveyed by a large mesh network placed above the second skin.
The distance between the channels depends once again on the features mentioned
above, but broadly speaking it ranges from a minimum of 20 cm to a maximum of 1 metre.
The network used in this case is designed to keep a minimum layer of air between the
materials to be impregnated and the upper layers comprising the peel ply, flow media,
aerator and vacuum bag.
Otherwise, the peel ply would adhere tightly to the second skin due to the vacuum
pressure and the resin would not be able to travel far from the infusion channels, leaving
large areas bare and not impregnated.
After laying the network of infusion channels, you need to prepare the suction lines
needed to create the pressure difference, or “vacuum”.
These channels are connected to one or more vacuum pumps and are intended to draw
the air from the mould.
In general, they are tubes arranged along the edge of the mould which then go beyond in
order to reach the vacuum pumping station.
Obviously the portion of the path that runs along the perimeter of the mould and under the
vacuum bag has perforations in it, sometimes of small diameter, to enable air to enter the
piping.
On the other hand, the tubing that goes from the mould to the vacuum pumping station
must of course consist of perfectly airtight pipes.
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Guidelines
It is also possible, for parts of limited dimensions and simple geometry, to have just one
suction line on one side and an infusion line arranged on the opposite side.
By means of this arrangement, a resin path flow will be created from the infusion channel
to the suction line.
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Guidelines
INFUSION
LINE
SUCTION
LINE
RESIN
FRONT
FIGURE 22 – LATERAL INFUSION LINE
In more complex cases, one or more central infusion channels are used together with
perimeter suction channels.
INFUSION
LINE
SUCTION
LINE
SUCTION
LINE
RESIN
FRONT
FIGURE 23 – CENTRAL INFUSION LINE
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Guidelines
In this arrangement the resin is conveyed from the central channels towards the perimeter.
It should be noted that the suction channels and the infusion lines constitute corresponding
systems that both have a closed path and a permeable part and are both intended to carry
the fluids necessary for infusion, air and resin.
Once this step has been carried out it is possible to lay the peel ply, which consists of a
thin plastic fabric ply with an even perforation pattern throughout its surface.
Its function is to provide a barrier between the laminates and the layers above.
It is advisable to arrange overlapping bands of at least 10 cm between one sheet and the
next as a precaution against possible slippage leaving the laminate exposed.
You are advised to only use peel ply specially designed for vacuum lay-up, i.e. capable of
performing the tasks listed above and of withstanding the heat generated by the catalysing
of the resin.
After the peel ply, the next step is the laying of the flow media, which is a very thin
membrane of plastic with uniformly distributed perforations.
The perforations are of small diameter and enable the passage of air from the lower to the
upper layers.
Also in this case it is recommended that operators should use only products that are
specifically intended for infusion and overlap adjoining layers by at least 10 cm.
Above the flow media is the aerator, which is formed by soft synthetic material a few
millimetres thick.
This layer serves a dual function: first of all it creates a soft cushion between the vacuum
bag and the peel ply so as to prevent them from squashing each other while enabling the
passage of air to the suction channels.
Secondly, the aerator is designed to absorb the excess resin originating in the lower
layers.
At the end of infusion, the aerator collects all the excess resin, which would otherwise
remain in the part.
It is important to underline that the aerator layer must be laid overlapping the pieces in
order to avoid void zones and it must also comprise the perimeter suction channels.
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Guidelines
As is the case for the peel ply, adjoining pieces should overlap by about 10 cm while the
suction channels must be completely covered to prevent the vacuum bag from sticking to
the peel ply during creation of the pressure difference, as this would block the holes and
stop the air from circulating.
The next step is the laying of the vacuum bag, which is applied above all the other layers
previously described.
As already pointed out, the vacuum bag is a flexible membrane of airproof plastic material
which is laid above the mould and sealed along the edges to form an airtight seal.
First of all, the vacuum bag needs to be shaped and applied above the mould and cut
along the edge.
This seemingly simple operation needs to be carried out with great care in order to
effectively proceed with the following steps.
In particular, you are reminded that when the “vacuum” is created the bag will stick with
force to the surface of the mould reproducing the latter’s geometry.
If you use a bag whose surface is insufficient there will be a risk of causing stresses and of
the bag tearing or of leaving empty spaces that would lead to local excess resin.
Conversely, if the bag is too big, folds and pockets could form under the effect of the
vacuum, with consequent resin pooling and unsuccessful infusion.
Specifically, special attention needs to be paid to parts with complex geometry or those
that are infused together with structures during shaping of the vacuum bag.
Hence, it is good practice to apply the bag manually throughout the part, including vertical
zones or bas-reliefs, and then provide a perimeter band as a safety margin.
During all these operations great care should be exercised to avoid damaging the bagging
film, which must remain intact; to this end, operators are advised not to tread on the bag or
place sharp materials on it.
Lastly, you need to attach the edge of the bag to the mould flange outside the suction
lines.
As already stated, moulds suitable for infusion have a perimeter flange that enables this
airtight sealing operation by means of both sides sealant tape called tacky tape.
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Guidelines
The sealing of the bag is carried out by closing the perimeter and incorporating the suction
channels and, of course, the infusion lines.
The foregoing step must be performed correctly in order to achieve a proper vacuum.
The tacky tape has two strips of protective film which must be removed; one side sticks to
