CHAPTER 1
Ergonomics or human factors- is an interdisciplinary
science that deals with the interaction of people with
object they use.
Ergonomics-study of the interaction between human
beings and the objects they use and the environment in
which they function.
Design for human use- the emphasis is one the use of
human made objects, equipment, machines and
system.
Central focus- is the consideration of human beings in
the design of objects, machinery, and environments.
Objectives- are to increase the effectiveness of the
resulting human machine system while maintaining
human well-being.
Central approach- is the systematic application of
available data on human characteristics to the design of
such system
Central theme- fitting the task to the person keeping in
mind at all time what people can and will do.
Ergonomist and human factor specialist- a person
whose primary responsibility is to deal with ergonomics
problem in an organization
Anthropometric- relates to dimensional conflict
between functional space geometry and human body.
-deals with the measurement of linear body
dimension, including weight and volume.
Cognitive- problems arise when there is either
information overload or under load.
-The solution is to complement machine
functions with human functions.
Musculoskeletal- problems that strain the muscular and
skeletal systems.
-solution is to provide job performance aids or
re-design the job.
Cardiovascular- stress on the circulatory system,
including heart. (paced muscular work and work under
heat stress.)
-solution is to re-design the job to protect the
worker and job rotation
Psychomotor- strain the psychomotor systems.
-Solution is to redefine job requirements to suit
human capabilities.
CHAPTER 2
Management- its function is to set business objectives
consistent with company policy and market conditions.
-leadership for both technical and
administrative resources.
Technical and administrative resources- provides
nontechnical support to the business.
Operating functions- responsible for executing the daily
functions of the production facilities.
Productivity increase- should be linked to cost
reduction or increases in output with a constant cost
structure.
Social responsibility- this could span a range from
appeals to the social consciousness of the firm to the
legal responsibilities.
Ergonomics group- either be formally assembled by
management or may start from a grass roots
movement.
Task force- may also be recognized across various
departments including medical, safety, manufacturing,
management etc.
Size of the group- depends on many factors, such as
degree of management support, severity of problems.
Internal expansion- refers to adding personnel to the
function.
External expansion- refers to educating other
professionals in the field, especially designer and
engineers.
Corrective work- first and most prevalent.
Preventive work- Second and less prevalent.
Responsibilities- first is the safety and health, second is
performance issues and third is projects.
Available help- the group may obtain from various
resources carrying out its work.
CHAPTER 3
Human being- engaged in many different types of
activity (work related, leisure, sports)
Human activity continuum- can be developed for the
purpose of categorizing and quantifying strain.
Physical activities- emphasis is on muscular functioning.
Psychomotor activities- involve light muscular work
with loading on the sensory system.
Mental tasks- cognitive functions with secondary
loading on sensory mechanisms.
Human productivity- is low at low levels of stress.
Musculoskeletal system- provides the primary
components for muscular activity. It is composed of
bones, muscles, and connective tissue.
Bones- there are 206 bones that establish the
framework of human structure.
-gives body its structure.
Muscles- moving among the major pre requisites of
human activity, among the several different types of
muscles.
Skeletal muscles- most concern to ergonomist.
Metabolism- needed to provide the necessary energy
to the musculoskeletal system.
-chemical process of conversion of food into
mechanical work and heat.
Dynamic effort- this type is characterized by rhythmic
contraction and relaxation of the muscles involved.
(Turning a hand wheel to open a valve)
Static effort- characterized by prolonged state of
contraction, which restricts blood flow to the muscle
tissue (holding a box in static posture).
For MEN- a maximum time-weighted average of
5kcal/min
-a maximum time-weighted heart rate average
of 120 beats/min.
For WOMEN- a maximum time-weighted average of
4kcal/min
-a maximum time-weighted heart rate average
of 110 beats/min.
Fatigue- a natural result of work that is physically and
mentally demanding is fatigue.
-occurs during or after work.
S- Accepted standard
4kcal/min for males------5kcal/min for females
BM- basal metabolism
