Module 2: Learner Centered Instruction,

Learning Strategies, and Critical Thinking

Table of Contents
2.1 Introduction to Module 2 ……………………………………………………………………………………… 2

2. 2 Warm-up: Reflection on Learning Styles, Strategies, and Metacognitive Learning …. 4

2.3 Lecture: Read Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences lecture ……………………………. 5

2.3.1 Optional Video: Individual Learner Differences …………………………………………………….. 21

2.3.2 Learner Profile Activity …………………………………………………………………………………………. 24

2.4 Reading: Managing the Learner Centered Classroom …….……………………………………… 26

2.4.1 Optional webinar: Student Centered Classroom Management …………………………….. 37

2.4.2 Take the Learner-Centered Classes quiz ……………………………………………………………….. 38

2.5 Lecture: Read Strategies-Based Instruction. Metacognition, and Critical Thinking in

Second Language Teaching lecture ………………………………………………………………………… 39

2.5.1 Reading: Language Teaching through Critical Thinking by Üstünlüoglu, 2004 ……… 66

2.4 Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in American Classroom ………………………….. 77

2.6.1 Optional discussion: Communicative Language Teaching and Culture Scenarios….. 79

2.7 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey ………………………………………………………… 80

Module 2 Check ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 81

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© 2019 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 2: Learner Centered Instruction, Learning Strategies, and Critical
Thinking for the American English E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State with funding provided by the
U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License,
except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
2.1 Introduction to Module 2

Welcome to Module 2 of the TESOL Methodology course! We have had a great first module and
we are looking forward to our continued collaboration.

This module we are going to get familiar with different types of learners and with different
learning styles. We are going to talk about different learner needs, and we will reflect on our
own teaching styles in order to make better teaching decisions. We will compile a learner
profile and we will also examine different activities that will help our students build confidence
and better connections to their culture. We will also share and discuss learner-centered
strategies that can be used to assist our diverse learners to succeed in learning English.
Additionally, we will examine how teachers can help students develop metacognitive
awareness and critical thinking skills. Lastly, we will present and compare basic conversation
language skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP), and exchange ideas
on how students can acquire the latter to develop higher order thinking skills (HOTs).

As you begin this module, it is important to set some learning goals. Think about what you hope
to gain from this module.

 Do you want to explore new teaching techniques and strategies?

 Are you looking for ideas to address diverse learner needs and interests?
 Would you like to continue networking and sharing ideas with English teaching
colleagues from your country, your region, and around the world?
 Do you wish to improve your academic English?
Take a minute to write or type your goals for this module.

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Fantastic! We will check in at the end of the course to see whether you have made progress on
your course goals.
But also feel free to share them with a friend, a colleague, or another person taking this course.

As always, we encourage you to participate as much as you can and to share your ideas with
your colleagues and provide meaningful feedback to their posts.
We look forward to working with you this module!
Module 2 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete. Complete the following tasks by the end of
the week (by Monday, February 10, 11:59 p.m EST).
The module should take 4-5 hours to complete. Complete the following tasks by the end of the
week (by Monday, February 10, 11:59 p.m EST).

1. Complete the warm-up activity about Reflection on Learning Styles, Strategies, and Metacognitive
Learning (15 minutes)
2. Read Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences lecture (45 minutes)
3. Watch an optional video Individual Learner Differences (15 minutes)
4. Complete the Learner Profile activity (15 minutes)
5. Read an article by Renaud, Tannenbaum & Stantial, 2007 (30 minutes)
6. Review an optional webinar on Student Centered Classroom Management (60 minutes)
7. Take the Learner-Centered Classes quiz (15 min)
8. Read Strategies-Based Instruction. Metacognition, and Critical Thinking in Second Language
Teaching lecture (45 minutes)
9. Read an article by Üstünlüoglu, 2004 (30 minutes)
10. Read Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in American Classroom (15 minutes)
11. Participate in the optional discussion on Communicative Language Teaching and Culture
Scenarios (30 minutes)
12. Reflect on the module in Cascading New Knowledge assignment (30 minutes)

Module Requirements

 Each page of the module should be viewed and read

 All quizzes require 7 points to pass
 Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
 Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
 Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

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2.2 Warm-up: Reflection on Learning Styles, Strategies, and
Metacognitive Learning

We all have different styles of teaching and learning. We have also experienced classrooms that
are focused on the teacher or focused more on the learner.
Think and Write
1. Think about your experiences in different classroom environments and answer the following
questions:

 Have you taught or participated in a class that was teacher-centered? What was it like?
 Have you taught or participated in a class that was learner-centered? What was it like?
 What is the difference between a teacher-centered and a learner-centered class?
 How would your teaching strategies differ for teacher-centered and learner-centered instruction?

2. On a piece a piece of paper or in a word doc, write some notes on your answers to these
questions. Use this opportunity to think about what you already know.
You do not have to submit this assignment. This activity is not graded. This is a chance to
activate your prior knowledge (think about what you already know). You should spend no more
than 5-10 minutes completing this.

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2.3 Lecture: Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences

Introduction

Classroom environment and student roles are often guided by teacher roles. Therefore, it is
very important for a teacher to define his or her role, so learners can know what their teacher is
supposed to do.
Teacher Roles in English Language Teaching
Teachers can play many roles. In a modern classroom teachers can be facilitators who observe,
advise and direct, rather than control and dictates the leaning process. Teacher roles are
connected to the teaching methods. These roles determine the degree to which a teacher
controls a learning process. The content of lessons and how teachers and students interact also
depends on teacher roles.
Traditional Role of English Teachers
Traditional classrooms are teacher-centered. A teacher directs the learning process by selecting
what and how students should learn. Students are asked to memorize, repeat, and do drills..
This approach to language teaching assumes the teacher as a source of knowledge, The
learners are receivers of knowledge and they do not control what they learn and how they
learn it.

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Focus on the Learner
Changes in teaching ideas overtime lead to changes in teaching methods and in roles of
teachers and learners in the classroom. In 1960s and 1970s a number of new theories helped
change how language is taught. Among these approaches are:

 Humanistic approach to language teaching. It considers learner intellectual and emotional

development to be equally important
 Communicative language teaching (CLT) approach. It is based on teaching real world
communication skills.

Recognizing Learner Differences and Learning Styles

Effective language teachers can engage students with multiple learning styles. It can be
challenging for one teacher to work with a variety of different learning styles. Consider how
these strategies can work to help students to be more successful with these three major
learning styles:
Visual:

 Use graphic organizers to show word and concepts relationships.

 Ask students to highlight texts and color-code their notes.
 Draw pictures of new concepts and ask students to do the same.
 Provide maps and charts to teach new material.
 Have students use different fonts, colors and sizes when/if using the computer.

Auditory:

 Discuss new topics and subjects as a group and ask students to do it with partners.
 Ask students to record lectures and their own presentations and review them afterwards.
 Have students read aloud and voice concepts and ideas to them.
 Ask students to create tunes and rhythms when learning new material.

Kinesthetic:

 Use role play to act out concepts and ideas taught in your course.
 Encourage students to take notes while listening to lectures or reading.
 Associate each new word with a gesture or movement.
 Have students spell new words in teams using their bodies.

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New Role of English Teachers in Task Based Language Teaching
Communicative language teaching provided foundations for the task based language teaching
(TBLT). TBLT is a new approach that focuses on learning by doing. The goal is for the learners to
use language for communicative activities. The role of teachers also changes. Teachers become
facilitators of students' learning. Instead of providing the knowledge, teacher guides, motivates,
advises and monitors students' progress. Teachers now recognize learner differences and
provide students with diverse communicative activities. Teachers should also involve students
in group and collaborative work, and keep them interested and motivated to learn the
language.
Conclusion
The role of teachers in modern classrooms has changed from being a controller and an
organizer to being a guide and a facilitator. Learners can now be more in control of their
learning process. It all sounds good in theory, however, it may be quite challenging to achieve
such changes in teacher and student roles. Sometimes the learning context does not allow for
these changes (e.g., educational systems may have rules and specific curricular guidance).
Additionally, students may not be culturally ready to take on these changes. Therefore,
teachers should always consider cultural norms and expectations in addition to various teaching
approaches and strategies when planning a shift from a traditional to a modern teacher role.

Reference: (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adopted in any way, or distributed after the end of
this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public
use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.
Center for Access and Success. Tips for Educators on Accommodating Different Learning Styles.
Retrieved from the Internet. https://www.umassd.edu/dss/resources/faculty--staff/how-to-
teach-and-accommodate/how-to-accommodate-different-learning-styles/ (Links to an external
site.)Links to an external site.

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2.3.2 Activity: Learner Profile

TESOL Methodology
LEARNER PROFILE ACTIVITY TEMPLATE

As we begin our focus on the learner, let’s take a look at the learners you currently have in
class. If you are not currently teaching, work with a colleague to obtain the profile data. This
data will be the foundation you build upon for your learner-centered, project-based topic. (Note:
you will type over the items in green; this is just a reminder of what is needed for each
category.)

Number of students

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 Age and grade level

Gender of students

Ethnicity of students

Language
All 4 skills
proficiency:

Language
How many years studying English
experience: (a)

Language
Type of curriculum, methods, and approaches used
experience: (b)

Motivation: (a) Kinds of topics interesting or motivating for your learners

Kinds of texts and activities interesting or motivating for

Motivation: (b)
your learners

Kinds of technologies interesting or motivating for your

Motivation: (c)
learners

We recommend that you use this template to develop your learner profile for all your classes.

