Sociology - I

Study Material
Prepared
by

Prof.(Dr.)M.Lakshmipathi Raju,

Adjunct Professor in Sociology.

DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW

UNIVERSITY
NYAYAPRASTH, SABBAVARAM,
VISAKHAPATNAM.
 DAMODARAM SANJIVYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY
Visakhapatnam

COURSE OUTLINE, 2019-20 (Odd Semester)

Title of the Subject: Sociology I Semester: First

Name of the Faculty: Prof. M Lakshmipathi Raju Total No. of Hours: 65

Note:

1. No. of teaching hours: Tentatively 65 hours

2. Number of Units - 5
3. Books for Reference indicated.

Essentials of Sociology

The course offers an interdisciplinary introduction to Sociology. Taking off from a

commonsense understanding, the course, encapsulates a brief history of discipline, and its
relevance to study of Indian society, focusing specially on the interface between sociology
and law. Students are introduced to critical texts on caste, tribe, race, religion and gender,
across cultures and foregrounding the socio political and historical contexts within which
stratification systems have evolved. This enables the students to understand and appreciate
the social underpinnings of statutes. The broad aim of the course is to introduce students to
sociology as one of the major academic disciplines within the social sciences. This is done
by focusing on the key issues of contemporary society and by analyzing a range of
explanations provided by sociologists. By the end of this course, through guidance
provided in articles and books, the students should be familiar with essential principles of
sociological approaches, concepts, theories and research methods used in sociological
enquiry and will be able to relate to empirical evidence including statistical data.
 COURSE CONTENT:

Topic No. of class

Emergence of sociology, Relevance of Sociology Nature and

Scope of Sociology Society and Culture, Relationship with other 8
Sciences –– Sociological Concepts – Socialization, status and
Unit I role, Norms and Values, institution and Association, community,
groups.
Unit II Sociology of Law:
Relationship between Sociology and Law-Sociology and
psychology-Custom and Law-Social justice -Role of Law in
Social Control- Law and Social change-Law and Social
transformation-Law as an instrument of Social change-
Sociological Implications of Major Laws- -Legal Profession- 8
Legal profession and Indian Society-Social role of Judiciary-
professional ethics-Legal Aid to the poor and weaker sections.
Study of groups – types of classification of groups, primary and
secondary groups– social institutions – types of family – joint,
Unit: III extended, nuclear family – patriarchal and matriarchal families – 5
kinship – marriage – forms of marriage – family disorganization
– divorce – causes, gender – theoretical perspective on gender
inequality. Theories regarding sex roles, status of woman –
women and law.

Social difference, social stratifications, caste and class – class in

contemporary India, social exclusion– weaker section of society 3
in India- Scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward
Unit: IV classes, social control – characteristics, types of social control,
Means or agencies of social control.- Religious institution –
Sociology of religion, Magic – religion and science – theories of
origin of religion – economic institutions – modern economic
institutions – the property, division of labor – types of modern
economy, new economic policy, education as a social institution
– Right to Education Act, 2009- Political institution – state and
society, local self governments – Panchayat Raj –
Social change – Evolution and Progress – factors of social
change – Biological, technology, cultural factors – processes of 5
social change – modernization, industrialization, westernization,
social deviation, deviation and delinquency,-Social
Unit: V disorganization – characteristics, causes and forms of social
disorganization-
Social research methods: steps in research, research design
research problem, hypothesis, Tools and Techniques of data
collection, research report.
Essential readings

1. C.N. Shankar Rao (2006); Sociology of Indian society, S.Chand and company, New
Delhi
2. S.R. Mynneni (2010); Sociology for pre-law, First year, Allahabad Law Agency,
Delhi
3. Vidya Bhutan , D.R. Sachdev (2005); An introduction to Sociology, Kitab Mahal,
Allahabad

Suggested readings

4. Justice M.N. Rao (2013); Reading in Sociology for Law students, Administration
Staff College, Hyderabad
5. Dr. B.R. Singh (2008); Sociology, central Law Agency, Allahabad
6. Wilbert E. Moore (1965); Social Change, Foundation of Modern Sociology Series,
prentice – Hall of India (private) Ltd, New Delhi.
7. G. Appal Naidu, (2011), Violence against women, Serial Publication, New Dellhi.
8. Krishan, Arora, (2008), Marriage and Divorce Laws, Professional Book
Publications, New Delhi.
9. B.S.Gunjal, (2013), community organization and social action, I BH prakashana
Bangalore.

Advanced readings

10. Krishna Pal Malik (2009), Women and Law, Allahabad Law Agency.
11. Kothari C.R 1989 Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, Bangalore
Wily Eastern.
12. Young P.V 1988 Scientific Social Survey and Research New Delhi : Prentice Hall
13. Indra Deva, Sociology of Law (2009), Oxford University Press New Delhi.
14. P. Iswar Bhat, Law and Social Transformation (2009), Eatern Eastern Book
Company, Lucknow
 Sociology - I
Study Material
Unit I : Definition and relationship with other social Sciences 01- 27
1. What is sociology
2. Sociology and other Social Studies
Basic concepts –
3. Social Institutions
4. Associations
5. Community
6. Society
7. Culture and Socialization
8. Social Status and Role
9. Social Norms and Social values

Unit II : Sociology of Law

10. Relationship between Sociology and Law

11. Law and social change
12. Legal Profession – Legal aid to the poor and Weaker Sections.
13. Legal Profession and society

Unit III : Gender, Family and Marriage

14. Family as a social Institution

15. Global patterns of Marriage
16. Gender, women and Law

Unit IV: Social Institutions and social control

17. Inequality Social divisions and Social Stratification

18. Religion as a social institution
19. Education as a social institution
20. Social control, Characteristics, Types, Means and Agencies

Unit V(A) : Social Change

21. Social change, Evolution and Progress

22. Theories and factors of social change
23. Juvenile delinquency

Unit V(B) Social Research

1. Steps in Social Research

2. Research Design
3. Hypothesis
 Unit I : Definition and relationship with other social Sciences

1. What is sociology:

Sociology is the systemic, sceptical and critical study of the social. It studies the
way people do things together. It is more than things of facts and figures about society,
instead , it becomes a form of consciousness, a way of thinking, a critical way of seeing
the social.

Definition:

“Sociologist, is some one concerned with understanding society in a

disciplined way. The nature of this discipline is scientific. “The human world or the
world of humans is the distinctive realm of human experience and existence and the subject
matter with which sociology is concerned”. Richard Jerkens,, Foundations of sociology,
(2002).

Sociological perspective as a way of seeing the general in the particular.

Sociologists can identify general patterns of social life by looking at concrete specific
example of social life. While acknowledging that each individual is unique, sociologists
recognize that society acts differently on various categories of people (say, children
compared to adults, women versus men, the rich as opposed to the poor). The general
categories into which we happen to fall shape our particular life.