1.7 kcal/min for male------1.4 kcal/min for female
Strength- is the maximum force that one can exert
voluntarily.
Dynamometer- use to measure strength.
Static strength- is measured at static postures, such as
standing or seated.
Dynamic strength- is measured during work.
Occupational biomechanics- deals with mechanical and
motion characteristics of the human body and its
elements.
-as a field of science, that studies the
interrelationship between workers and their tools,
workplaces.
Kinesiology- study of human motion.
Flexion- decreasing the angle between body parts.
Extension- increasing the angle between body parts.
Adduction- movement toward the middle of the body.
Abduction- moving away from mid body.
Pronation- face down or palm-down position
Supination- face of palm up position.
Cumulative trauma disorders (CTD’s)- are disorders of
the softer tissue due primary to repeated use.
Unnatural joint posture- anytime a joint forced to
assume unnatural position, the risk of CTD is increased.
Forceful application- application of forces through
hinge joints notable increases injury potential.
Repetition of activity- high repetitive tasks of short
duration post more risk to the employee than do other
jobs.
Individual factors- these include arthritis, peripheral
circulatory disorders and small/hand wrist size.
Prevention techniques- include administrative and
engineering controls.
Administrative controls- span job rotation, warming
exercises, controlling pre-existing condition and
removing time and pace pressures.
Engineering controls- include automation, job and
workplace redesign.
Bursitis- is the inflammation of a bursa. It may happen
at any extensively used part of the body.
Bursae- are pad like sacks found in the vicinity of joints.
Tendonitis- is inflammation of a tendon due to
excessive use, especially when trapped. It is a very
common CTD.
Synovitis- is tendon sheath irritation. Tendon sheaths
provide lubrication and nutrition to the tendon.
Tenosynovitis- is another common CTD. It is the
inflammation of both the tendon and its sheath.
Stenosing- Tenosynovitis-crepitans- is Tenosynovitis
with swelling that interferes with tendon movements
and causes snapping and jerking movements.
Stenosing- Tenosynovitis- is the accompanying swelling
and constriction of the tendon and sheath.
Ganglionic cyst- is a tendon disorder that manifest itself
as a blister containing synovial fluid that shows up as a
bump on the wrist.
Trigger finger- develops when a finger is used
excessively against sharp edges.
deQuervain’s phenomenon- manifest itself as
tendonitis at the base of the thumb.
Raynaud’s phenomenon- is also known as vibration-
induced white fingers.
Ischemia- is obstruction of blood flow. Leads to
numbness and tingling of fingers.
Carpal tunnel syndrome- Is a common CTD caused by
repetitive and forceful application of the wrist and joint
extremes.
Neuritis- occurs when a nerve is inflamed.
Manual material handling- a major portion of human
physical activity in industry.
Epidemiological approach- characterized the job,
workplaces and other factors in order to derive
significant trends that may lead to incidents/injuries.
Biomechanical approach- characterizing forces and
moments on various body elements.
Psychophysical methods- adjust the lead and task
characteristics in order to arrive at a set up that is
acceptable to them.
Physiological approach- evaluates a given handling task
in terms of physiological parameters.
-this could be evaluated through physiological
responses, such as oxygen consumption, heart rate and
blood pressure.
NIOSH ( A Work Practice Guide for Manual Lifting )- is
the most comprehensive approach to controlling the
adverse health effects of lifting loads that are
symmetrically balance in front of the body.
CHAPTER 4
Stimuli- distant or close sources of energy, such as light,
thermal, mechanical, chemical, sound energy and etc.
Exteroceptors- five classic senses (vision, audition,
smell, taste and touch)
Proprioceptors- are stimulated by the actions of the
body itself.
-embedded within the subcutaneous tissue,
such as in the muscles and tendons, around the joints
and in the inner ear.
Sound- excites the auditory channels.
Light- excites the visual channels.
External stimuli- provide “data” that are sensed by the
human.
Light- visually evaluated radiant energy. It is estimated
that people acquire 80% of the information through the
visual channels.
Eye- is globe about 2.5 in diameter or 1inch.
Six muscles attach to the eyeball by means of ligaments.
Internal factors- relate to the human’s physiological
characteristics.
Visual acuity- is the sharpness of vision. It is the ability
to see final detail.
Dark adaptation- when moving from a dark
environment to a well-lighted environment, human eye
adapts to the new condition in a few seconds.
-it takes up to 40 minutes to adapt to dark.