Developing your learner profile can help you improve your teaching, plan learner-centered
activities, and support your classroom management. For this activity, please do the following:

1. Review the Module 2 lectures and readings and the Learner Profile Activity template
above.
2. Select one of your current classes, and fill in this template with your students’
information.
3. Copy/provide your responses by filling out this quiz.
4. To respond to quiz Question #10, write a paragraph on how you think a learner profile
will assist you in making your classes interactive and engaging in the future.

This activity is graded and it is worth 10 points. You will automatically receive points for
completing this quiz. You are allowed multiple attempts to complete this quiz.

This assignment must be completed online.

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2.4 Readings: Managing the Learner-Centered Classroom
English teachers around the world have many different classroom cultures and class sizes.
Learner-centered teaching strategies might seem harder to manage with large classes. The
following article discusses approaches and strategies for working with and managing large
learner-centered classrooms.
Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching
context. You will discuss these ideas and your own connections in the Module 2 discussion.
A study guide for this article is also provided below.

Article: "Student-Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources"

For a study guide of the Renaud, Tannenbaum, and Stantial's article click here

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 Sus an Re n aud, Eli za be t h Ta nne nbaum, an d Phillip S t an t ial
C A N A D A A N D T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S
Student-Centered Teaching
in Large Classes with Limited
Resources
“We cannot direct the wind, but we can adjust the sails.” (Peace Corps 1992, 11)
J
osue enters his classroom where
his secondary school students—
all 78 of them—are waiting,
squeezed together on sagging wooden
benches. The small room is so crowd-
ed that Josue cannot move from the
narrow space left for him between
the front wall—where the polished
cement has been painted black to
serve as a blackboard—and the first
row of benches. His students have no
books. There is no electricity, it is hot,
and Josue has only a piece of chalk
and his imagination to help him teach
his students English.
This scenario is repeated every day
in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, but it could
just as well be in thousands of schools
in hundreds of developing countries
throughout the Caribbean, Africa,
South America, and Asia. According
to Cross (1992), in some situations
“teachers have no copying facilities,
no home base, no supplies of any
kind. Under such conditions, much
of what is written about language
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07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 12
teaching in journals and books is
irrelevant, even laughable.”
We began to work with Haitian pre-
service teachers at the State Teacher
Training College and with groups of
in-service teachers throughout the
country in 1998. At that time, we
did not fully grasp the realities of
teaching English, or any subject, in a
country like Haiti. We soon realized
that much of what we were present-
ing to the teachers could not possibly
be applied in the Haitian classroom.
Many of our techniques did indeed
seem “irrelevant and laughable,” yet
we had teachers who wanted to teach
effectively, and they had students who
wanted to learn.
What is a large class?
Josue’s class of 78 students,
described above, is not at all unusual
in Haiti. A few teachers have reported
having classes of up to 200 students.
At a recent TESOL (Teachers of Eng-
lish to Speakers of Other Languages)
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6/27/07 9:47:17 AM
 conference workshop, participants were asked
how many students would make up a “large
class” in their teaching environment. The
most common answer was 25. According to
a study cited by Ur (1996), the average per-
ception of a large class is around 50 students;
however, she suggests that “the exact number
does not really matter: what matters is how
you, the teacher see the class size in your own
specific situation” (302). Baker and Westrup
(2000) echo this thought when they say: “A
large class can be any number of students, if
the teacher feels there are too many students
for them all to make progress” (2).
Our experience in Haiti has shown that
there is a limit to the size of a class in which
student-centered methods can be used with-
out creating chaos. We have observed and
presented to classes of up to 80 students
where communicative activities were success-
fully used. As one teacher pointed out, a class
with more than 80 students becomes a con-
gregation rather than a class, and the teacher
must become a preacher: lecturing, writing
notes on the board for students to copy, and
hoping that at least some of the students will
learn something. Therefore, for the purposes
of this article, we are going to define a large
class as having between 50 and 80 students,
and we will discuss some successful tech-
niques for teachers who teach large classes
with limited resources.
Advantages of large classes
Hess (2001) points out that in a large class
there are always enough students for interac-
tion, and there is a rich variety of human
resources. The teacher is not the only peda-
gogue, and since a large class is usually hetero-
geneous, more proficient students can be used
to help lower level ones. She also states that the
teacher is never bored and that professional
development occurs naturally as the teacher
tries to find new ways of coping with the
large number of students. In addition to these
advantages, Ur (1996) explains that because
the teacher is less able to attend to every indi-
vidual, the students must develop strategies
for helping themselves and their classmates
through peer-teaching and collaboration, thus
fostering an atmosphere of cooperation.
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 13
Challenges of large classes
Despite these advantages, the challenges
involved in teaching large classes can be
daunting. The ideas we present for dealing
with these challenges have been developed
over a period of several years and are the
result of both our research of the litera-
ture on teaching large classes and our work
with Haitian English teachers. These teach-
ers brainstormed with us, conducted action
research while trying out these ideas (and
many others, not always successful) in their
classrooms, and then reported back to us on
what worked best.
The major challenges of teaching large
classes presented below are grouped into
four categories: (1) managing the classroom,
(2) using pair and group work to encourage
cooperative learning, (3) teaching with lim-
ited resources, and (4) motivating students in
heterogeneous classes.
1. Managing the classroom
The idea of trying to manage a classroom
full of noisy, often hungry, teenagers who may
or may not be interested in learning English
is daunting at best. Two of the most serious
challenges are how to maintain discipline
and how to correct large amounts of written
work.
Maintaining discipline
Most discipline problems are the result of
boredom or alienation. If students are inter-
ested in the class, many discipline problems
disappear. Students who are paying attention,
who are involved in activities that appeal
to their interests and needs, do not act up
and often help control more rambunctious
classmates. Some techniques that can help
maintain discipline are described below.
• Set classroom rules. At the beginning
of the year, ask students to work in
small groups to write down rules they
think are reasonable regarding class-
room behavior and the consequences
for breaking the rules. Collect and
write up a summary of the ideas on a
large sheet of paper. In the next class,
ask students to consider the rules and
make any suggestions for changes. Ask
students to vote to accept the rules
and make a final copy to be hung in
the classroom for the year. If the rules
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6/27/07 9:47:17 AM
 come from the students, and they con-
sider them to be fair, they will be more
willing to follow them.
• Plan a variety of activities that appeal to
students with different learning styles
and interests. This will usually keep
the attention of the majority of stu-
dents. Often the students themselves
are effective in maintaining discipline.
If many students want to hear what the
teacher or their classmates are saying,
they will ask their neighbors to be quiet
and pay attention, too.
• Establish routines. Starting the class
with the class agenda on the board can
help students to focus and prepare for
the day’s class. Set up signals that the
students understand—for quiet, for
silence, and so on—using hand signals,
a bell, or some other method.
• So as not to waste time calling the roll,
give the students a sign-in sheet to pass
around at the beginning of the class.
When it comes back to the front of the
room, draw a line under the last name.
Any names that are written below the
line are those of late-comers. Another
strategy is to have students make name
cards to display on their desks (folded
so that the teacher can see them eas-
ily). Collect the name cards at the
end of class. At the beginning of each
subsequent class, as the students enter
the room, have them take their name
cards. Those cards that aren’t collected
belong to students who are absent.
This takes care of attendance and helps
the teacher learn names, too.
• Create a seating chart (and require
students to sit in their assigned seats.)
This can help in learning students’
names. When the teacher knows and
uses students’ names, they feel more
like individuals and are less likely to act
up.
• Give the more advanced students
responsibility for helping others, as
group leaders, monitors, or teaching
assistants.
• Teach students to show their respect
for others by listening to what they
have to say in group work or when they
are reporting to the whole class.
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07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 14
Correcting large amounts of written work
Large classes mean lots of written work to
correct, which is often too much for a teacher
who has to plan lessons, teach classes, and
meet with many students. Two techniques
can help alleviate the workload of correcting
written work.
• Have students work in groups to pro-
duce one piece of writing for each
group or to complete grammar exer-
cises together. This encourages com-
munication and also cuts down on the
number of papers the teacher must cor-
rect. Tell students that students within
a group will all receive the same grade
so that they will all take an interest in
producing something good.
• For all written work, have each student
go through the process of self-editing
and one or two rounds of peer edit-
ing before turning in the paper. This
decreases the amount of written assess-
ment that the teacher needs to provide.
(Students need to be trained to do peer
editing in a collaborative, uncritical
way. They may be resistant to the idea
of peer editing at first.)
2. Using pair and group work to encourage
cooperative learning
In Haiti, where the educational system
is traditionally based almost solely on rote
learning, and where the classroom is a highly
competitive place, convincing students of
the necessity of working cooperatively with
their peers is not an easy task. The tech-
niques described below suggest some ways
to get students to work together and remain
interested.
• Spend some time at the beginning of
the school year talking about language
learning and looking at the learning
process itself. If you can convince
students of the necessity of using the
language to communicate in order to
learn it well, they will be more will-
ing to try working in pairs or small
groups.
• When you introduce pair and group
work for the first time, plan simple
activities for very short periods of
time. At first, having students ask the
person next to them a pre-set question
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6/27/07 9:47:18 AM
 may be enough. The time spent on an
activity and the complexity of activities
can gradually be increased as students
become used to the routines.
• To limit the time it takes for students
to get into groups, have students work
with those next to them, or imme-
diately behind them. Seats can be
changed weekly or monthly in order to
allow students to work with different
classmates.
• Set up groups in advance and have
them stay together for several class