the bag and the other side to the mould flange; a certain amount of pressure should be
applied to ensure perfect adhesion.
It is important that the contact surfaces are perfectly clean and that the operation is
conducted in an environment that is free of dust or other substances capable of temporary
suspension in air.
In some particularly difficult cases, it is also possible to have two concentric gluing lines in
order to create a more effective barrier.
Particularly critical points are the inlet for the infusion channels and the outlet for the
suction lines.
These weak points need to be perfectly sealed using both sides sealant tape to make rings
around the tubing and so that they stick to the bag.
Usually the vacuum bag consists of one sheet; such sheets are commonly available in
various sizes up to about 50 m x 15 m; where this is not large enough, two such sheets of
bagging film may be joined using the same type of tacky tape mentioned above.
However, if possible you are advised to try and avoid having to carry out this operation
insofar as any join could spring an air leak with a potentially fatal pressure drop.
Only materials specifically intended for lay-ups are to be used, i.e. resistant to the heat
generated by the polymerising process when the resin tends to dilate the bag and reduce
its mechanical properties.
Above all, if you plan to have a laminate curing session, heating the laminate to improve or
complete the catalysing of the resin, it is vital to use special vacuum bags made of
thermoresistant material.
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Guidelines
4.9 – CREATION OF THE “VACUUM” AND RESIN INFUSION
When the previous operations have been completed properly, the last two steps are
creation of the “vacuum” and resin infusion.
As far as concerns the former step, it is necessary to switch on the vacuum pumping
station, which consists of one or more pumps, to circulate the air between the vacuum bag
and the mould.
This operation is performed with the resin flow regulators turned off.
The time required to reach the maximum pressure difference that the system can create
varies according to the size of the part and the lay-up plan.
During creation of the “vacuum” it is necessary to check that there are no leaks and that
the seal is satisfactory.
There are two basic methods that can be used to do this: the first is to cover suspicious
areas with foam that will cause vortices and bubbles in the event of an air flow.
A drawback of this method is that once a leak is located it is necessary to thoroughly clean
and dry the zone in order to repair it with both sides sealant tape; also you can only use it
for a few suspicious areas thought to be prone to leaks.
The second method consists of devices called “sniffers”, which are highly sensitive
microphones used to detect tiny air leaks that emit a high-pitched whistling noise that is
imperceptible to the human ear.
The microphones capture the hissing sounds and amplify them by means of headphones
so that the operator can locate the leak.
The success of this operation depends on having a quiet environment without background
noise that could interfere with the listening conditions.
When the vacuum peaks, the system is ready to start the infusion proper, though the
process cannot begin immediately.
It is necessary to maintain the “vacuum” at peak level for a period of sufficient length to
ensure the stability of the system.
As already stressed, the process of infusion is not reversible so that once it has
commenced it cannot be interrupted; this is why you need to be absolutely certain that the
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Guidelines
required vacuum pressure has been obtained and that it can be maintained for the length
of time necessary.
The pressure level is measured using one or more gauges that have a pointer that moves
on a graduated scale and are attached to the vacuum bag by means of a small perforation
and a suction cup; the latter needs to adhere well, the vacuum itself serving to keep the
whole device in place.
It is advisable to locate the pressure gauge, also known as a vacuum gauge, in the most
unfavourable position, i.e. in the middle of the part and well clear of the suction lines; in the
case of very large parts the use of more than one gauge is recommended.
It is not possible to give a standard vacuum pressure level valid for all methods and parts
but it can be said that 0.55 bar is an optimum level while the minimum required is 0.4 bar;
below this threshold level you are strongly advised not to start the process.
The level of the “vacuum” should be checked and the maximum pressure recorded with
the system still dry. From this moment, operators must wait for a time before commencing
the actual infusion: at least 15 minutes for small or medium-sized jobs and 30 minutes for
larger jobs, without any significant drop in pressure.
This interval may appear excessive but it is actually necessary to guarantee a successful
outcome; this is because the system always appears stable and efficient initially, whereas
any problems only arise later.
Broadly speaking, the reason for this is the time required for bedding of the materials and
the gradual deformation of the vacuum bag and the tacky tape.
It is noted that a loss of pressure when the materials are still dry will not lead to serious
problems because, once the cause has been found, the process can resume and infusion
can commence.
If, on the other hand, infusion has already started and a loss of “vacuum” occurs, the resin
flow will stop before having impregnated all the zones involved and all the materials
employed up to this point will be lost.
After the interval has elapsed with the “vacuum” maintained at its maximum pressure, the
final stage – namely the actual infusion itself – can be launched.
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Guidelines
First of all, you need to pour the resin into the reservoirs and then add the catalyser and
any additives (accelerators or retarders) required.
The amount of resin to be put into the tanks depends on the size of the part and the lay-up
plan and needs to be calculated carefully.
If the resin supply were to finish before the process was completed, serious problems
would arise leading to the loss of all the materials as previously stated for the situation of
loss of the “vacuum”.
To determine the quantity of resin needed for an infusion session, operators should
calculate the total weight of the fabrics to be impregnated and the equivalent amount of
resin based on the planned Gc.
In addition, allowance must be made for the resin absorbed by the core, which is generally