20/100 vision indicates poor vision. Blind spot- if the image of an object falls only on the
optic nerve, the object cannot be seen.
20/15 vision is better than perfect.
Peripheral vision- color is perceived well within +/- 62
Visual acuity- depends on several factors including the
degrees of the normal line of sight for a horizontal
shape of the eyeball and the flexibility of the lens.
visual field
Nearsightedness and farsightedness- are anomaly that
+/- 35 degrees of the normal line of sight for a vertical
is caused primarily by the loss of flexibility of the lens.
visual field
Normal near vision- requires that the lens assume a
Normal line of sight (NLS)- this is the direction of gaze
bulged condition.
when one is looking at an object.
Normal far vision- calls for the lens to assume a flat
NLS is in general 10 to 15 degrees below the true
condition. Lens remains in that flat state even for near
horizontal.
objects.
External factors- bright contrast, color contrast, amount
Depth perception- a special form of visual acuity,
of light, duration and movement of target, glare,
stereoscopic acuity, is the ability to see depth
surrounding, brightness, color, size, position.
Near point of accommodation-as an object is brought
Ear- it is estimated that 15 to 19% of information is
close to the eyes, the object will be seen as two objects.
acquired by the auditory channel.
-it is the nearest point of accommodation
-Is sensitive to frequencies between 20 and
without losing details of object.
20,000 Hz. This is the audible range.
Phorias- when one looks at an object, the two eyes
Frequency- is the number of alterations in sound
converge on the object.
pressure per unit time caused by changes in density of
-Two images are fused and one sees only one air molecules.
object.
-also associated with the human sensation of
-don not see double images. pitch.