periods, which will avoid the time-con-
suming daily reorganization of groups.
Assign roles to group members so that
everyone in the group feels involved
in some way. For each activity, roles
should rotate among group members,
with different students acting as the
facilitator, secretary, recorder, time
keeper, and so on.
• Establish quiet signals to show students
when to start and stop activities. Stu-
dents must be trained to stop working
on a task when the teacher gives a sig-
nal by doing something such as raising
her/his arms, ringing a bell, or holding
up a stop sign. The teacher should
never try to out-shout 40 pairs of stu-
dents who are all speaking at once.
• Make one copy of handouts per group
or pair of students. This obliges stu-
dents to share and to work together,
and fewer copies are needed.
• If students are using too much L1
during pair or group work, ask them
to set a goal for L2 language use dur-
ing activities. At the end of the pair or
group work, ask students to evaluate if
they met their goal or ask group mem-
bers to evaluate each other. In most
cases, some use of the L1 in pair or
group work might be tolerated as long
as the students are on task and must
talk about and produce something in
English at the end of the activity.
• Teach students rules for polite com-
munication and make it clear that
this is what is expected when students
are working together in groups. One
member of the group can be put in
charge of monitoring correct forms of
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07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 15
address, turn-taking, and so on. Stu-
dents who do not follow the rules can
be expelled from the group and made
to stand at the back of the room.
• Give instructions clearly and careful-
ly, and check comprehension before
the pair or group work begins. Write
instructions on the board so groups can
refer to them as they progress. Model
the activity with a student.
3. Teaching with limited resources
Many students in developing countries do
not have textbooks. The only materials they
bring to class are a notebook and, sometimes,
a pen or pencil. The teacher usually has a
blackboard and chalk supplied by the school,
but no access to photocopies, no electricity,
and often little access to books. Many teach-
ers do not even have an English dictionary
or an English grammar book available. The
suggestions that follow can help overcome the
scarcity of resources.
• Rather than always writing notes on
the board for students to copy, try
some more interesting ways of getting
the necessary information into their
notebooks. For example, dictate the
information using a dictogloss, which
is a method where the students listen
twice to a passage read at normal speed,
taking notes during the second read-
ing. They then work with a partner to
try to reconstruct the text. When a pair
thinks they have it, they write the pas-
sage on the board and the class works
together to make it as close to the origi-
nal as possible. The teacher makes final
corrections, and the students correct
their work (Wajnryb 1990).
• Ask students to bring an item from
home to use as a talking or writing
point for the class. This can help
build community in the classroom and
encourage student responsibility and
participation in the activity.
• To save time during class, write texts or
questions on large sheets of newsprint
or brown paper before class rather than
writing on the board. In a very large
classroom, make two or three copies
that can be posted on the side or back
wall so everyone can see.
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 • Use pictures from magazines, or learn
to draw simple pictures to illustrate
vocabulary or to generate interest in
reading, speaking, or writing activities,
or as a basis for discussion. (1000+
Pictures for Teachers To Copy by Andrew
Wright is an excellent resource.)
• Bring realia—actual objects that
language learners can see, hear, and
touch—into the classroom. A teacher
can generate a great deal of interest
when he or she pulls surprising things
out of a bag!
• Use what the students themselves say as
input. For example, to practice chang-
ing direct to indirect speech, a student
can be asked a question, and another
student asked to report what was said
either orally or in writing. This can be
done in groups after a few examples
have been given to the whole class.
Or a topic can be given (for example,
“Food”) and the teacher can ask a few
students to make a statement about it.
The rest of the class then writes down
the sentences in a student-generated
dictation.
4. Motivating students in heterogeneous
classes
In a large class, it is easy for students to
feel alienated. If they feel that the teacher
does not know them or care whether or not
they learn, they will usually put very little
effort into participating actively in the learn-
ing process. Some ways to motivate students
of different language levels and ages in a large
class are described below.
• At the beginning of the year, include
some information about the impor-
tance of English as a world language,
either as a listening or a reading activ-
ity. Encourage students to brainstorm
reasons for learning English and the
advantages of being able to speak
another language.
• To keep more advanced students chal-
lenged, prepare an activity resource
notebook to keep in the classroom.
Students who finish activities quickly
can work on the supplementary activi-
ties while waiting for the rest of the
class to finish.
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07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 16
• To ensure that students speak up loud-
ly in class when answering questions or
making comments, the teacher should
move away from the student who is
speaking, rather than coming closer
to hear him or her better. In this way,
everyone should be able to hear and
remain involved.
• Adapt the material according to the
language level, age, and needs of stu-
dents. In multi-age, multi-level classes,
plan a variety of activities to appeal to
as many students as possible.
• Develop sequential activities with sev-
eral steps so that higher level students
complete more while lower level stu-
dents work at their own pace. When
preparing worksheets, add some option-
al sections for more advanced students.
• Use higher level students as assistant
teachers or monitors who can help and
support the lower level students.
• Prepare activities that allow students to
show their different skills and interests.
• As much as possible, be available to
students before and after class to estab-
lish personal relationships, so that they
feel that they are individuals in the eyes
of the teacher, not merely part of the
herd.
• Make students aware of the goals of
each learning activity. If they under-
stand why they are doing it, they will
participate more willingly.
• Make all activities success-oriented.
Students will participate willingly in
tasks that seem achievable. When they
have confidence in their success, they
will be motivated to try.
Below are descriptions of two large classes
we observed in Haiti, where teachers were
able to lead their students towards specific
learning outcomes while integrating some
student-centered activities and maintaining
discipline and interest.
Fanfan’s class
Fanfan walks into the classroom, a tall
unassuming man of about 35 with a bright
welcoming smile but a presence that says he is
in control. The students fill all of the approxi-
mately 100 desks of the classroom, which is
about the size of a U.S. living room. They
3 | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
6/27/07 9:47:18 AM
 go immediately to their assigned numbered
chairs, take their seats and turn toward the
cracked, peeling chalkboard. There isn’t any
of the fooling around that you would expect
among a group of American high school
students. These students know how lucky
they are to be at a public lycee (high school)
in Cap Haitian, Haiti. Only a small percent-
age of teenagers attend any high school, and
these students are among the luckiest since
they have gotten one of the prize places in the
public schools, which means no tuition pay-
ment. These students are all in their next to
last year and they will soon face the grueling
final exams that will determine if they pass
secondary school. (Only a few do.)
Fanfan gets the students ready to study
with a short song in English that he has
taught before and that the students love to
sing. He conducts the class, first all together,
then one half of the room, then the other half,
and then all together again. With the class
warmed up and ready for English, he writes
on the board five sentences using the simple
past, all with mistakes. The students’ task is
to find the mistakes in these sentences. There
is a comfortable buzz in the room as students
work alone and together. Then Fanfan, call-
ing on students from throughout the room
by name, has the students tell each other
the correct form. Students then copy down
the sentences and Fanfan tells a story using
the simple past, followed by comprehension
questions and then a written assignment. The
50 minutes pass quickly.
Emmanuel’s class
Emmanuel has squished himself into
one of the benches already filled with five
seventh grade students. He and the class
of 50 students are watching a group of six
students in the front of the class respond
to commands from another student. They
have just finished learning body parts and
basic commands. Emmanuel first worked
with a group in a fast paced drill of “Touch
your head, arm, nose, etc.,” and now he has
turned over to a student the task of giving
commands. Several groups and leaders get
a chance to perform, and Emmanuel selects
them as they quietly raise their hands. Some
call out “Me, teacher,” a great improvement,
Emmanuel notes, from the previous cries of
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 17
“Moi.” Emmanuel has encouraged them to
use English to communicate, and not just
for grammar exercises.
The students observing must listen careful-
ly to help disqualify any student who touches
the wrong body part based on the command.
The student who wins each round gets a small
star or heart sticker from Emmanuel’s collec-
tion. Unlike Fanfan’s classroom, where there
is no possible way for the teacher to move
around the room, Emmanuel can squeeze
down the aisles and monitor students’ work
as they take out their copybooks to work
on a group story they began the day before.
Students turn to face the bench behind them
to make groups of four. Emmanuel calls stu-
dents by name, remembering the stories they
have worked on before and encouraging the
shyer ones to participate.
One wall of Emmanuel’s classroom is
partially open to the courtyard of the school
so noise from other classes comes in. In the
middle of class, the electricity goes off, but
the students just continue their work in the
semi-darkness of the concrete walled room.
As the bell rings for the class to end, the stu-
dents cluster around Emmanuel to say good-
bye in English as he leaves to go on to another
class and another English lesson.
Conclusion
It is obvious that, given a choice, all teach-
ers would choose to teach in a classroom that
is bright and well equipped and is limited to
20 students who all have books and materials
to support their learning. That is not the situ-
ation in many classrooms in the world today,
and it will probably not be the situation for
years to come. In the meantime, as we have
tried to show, there are ways to make learn-
ing better, more fun, and easier for both the
teacher and the students. We cannot direct
the wind, but we can adjust the sails!
References
Baker, J., and H. Westrup. 2000. The English
language teacher’s handbook: How to teach large
classes with few resources. London: Continuum.
Hess, N. 2001. Teaching large multilevel classes. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Peace Corps. 1992. Teaching English as a foreign
language to large, multilevel classes. Washington,
DC: Peace Corps Information Collection and
Exchange. http://www.peacecorps.gov/library/
pdf/M0046_tefllarge.pdf.
Continued on page 34
| NUMBER 3 2007 17
6/27/07 9:47:19 AM
 Student-Centered… Susan Renaud, Elizabeth Tannenbaum, and Phillip Stantial
(Continued from page 17)

Ur, P. 1996. A course in language teaching: Practice ELIZABETH TANNENBAUM teaches

and theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Wajnryb, R. 1990. Grammar dictation. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Wright, A. 1994. 1000+ pictures for teachers to copy.
London: Nelson.
methodology and applied linguistics
courses in the MAT Program at the School
for International Training, Brattleboro,
Vermont. She has trained teachers in the
United States, Asia, the South Pacific, and
Haiti.