There is general impact of society on the actions, thought and feelings of

particular people. For example, seeing the world sociologically makes us aware of the
importance of gender. Society attaches different meanings to gender, giving women and
men different kinds of work, and family responsibilities.

It is important to be aware of a vast level of reality. There is infinitely

complex presence behind the way, we think about our humanly constructed world. We
have the interconnectedness of the social and cultural across the world, the global flows
and movements of economies, political systems, people, media messages, the internet etc.

Social and cultural- communities, societies, institutions and nation – states that
have an existence independently of us, and that have definite structures and symbolic
meanings over and above us.

Interactional - The experience of the world in the immediate face- to-face

presence and awareness of others, self, inter-subjectivity, and encounters with family,
friends, groups and strangers in specific places.
 Individual - the inner world, the psychic world of human subjectivity and the inner
biological workings of genetics, hormones, structure and the like.

Sociologically requires giving up the familiar idea that human behaviour is simply a
matter of what people decide to do and accepting instead the initially strange notion that
society guides our thought and deeds. The sociological perspectives provide deeper
insights that may not be readily apparent. At the broader level ,sociology acts out to show
the patterns and processes by which society shapes what we do.

The most intriguing demonstration of how social forces affect human

behavior can be found in the study of suicide. Durkheim could show that an intensely
individual act like suicide was socially shaped. He showed that social forces help shape
even the apparent most isolated act of self – destruction.
 2. Sociology and other Social Sciences-
Introduction:
This lesson is about sociology and other social sciences-the inter-relationship between
sociology and other social sciences like Anthropology, Psychology and Social Work.
Origin of Sociology:
Sociology is an academic and applied discipline. It studies human social interactions. As an
academic discipline, sociology is considered as social science.
Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline, among other Social Sciences including
Economics, Political Science, Anthropology and Psychology. Sociology emerged as a
scientific discipline in the early 19th Century.
The word ‘Sociology’ was coined by French thinker ‘Auguste Comte’ in 1838. The word
Sociology is derived from the ‘Latin’ word ‘Socius’; it means companion or associate and
the ‘Greek’ word ‘Logos’ means ‘Study’ or ‘Science’. Thus, the etymological meaning of
‘Sociology’ is the ‘Science of Society’.

Definitions of Sociology:
Ward: “Sociology is the Science of Society or Social Phenomena”.
Ginsberg: “Sociology is the study of human interactions and inter-relationships, their
conditions and consequences”.
Hobbouse: “ The subject matter of sociology is the inter-action of human minds”.
John.F. Cuber: “Sociology may be defined as a body of scientific knowledge about
human relationships”.

From the above definitions, we understand that:

(i) Sociology is a Science of society
(ii) Sociology is a Science of Social relationship
(iii) Sociology is the study of social life
(iv) Sociology is the study of human behavior in groups
(v) Sociology is the study of social interactions and inter-relationships, their
conditions and consequences
Social interactions:
Human interaction means reciprocal contact between two or more persons. It is a process
which occurs whenever human beings respond to the actions of other human beings. Social
relations exist when individuals are interacting in an orderly or patterned way. These
relationships are revealed when individuals interact with each other. For example, male and
female relationships, relations among friends and between family members.

Sociology as a Science:
Every science is a systematic body of knowledge. There are three common characteristics
of science i.e. (i) a science establishes causal relationships; (ii) it generalizes and thereby
provides universal principles; (iii) it predicts future events. We find all these characteristics
in sociology. It is a science.
Sociology critically studies the social issues by conducting many experiments. It makes use
of scientific methods such as schedules, questionnaires, interviews, case studies; it follows
the steps of observation, recording, classification, verification and prediction.

Sociology is a Social Science and not a Pure Science:

In science, experiments are being conducted in laboratories to test and conclude.

Experimentation is not possible in social sciences as in the case of natural and physical
sciences. It is difficult to have objectivity in sociology, as we cannot weigh sentiments,
emotions and feelings. The generalizations in sociology are not so exact as in the case of
physical sciences. They are not applicable under similar conditions every time. The
conclusions of sociology are not applicable everywhere, since human behavior varies from
person to person and place to place. The generalizations of sociology are not so universal.
But it can be considered as social science.

Sociology and Social Sciences:

All social sciences are closely related with each other. Hence social sciences show some
similarities as well as differences. All social sciences deal with social behavior. Sociology
is related with other disciplines like anthropology, economics and psychology. Sociology
studies inter-relations among different aspects of society and social life. Sociology is the
mother of all social sciences. Sociology makes use of the knowledge of social sciences, as
they deal with all aspects of human behavior. All social sciences are inter dependent.
Sociology has to depend on economics, politics, anthropology and psychology.

Sociology and Economics:

There is interrelationship between Sociology and Economics. Society is influenced by

economic factors. Economic processes are largely determined by the social environments.
The area of economic activity cannot be separated from social activity. Classes and castes,
division of labour are the explanations of this phenomena. Economic and social order is
inextricably interwoven. Many of the problems of sociology and economics are common.
The theories of socialism, communism, democracy and welfare state are nothing but the
theories of social reorganization.

The field of Sociology is wider, whereas the field of Economics is restricted to the
economic activities of man. Economics deals directly or indirectly with the increase of
material happiness of man. Sociology is primarily concerned with the social aspects of
economic activities. Economics is an old science, where as sociology is a science of only
recent growth.

Sociology and Anthropology:

Anthropology is derived from the Greek words ‘Anthropos’ meaning ‘Man’ and ‘Logos’
meaning study. Thus Anthropology means the study of man. It is the study of the
development of human race. It deals with various racial traits of man and his physical
characteristics during his various states of development. Anthropology has been divided
into three divisions; (i) Physical anthropology deals with bodily characteristics of early
man; (ii) Cultural anthropology investigates the cultural remains of early man; (iii) Social
anthropology which deals with the institutions and human relationships of primitive man of
the past and the present. Sociology depends very much on the material supplied by
Anthropology. Sociology studies same phenomena as they exist at present.

Sociology has borrowed cultural area and cultural traits from social anthropology. Hoebel
stated, “Sociology and Social Anthropology are in their broadest sense, one and the same”.
A.L. Karoeber has called Sociology and Anthropology twin sisters. Evans Pritchand
considers social anthropology to be a branch of sociology.
The two subjects are distinct. Keesing Writes but the academic disciplines have grown up
independently; they handle different types of problems; they use different research

methods. Anthropology studies small cultures which are static. Sociology studies vast
civilizations which are dynamic. Anthropology is concerned with man. Sociology is
concerned with social institutions.

Sociology and Psychology:

Psychology studies the mental process of the individual, his motivations, memory,
intelligence, fears and anxieties. It deals with the influence of group life on the mental
development, the effect of the group on the individual mind. Psychology is the systematic
knowledge of phenomenon of man’s consciousness and behavior.