calculated per square metre, plus that required by the system, i.e. the resin used to fill the
infusion lines.
Readers are reminded briefly that the resin combined with the catalyst begins the process
of thermosetting, the duration of which depends basically on the type of resin and the air
temperature.
In this connection, it is pointed out that the temperature range for carrying out infusion is
from 16° to 32° C.
The resin gelation time must of course be greater than the interval required for infusion of
the whole part with allowance for a suitable safety factor.
Of course, infusion time depends on how quickly the resin propagates, the speed is
influenced by a number of factors among which: ambient temperature, resin viscosity,
reinforcement fabrics and the core used, layout of the infusion channels, size of the
depression or “vacuum” and complexity of the surface.
It is therefore not possible to give a standard linear speed as reference, only experience
and the systematic collection of data can constitute a valid support to correctly assess the
infusion time a priori.
However, to give readers an idea, in a flat panel, at a temperature of 20° C and with a 0.5
bar depression, the linear speed of the resin is between 0.3 and 0.5 metres per minute.
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Guidelines
This means that, once the infusion channels have been filled, the resin covers an average
of 30 to 50 cm a minute.
In the case of complex surfaces, this speed decreases while, as the air temperature
increases, the speed increases considerably, doubling every 10°C increase.
A wide safety margin is to be foreseen between the estimated infusion time and the time
for the resin to catalyse also to cover unforeseen events such as sudden temperature
change or pressure drop.
To this end, operators often use additives in order to increase or reduce the interval
(accelerators or retarders) and adapt it to the needs of the particular infusion job.
Dedicated infusion resins should be used, thus ensuring the right physical and mechanical
properties such as viscosity, which is a vital factor in this process.
As soon as the catalyst is added, the flow regulators must be turned on to allow the resin
to start flowing from the feeder lines to the mould.
The time of commencement of infusion and the corresponding vacuum pressure are to be
accurately recorded.
As stated, the infusion lines connect the resin storage tanks to the mould; it is stressed
that these feeder lines, consisting of tubing, must be securely fastened to prevent them
from moving under the effect of the “vacuum”.
An oscillation of the lines could impair the tightness of the sealant tape in some places or
force the end of the piping out from the resin reservoirs with the intake of air.
In this regard, you are reminded that it is advisable to use closed storage tanks with
watertight lids and inlets for piping.
As soon as the resin starts to infuse the fabrics you will be able to see it moving, its flow
clearly visible and marked by a darker colour under the vacuum bag.
The resin front extends from the infusion lines and moves towards the suction lines.
The speed of the resin front is another parameter that should be monitored and recorded
accurately.
To accomplish this all you need to do is mark the current position of the resin front with a
marker pen on the vacuum bag at regular intervals, for example once a minute.
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Guidelines
A note is made of the distance, in metres, travelled by the resin flow between one
recording and the next in order to calculate the infusion speed in metres per minute.
This simple operation needs to be carried out frequently during infusion so as to monitor
and record any variations in speed and predict the overall flow rate and pattern.
In some cases there are many infusion lines and operators prefer not to switch them all on
at the same time; first of all, the lines furthest from the suction lines are turned on and
later, when the resin has impregnated all the relevant zones, the others are gradually
turned on, thereby facilitating the circulation of the resin throughout the set path.
Once the infusion process has started, you will notice a reduction of the vacuum pressure;
this is perfectly normal provided that it is within certain limits.
This drop is due to the obstacle to the flow of air posed by the materials impregnated by
the resin and to the loss of system efficiency.
You are reminded that the vacuum station must always be kept switched on during
infusion.
Analysing the laminates in a cross-section it can be seen that the resin front proceeds
differently between the first skin and the second skin; it is clear that the parts in contact
with the mould are impregnated after those some distance away from it.
INFUSION
RESIN LINE
FRONT
FIRST VACUUM BAG
SKIN
SECOND SKIN
CORE
RESIN FRONT
MOULD
SKIN COAT
FIGURE 24 – RESIN FRONT
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Guidelines
The resin infusion speed depends on many factors including the type of core, the size of
the “vacuum”, the type of resin, the temperature, the geometry of the part and the
positioning of the infusion lines.
It is good practice to collect data regarding the resin speed, temperature and level of the
“vacuum” in order to create an archive of records of past experience with infusion so as to
be able to deal with increasingly complex jobs.
The infusion process can be deemed complete when all the zones have been reached by
the resin; at this stage you will see the resin start to enter the suction lines and at the same
time there is a sharp pressure drop.
At this stage, it can be said that the operation has been successful and you can turn off the
vacuum station, which is no longer effective.
From this moment onwards the resin will catalyse, polymerising to a permanently solid
state and setting; for this reason, it is not possible to immediately expose the laminate by
removing the layers above.
You need to wait for an additional period, which varies from 6 to 24 hours, before you can
be sure that the setting process is complete and the laminates are ready to be exposed.
Operators are reminded that the peel ply, flow media, aerator, vacuum bag, infusion lines
and suction lines must be replaced before each next infusion job; upon completion of the
process, these materials are to be disposed of according to the regulations in force for
hazardous waste.
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Guidelines
Connection channels between fuel tank and mould
Vacuum bag
Channels for resin flow to the structure
FIGURE 25 – INFUSION OF A HULL