SUSAN RENAUD was a Soros Foundation

English Teacher Trainer in Haiti for seven
years. She has taught English and trained
English teachers in the United States,
Africa, Eastern Europe, and Asia. She
currently works as a trainer for the School
for International Training TESOL Certificate
Program.
PHILLIP STANTIAL administered an ESL
program in Florida for many years. More
recently, he has been involved in teacher
training. In addition, he has worked in
Peace Corps training and administration in
Eastern Europe and Central and Southeast
Asia.

ANSWERS TO THE LIGHTER SIDE

Fair Finds
16. watermelon
15. cotton candy
14. cherry pie
13. apple pie
12. squash
11. pumpkin
10. apricot
9. lettuce
8. potato
7. horse
6. corn
5. cake
4. goat
3. duck
2. cow
1. pig

34 2007 NUMBER 3 | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M

07-0003 ETF_30_34.indd 34 6/27/07 9:46:44 AM

An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources
Article by Susan Renaud, Elizabeth Tannenbaum, and Phillip Stantial

Study Guide by Yuliya Schmaltz From English Language Teaching Forum, 2007, Volume 45, Number 3

Retrieved 5 January 2018 from: https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/07-45-3-

c.pdf

Overview

English language classrooms in many developing countries often contain up to 100 students. In addition,
teachers who teach those classes have limited access to technology or teaching resources. This article
presents successful techniques used to teach English language in large classes. For the purposes of this
article, large classes are defined as having 50-80 students.

Advantages of Large Classes

Large classes provide students opportunities to interact. They enroll students of various talents and
abilities and they allow teachers to grow and develop professionally. A teacher may not be able to
attend to everyone, therefore students are more likely to collaborate and cooperate.

Challenges of Large Classrooms

Haitian teachers teaching large classes shared with authors of this article. Teachers identified that many
challenges were connected to managing the classroom. They discussed these four challenges:

1) Managing the classroom

Some challenges are connected to maintaining discipline. However, teachers noticed that if students are
interested in the course materials, they tend to stay active and engaged with their courses. They
recommended the following strategies to set and maintain classroom rules:

 Set classroom rules and ask students to comment on them and add the rules they consider
important. Students will more willingly follow the rules if they think they are fair.
 Use activities that appeal to different learning styles. They will keep the majority of students
engaged and interested.
 Establish routines such as class agendas, hand signals for quiet, change turns, and others.
 Pass sign in sheets at the start of the class or ask students to use name tents and collect them at
the end of each day.
 Create seating charts.
 Use one handout for a group of students to save resources.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-Centered Teaching in
Large Classes with Limited Resources for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered
by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this
license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by University of
Maryland Baltimore County
  Assign group roles to facilitate effective group work.

Other challenges are connected to checking a large amount of written work. Teachers recommended to:

 Ask each group to produce one written text, instead of asking every student to write one. This
also encourages collaboration and peer-review.
 Ask students to self-edit and have two peers edit their work.

2) Using a pair and group work to encourage collaboration

Teachers suggested some of the following techniques to encourage collaboration and interest in the
subject matter:

 Discuss the language learning process and the need to use language to communicate.
 Limit the time students spend getting into groups. Establish group schedules.
 Plan groups in advance. Assign roles such as facilitator, recorder, time keeper, and others.
 Create signals to communicate when activities start and stop. That eliminates the need for a
teacher to address students or raise his or her voice.
 Establish goals for using L2 and ask students to evaluate each other.
 Give clear instructions and ask students to summarize them back.

3) Teaching with limited resources

In some cases classroom resources may be limited to notebooks, pencils, blackboards and chalk. It is
possible to work around the lack of resources by doing the following:

 Ask students to bring an important object from their home and describe it/use it as a classroom
resource.
 Cut pictures from magazines or draw small pictures for teaching new vocabulary.
 Use objects learners can touch, smell, and pass around (realia).
 Ask students to use their own dialogues to create direct and indirect speech sentences.

4) Motivating students in heterogeneous classes.

It is important to get to know your students to make them comfortable and connected. Teachers
mention the following techniques to motivate their students:

 Prepare supplemental resource activities for more advanced students to keep them occupied if
they finish assignments early.
 Adapt materials according to students’ proficiency levels. The same source material can be used
when enhanced or adapted.
 Prepare sequential activities to allow more advanced students to complete higher order steps.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by University of
Maryland Baltimore County
  Use more proficient students to monitor activities and discussions.
 Be available before and after class to establish connections and build relationships with
students.

Conclusion

It is not always possible to have access to educational resources, but teachers can use realia, creativity,
and their students to create supplemental teaching resources.

Reference (OER)

Peace Corps. 1992. Teaching English as a foreign language to large, multilevel classes. Washington DC:
Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED358702.pdf

References (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Baker, J., and H. Westrup. 2000 The English language teacher’s handbook: How to teach large classes
with few resources. London: Continuum.

Hess, N 2001. Teaching large multilevel classes. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ur, P. 1996. A
course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge University Press.

Wajnryb, R. 1990 Grammar dictation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wright, A. 1994. 1000+ pictures for teachers to copy. London: Nelson.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by University of
Maryland Baltimore County
37
Quiz Instructions
Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on learner-centered classrooms, learner
differences, and communicative classroom management, try and match concepts with their
meaning. Take the quiz to test yourself!
This quiz is graded and it is worth 10 points. You are allowed multiple attempts to complete this
quiz. You must earn at least 7 points to unlock the next page.
This quiz must be completed online.

38
2.5 Lecture: Strategies-Based Instruction, Metacognition, and Critical
Thinking in Second Language Teaching

Read more about learner styles-and strategies-based instruction below.

39
Introduction
In order for students learn new skills and to retain, or keep, knowledge for a long time,
instructors use learning strategies in the classroom. When students engage with the course
content and use strategies to help them remember it, students can communicate better in their
new language and also become better language learners overall (Dale, 1946).
An Overview of Language Learning Strategies
Language learning strategies (LLS) are specific actions and steps that learners use to help them
remember information. They are important in the learning process and should be explicitly
taught by language teachers.
Learner strategies:

 allow learner to be self-directed

 expand the role of teachers
 are problem-oriented
 involve many aspects, not just the cognitive
 can be taught
 are flexible
 are influenced by many factors

40
(Oxford, 1990)
Types of Learning Strategies
There are three main types of learning strategies: metacognitive strategies (learners are
thinking about the process of learning), cognitive strategies (learners create strategies for
specific tasks or assignments) and socio-affective strategies (learners work together to get
knowledge). Here are specific classroom techniques to make learners aware of their learning:
Students can use Metacognitive Strategies like these:

 Identify words they don't know, or recognize where and when they don't understand.
 Tell a peer how they solved a comprehension problem
 Practice self talk by repeating a positive statement about their learning goals at the
beginning of each class.
 Students record what they learned at the end of each week in a learning log to track
progress.
 Students use a checklist to ensure that they meet all requirements for an assignment.
 Teacher assigns note takers for each class. The note taker can use the same graphic
organizer for each class. Keep a log of class notes that students can go back and look at.
 Teacher assigns a course “wrapper” who summarizes the material at the end of each class.

Student can use Cognitive Strategies like these:

 Categorize new vocabulary words into a graphic organizer to help remember them.
 Imagery: Drawing a picture to symbolize the new vocabulary word in a learning log.
 Repetition: Repeating a concept over and over again to help students remember.
 Music: Building a song, music video, etc. to help students remember.
 Students write synonyms (words with the same meaning) for unknown words.
 Read a paragraph several times for different purposes (main idea, details, to ask questions,
etc.)
 Use formulas and patterns to solve difficult grammar and spelling patterns.
 Use rhymes or special phrases to help remember new vocabulary.
 Use different colored pens to mark their work for different criteria.

Students can use Socio-Affective Strategies like these:

 Practice a 'Round Robin' activity where they form groups, then trade papers with other
groups in the class after each question to share multiple answers.
 Ask students to be peer models and model the correct way to perform the language.
 Assign certain students to teach class material to their classmates.
 In the classroom, display questions that students can ask their peers or themselves if they
need help.
 Appoint student roles in the class such as leader, note-taker, time keeper, etc.