Prof. R.S. Wood Worth observes, “Psychology is a scientific study of the activities of the
individual, standing between psychology on the one side and social sciences in the other”.
All three sciences, Physiology, Psychology and Sociology study human activities;
physiology deals with organs of the body, psychology with the mind and sociology with
groups composed of individuals.

Sociology and psychology penetrated much deeper into the sphere of one another. Social
psychology is an inter-disciplinary branch of knowledge between psychology and
sociology. Lapiere and Fransworth write, “Social psychology is to sociology and
psychology as Bio-chemistry is to Biology and Chemistry”. Much of man’s behavior
pattern is projected on his group or social behavior. Sociology gives aid to psychology,
just as psychology gives special aid to sociology. There are certain areas like public
opinion, mob behavior, riots, political and religious movements etc., which are studied by
sociology and psychology.

According to Durkheim, the phenomena studied by sociology and psychology are radically
different. The attitude of psychology is individualistic, that of sociology social.

The unit of psychology is an individual while sociology regards society as a unit. The
methods of sociology and psychology are not identical. They differ from each other.
Sociology and Political Science:

Sociology and Political Science are closely related to each other. Political Science is the
science of the State. Sociology deals with society which precedes State. Society is
controlled by the State through laws. Political Science shows methods of controls used by
the different Governments. Sociology throws light on all means of social controls. Political
Science deals with social groups, which live, develop and work under the Sovereignty of
State. Thus State and Social groups cannot be separated from each other. Similarly, other
social institutions, i.e., family, Church work in cooperation with the State. Liberalism,
Socialism, Communism are political ideologies. They have impact on the social well being
of the society. The State enacts laws and these laws can work successfully only when they
are accepted by the Society.

The State cannot bring about any change without cooperation of society. Social
consciousness brings radical political changes and even revolutions.

Differences:

While Political Science studies the State and Government only, Sociology studies all social
institutions. Political Science is a special science, while sociology is a general science.
Political Science studies organized communities where as sociology studies both organized
and unorganized communities. Political Science is the Science of State. Sociology is the
science of Society. Political Science and Sociology do not merge with each other and they
maintain their separate identity.

Sociology and History:

History gives us information about the development and growth of social institutions. In
the background of historical evolution, the modern sociologist studies present institutions.
He compares them with present society. Similarly Sociology gives social background for
the study of history. G.E. Howard remarked that, “History is past sociology and Sociology
is present history”. History is the record of the life of societies of Men; of the changes
which have gone through. It studies the various states of life, modes of living, customs and
their expression in the institutions.
Differences:

Though, both Sociology and History are interrelated, there are differences between them.
History gives a descriptive account of events, where as Sociology analyses them. History
describes unique events chronologically, while the Sociologist makes generalizations by
studying cause and effect. While history is the concrete science, sociology is the abstract
science of human experience. History studies those events which are unusual. Sociology
studies those incidents which are repeated. History deals with events in all aspects, while
sociology studies them from the view of point of social relationships.

Sociology and Ethics:

Ethics is the science of morality. It studies human behavior from the stand point of moral
principles such as good and bad or right and wrong. It studies moral righteousness and
wrongness of human action. It is a normative branch of knowledge. Man is a social
animal. Society influences the moral development of the individual. The individual seeks
to conform to the moral standards of his group.

Sociology is concerned with the study of social groups. It studies different aspects of
social life i.e., economic, political, religious, moral and culture. Sociology and ethics are
closely related. The personal good of the individual must be in harmony with the social
good.

Differences:

Sociology is a positive science, while ethics is a normative science. Sociology studies the
social institutions customs as they are. Ethics look upon them from the moral point of
view. Sociology studies men and social institutions collectively, while ethics studies men
individually from the ethical perspectives of the society. Sociology uses scientific
methods, where as ethics seeks to explain human conduct in terms of ends and ideals.
While sociology studies the progress of social group from view point of time, Ethics is
concerned with the progress of society from the view point of morality.

Sociology and Philosophy:

Philosophy means “love of wisdom or knowledge”. At first, it was an all-inclusive field of

knowledge. With growth of knowledge, positive sciences were separated from philosophy.
Social philosophy is a branch of philosophy. Sociology is directly related with social
philosophy. Social Philosophy is concerned with the ultimate values of social life and the
various means of attaining them. The ultimate object of social philosophy is the attainment
of social good and moral values. Like philosophy, sociology also deals with social values,
so far as they are considered as sociological data.

Sociology was born to explain the social crisis and to provide a social doctrine to guide
social policy. Sociology is a philosophy of society.

Sociology studies human social behavior. It is directed by values related to society.

Sociology is only useful, so far as it consists of a philosophical basis. Sociology cannot be
reduced to facts and investigations without final meaning or ends. Sociology is related to
philosophy to achieve final ends of social life. Sociological reflection may progress in the
form of philosophical reflection.

Relationship between Sociology and Jurisprudence:

Jurisprudence is the science of law. It studies the entire body of legal principles. It
regulates the individuals i.e., the citizens. Sociology is the study of man in society. It deals
with the human interactions and interrelations, their conditions and consequences. The aim
of Sociology is concerned with the analysis and classification of types of social
relationship.

The aim of Jurisprudence is to control and regulate human beings. There is difference of
approach of a sociologist and of a lawyer to the subject of law. A lawyer is concerned with
rules that govern human behavior whereas, a sociologist is interested in law as a social
phenomenon. He is interested to know whether they are observed or not. He wants to
investigate into the causes for non-compliance of laws. The sociologists study of law from
this angle is called Sociology of Law or Sociological Jurisprudence. Criminology and
penology are its important branches. Criminology is concerned with systematic study of
crime. It studies criminal behavior from the social point of view, penology deals with
penal systems of punishment, reform and rehabilitation schemes. These branches
contributed a lot to the law makers and law executers. They add to the knowledge how the
laws actually work and how the crime can be controlled. Law makers and executors must
take into consideration, the human and social aspect while making and executing laws.
Social Work and other Social Sciences:

Social work has meaningful relations with many of the social sciences. Social work
maintains its relations with the Social Sciences such as sociology, psychology, economics,
medicine, psychiatry, anthropology, biology, history, education and philosophy, but by
synthesis, it has developed into a science of its own. As a profession, social work depends
upon the body of knowledge based upon these other social sciences.

Sociology and Social Work:

Sociology studies social institutions and the relations of individuals of each one of them.
Social work deals with the home and family, the school and education, the State and
Government, marriage and family. It contributes for the better functioning of these
institutions to serve man better. In the field of Social sciences, interdisciplinary approach is
gaining more currency today. Sociology as a young science, has borrowed many things
from other sciences. In return, it has enriched other sciences by its useful sociological
knowledge. In this context, it becomes essential to know the interaction between sociology
and social work, psychology, economics, political science and anthropology.