Channels for resin flow to the structure
Connection channels between fueL tank and mould
FIGURE 26 – INFUSION OF A BULKHEAD

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Guidelines
4.10 – LAMINATE TEST PANEL
When parts of major importance, such as hulls or decks, are manufactured, it is necessary
to arrange a panel for testing of the laminates.
This is the so-called “test panel”, which is an area of the laminate produced at the same
time and under the same conditions as the main part so that it has the same properties.
The dimensions of the panel are to be at least 50 cm x 50 cm, though for large parts 100
cm x 100 cm is recommended.
The panel is to be produced at the same time as infusion of the main part so that the
conditions of the latter are faithfully reproduced; panels made at different times or using
other moulds are not acceptable for testing.
If the lay-up of the part is not homogeneous and has local reinforcements, the test panel
must be obtained using a lay-up that is representative of the part, i.e. the one most
commonly used.
It is also possible to make several test panels using different lay-ups in the case of several
lay-up arrangements widely used for the part.
Where areas of the part are to be removed during the construction of the vessel, for
example the cut-out for the bow thruster or openings for glazed frames etc, the discarded
laminate can be used for testing, provided that the foregoing conditions are satisfied.
Where this is not possible it is necessary to add areas, generally to perimeter zones, of
sufficient size to obtain the test panel.
If the part is manufactured from a flat surface, for example a bulkhead, it is possible to
extend it and then cut the surplus zone in order to carry out the tests.
The laminate can be subjected to the following tests:
- ratio of reinforcement to resin in the laminate (Gc)