41
Conclusion
Learning strategies and strategies-based instruction are designed to train students how to
continue their language learning beyond the classroom. Teachers are encouraged to develop
different activities that explicitly teach strategies and also take into consideration the various
styles of learners. The goal is for students to become independent learners.
Before any activity, instructors should ask themselves two questions:

1. What learning styles would be most beneficial in completing a task?

2. What learning strategies will my students need to complete this task successfully?

References (Copyrighted)

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers,

Retrieved from TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No.4 http://iteslj.org/Articles/Currie-MITheory.html
O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition, CUP.
Oxford, R. (1990a). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York:
Newbury House.

Read more about metacognition below.

Introduction
Metacognition is defined as thinking about thinking. According to Anderson (2002),
metacognitive learners are aware of their own thinking process and know which learning
strategies to use at different stages of their leaning process. They are able to learn more
effectively because they can self-direct their own learning. English language teachers can help
students become aware of their own learning processes, which will in turn help learners
become better learners. This highlights the importance of teaching students metacognitive
skills, as it gives them tools for learning and success.
Metacognition Model
Metacognition follows the sequence of thinking and reflective processes. They are:

 Preparing and planning for learning: It is important for students to be thinking ahead about
their learning process with certain learning goals in mind. Teachers can provide students
with specific and achievable learning goals. Then learners can assess their own progress

42
 against the established learning goals and objectives. Successful students are able to select
learning strategies and use metacognitive skills based on their learning situations.
 Selecting and Using Learning Strategies: When learners can identify and use learning
strategies to fit a their learning - they are metacognitively aware. Teachers should introduce
learners to a variety of strategies and techniques to choose from to do complex tasks.
Students need to be trained on how to best use these strategies, and they need to be aware
than no strategy will fit all their learning needs.
 Monitoring Strategy Use: Being able to monitor which learning strategy is used is another
characteristic of metacognitive learners. They need to do periodic self-checks to see
whether the strategy they selected is still the best one for the learning task. Instructors can
help students learn to monitor their strategy use by occasionally pausing and reflecting on
their learning process.
 Combining Various Strategies: Metacognitive learners can combine various matacognitive
skills. Such learners are able to connect, sequence, and coordinate multiple strategies to
achieve the desired learning outcome. Teacher-facilitators can make sure that students are
aware of the multiple strategies that are available to them for specific activities.
 Evaluating Strategy Use and Learning: Part of the metacognitive learning process involves
being able to assess whether the learning is happening effectively. Teachers can facilitate
such self-evaluation by asking prompting questions that will help learners connect the dots
between their intended learning goals and learning outcomes. Examples of such questions
include 'What am I trying to accomplish?', What strategies am I using?', 'How well am I
using them?'. and 'What else could I do?'

Conclusion
English language teachers are important in teaching metacognitve skills. They help learners
learn and practice metacognitive strategies, self-reflect, self-assess, and become better learners
(Anderson, 2002).
References (OER)
Anderson, N. (2002). The Role of Metacognition in Second Language Teaching and
Learning.ERIC DIGEST EDO-FL-01-10

Read more about Critical Thinking and Higher Order Thinking (HOT) skills below.

43
“Bloom’s Taxonomy” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site..

Introduction
Critical thinking is defined as a process of actively conceptualizing, analyzing, synthesizing and
evaluating information and knowledge by using observations, reason, experience and
communication to create guiding principles for action. It engages students at higher levels of
Bloom's taxonomy's cognitive domains of learning. Cognitive approach to teaching and learning
encourages the relationship between learner thinking and language. Students need to use
multiple thinking skills, such as problem solving, reflective and critical thinking, analyzing,
synthesizing and critiquing to learn language effectively. Language teachers can encourage
students to develop critical thinking skills by engaging them in a variety of activities that
promote such skill development (Üstünloğlü, 2004).
BICS and CALP
Using higher order thinking and critical thinking skills requires a certain type of academic
language proficiency which students can only develop through focused learning. Such academic
language differs greatly from the language we use for for social and every day
communication. Cummins (1994) first defined these types of language and language acquisition
as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language
Proficiency (CALP).

44
BICS: Basic interpersonal interactions are normally context imbedded, which means they are
happening in a specific setting. Interactions requiring BICS almost always occur in informal
social settings. They tend to not be cognitively demanding. A student can become proficient in
BICS in 6 months to 2 years after moving to the English speaking country.
Here are some examples of BICS learner-centered activities:

 Making an appointment with a doctor

 Communicating with a taxi driver
 Asking for directions
 Making restaurant reservations

Notice that all of these activities are happening in a particular context (i.e., they are context
embedded). If necessary, the teacher can provide pictures and illustrations to help learners
with vocabulary and with practicing talking about these topics.
CALP: CALP implies academic learning. The range of academic skills one needs to develop to be
cognitively proficient in academic English includes reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
These types of skills usually take from five to seven years to develop, as one requires time to
become proficient using English in specialty academic areas.
Academic language acquisition includes more than just understanding and being able to
produce content and appropriate vocabulary. It includes skills such as comparing, classifying,
synthesizing, evaluating, and inferring. Academic language tasks are context reduced.
Information is often acquired through reading or presented by a teacher. As student get older
the context for academic tasks becomes more and more reduced.
Here are some examples of CALP learner-centered activities:

 Writing a book review

 Conducting a debate
 Taking notes of an academic lecture
 Reporting on a political event

Notice that all of these activities are centered around more abstract concepts and events. They
are removed from the immediate context (i.e., the lecture may be on Ancient Greece, and it
may describe events that happened long ago). Students need to have a relatively high language
proficiency to be able to engage in such activities.
Conclusion
It is very important that English language teachers distinguish between BICS and CALP and
know what it takes to acquire these different sets of skills (Cummins, 1994). It is also important
to make a connection between CALP and helping learners develop critical thinking skills. CALP
allows learners to engage in Higher Order Thinking (HOT) activities and further develop their
academic skills and abilities.

45
References (OER)
Üstünlüoglu, E. Language Teaching Through Critical Thinking and Self Awareness
(Forum) https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/04-42-3-b.pdf (Links to an
external site.)Links to an external site.
Reference: (Copyrighted)

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Cummins, J. (1994). The Acquisition of English as a Second Language, in Spangenberg-Urbschat,

K. and Pritchard, R. (eds) Reading Instruction for ESL Students Delaware: International Reading
Association,

46
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2.5.1 Reading: Language Teaching Through Critical Thinking
Read this article published by American EnglishLinks to an external site.A study guide is
provided below.

Article 1. Teaching Language through Critical Thinking and Self-AwarenessLinks to an external

site.
The cognitive approach to teaching and learning encourages the relationship between learner
thinking and language. Students need to use multiple thinking skills, such as problem-solving,
reflective thinking, analyzing, and critical thinking to learn language effectively. Critical thinking
is defined as a process of actively conceptualizing, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating
information and knowledge by using observations, reason, experience and communication to
create guiding principles for action. This article presents ideas that language teachers can use to
encourage students to raise self-awareness and develop critical thinking skills.
For a study guide of the Üstünlüoglu', article click here

66
04-0219 ETF_02_07a 6/23/04 11:19 AM Page 2

Evrim Üstünlüoğ lu
T U R K E Y

Language
Teaching
through
Critical Thinking
and Self-Awareness

I N RECENT YEARS LANGUAGE TEACHERS HAVE FOCUSED ON THE ROLE OF THE

learner as an active participant in the teaching-learning process. Focusing on the

learner is a natural outgrowth of a change in orientation from behaviorist to cog-

nitive theories of learning. That change has highlighted what the learner does

and how the learner processes information during the lesson rather than focus-

ing on what the teacher does.

The outgrowth of the cognitive approach has been perceived in language

teaching together with reflections about the relationship between thinking and

language. Teachers who want to promote thinking should try to observe how

students produce knowledge rather than how they merely reproduce knowledge.

Producing knowledge requires the use of a number of thinking skills such as ana-

lytical, lateral, problem solving, critical, creative, and reflective thinking (Rose

and Nicholl 1997).