Social work is an “applied science’. Social work draws it insights and skills form many
fields of knowledge within the social sciences including sociology. Both sociology and
social work study society and its problems. Social work provides scientific solution to
social problems. Sociology helps for understanding the society, social relationships, and
social problems. It facilitates social work intervention. Sociology inspires social work.

The knowledge acquired through sociology about social problems will help social workers
for effective interventions in pathological situations. The social worker helps people to
solve social problems and to improve their social functioning. He establishes adjustment
between the individual and his social environment. He uses community resources for
bettering conditions of community. He promotes people’s participation in various social
programmes. The social worker works with individuals, groups and communities in the
society and contributes for their better functioning and fulfilling the needs of people.
 Basic Concepts

3. Social Institutions
H.E.Barnes in his “comprehensive study”, which he describes social institutions as “ the
social structures and machinery through which human society organizes, directs, and
executives the multifarious activities required to satisfy human needs”. According to this,
the family and the state, marriage and government are institutions. By institutions, we
mean, the established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity.

Institutions and Associations:

Where men create associations, they must also create and procedures for
regulation of members. Such forms are institutions. Every association has its characteristic
institutions. The family has marriage, the institution of mating relationship; it has home ,
the family meal, and so forth. The state has institutions south as government, legislative
procedures.

We belong to associations but not to institutions; some times a confession

arises between institution and association. The same term, in a different reference may
mean either one or the other. For example, the family is an association, and monogamy
an institution. When something is an organised group, it is an association; if as a form of
procedure, it is an institution. College as body of teachers and students, it is an association.
When we regard it as an educational system, it is an institution.

Institutions inter related:

The institutions are interrelated in society. There is relationship between

marriage and legal institutions, property institutions, kinship institutions, religious
institutions, and others. These established forms of procedure are methods used by groups
of men. Whether they are enacted instruments of associations or the unofficially developed
patterns of community practice, their ways are followed by the people.

Institutions and Interests:

There are institutions which are found in associations of many types, such as
membership, election of officers, and a form of management. The Characteristic of an
institution depends upon the special interest the association pursues.
 4.Associations
Association is a group organised for the pursuit of an interest or group of interest
in common. Men may pursue their ends in company, on some corporative bases.

Associations and Community:

The association is not a community, but an organisation within a community.

The association is organised for particular purposes or interests. We belong to it by virtue
of these interests. But we live the whole life within the community. We belong to the
community to satisfy all our interests.

The family as an association:

In some of the primitive and rural communities the family has many of the
attributes of a community. In these cases, people toil, play, and even worship almost
wholly within in the orbit of the family. However in modern society, in all complex
civilization, the family becomes definitely an association, so far as the adult members are
concerned. The functions of family have become more and more limited.

The state as an Association:

The state is frequently confused with the community. In reality ,the state is one
form of social organisation, not the whole community in all its aspects. The state may
assume at times absolutist or totalitarian form, claiming to control every aspect of human
life. The state would not become the community, but an association controlling the
community. The state as a form of social organisation, is like the church, or business or
club, an association.

Associations as agencies and their corporal character:

Associations are means or agencies through which, their members seek to realize
their similar or shared interests. It processes property, rights and obligations, powers and
liabilities, which the members can not exercise as individuals. The association has a
corporate character. When legal recognition is made of these conditions, and the duties and
privileges of the association are legally assigned, it becomes, in legal language, a
corporation.

Association as a group:

By a group , we mean any collection of social beings who enter into distinctive
social relationships with one another. A group involves reciprocity between its members.
The association is a group expressly organised around a particular interest. The
qualification expressly organised, enables to distinguish between the associations and
other social groups. There are many forms and types of social groups, class and crowed ,
primary and secondary groups, face-to-face groups and great associations.
 5.Community
Definition:

It is the term we apply to a pioneer settlement, a village, a city, a tribe or a

nation. Wherever the members of any group small or large, live together in such a way
that they share not this or that particular interest ,but the basic conditions of a common
life, we call that group a community1

The mark of a community is that one’s life may be lived wholly within it. One
can live wholly within a tribe or a city. All of our social relationships may be found within
it.

Interdependence as a major characteristic:

Some of the primitive communities are independent of others. The Yorok tribes
of Claifornia are isolated. Modern communities are much less self contained. Economic or
political interdependence is a major characteristic of our modern communities. We may
live in a village and yet belong to a community as wide as the whole area of our Nation.
No civilized community has walls around it. Communities exist within greater
communities: the town within a region, the region within a nation, and the nation within
the world community.

The bases of community:

A community is an area of social living marked by some degree of social coherence. The
bases of community are locality and community sentiment.

Locality:

A community always occupies a traditional area. Even a nomad community, a band of

gypsies, has a local, though charging habitation. Most communities are settled and derive
from the conditions of their locality a strong bond of solidarity. To some extent this
local bond has been weakened in the modern world by extending facilities of
communication. However, the basic character of locality as a social classifier has never
been transcended.

Community Sentiment:

People occupying specific local area who lack the social coherence necess any to
give them a community character. People of a large city may lack sufficient contacts or
common interests. Such a city is not a community, because it does not posses the feeling
of belonging together it seeks community sentiment. A community is an area of common
living. There must be common living with its coherences of sharing a way of life as well
as the common earth.
The world community:

The wholly self-contained community belongs to the primitive world.

Modern civilisation unleashes forces which breakdown the self contentedness of
communities, great or small. These forces are partly technological, partly economic and
partly cultural. In view of the technological developments, globalisation and scientific
development, the spread of civilisation is extended to the whole world.

Certainly wended wilkie’s one word has been in the making. We have
been approaching a stage where no completely self-contained community can be formal on
any scale unless we extend the limits of community to include the whole earth. The world
community.

The great and small communities:

The great community brings us opportunity, stability, economy, a richer,

more varied culture. But living in the smaller community, we find the nearer , more
intimate satisfactions. Both are essential to the full life process.
 6.Society

Meaning:

Men create an organisation which guides and controls their behaviour in

myriad ways. This organisation, society limits the activities of men, set up standards for
them to follow and maintain.

Society is a system of usages and procedures, of authority , and mutual aid of

many groupings and divisions of controls of human behaviour and liberties. This ever
changing complex system, we call society. It is the web of social relationships. And it is
always changing 2(Maciver and Page).

Society, is the changing pattern of social relationships. Society exists only where
social beings behave toward one another in ways determined by their recognition of one
another . Any relations so determined, we may broadly name ” Social”.

Social relationships are varied:

Social relations ships are as varied as society is complex. The relation of

mother to child, employer to employee , friend to friend, are but a few of the varying
typer. There are many kinds of social relationships between men. Some of them, we
label, economic, some political, some personal, some impersonal, some friendly
antagmistic and so on. But they are all social relationships , when they are grounded in
mutual recognition. There should be a sense of community or belonging together. If
there were no sense of community, if there were no cooperative undertakings by men,
there would be no social system, no society, or societies. Hence the relationships which
are central to sociology are those which involve both mutual recognition and the sense of
something held or shared in common.