- tensile strength of skins
- compression strength of skins
- bending strength of skins
- interlaminar shear strength of skins and between skins and core
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Guidelines
- shear strength of the core

- resin content in the core.
If the outcome of testing on laminates is positive this is very important for the builder, who
is accordingly invited to keep a record of test results.
Interested Parties are reminded that testing on laminates is to be performed by certified
laboratories and in accordance with the relevant standards.
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Guidelines
5 – THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF INFUSION
5 – THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF INFUSION
Infusion is an innovative composite construction technique, it is a relative newcomer to

boatbuilding and it is subject to continuous evolution.
There are various methods of infusion; they differ in terms of certain technical aspects
though most of the basic procedure is the same for all of them.
Some of the techniques are patented and marketed under specific trade names while
others can be used freely.
In general, all these methods allow the operator to lay the materials on the dry mould, i.e.
without impregnating with resin, thus greatly simplifying this operation.
The cutting and laying of the reinforcement fabrics and the core can be carried out with
unlimited set-up time, great precision and in a healthy work environment for the operators.
Also common to all the methods is the creation of a “vacuum”, i.e. a pressure difference
inside the mould that can drive resin into the laminate and impregnate the fabrics.
The vacuum is obtained by means both of a vacuum station comprising one or more air
suction pumps and of the vacuum bag, which is effectively connected to the mould.
It should also be remembered, though, that there are some methods that use an
alternative system with a countermould or a semirigid membrane as described below.
Another difference is the means used to convey the resin once it has been sucked into the
laminate by the “vacuum”, since the laminate constitutes an obstacle to the resin path.
This problem has been dealt with in various ways; the different solutions, which are
analysed below, make it possible to obtain different resin distances and flow speeds.
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Guidelines
5.1 – INFUSION WITH A LARGE MESH NETWORK
In this method the resin flows into the laminates by means of infusion lines that are
arranged above all the materials laid on the mould and below the peel ply.
These infusion lines start in the resin storage tanks and reach the mould; this section
generally consists of tubing made of plastic material.
At this point, however, the infusion lines must enter the vacuum bag and allow the resin to
be released.
This step is carried out by other infusion lines below the peel ply; the in-bag vacuum lines
consist of perforated tubes or, more often of spiral tubing, also called “spiral wrap”.
In this way the resin can flow initially along a straight path and then work its way outwards.
The connections between the external and internal lines are provided by plastic couplings
specially designed for this purpose.
When the resin travels along the infusion line it must be conveyed so as to saturate the
whole part; this is facilitated by a large mesh network which is laid above the second skin
and below the peel ply, and which also covers the spiral tubing mentioned above.
The function of this network is to improve the circulation capacity of the resin, which would
otherwise be squashed between the peel ply and the second skin under the effect of the
vacuum bag.
The network, which is typical of this method of infusion, creates small empty spaces
through which the resin moves, passing from one mesh grid to the next.
The greatest distance that resin can travel using this technique is about 1 metre, in the
case of infusion of small parts on flat moulds; more commonly, though, the infusion lines
are located approximately 50 cm apart.
72
Guidelines
HOLES FOR THE FLOW OF