2 J U L Y 2 0 0 4 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
04-0219 ETF_02_07a 6/23/04 12:57 PM Page 3
Although thinking skills can be learned by
practicing, like playing tennis and swimming,
they require more effort than many teachers
realize. To emphasize thinking skills, a teacher
must organize course objectives well and must
be aware of his or her own values, perceptions,
assumptions, and judgments as well as those
of the learners as these are closely related to
thinking (Heuer 1999).
Various definitions of critical thinking exist.
All include many of the same concepts. Scriven
and Paul (1996) define critical thinking as “the
intellectually disciplined process of actively and
skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing,
synthesizing, and evaluating information gath-
ered from, or generated by, observation, experi-
ence, reflection, reasoning, or communication,
as a guide to belief and action.”
This article covers the rationale for critical
thinking followed by sample activities for
developing thinking skills. Critical thinking is
one of the thinking skills that should be high-
lighted in designing and improving language
curriculum because the world we live in is get-
ting more complicated to understand, and
how we process information has become more
important than specific facts. Taking this idea
into consideration, we language teachers can
encourage our students to go beyond surface
meaning and to discover the deeper meaning
instead of merely using basic literacy skills
(Van Duzer and Florez 1999).
How critical thinking can be improved
in language classes
Critical thinking skills are not likely to
develop spontaneously. On the contrary, teach-
ers must take a directive role in initiating and
guiding critical thinking. Language classes are
particularly appropriate for teaching critical
thinking owing to the richness of material and
the interactive approaches used.
Of the many concepts related to acquisition
and improvement of critical thinking, self-
awareness is one of the most important.
Through critical thinking and self-awareness,
one can understand the relationship between
thoughts and emotions. Although it is assumed
that they are independent, the truth is that feel-
ings are based on some level of thought, and
thoughts generate from some level of feeling.
Emotions play an important part in learning
because learners may bring learned indiffer-
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
ence, irrational fears, acquired hostility, and
inflexible ideas into the classroom so their
learning is limited to the surface (Paul and
Elder 2002; Kurland 2000).
Language teachers can activate critical
thinking in the classroom by highlighting self-
awareness; that is, they can help the learners
have and show understanding of themselves
and their surroundings. By means of interac-
tive approaches and materials, teachers can
help students be aware of their perceptions,
assumptions, prejudices, and values and can
help students break old habits to construct a
new point of view. It will take effort, but stu-
dents will enjoy discovering themselves as they
learn a language.
Perceptions
We hear, see, taste, or feel stimuli by ACTIVITY 1 • ILLUSTRATIONS
means of our senses. This process occurs so
spontaneously that we tend to think of per-
ception as a passive process. However, percep-
tion is an active rather than a passive process.
It enables us to construct, interpret, and make
conclusions about information we receive,
rather than simply to record “reality.” Percep-
tion is a process of making inferences.
Through inferences we construct our own
version of reality. However, our version of
reality may be distorted by our past experi-
ences, education, cultural values, and role
requirements (Heuer 1999).
To help the learner become aware of his or PICTURE A
her own perceptions and how they may differ
from those of others, language teachers can
use optical illusions in class. Activity 1 will
teach students different ways of seeing and
help them realize that people can perceive the
same things in different ways.
Activity 1 PICTURE B
Begin by showing the pictures (right) one
by one to your students and asking them what
they see. Most of them will say that they see a
picture of a woman (Picture A), some figures
(Picture B), and an old man on a boat (Picture
C). Be patient and wait for some students to
perceive the pictures in a different way (verti-
cally or upside down); give them time to dis-
cuss their perceptions with the other students.
After a while, ask students what else they per-
ceive. In all likelihood, some will say they see:
• The word Liar in Picture A (viewed diag-
onally). PICTURE C
J U L Y 2 0 0 4 3
04-0219 ETF_02_07a 6/23/04 11:19 AM Page 4
• The word LIFE in Picture B (seen by
focusing on the white spaces between the
black spaces).
• A large bird with a man in its mouth in
Picture C (when looking at the picture
upside down).
This activity will help students appreciate
that images can be perceived differently, not
only in language class but in real life as well.
Students enjoy the lesson, and they get an
opportunity to discuss what they have seen, to
learn vocabulary, and to practice structures
such as present continuous tense (e.g., “What
is the man in the boat doing?”).
Assumptions
Assumptions are ideas that a speaker or a
writer takes for granted, like axioms in math-
ematics. Ideas that ought to be examined are
assumed to be true, so it is possible to build an
argument that seems completely logical. How-
ever, if an initial premise is false, the result will
be wrong. By focusing on critical thinking
skills, language teachers can help students
identify their assumptions, consider whether
those assumptions are justifiable, and under-
stand how they shape students’ point of view.
Since associating personal interest with collec-
tive interest (assuming that what is good for
you is good for everyone) is a common trend,
clarifying assumptions is one of the basic steps
of critical thinking (Heuer 1999).
There are many techniques for revealing
assumptions. One is to have students read a
story and then explain their assumptions and
give their rationale for those assumptions. The
teacher must be careful not to label responses
as right or wrong, or students will be reluctant
to speak. The following joke can help make
students aware of their assumptions.
ACTIVITY 2
One hot summer afternoon, a deliveryman
drove up to a house, got out of his truck, and
started up the walk when he noticed a little
girl sitting on the steps. “Is your mother
home?” he asked her. The little girl nodded
and said, “Yes.” So the deliveryman went back
to his truck, slid out a large carton containing
a mattress and box spring, and carried the
heavy carton up the steps to the front door.
Red-faced and sweating, he pushed the door-
bell and waited. No one came to the door. He
4 J U L Y
smiled at the little girl and rang the bell again.
Still, no one answered. He waited and rang the
bell a third time, and when there was still no
sign of anyone in the house, he said to the girl,
“I thought you said your mother was home.”
“She is,” the girl replied, “but I don’t live
here.” (Boostrom 1994, 201)
After reading the joke, ask your students
the following questions:
• What made the deliveryman assume that
the house belonged to the little girl?
• Would you make the same assumption if
you were that deliveryman?
• What would you do to ascertain that the
house is the girl’s house or that anyone is
at home?
• Have you made any wrong assumptions
lately? What were they? What was wrong
with your assumptions?
Discuss with your students how difficult it
is to avoid making assumptions, and how
important it is, when thinking critically, to
consider the assumptions we make. Only by
doing so can we determine if an idea makes
sense. Teachers can use the “AFAN” formula
(Rose and Nicholl 1997) to help students ana-
lyze their assumptions. AFAN stands for:
A=assumptions, F=For, A=Against, N=Now
what? Each of the letters raises certain ques-
tions:
• A (Assumptions): What have I assumed?
What have I taken for granted? Do I
need more information? What are the
facts?
• F (For): What is the evidence for my
opinion? Is it good evidence? Is it a fact
or belief? What are the reasons for my
belief?
• A (Against): What are the alternatives to
my point of view? Can I see this another
way? What if my starting assumption is
wrong?
• N (Now what?): This is a question posed
to lead to a better assessment of the argu-
ment, one that may produce a better
final decision.
The AFAN formula can be easily applied
to most assumptions. Try the AFAN questions
with the deliveryman joke above.
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Prejudices
A major obstacle to critical thinking is preju-
dice. Everyone has some prejudices because we
all have ideas about what is true, false, right, or
wrong. Our prejudices related to patriotism,
race, religion, class, ethnicity, or gender affect the
way we think. To be a critical thinker does not
mean that one has no opinions; rather, it means
that one is alert to ideas that may change his or
her opinions. We language teachers should be
alert to data, information, and evidence used in
our classes to question our prejudices (Boostrom
1994). Activity 3 provides a way to do this.
ACTIVITY 3
This activity can be structured or less for-
mal, depending on the level of the students.
To make students aware of their prejudices,
give them concepts or certain words to con-
sider or open-ended sentences to complete.
For example, ask your students what feelings,
ideas, or opinions occur to them when they
hear the following words or phrases:
School or School is a place where I
_____.
Women or Women should _____.
Teachers or Teachers are always _____.
Marriage or Marriage is never _____.
Education or Education is _____.
Students can be made aware of their preju-
dices and those of their classmates by dis-
cussing their responses.
Values
Critical thinkers are thinkers who are aware
of the values on which they base their judg-
ments. Learners should be shown ways to iden-
tify their values because how students judge
what is said or written may depend on whether
they share the values of the speaker or author.
ACTIVITY 4
Have students write or discuss their five
most important values, and have them rank
those values from most important to least
important. First, act as a model for your stu-
dents by stating what you value. Here are
examples of some things you might say:
• I value family, friends, money, educa-
tion, and career.
• Family is most valuable to me because
my family has supported me throughout
my life.
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M J U L Y
• My friends are valuable to me because,
through them, I can share my happiness,
unhappiness, and other important matters.
• Money is valuable to me because it
enables me to live comfortably.
• Education is important to me because it
excites me and makes me a more inter-
esting person.
• My career is valuable to me because peo-
ple respect me for what I do.
Ask your students to state what they value
in order of importance. Make sure they give
their reasons. This activity will help make stu-
dents aware of their values and why they have
certain ones. The exercise also gives them
practice in speaking and listening to English.
Breaking habits
Habits can be quite useful, especially habits
that we repeat regularly, such as when we eat
our meals and how we go to school each day.
Without habits we could spend much of our
time deciding what to do next. On the other
hand, when we need to think imaginatively or
critically, we have to break habits. A good
thinker does not get stuck in a rut. Good
thinkers are imaginative; when one method
does not work, they try a new one. Instead of
seeing things only one way, they see many pos-
sibilities. When good thinkers make plans,
they are also willing to break them to follow a
better idea. They create “versions” instead of
only one way (Boostrom 1994, 123).
To practice creating new thought patterns,
have your students do the following activities.
They may help students break habits of nega-
tive thinking.
ACTIVITY 5
Ask students to keep an appreciation jour-
nal in which they write about everything they
appreciate about themselves, their lessons, or
even their teachers. If they look puzzled, direct
them by giving them the following sentences
to complete:
• I like English lessons because _____.
• I appreciate my family because _____.
• I love the way my friend speaks with me
because _____.
• I enjoy school because _____.
It could be an interesting experience to find
at least one positive sentence even from stu-
2 0 0 4 5
04-0219 ETF_02_07a 6/23/04 11:19 AM Page 6
