Epidermis

Our skin is made up of three primary layers, the outermost of which is the epidermis. The
second layer, underneath the epidermis is the dermis, that contains small blood vessels
which regulate body temperature. Underneath the dermis is the hypodermis, a layer of
connective tissues and fat housing the larger blood vessels. The epidermis is a sturdy barrier
protecting the body against outside elements like infections, and is also responsible for
regulating the amount of water the body diffuses into the surrounding atmosphere.

The epidermis itself comprises of a minimum of 4 and a maximum of 5 layers depending on

the area of the body. The exterior layer, the one we see and touch, is made up of dead,
flattened cells, and sits on top of a second layer made up of a row of horizontally arranged
tubular cells.

The term ‘epidermis’ stems from the Ancient Greek word, ‘epi’, meaning ‘upon’.

Structural Makeup

Cellular Composition

The epidermis contains no blood vessels therefore relies on oxygen from the atmosphere
for nourishment. The keratin-producing cells in the outer layers make up about 95% of the
epidermis. Other components include inflammatory cells, melanocytes, and Merkel and
Langerhans cells. Between the dermal papillae, are epithelial extensions called Rete ridges
which project downwards to the connective tissue underneath. Small blood vessels exist
underneath the epidermis and are connected to a venule and an arteriole.

Cellular Connections

The cells within the epidermis joined tightly together to form a strong barrier. Several
adherens junctions made up of cadherins, a type of transmembrane proteins, exist between
the cells in the epidermis. Inside the cell, these cadherins are connected to actin filaments.
Under a fluorescence microscope, the actin filament grid can be seen as wide border
encompassing the outer membrane of the cells. However, the actin filament grid exists
inside the cells, and the actin immunofluorescence only appears to be outside under a
fluorescence microscope because of how closely packed the cells and junctions are.

Layers of the Epidermis

The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin that varies in thickness in different areas of the
body. This happens in part because the epidermis itself is a composition of 4-5 separate
layers. These layers, in order of their position within the epidermis are:

 the stratum corneum (outermost layer; the cornified layer)

This is the layer we see and touch. It comprises of 10-30 films of dead, keratinocyte
(keratin-producing) anucleated cells. The amount of layers of these dead cells vary in
 different parts of the body, with areas like the soles of the feet and the palms of the
hands having the most layers. These dead cells are enclosed in protein envelopes
containing keratins that are linked via corneodesmosomes and surrounded by layers and
layers of lipids. This is the layer that contributes most to the epidermis’ protective
functions.

 the stratum lucidum (translucent; present in soles & palms only)

This is an extra layer found only in the palms and soles, giving them their characteristic
thickness as compared to the rest of the body.

 the stratum granulosum (coarse, grainy layer)

In keratinocyte anucleated cells (cells with no nucleus), the cytoplasm appears to be

grainy. Lipids present in these cells, contained with a lamellar body, are discharged into
the contained into those keratinocytes within lamellar bodies, are released into the
extracellular space forming a lipid wall. These polar lipids change into non-polar lipids,
arranging themselves parallel to the surface of the cells.

 the stratum spinosum (barbed layer)

When the keratinocytes here get interlinked with the help of desmosomes they produce
lamellar, spiny structures as a result. These are rich in glycosphingolipids, phospholipids,
polar lipids, free sterols as well as enzymes. Langerhans cells from the dendritic cells
family, that contribute to the skin’s immune system can be found at the center of this
layer.

 the stratum basale (basal layer)

Also called the stratum germinativum is the lowest layer that makes up the epidermis. It
is made up mostly of regular and rapidly-reproducing keratinocytes, connected with the
basement membrane through hemidesmosomes. It also contains melanocytes, that are
linked to a number of keratinocytes with the help of dendrites, and Merkel cells, that
contribute to producing light-touch sensations. A higher volume of Merkel cells is found
in areas that are sensitive to the touch, like lips and fingertips.

 the stratum malpighi (Malpighian layer)

This isn’t a layer in itself, but a name given to the two lower layers of the epidermis, the
stratum spinosum and the stratum basale.

A basement membrane can be found underneath the basal layer, separating the epidermis
from the dermis.
Functions of the Epidermis

Protective Barrier

The epidermis protects the body from outside influences including infections, pathogens,
UV rays, harmful chemical compounds, and other elements that could cause harm. The
majority of these protective properties are owed to the structure and composition of the
outermost epidermis layer, the stratum corneum.

 Characteristics of the barrier

- the keratinocytes linked together by cell to cell junctions form the physical barrier,
giving the epidermis its resistance against mechanical influences.
- the chemical barrier is the result of an intricate and tight arrangement of lipids,
enzymes, peptides possessing antimicrobial properties, and acids.
- the cellular and humoral components of the immune system present in the
epidermis contribute to the defense against infections and atmospheric toxins.
- growth of pathogenic micro-organisms is prevented by the stratum corneum’s water
content dropping towards the surface.
- growth of pathogenic micro-organisms is further prevented because of the lack of
water content and a pH value of about 5.0. The acidic composition inhibits pathogen
growth.
- the surface of the epidermis contains non-pathogenic microorganisms that assist in
its defense against their pathogenic counterparts. In order to do this, they discharge
preventive chemicals and limit the availability of food.

 Weaknesses in the barrier

- psychological stress, Psychological stress produces glucocorticoids, which could
result in compromising the barrier function of the stratum corneum.
- sudden and substantial changes in atmospheric humidity can modify the hydration
of the stratum corneum, allowing pathogenic microorganisms to enter.
Skin Hydration

The water content in the stratum corneum keeps the skin hydrated and healthy. The lipids
packed between the cells in the epidermis prevent transepidermal water loss.

Skin Color

The volume of the melanin pigment present in the epidermis and the way it’s distributed
determines skin color. The pigment is initially contained within small particles that form in
the melanocytes, which are then transferred to the keratinocytes nearby. The arrangement,
number and size of these melanosomes is varies from race to race. In white-skinned people,
the melanosomes are arranged in packs, while in dark-skinned people, they are bigger in
size and evenly spread out.
https://pharmaxchange.info/2011/03/the-ageing-skin-part-1-structure-of-skin-and-
introduction/