SECOND SKIN
RESIN
CORE
FIRST SKIN
FIGURE 27 – CORE WITH HOLES FOR THE FLOW OF RESIN
73
Guidelines
5.2 - INFUSION WITH SHAPED CORES
This infusion technique uses cores with cuts in their faces or internal resin flow channels.
Of course, there are also holes that cross the core which, as we have already seen, play a
vital role.
In the case of cores with cuts in their faces, there are veritable surface channels arranged
both transversely and longitudinally so as to form a checkerboard pattern.
The channels criss-cross and the holes crossing the core are arranged in the points of
intersection.
The distance between the cuts depends on the thickness of the core and on the
characteristics of the part to be manufactured.
In this case, the resin is able to travel greater distances and the infusion lines can be
placed further apart, though never more than 3 metres.
Alternatively, some cores have channels with a circular cross-section obtained from their
own thicknesses; these have the same function as the cuts but they allow the resin to flow
inside the core rather than along its faces.
These methods have the advantage of improving the resin flow, thereby enabling a greater
distance between the infusion lines.
Another benefit is that it is not necessary to use the large mesh network or the spiral wrap
channels.
Upon completion of the process, however, the weight of the part will be increased by the
resin left in the channels in the core, regardless of whether they are external or internal.
74
Guidelines
CUTS
RESIN FLOW HOLES
FIGURE 28 – CORE WITH SURFACE CUTS
CHANNELS INSIDE
SECOND SKIN
THE CORE
CORE
FIRST SKIN
FIGURE 29 – CORE WITH INTERNAL CHANNELS
75
Guidelines
5.3 – INFUSION WITH MOULD AND COUNTERMOULD
This technique is generally used to make composites of limited size that require a good
surface appearance on both sides.
Usually, in fact, the use of the vacuum bag joined to a GRP mould creates composites with
a good surface finish on the side in contact with the mould, especially if a good skin coat is
used.
Conversely, on the side in contact with the peel ply, and therefore with the vacuum bag,
the laminate often has flaws due to the folds that form on the bag and in contact with the
infusion lines.
This surface is usually the internal part of the hull or the lower surface of a deck and
consequently it does not need a superior finish.
However, if builders require a finished article with a quality finish for all its surfaces, they
can use infusion with a mould and countermould.
Instead of using the vacuum bag to create the necessary pressure difference, a second
mould is used with geometry that enables perfect coupling with the main mould.
Also in this case, the mould and countermould have a perimeter flange that provides an
airtight seal for the “vacuum” creation system.
The laminate will be compressed between two rigid surfaces and both its sides will have
an excellent finish.
It is immediately evident that it is not possible to use infusion lines that run on the laminate
because they would be squashed by the countermould.
Consequently, use is made only of infusion lines that reach the coupling flange and from
here the resin is drawn solely thanks to the effect of the pressure difference.
It is in fact possible to make only small size parts with this method of infusion which, since
it requires a countermould, is costlier than the previous methods.
This explains why it is used almost solely for mass produced parts.
Alternatively, operators may opt for a reusable semirigid membrane countermould, which
is a compromise between the vacuum bag and the rigid countermould.
76
Guidelines
While, like the vacuum bag, this membrane can only be used on one mould and will not fit
other shapes, unlike the bag it has the advantage of being reusable.
77
Guidelines
6 - PRECAUTIONS
6 - PRECAUTIONS
The process of infusion generally has a low environmental impact insofar as nearly all the
operations are performed without the use of resin, which is only added later.
Nonetheless, certain precautions need to be adopted in order to safeguard the operators
and protect the environment.
In this connection, attention is drawn to the importance of compliance with current
occupational health & safety and environmental protection legislation, as well as with the
following requirements.
78
Guidelines
6.2 – ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION PRECAUTIONS
6.1 – HEALTH AND SAFETY OF THE OPERATORS
Operators engaged in the lay-up of parts using composite construction are generally in
contact with the resin needed to impregnate the reinforcements.
With the technique of infusion, on the other hand, the operators carry out all the steps of
the application of the materials on the dry mould, i.e. without involvement of resin.
This is a key factor when it comes to occupational safety because resin may cause severe
eye and skin irritation.
In addition, resin radiates fumes containing hazardous substances, such as styrene;
styrene fumes can irritate the eyes, nose and throat and cause long-term damage.
In any event, it is vital to remember and adopt certain precautions and safe procedures.
The resin, catalyst and any additives must be stored in safe, dry places and handled only
by trained personnel and only when mixing resin in containers prior to proceeding with
infusion.
This operation must be performed with great care so as to avoid spilling or splashing resin.
Also, mix components in hoods so as to draw vapours away from you.
All operators must wear PPE comprising coveralls, hearing protection, gloves made of
plastic material, and masks that cover the nose and mouth.
The work area where infusion is carried out must be kept well ventilated, dry and clean.
Unused mixed resin must be disposed of.
It is strictly forbidden to store flammable material in the same room where infusion is
performed or in adjoining areas.
Special attention must be paid during infusion to any exothermic peaks caused by
hazardous accumulation of resin and high ambient temperatures.
For this reason, it is important to remember that the temperature range for carrying out
infusion is from 16° to 32° C.
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Guidelines
The materials required for infusion such as the vacuum bag, peel ply, flow media, aerator,
suction channels and infusion channels can only be used once and must then be disposed
of after each lay-up.
These materials are potentially hazardous waste because they are not biodegradable;
therefore Interested Parties are advised to dispose of them using dedicated waste
processing facilities in compliance with the prevailing legislation.
The resins used are also pollutants; consequently any unused infusion residues must be
disposed of using special procedures defined in the relevant regulations.
80
Guidelines
81
Guidelines