dents who say they hate school or learning a
foreign language.
ACTIVITY 6
Shifting perspective is another way to break
habitual negative thinking. The following
activity requires students to use language that
describes what they want. For example, instead
of saying “I don’t want to be sick anymore,”
they can say “I want to be healthy.” (Note that
the former focuses on sickness, while the latter
focuses on health.) Likewise, “I don’t want to
fail in English class” may be changed to “I want
to succeed in English class.”
Ask your students to write or say as many
sentences as they can that shift their negative
opinions to positive ones. Also ask them to
state why they want to transform negative
habits into positive ones. As a follow-up activ-
ity, discuss the benefits that students receive
from positive thinking.
A new point of view
We think that the way we see things is
exactly the way things are because of the influ-
ence of egocentricity. Egocentricity is the
inability or unwillingness to consider other
points of view. It results in a refusal to accept
new ideas, views, or facts. Trying to see a new
point of view—or at least being open to seeing
something differently—is an important strate-
gy for critical thinking (Boostrom 1994, 39).
Considering a variety of possible view-
points or perspectives, remaining open to
alternative interpretations, accepting a new
explanation, coming to a conclusion, and cre-
ating a new point of view are goals that can be
achieved in language classes to activate critical
thinking. Carefully chosen activities will help
students identify their points of view, seek
other points of view and identify strengths and
weaknesses of those points of view, and strive
to be fair-minded in evaluating all points of
view (Paul and Elder 2002). Activity 7 can be
used to practice a new point of view.
ACTIVITY 7
1. Divide your class into 3 groups (If your class
is large, you can have more than 3 groups.)
2. Give each group Form A, Form B, or Form
C, each of which represents a philosophy.
Instruct the group members to communi-
cate with each other as if they believe in the
philosophy represented on their form.
6 J U L Y
• Form A: You believe that human beings
are fundamentally bad and brutal, have
animal-like instincts, and always look
for pleasure. The best way to control
human beings is to threaten and punish
them.
• Form B: You believe that human beings
are fundamentally good and can realize
their potential if they are not prevented
from doing so. There is no need to con-
trol human beings. The only thing to do
is to show them love and understanding.
• Form C: You believe that human beings
are neither good nor bad. Society and
the environment they live in determine
whether they will be good or bad. The
way to control human beings is to per-
suade and reward them.
3. Each group of students is a jury that will
decide on a punishment for a suspect who
is 25 years old, has lost his wife and his job,
and has sole responsibility for the care of
his 10-year-old son. Explain that the sus-
pect was caught stealing food that costs
$40. Each group must judge the man’s
actions and decide his punishment accord-
ing to the philosophy assigned to them
(even if they do not believe that philoso-
phy). They should not show their form to
other groups.
4. Give the students 10 to 15 minutes for dis-
cussion. Then ask each group leader to pre-
sent the group’s verdict to the entire class.
5. After each group gives its verdict, ask the
group members how they felt having to
support a view they don’t believe in or lis-
ten to a point of view they don’t share.
6. End the activity by asking the students
which philosophy actually appeals to them
and why.
Evaluation
Evaluation is an important element of criti-
cal thinking. Critical thinkers use evaluation to:
• become aware of their values and to
understand why they are values.
• consider different points of view.
• recognize the difference between evi-
dence and interpretation when exploring
assumptions.
• check the limits of their knowledge.
2 0 0 4 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
04-0219 ETF_02_07a 6/23/04 11:19 AM Page 7
• distinguish between prejudice and fact.
Because evaluation is an important part of
critical thinking, teachers should focus their
assessment efforts on important learning
goals, not just those that are easily measurable.
Evaluation should be related to valid, reliable,
useful information (Gersten 1996).
During the process of evaluation, the num-
ber of questions to ask is limitless, but you can
select questions according to the level of
thinking you want your students to follow.
Thorpe (1992) categorizes questions into four
types: summary and definition, analysis,
hypothesis, and evaluation. To promote criti-
cal thinking, teachers should ask their students
analysis, hypothesis, and evaluative questions
instead of summary and definition questions.
In reading lessons especially, teachers have the
opportunity to apply these categories. Activity
8 describes some possibilities.
ACTIVITY 8
Read the following narrative to your stu-
dents:
Rain Forests
In the rain forests of the tropics, native
peoples have been losing their land rapidly to
development. Companies that invest in the
rain forest have been taking over large areas of
land for logging, agriculture, cattle raising,
and mining. When the forest disappears, so
does the indigenous way of life.
Foreign investment has been increasing the
demand for forest products, but it hasn’t
brought the land itself back under native con-
trol. Corporations from industrialized nations
have been inviting tribes to participate in the
rain forest harvest, to gather nuts or copaiba
oil. This cooperation with outside companies
has been changing the native culture. More
native people have been working for foreign
bosses and have been selling products to for-
eign markets, rather than to traditional local
markets. Companies that have been advertis-
ing rain forest products have been selling
products such as hair conditioner and skin
creams. Consumers are eager to support prod-
ucts that can benefit native people without
harming the forest, and they are happy to hear
that some profits return to the rain forest
countries.
However, some native peoples are cautious.
They feel that reliance on foreign markets
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
weakens their independence. They ask why
they need the foreign companies and what
benefits come from foreign markets. They
have been selling diverse forest products in
their own local markets for years and have
been conserving the forest at the same time.
Native people have been asking for protection
of the rain forest and preservation of their tra-
ditional lifestyle (adapted from Corry 1993).
Make sure that all students understand the
reading, including key vocabulary. As a follow
up activity, ask such questions as the following:
Analysis Questions:
• Why have native people been losing their
land?
• What are the reasons for companies to
invest in the rain forests?
• What are the reasons for some native
peoples to be cautious?
• What is the main concern related to the
foreign companies that have invested in
rain forests?
Hypothesis Questions:
• What would happen if the foreign com-
panies hadn’t invested in rain forests?
• What will happen if foreign companies
continue to invest in rain forests?
Evaluation Questions:
• Is it logical or illogical for native people
to work for foreign bosses?
• Do the foreign companies make the for-
est and native ways of life disappear?
• What is your solution to the conflict?
• What are the advantages or disadvan-
tages for native people working for for-
eign companies?
The questions above motivate students to
think critically more than summary and defi-
nition questions, such as:
• Who has been losing the land rapidly to
development?
• What are the big foreign companies
doing on large areas of land in the rain
forests?
• Who is concerned about the investment
of foreign companies in rain forests?
Classroom climate contributes to critical
thinking. In an open and democratic class-
room, students feel free to express their opin-
ions and feel confident doing so. In such class-
➪ 15
J U L Y 2 0 0 4 7
04-0219 ETF_12_15a 6/23/04 11:20 AM Page 15
EFL teacher may wish to adapt and use some or
all of them in the manner of the first 36 lessons.
However, it is Bloomfield and Barnhart’s two
preparatory steps and first 36 lessons that
address the basic obstacles faced by speakers of
non-Romanized languages when learning to
read English.
Conclusion
Over 100 years ago, Henry Sweet (1899,
35), the leading British philologist of his day,
wrote that, “…the greatest help in learning an
alphabet is to establish definite associations
between the symbol and its sound.” His claim
has never been seriously challenged, and
Bloomfield and Barnhart’s text, still in print
after 43 years, establishes those definite associa-
tions—associations which happen to be the
major obstacle faced by learners whose L1 is a
non-Romanized language. With the minor
modifications suggested above, teachers can use
Bloomfield and Barnhart’s two preparatory
steps and first 36 lessons to successfully teach
reading to these learners.
Notes
1. In these examples, c and k both designate
the same English phoneme [k]. This will be
a difficulty later, when the student learns to
L a n g u a g e Te a c h i n g … | Üstünlüoğlu
continued from page 7
activate and develop critical thinking in their
students, language teachers need to set up
tasks and activities and adjust their teaching
programs and materials to promote such
thinking. Teaching language through critical
thinking enables learners to recognize a wide
range of subjective analyses, to develop self-
awareness, and to see linkages and complexi-
ties they might otherwise miss.
References
Boostrom, R. 1994. Developing creative and critical
thinking. Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Text-
book Company.
Corry, S. 1993. The rain forest harvest: Who reaps
the benefits? The Ecologist, 23 (4):48–153.
Gersten, R. 1996. The double demands of teaching
English language learners. Educational Leader-
ship, 53 (5):18–22.
Heuer, J. R. 1999. Psychology of intelligence analy-
sis. CIA: Center for Study of Intelligence. http:
//www.cia.gov/csi/books/19104/index.html
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M J U L Y
write (and discovers that /c/ can also have
the sound /s/), but is not a problem now.
2. q and x should not be used in initial
lessons—q because it occurs in connection
with an unusual value of the letter u (for w),
and x because it represents two phonemes
(ks or gz).
3. It is curious that rhyme is a common lin-
guistic feature in readers for children but is
only rarely used in EFL readers. Bloomfield
and Barnhart’s use of rhyme helps EFL
learners master and distinguish English
phonemic values, a particularly difficult
task for adult learners.
References
Bloomfield, L. and C. L. Barnhart. 1961. Let’s read:
A linguistic approach. Detroit: Wayne State Uni-
versity Press.
Sweet, H. 1899. The practical study of languages.
London: Oxford University Press.
Ur, P. 1996. A course in language teaching. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
SCOTT ALKIRE has taught English as a For-
eign Language for the Open Society Fund
in the Czech Republic and Bosnia-Herze-
govina. He is currently researching polyglots
in Central Europe.
Kurland, D. 2000. How the language really works:
The fundamentals of critical reading and writ-
ing. http://www.critical-reading.com/
Paul, R. and L. Elder. 2002. The elements of criti-
cal thinking. http://www.criticalthinking.org/
university/helps.html
Rose, C. and M. J. Nicholl. 1997. Accelerated learn-
ing for the 21st century. New York: Dell Publishing.
Scriven, M. and R. Paul. 1996. Defining critical
thinking: A draft statement for the National
Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking.
http://www.criticalthinking.org/university/
univclass/Defining.html
Thorpe, J. 1992. Methods of inquiry programme.
Toronto: Ryerson Polytechnic Institute.
Van Duzer, C. and M. C. Florez. 1999. Critical lit-
eracy for adult English language learners. Wash-
ington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy
Education. ERIC Digest EDOLE9907.
EVRIM ÜSTÜNLÜOĞLU is an assistant profes-
sor at the Faculty of Education, Educational
Sciences Department at Balikesir University,
Turkey.
2 0 0 4 15
 An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for:
Teaching Language through Critical Thinking and Self-Awareness
Article by Evrim Üstünloğlü
Study Guide by Yuliya Schmaltz
From English Language Teaching Forum,
https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/04-42-3-b.pdf
Definitions