Society not confined to human species:

Society not limited to human beings. There are animal societies of many degrees. The
insects such as ant, the beer, have group life, wherever there is life there is society. But in
lower group stages of group social awareness is dim. Among higher animals there is a very
definite society.

Society depends on both likeness and difference:

It is said that family is in some form, was the first society. The sex
relationship is a primary and essential type of relationship. This relationship involves
both likeness and difference. Without likeness, there could be no mutual recognition of
belonging together and therefore no society. Society exists among those who
resemble one another. Society as F.M.Giddings expressed, it rests on consciousness of
kind.

Society however depends on difference as well as likeness. If people were

all alike, their social relationships would be limited. There would be little give and take
little reciprocity. They would contribute very little to one another. We are concerned with
reciprocal role of differences in all patterns of social relationships. The differences show
themselves in society in the social division of labour.

Division of labour is cooperation:

Division of labour is cooperation before it is division. People have like wants

and they associate to perform unlike functions. It is primary likeness and secondary
difference.

Man is a Social animal:

Aristotile said that men was a social animal. It is evidenced that it was not good
for man to be alone. Man is dependent on society for protection, comfort, nurture,
education and services which society provides. Society confinement is the most fearful of
all punishments. No man is free of the need of society. Normal humanity must have social
relationships to make life liveable3.

Social contract theory

Social contract theory was expounded by Thomas Hobbes , John Lock and Jean
Jacques Rousseau. According to Hobbes, prior to society, in the state of nature, there was
universal strife. The life of man is solitary, poor and nasty, brutish and short. There is no
distinction between right or wrong, justice and injustice. When the conditions of life
became intolerable, the people wanted to substitute a civil society for the state of nature.
The civil society was created by mutual agreement among individuals. Thus society is
created to overcome the intolerable conditions. They surrendered all their rights to the
sovereign to lead their life at peace.

According to John Locke, the state of nature is a golden age. Men are equal and
free to act. But property is insecure. Property meant life, liberty and estate. To protect
property and to preserve order, people empowered the state to make laws. It was for the
protection of property men entered into a social contract by which they yield to the
sovereign to preserve order and enforce the law of nature. The civil society empowered the
government to make laws.
 Jean Jaques Rosseau states that men in the state of nature were equal, self –
sufficient, noble and happy. But growth of population and quarrels among the people.
Necessitated the establishment of civil society. Consequently men entered into a contract to
restore their rights.

There is criticism against social contract theory. The theory is not based on
historical facts. The idea that individual is apart from society is not correct. The individual
cannot precede the formation of the society.

According to organismic theory, social structure is compared to a living organism.

The individuals are compared to the cells of the body. Herbert spencer holds that society is
an organism. It is a social organism the individuals are the limbs of the society. When the
limbs are separated from the body, they have no life. So also individuals separated from
society have no life. There is criticism against organismic theory. Similarities and
analogies are misleading. The society does not function as human body functions. The
individuals do not belong to society as cell belong to human body or leaves belong to the
trees. The individual has individuality.

According to group mind theory, Plato had called civil society, ‘a mind write large’.
The society conceived by plato in ‘republic’ , was totalitarian. Hegel holds that individual
has reality only in so far as he is a member of the state. Durkhiem’s theory of group mind
is also known as theory of collective consciousness. According to Durkhiem, when an
individual acts as a member of crowd, he acts differently. This is due to the existence of
group mind. The theory subordinates individual to society. It is not correct. Maciver has
said, “ If we speak of mind of a group, we have no evidence”.

We can conclude that the individual cannot exist prior to the society. Society cannot
exist without individuals.

Functions of society

(Functional prerequisites of society)

The society performs certain functions to fulfil the needs of its members.
Perpetuation of human race is the biological function of the society. Recruitment of new
individuals (reproduction) is an important biological function which is necessary for the
continuity of human race. Society also performs other functions such as socialisation of
individuals , inculcation of values, satisfaction of physical needs, provision of means of
communication etc. These are also called functional pre – requisites of society.

1. Recruitment of new individuals (reproduction)

The population may decrease by death and migration and they may be replaced
through reproduction and voluntary immigration. This process of replacement of members
goes on continuously. This function of society is important for the continuity of the society.

2. Satisfaction of primary physical needs

 Society fulfils the primary physical needs like food, shelter, clothing, medical care.
It gives protection to the members from aggressions and violence. The individuals get love
and affection from other members of the society.

3. Socialization

A human child is transformed into a human being and social being by the
socialization process. Socialization is a learning process of becoming ‘Social’. The child
learns social life through socialization process. There is continuous socialization process
for the individual in the society from craddle to the grave.

4. Social control

Society controls the individual members through norms, values, customs, folkways,
and mores. Otherwise the members deviate from the norms, rules and regulations. The
norms and values of the society and transmitted through social institutions. Society’s
norms are internalized through the family and the school during childhood.

5. Provision of means of communication

Society provides adequate facilities and means of communication for its members.
There should be communication network in the society for facilitating human interactions.
In the contemporary society, due to the development of communications, human
interactions and interrelationships are expanded at national and international levels.

6. Providing a sense of meaning of life

Each society will have its ideology and values of life. The society which promotes
higher values of life can be called a progressive human society. The societies which set
higher goals of life will keep the members imbued with a sense of meaning and purpose of
life; our way of life will depend on the value based quality of life. A society is honoured in
terms of the values it pursues.

7. Human prosperity

Society promotes human prosperity and intellectual development. Liberty with

restraint is possible only in the society. Human potentialities can be realised in the society.

Characteristics of Society

Harry, M.Johnson gives the following characteristics of society.

1. Definite territory

The population of the society live in a particular geographical area within a defined
territory. There are territorial boundaries – natural or man made. There may be territorial
groups within societies – smaller groups within larger societies, for example, clans,
neighbourhoods, cities, countries etc.

2. Progeny

Members are recruited to the society by means of human reproduction. We can also
get members by adoption, enslavement, conquest or immigration. But the major source of
new members is through reproduction only. By reproduction, we get succession of
generations one after the other.

3. Culture

Culture is acquired behaviour. It is transmitted from generation to generation. It is

shared by the members of the society. Every society has its own culture. Culture comprises
the knowledge, beliefs, art, literature and that man acquired as a member of the society.
Man exhibits cultural behaviour of the society to which he belongs. Society fulfils the
cultural needs of the individuals. Culture is the expression of life in the ways of living of
the people. There is difference between culture and civilization. Ogburn divides culture
into material culture and non – material culture.

4. Independence

Society is a permanent and integrated group; it is self contained; it is not a sub

group of any other group; it is independent of other societies and groups.