Infusion For Pleasure Vessels Guidelines 2006

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INFUSION AS A COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE

FOR PLEASURE VESSELS

3 – THE TECHNIQUE OF INFUSION..................................................................................7

3.2 – DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD...........................................................................12

3.2.1 – Preparation of the mould ....................................................................................12

3.2.2 – Addition of “inserts” ............................................................................................12

3.2.4 – Laying of the first skin.........................................................................................13

3.2.5 – Laying the core...................................................................................................15

3.2.6 – Laying the second skin.......................................................................................16

3.2.7 – Fabrication of structures.....................................................................................16

3.2.8 – Laying the materials for infusion.........................................................................16

3.2.9 – Creation of the “vacuum” and resin infusion .......................................................19

3.2.10 – Test panel ........................................................................................................23

3.3 – CHARACTERISTICS OF LAMINATES.....................................................................26

4 – ANALYSIS OF THE STEPS ........................................................................................30

4.1 – PREPARATION OF THE MOULD ............................................................................31

4.2 – ADDITION OF “INSERTS”........................................................................................35

4.4 – APPLYING THE FIRST SKIN ...................................................................................39

4.5 – APPLYING THE CORE ............................................................................................42

4.6 – APPLYING THE SECOND SKIN ..............................................................................51

4.7 – BUILDING THE STRUCTURES ...............................................................................53

4.8 – APPLYING THE MATERIALS NECESSARY FOR INFUSION .................................55

4.9 – CREATION OF THE “VACUUM” AND RESIN INFUSION........................................62

4.10 – LAMINATE TEST PANEL .......................................................................................69

5 – THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF INFUSION..............................................................71

5.1 – INFUSION WITH A LARGE MESH NETWORK .......................................................72

5.2 - INFUSION WITH SHAPED CORES ..........................................................................74

5.3 – INFUSION WITH MOULD AND COUNTERMOULD.................................................76

6.1 – HEALTH AND SAFETY OF THE OPERATORS.......................................................79

6.2 – ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION PRECAUTIONS................................................80

The aim of this document is to provide a description of infusion as a composite

3 – THE TECHNIQUE OF INFUSION

Thermosetting resins, the bonding element that incorporates the fibres.

The fabrication of GRP parts in boatbuilding, or of composite parts in general, is

Infusion as a composite construction technique for pleasure vessels

SUCTION SUCTION LINE

FIGURE 1 – DIAGRAM OF THE INFUSION PROCESS

3.2 – DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

3.2.1 – Preparation of the mould

3.2.2 – Addition of “inserts”

Infusion as a composite construction technique for pleasure vessels

3.2.4 – Applying the first skin

3.2.5 – Applying the core

3.2.6 – Applying the second skin

3.2.7 – Building structures

3.2.8 – Appplying the materials necessary for infusion

FIGURE 2 – INFUSION WITH SHAPED CORES

FIGURE 3 – CORE WITH HOLES FOR RESIN FLOW

FIGURE 4 – INFUSION WITH MESH NETWORK AND OUTSIDE CHANNELS

3.2.9 – Creation of the “vacuum” and resin infusion

This decrease is accompanied by a reduction of the vacuum pressure measured by the

3.2.10 – Laminate Test panel

If the part to be infused is of structural or other importance it is necessary to arrange a

FIGURE 5 – LAY-UP FOR INFUSION, SEQUENCE OF LAYERS

3.3 – CHARACTERISTICS OF LAMINATES

Infusion as a composite construction technique for pleasure vessels

Wet lay-up (E-glass) Lay-up by infusion (E-glass)

0,4 1200 1800 3000 0,65 1200 646 1846

0,5 1200 1200 2400 0,7 1200 514 1714

4 – ANALYSIS OF THE STEPS

Infusion as a composite construction technique for pleasure vessels

4.1 – PREPARATION OF THE MOULD

FIGURE 6 – DEFORMATION OF THE MOULD