-they are vulnerable to rapidly developing visual
fatigue.
Cones- are the ones sensitive to color.
Males- are more apt to have color blindness.
Monochromats- truly colorblind people cannot see any
color. They see the environment in various shades of
gray.
Monochromaticity- is a rare condition.
Dueteranopes- lack the green catching pigment in their
cones.
Hertz (Hz)- measure of frequency in cycles per second.
Intensity- associated with human sensation of loudness.
Decibels (dB)- measures loudness.
Skin senses- can be used as warning media and are
used to extensively for blind person.
Olfactory (smell) sense- is simple in anatomical
structure but complex in its functioning.
Selection of sense modality- it is estimated that around
95% of the information that people gather is channeled
through either eyes or the ears.

Protanopes- lack the red catching pigment. Detectability- the code must be detectable by the
sensory mechanism to which it is referring.
Tritanopes- lack the blue catching pigment.
Discriminability- code levels must be discriminable from
each other.
Compatibility- a code that is compatible with its
referent is more effective than one that is not.
Meaningfulness- code that must be meaningful. The
user must understand its meaning very rapidly.
Standardization- standard codes are less frequently
confused with others.
Broadbent’s filter Theory- proposed that the entire
nervous system can be considered as a single-channel
system.
Bill’s blocking theory- proposed that human beings are
limited in terms of continuous information processing.
Donder’s stage model- one could measure the time
required to process information based on several
mental processes.
Automation- transition to machine task from human
task.
CHAPTER 5
Anthropometry – is the study of human body
dimensions.
Engineering anthropometry- engineering use of the
available information and development of new
information for such use.
Anthropometric data- establish proper size and the
dimensional relationships between the things that
people use.
Adjustability- is a pre-requisite of good designs.
- Also important in products intended for
exports, due to diverse human body size around
the world.
Spreading and sliding calipers- measure short
distances.
Anthropometers- straight rod with one fixed and one
movable arm with the distance between the two arms.
Tapes- measure circumferences and contours.
Simple scales- for weight measurements.
Cones and boards with holes- for grip circumference
and finger size measurement.
Morant technique- set of grids that are used to aid in
measurements.
Posture- affects body size.
Slumping- one of the major reasons for the variability
and a minimum of 2cm deduction in height measures.
Height- point to point vertical measurement
Breadth- point to point horizontal measurement
running across the body
Depth- point to point horizontal measurement running
fore-aft the body
Distance- point to point measurement between
landmarks on the body
Curvature- point to point measurement following a
contour
Circumference- closed measurement that follows a
body contour
Reach- following the long axis of the arm or leg
Medial or mid-sagittal- cutting body into left and right
halves.
Frontal or coronal- cutting body into fore-aft
Transverse- cutting body into upper-lower
Sagittal- parallel to medial
Anterior- toward the front pf the body
Posterior- toward the back of the body
Ventral- toward the abdomen
Dorsal- toward the back or spine
Medial- near or toward the medial
Lateral- to the side, away from the middle
Superior- above, toward the top
Inferior- below, toward the bottom
Proximal- toward or near the center f the body
Distal- away from the center of the body
Superficial- on or near the surface.
Deep- away from or below the surface.
CHAPTER 6
Person-object model- the basic model that may guide a
designer.
- Manifest itself in industrial environments as the
human machine model.
Human- machine system- ordinarily functions as a close
loop system.
Environment- possible effects of the environment on
other elements must be considered such as vibration,
heat, cold etc.
Hardware- sub elements include displays, control, and
chairs.
Software- menu structures, screen layout, messages
and manuals are sample sub elements.
Firmware- software loaded hardware are known as
firmware.
Humans- human beings and equipment complement
each other for system success.
Tasks- both human beings and equipment carry out
tasks to achieve system objectives.
Manual systems- these are high-flexibility systems
(where operator applies forces to a hand troll)
Mechanical systems- power and several other functions
are provided by machines.
Automated systems- do not need any operator
attention. (direct dialing without telephone operator
service)
Equipment- capable of performing all functions,
including sensing, decision making, and action)
Function allocation- each operational function need to
be performed by either machines or human or both.
Task analysis- analysis of each sub functions for the
basic building blocks or tasks, skill and knowledge
requirements, workplace assignment and error
potential.
Error analysis- equipment malfunctions and human
error potential must be identified.
Time planning- involves a review of system functions
based on temporal loading.
- Its purpose is to identify resource, allocation
problems and optimal use of resources.
Developing staffing requirements- this step includes
quantification of operator needs by operational
function, and then for the total system, as well as
identifying skill requirements.
Selection- the second step is to obtain the human
resources to attend the system.
Training- it is needed when it is desired to upgrade
one’s skills and background for adequate performance
on the job.
Follow up- it is recommended that periodic follow up
be carried out on the personnel for some time after
actual job assignment.
Detailed design- involves reviewing the primarily plans
in more detail and making final decisions.
Acquisition phase- includes detailing, developing and
purchasing of all equipment, software and other
resources.
Mock ups-are favorite tools of the ergonomist during
testing.
-they may be static or functional.
CHAPTER 7
Industrial ergonomist- is the design of work areas.
Consider functional requirements- system
requirements with respect to needed functionality
filtering all the way down to human and equipment
tasks.
Consider visibility- visible in the best conditions is one
of the primary tasks of the designer.
Consider hearing requirements- audibility of signals
that the operator must be able to hear.
Consider clearance- clearances isolate the worker from
potential injury.
-proper clearances will allow for comfort and
ease in grasping and operating equipment and controls.
Consider reach and manipulation requirements- these
determine dimensional factors with respect to the
operation of controls, equipment, seat adjustment.
Consider population stereotypes- the designer must
check with operational personnel to assure that existing
stereotypes will not be violated.
Consider psychosocial factors- a disorganized,
inconvenient and unattractive workplace will be
frustrating to a worker.
Specify environmental factors- the work area should
protect the worker from undesirable effects of the
environmental factors such as heat, humidity, noise,
vibration, cold.
Investigate possibility for standardization- there is
lessened chance for operator error, and savings of
training time are same.
Consider the total system- each work area must be
designed with the total system in mind.
Design for maintainability- go through the design as if
the maintenance activity was being carried out at the
station.
Allow for various work postures- the operator should
be able to alternate between sitting and standing
postures.
Minimize safety hazards- accident potential at the work
area must be minimized.
Consider fixed locations for work components- fixed
locations for tools, materials and controls.
Adjustable design- is a desired feature.
Work surface height- a working of the hands and arms
should not be overlooked.
Seating- much has been with respect to comfortable
seating in industrial environments.
Aisles and corridors- minimum aisle width for two-
person passage is 137cm (54in)
- For three person it is 183 cm. (72in)
- Minimum requirement for a two-wheel hand
truck is 76cm. (30in)
Floors and ramps- must allow maintenance of stability
and not lead to slip and trip accidents.
Conveyors- used to link manufacturing areas on which
raw materials, work in process goods and finished
products are moved.
Work area management- any work area will involve the
use of a number of parts, equipment and other devices.
Importance principle- this principle claims that those
components that are most important in the functioning
of the system should be located in the optimal
locations.
Sequence of use principle- the designer would review
the sequential relationship between the used of
components.
Functional principle- principle says that those
components that are functionally related to each other
should be located within the same area.
Frequency of use principle- it focuses on number of
times that a component is use within a time period.

Usability- depends on how much and effort are

necessary to make the adjustments.

Workplace adjustments- the shape of the workplace

may be adjusted to minimize each requirements.

Worker position adjustment relative to workplace-

change allows vertical adjustability of operator position.

Workpiece and tools adjustments- the worker can

maintain a comfortable and safe working posture.

Work posture/design relationships- there is a

relationship between work area design and the
expected work posture in the area.