5. A Demographic Whole

Society consists of a population with males and females of all ages. The population
will continue with succession of generations, one after the other. It is a progressive
institution.

6. Social interactions

Sociology studies the interactions and interrelationships, their conditions and

consequences. Society is based upon interactions and interrelationships. Human beings act
and interact upon each othet. Interaction is an ongoing process. It occurs through
communication. There is interdependence between individuals. Division of labour among
individuals will establish functional relationships.

7. Social organization

Social organisation is maintained through social institutions. Social organisation is

a system of social relationships. Society comprises institutions, associations and groups.
Social organisation relates the parts to each other and to the whole society. Society is a web
of social relationships.

8. An essential system of institutions with authority

 Society comprises institutions for regulative purpose. The institutions have written
rules and regulations. Institutions satisfy human needs. They act as control mechanisms.
Family , religion, government, education etc are the examples of the institutions.

9. Functional differentiation or variation

All individuals do not perform the same functions. They perform different roles and
functions. Their status is determined by age, sex, interests, abilities and skills. Each
individual specialises in one function or the other. There is specialisations of functions and
activities.

10. A feeling of Solidarity

People live together and they have the feeling of oneness. They have common
history, common belief, common territory, common culture, common purpose and goals.
Hence a feeling of solidarity brings them together.

11 Abstract organisation

Society and social relationships are abstract we understand them; we can feel and
imagine, but they cannot be seen. The relationships cannot be touched. They bind the
people together. We can feel and imagine about them only.

12. Interdependence and cooperation

Society is based on interdependence and cooperation. Every one must depend upon
other members. Problems are inevitable. They can be solved only with the cooperation of
others. Family is based upon the biological interdependence of the sexes. People can have
happy life only when there is mutual help and cooperation among them.

13. Existence of sociability

There must be sociability among the people. Nobody can live in isolation. A person
living in isolation cannot have human feelings like sympathy, obligations etc. Sociability is
highly essential for the constitution of society.

14. Likeness and difference

Society involves both likeness and difference. Family was the first society. Sex
relationship is a primary social relationship. This relationship involves both likeness and
difference. Without likeness, there would be no mutual recognition and no sense of
“belonging together” and therefore no society. Society is based on consciousness of kind.
In early society, the sense of likeness is focussed on kin – membership.

Society depends on difference also. If people were all alike, their social
relationships would be limited. There will not be give and take and reciprocity. We have
reciprocal role of differences in all forms of social relationships. The family is based on the
biological differences of sexes. In the process of specialisation and social division of
labour, we find the differences.
Types of Human Society

The sociologists have given various classifications of human society depending

upon the nature and characteristics of the societies.

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

Ferdinand Tonnies explains the meaning of these societies. In Gemeinschaft type of

society, life is personal, traditional and intimate. It is a community in which everyone
knows everyone else. People share a sense of togetherness; one lives from birth. A rural
life is characterized by Gemeinschaft relations. It is monotonous, but community is united
with a sentiment between members.

Gesellschaft society has impersonal relationship, individual accomplishment and

self – interest; traditional relations are replaced by contractual relations. The relationship
between people is based on rationality; kinship relation is not maintained. We find formal
and impersonal relations in Gesellschaft society. It exists in urban societies. Gesellschaft is
transitory and formal.

Rural and urban societies

Village is the unit of rural society. Rural communities have their own features and
characteristics majority of the people depend upon agriculture. Agriculture is the main
occupation. Joint families are found in rural societies. All the members of the family do the
cultivation. Caste is the main form of social stratification. They have low density of
population, intimate group relationships. Rural societies are rich in culture and tradition.
They cling to conservative and traditional style of living.

Urban society includes towns, cities and metros with a specific way of life. The
urban society is characterised by higher density of population. People pursue occupations
other than agriculture. Cultural heterogeneity is found in urban areas. We find more social
mobility in the urban society. Formal social control is found in urban areas. Courts , police
and other administrative bodies regulate human behaviour.

Urban society is characterized by impersonal relations and anonymity. Personal

relations and primary groups have broken down.

Modern and primitive society

Societies are classified as primitive and modern. The primitive men live on roots
and fruits. They have food gathering economy i.e fishing, hunting. They domesticated
animals and started growing plants and crops. Subsequently it led to agrarian society. Later
, the artisans like weavers , potters, and blacksmiths were there. Primitive society was
homogeneous; life was simple, uniform and static.
 Modern society is marked by institutions of private property, division of labour,
profit, competition wage and credit. It is characterized by impersonal relationships,
occupational specialization, social mobility. The old values of status have changed. There
are more opportunities open to women. There is more heterogeneity in cities, than in
villages. Majority of the people engage in industrial occupations. Artificial environment is
found in urban society. The size of the urban community is larger than the rural
community.

Human and Animal societies

Society is not the exclusive monopoly of human beings. Animals also live in
society. Animals live in herds and groups. Flies and insects also live in groups. But there
are differences between animal and human societies. There are only few similarities
between them.

Tendency for self – preservation , desire for perpetuation , tendency to live in

groups are common motives among human beings and animals. Society is needed for
development of both animals and human beings. Without society , it is difficult to think of
mental , moral and physical development.

There are dissimilarities between human beings and animals. Man is a thinking
being. Animals simply follow one another. There are physical and biological differences
between human beings and animals. The capacity of memory also creates differences
between the animals and human beings. Human beings have the advantages of culture,
civilization, communication, social awareness and institutions, when compared to animals.

Theories of society

Social theories are explanations of social phenomena. There are wide varieties of theories
in sociology. The following three major theories are explained below :

Structural functional theory

Spencer , Durkhiem , Weber , parsons and Merton contributed to this perspective.

This theory is also known as ‘ Social systems theory’ , ‘equilibrium theory’ or simply
“functionalism”. ‘Structures’ are compared to the organ/parts of the body of an animal.
‘Function’ can be compared with the purpose of these ‘ Structures’.

According to the functionalists , society is like a living organism. Each part of the
organism contributes to its survival. Similarly a society has a structure. It consists of
interrelated parts such as family , religion, state, education, economy etc. Each of these
institutions has a function to perform to maintain the social system.

Society has a tendency to maintain equilibrium. Social change may disturb this
equilibrium. Changes in one part of the system will effect changes in other parts of the
system. According to functional theory, any given part of the social system may have its
own functions or dysfunctions. The functions will contribute for the stability of the system.
The dysfunctions will disrupt the equilibrium of the social system.
 According to merton there are manifest and latent functions of the social system.
Families have manifest function of rearing children. The domestic violence and child abuse
result from the intensity of family interactions. They are the latent functions of the family
which disrupt family relationships.

Conflict theory

Karl Marx propounded the conflict theory. Recent proponents are Mills, Coser and
Dehrendorf and others. Any economic system that supports inequality generates forces
generating class conflict. The exploited class revolts against the dominant class of property
owners, and employers. In human history, there was always the struggle between masters
and slaves, feudal lords and landless labour, capitalists and the proletariat , the dominators
and the dominated and the powerful and the powerless.