Prejudice: an unreasonable dislike of or preference for a person, group, custom, etc., especially when it
is based on their race, religion, sex, etc.

Egocentric: thinking only about yourself and not about what other people need or want.

Perspective: a particular attitude towards something; a way of thinking about something.

All definitions come from the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary online.

Overview

Cognitive approach to teaching and learning encourages the relationship between learner thinking and
language. Students need to use multiple thinking skills, such as problem solving, reflective thinking,
analyzing, and critical thinking to learn language effectively. Critical thinking is defined as a process of
actively conceptualizing, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating information and knowledge by using
observations, reason, experience and communication to create guiding principles for action. This article
presents ideas that language teachers can use to encourage students to raise self-awareness and
develop critical thinking skills.

Ways to Improve Critical Thinking in Language Classrooms

Language teachers can help students develop critical thinking and emphasize self-awareness by using
activities that fall into the seven categories below.

Perceptions

Feelings and emotions allow students to construct meaning and make conclusions based on the
information they receive. To raise student awareness of their own perceptions, instructors can use
pictures that can be interpreted or perceived differently by different students (i.e., optical illusions). By
doing this activity, students can learn that images and events can be perceived and interpreted
differently.

Assumptions

Assumptions are interpretations that a person believes to be true, but they are based on personal
experiences. Language teachers can help learners reveal their assumption and examine alternate points
of view. Teachers can select stories that allow multiple interpretations and ask students to read and

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Teaching Language
through Critical Thinking and Self-Awareness for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State
and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where
noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
discuss rationales for their assumptions. Students will see that their assumptions may be different from
other students’ assumptions.

Prejudices

Prejudices can interfere with critical thinking as they are based on personal ideas about race, religion,
gender, class and other concepts. Teachers can help students recognize their prejudices by asking
thought provoking questions and asking students to define certain roles and categories.

Values

Values serve as foundations for making judgements. Language teachers can ask students to identify
their values and give reasons behind them. Students will be able to see that they agree or disagree with
the speaker or a text depending on what they believe about the topic being discussed.

Breaking Habits

Habits can be useful for the learning process, as they are based on routines and repetitions. Teachers
can help students break their negative habits by doing written or oral exercises to shift perspectives on
events and people. For example, instead of saying ‘I do not want to be social’ one can say ‘I want to
spend some time on my own’.

A new Point of View

People tend to be egocentric – or unwilling to consider other’s point of view. Language teachers can
facilitate students’ openness to consider other perspectives and view points. They can create scenarios
and role plays when students are assigned various perspectives, have to consider and defend them.
Students can provide their justification for assigned points of view which can be quite different from
their own.

Evaluation

Instructors can select texts that contain complex problems and ideas, and that engage students at
higher levels of critical thinking. Instead of asking knowledge and recall questions, such texts can engage
learners in an analysis (breaking down ideas into component parts), synthesis (combining ideas from
different sources or points of view), and evaluation (providing personal interpretation) levels.

Conclusion

Language teachers can play a critical role in helping their students develop critical thinking abilities and
raise self-awareness. They can do that by selecting appropriate texts and exercises that highlight
students’ values, challenge their points of view Such activities can also effectively engage students in
problem solving, reflective thinking, analyzing, and critical thinking to facilitate language learning
process.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
References

Üstünlüoglu, E. (2004). Language Teaching Through Critical Thinking and Self Awareness. English
Teaching Forum, 42(3),2-8. https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/english-teaching-forum-2004-
volume-42-number-3.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
2.6 Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in American
Classroom

Critical Thinking Skills in American Classrooms

Overview
There has been a continuous emphasis on teaching critical thinking (i.e., higher order thinking
skills - HOTs) in U.S. classrooms. Critical thinking standards and objectives are now part of state
and national curricula. U.S. teachers are specifically focusing on teaching critical thinking
strategies across disciplines. As part of this overall emphasis, English language (ESL/ESOL)
teachers play an important role in helping students develop critical thinking through exposure
to extensive English language practice.
Directions: Read this section about learner-centered practices that encourage critical thinking.
This section also contains examples of actual strategies English teachers can use to encourage
higher order thinking skills. There is an optional discussion board following this reading where
you can on HOT skills and strategies you use as part of your classroom.
Way to Encourage Critical Thinking Skills
The general shift to learner-centered American classrooms promotes acquisition of critical
thinking skills in the following ways:

 Teachers act as facilitators and engage in problem solving with students, instead of offering
solutions that students can use.
 Teachers emphasize the importance of 'how' over 'what'. In other words, they emphasize
the importance of knowing how to get the right answers or how to construct a response
based on own knowledge and experience over knowing the right answer.

77
 Students are not expected to memorize facts, but they are encouraged to think about how
they can connect to big ideas and apply their existing knowledge to new situations.
 Teachers emphasize that mistakes are a normal part of the learning process. We can learn
from our mistakes if we have the right attitude.
 We distinguish between feedback and grades. Feedback provides constructive suggestions
on how the work can be improved; grades assign a specific value for the work done.
 Class participation is expected and it is often a part of the course grade.
 Final projects are often group centered to allow learners an opportunity to engage and
display their knowledge and apply their skills collectively.
 Assignments often require research and problem solving.
 Tasks and assignments that require HOTs often presume no right answer, but they
encourage students to justify their responses.

Examples of Teaching Strategies that Encourage Critical Thinking Skills

Here are some specific examples of teaching strategies that encourage critical thinking skill
development:

 Start lessons and activities with a question: Phrase the questions to elicit open ended
responses that encourage students to draw on their experiences, make inferences, and
connect to prior knowledge.
 Brainstorm prior to teaching new material: Ask students to think about what they are
about to learn before they engage with an activity. Ask many questions; allow students to
explore and connect ideas.
 Compare and contrast: Allow students an opportunity to examine the topic closely and
consider its components by comparing it with other topics. Students can compare and
contrast everything they learn about (i.e., today’s topic and yesterday’s topic, main
character they are reading about to another character, objects they interact with to other
objects at school or at home).
 Classify and categorize: Students will practice understanding and applying rules while
engaging in classifying activities. You can ask them to sort objects, words, and definitions
into different categories based on common characteristics. Students think and reason whith
themselves while classifying.
 Make connections: Students can be continuously making connections between what they
read and learn about and real life situations. They practice critical thinking by identifying
patterns between objects, concepts, and events.
 Assign group work: Team work promotes discussion, debates, negotiations and healthy
arguments. Learners will practice these critical thinking skills while collaborating with each
other on common projects.
 Use role playing: Role playing requires students to step into someone else's shoes and
consider different points of view. They may need to assume opinions and perspectives they
disagree with, and, therefore, they will be asked to consider those. This can help learners be
creative and analytical.

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How might you include strategies like this in your classroom?

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Strategy for Teaching Diverse Learners
Now that you are familiar with learner-centered instruction, learner differences and critical
thinking, it is time to reflect on the module! Some of the questions in this graded survey
are open-ended, meaning that they require a full answer, drawing on your own knowledge or
feelings. You are encouraged to draft your answers somewhere else, so that you can save them
and revisit your thoughts later. Then, you can copy/paste or type in your responses to the
survey. This will give you a chance to take some time to reflect on the answers. Remember, the
purpose of this survey is for you reflect on your own. You will NOT receive instructor feedback
on this activity.

This survey contains five questions and you can earn a maximum of 10 points. You are allowed
multiple attempts to complete this activity. This survey must be completed online.

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Module 2 Check

Quiz Instructions
licensed under a Pixabay License. (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. It is free to
use and share.
Please answer one question to verify that you have completed all activities in Module 2. You
must choose "yes" in order to move on in the course. This quiz will count as 1 point toward
your grade.
This quiz must be completed online.

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