Marx visualized human history as a series of stages beginning with primitive

communism and ending with modern socialism. Conflict should not be regarded as a
destructive force that leads to disorder. Dehrendorf and Coser have focussed on the
integrative nature of conflict. It contributes to order and stability. People with common
interest join together to seek gains that will benefit all. Moreover inequalities and social
problems can never be resolved without conflict. Racial conflict may serve to bind people
together. It may lead to constructive social change and lessen the current conflict among
groups.

Symbolic interaction theory

Max Weber laid the foundation for interactionism. Symbolic interaction theory was
developed by G.H.Mead and Herbert Blumer. Weber emphasized the importance of
“Subjective Meanings”, actors attach to their actions. Interactionism is concerned with
human social actions. It entails interaction between individuals. The action is meaningful to
those involved. People attach different meanings to the actions. An action is open to a
number of interpretations. The observer cannot understand which of these is given to it. For
example one is handing over a cheque to a person. It gives different meanings to the
observer. The cheque may be given as a religious donation, or as subscription to a club.
Different subjective meanings may be given by the observer. A variety of interpretationa
are possible. If it is a donation to a religious organization, it indicates your religiosity. If it
is given to a club, it indicates social status. That is to say to understand an action, it is
necessary to know the meaning attributed to it by the actors.

Meanings may be changed in the process of interaction. A newly admitted student

in a college is subjected to ragging, he may think that the college is not providing
congenial atmosphere for his studies. Such interpretation may lead to his discontinuation of
studies. If the student thinks that ragging is intended for socializing him, it would help him
to mix up with his college malts.
Model questions

1. Explain the origin of society

2. Describe the functions of society

3. What are the characteristics of society

4. Analyse the types of society

5. Discuss the theories of society

 7.Culture and Socialization
Introduction:
The word ‘culture’ is derived from Latin word ‘colere’, which means to ‘cultivate’, to
till the soil. In medieval times, it was taken to mean the progressive refinement of crops –
hence the term is associated with agriculture which means the art of farming. In 19th
century, it was referred to the refinement of the people. When a person is well read and
refined, he was considered ‘cultured’. Culture is associated with high levels of life and
civilization of aristocratic classes.

Definition of culture:
Edward B. Tylor:
“Culture is the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, moral, laws,
customs and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.
Ralph Linton:
“The culture of society is the way of life of its members: the collection of ideas and
habits which they learn, share and transmit from generation to generation”.
Maciver and Page:
“Culture is expression of nature in modes of living, thinking in everyday intercourse
in art, literature, recreation and enjoyment”.
Red Field:
“Culture is the quintessence of all natural good of the World and of those gifts and
qualities, which, while belonging to man lie beyond the immediate sphere of his needs and
wants”.

Essential characteristics:
1. It includes all those elements which man created.
2. Novel elements increase complexity.
3. It is communicated from one generation to another.
4. It is found only in human society.
Other characteristics:
(1) Culture is an acquired quality :
Culture is not innate ;through Socialization, we learn traits, habits, thoughts. It is
called culture. It is learned. Any behavior which is socially learned and acquired is called
learned behavior culture in social, not individual.
(2) Culture is social, not individual heritage of man:
It is shared by most members of the society. It is the expectations of the members
of the groups. It is a social product.
(3) Culture is idealistic:
It includes ideal patterns, norms and the ideas of the group. It is the ideal pattern
of the group. It is manifestation of human mind in the course of history.
(4) Culture is the total social heritage:
Culture is passed on from one generation to another through socialization process,
traditions and customs. Culture is linked with the past. We are able to maintain culture,
because, it is passed on to future generations.
(5) Culture fulfils some needs:
Culture fulfils ethical and social needs. Without fulfilling these needs, culture
cannot exist. Culture or any social system for that matter cannot continue for long without
fulfilling human needs.
(6) Culture is communicative:
It is communicated from generation to generation through family and other social
institutions.
(7) Culture is an integrated system:
Culture has an order and system. Its various parts are integrated with each other.
If any new element is introduced, it is also integrated.
(8) Language is the chief vehicle of culture:
Social heritage is transmitted from one generation to another through language.
In the absence of language, culture cannot be passed on to future generations. Our values,
beliefs are passed on to the future generations through language. The accumulated wisdom
is also transmitted to us through language.
(9) Culture evolves into more complex forms through division of labor:
Division of labor develops special skills and increases interdependence of society’s
members. Culture evolves into more complex forms through division of labor.

Difference between culture and civilization:

Gillin and gillin describe civilization as a more complex and evolved form of
culture MacIver uses the word ‘civilization’ to denote utilitarian things- the whole
mechanism, techniques and matrival instruments to control the conditions of life. These
things operate as means to ends. Civilization includes the radio, television, telephone, etc.
A.W. Green holds that “A culture becomes civilization only when it possesses written
language, Science, Philosophy.
Culture traits:
Cultural traits are the single elements or the smallest units of a culture. They
are the units of the observation. When they are put together they constitute culture. They
are units of learned behavior. Any culture will include thousands of such units. Thus
shaking hands, touching feet, the kiss on the cheeks as gesture of affection, saluting the
flag are cultural traits.
Culture complex:
According to Hoebel, cultural complexes are larger clusters of traits. Cultural
traits are associated with other traits to form cultural complex. Kneeling before idol,
sprinkling sacred water over it, putting some food in its mouth, folding hands, taking
prashad from the priest and singing “Aarti” form a religious complex.

Culture pattern:
The culture pattern of a society consists of a number of cultural complexes.
The Indian cultural pattern consists of Gandhism, Spiritualism, joint family, caste system
and ruralism.
The functions of culture:
Functions of culture are classified into two heads—1) Individual 2) For the group
Important to the Individual:
 Culture has great value for the individual. It forms an important element in his
social life. Culture makes a man a human being. It regulates his conduct and prepares him

for group life. It teaches him what type of food he should take, how to cover himself and
behave with his fellows and how to speak with people.
For the group:
Culture keeps social relationships intact. In the absence of culture there would
not have been group life. Culture guides our values and ideals. It maintains our group life.
People behave the way in society because behavior does not meet social disapproval.
Culture regulates our conduct. Group solidarity is based upon the culture.
Cultural lag:
W.F. Ogburn divided culture into material and non-material parts. All materials
objects like house, clothing, tools, books etc., fall under the category of material culture.
All abstract objects like language, literature, science, art, law and religion come under the
category of non-material culture. Changes are introduced first in material culture. These
changes stimulate changes in the non-material culture. The non-material culture is slow to
respond to the changes in the material culture. Thus the non-material culture lags behind
material culture. For example, the vehicles have increased because of technological
advancement. The roads are not widened to meet the growing traffic needs.
Socialization:
The human infant comes into the World with animal needs. He is gradually
moulded into a social being. The process of moulding infant into a social being is called
the Socialization process. By socialization process, we mean to learn norms and to conform
to norms.

Phases of socialization process:

According to Giddens, the phases of socialization process are two types: - i.e,
1) Primary socialization and 2) Secondary socialization. According to some authors
socialization has four different types: - 1) Primary socialization, 2) Anticipatory
socialization, 3) Developmental socialization and 4) Re-socialization.
1. Primary socialization:
In infancy, childhood there are three sub stages a) Oral stage b) Anal stage c)
Oedipal stage. By Oral stage the child learns how to feed himself. In the Anal stage, the
child undergoes toilet training. In the Oedipal stage, he identifies with social roles or sex
role.

2. Secondary socialization:
Secondary socialization starts from the later stage of childhood and goes up
to maturity. Socialization is a continuous process which takes place throughout the life of
an individual.
3. Anticipatory socialization:
In this stage, the child learns about his future roles. He imagines about his
future role and observes how others would behave in that role. He learns how to play his
future role as a lawyer or a doctor imagining about his future participation in that particular
role.
4. Developmental socialization:
As an individual grows, he changes and moulds himself according to the
needs and standards of the society. The process of development is nothing but process of
socialization.
5. Re-socialization:
It is a kind of learning of new ways of thinking and behavior different from
previous way of life. For example, re-socialization occurs when one converts into a
different religion.

Chief Agencies of Socialization:

The following agencies influence the socialization of the individuals from
cradle to grave.
1. Family:
Family is a primary group to which a child is initiated. The mother of the infant
provides for the physical needs and care of the child. It is in family that a child is taught
toilet training and learns to control his emotions as well. The child learns the use of
language in the family. The family teaches norms, values and attitudes. The child learns
most of socially accepted behavior patterns.
2. The school:
The school also plays an important role in socializing the children. It imparts
skills, values, knowledge, attitudes and norms etc. The child learns to obey rules and
regulations. The child is expected to display obedience, self control and adjustment. The
child learns a standard of behavior to be observed in the school. The school has impact on
the socialization of the children.

3. The peer group\play group:

The playmates and friends are also an important agency of socialization. The

individuals of the same age and of same social position are considered as peer group. The
peer group may consist of neighbor’s children or those in the school or those at the play
ground and so on. The child after certain age goes outside the house and comes into contact
with other children. These children form a play group. They influence the behavior of the
child.
4. Religion (The Church):
Religion is an important institution which influences our beliefs and way of life. The
child observes the religious ceremonies and rituals performed by the parents. He listens to
religions ceremons which determine and shape his ideas. Most of the families observe
some religious practices which are learnt by children.
5. The State:
The state is an authoritative agency. It makes law for the people and prescribes modes
of conduct. The people have to obey the laws compulsorily. If they violate the laws they
are punished for such failure. Thus the state also moulds our behavior.
6. Mass Media:
The mass media are the various forms of communication such as the radio, television,
newspaper, movies and records. They act as socializing agencies. They exercise their
influence on the entire society. They reinforce the values and norms to make the
individuals socialized.
Theories of Socialization:
Development of the self is the soul of the socialization. According C.H.Cooley,
by self is meant by “I”, “ME” and “MYSELF”. Self is the individual as known to the
individual. Self stands for what the individual conceives of himself. Self is a social
product. Development of self starts when a child starts showing awareness towards his
surroundings.

Cooley’s theory (Theory of looking glass self):

 The concept of looking glass self explains how a self of a human Individual
develops and socialization takes place. There are three elements of looking glass concept:
1. Our perception of how we look to others.
2. Our perception how others evaluate our behavior.
3. Our feeling about these judgments.

Cooley states that during the interaction with people, the child is conscious how others feel
about the behavior towards them. On the basis of their judgment, the child develops a
theory about himself. It may be a feeling of pride, if the behavior is appreciated or it may
be a feeling of dissatisfaction if the behavior is not appreciated. The looking glass self
process is the product of self evaluation of a person’s interpretations about other’s
reactions towards his behavior. The child’s self is reflected through the reaction of other
people towards his behavior. Society is the mirror or the looking glass through which the
child’s self is reflected.
Theory of Durkheim (Collective representation theory):
According to Durkheim, the process of socialization is based on collective
representation. In all societies, there are different beliefs, ideas, feelings and concepts
which are shared by all members of the society. In a society the concepts, beliefs, ideas and
feelings represent the collective life. Durkheim has called it collective representation. The
process of socialization is very much influenced by these collective representations. They
influence the individual’s desires, wants, wishes and feelings. The child gets influenced by
these collective representations as he develops. Education is also guided by collective
representations. As a result, the education of the child is guided in a particular direction.
Mead’s theory (self-conscious theory):
Mead divided self into two parts. They are the”ME” and the “I”. The “Me” is
formed through socialization. “Me” represents society’s norms. “Me” provides for
conformity. “I” represents the unsocialized side of the self. The “I” is in constant
interaction with the “Me”. Mead says the development of the self includes both “I” and
“Me”. “Me” is formed by socialization process.”Me” is internalized socialization. “I” is
unsocialized side of self. Development of self involves both “I” and “Me”. There is
continuous conversation between the two. If “Me” is dominant the child follows the norms.
If “I” is dominant the child deviates from the norms.

Freud’s Psychological theory of socialization:

 Freud explained the process of socialization through the “Id”, the “ego” and the
“super ego”. The “Id” is the instinct. It is entirely unconscious and unsocialized. It works
on pleasure principle. It demands immediate satisfaction of drives. It knows nothing about
rules and regulations. It must satisfy it needs and this leads to anti-social activities. The self

of the child entirely consists of “Id”, but slowly learns to control through interaction with
others. The second psychological process is the “ego”. “Ego” acts with the reason. The
function of ego is based on reality principle. Id is only subjective. T he ego arises through
social experience. It is conscious self. One is to balance between Id and super ego. “Super
ego” acts as a mediator between personality and society. If there is balance between
personality and society, the individual is well-adjusted. If not the personality may be
disturbed. The ego discovers what is right, what is wrong. The individual is guided by the
ego. Super ego represents ideals and norms. It is the moral aspect of the society. The
function of super ego is to control Id and to guide the ego. Super ego leads to perfection of
human action. If there is conflict between Id and ego, super ego supports ego. Id is
biological, ego is psychological and super ego is social. If Id is strong and the ego is weak,
one becomes immoral and delinquent type.
Culture and Socialization—Role of social work:
The social worker works within the purview of the culture. He has to work
within the social system and culture. He cannot violate the norms and values of the existing
culture. When the individuals are not able to adjust to the conflicting cultures, the social
worker works with such persons and promotes their adjustment with the changing
conditions of the culture. The children are at a loss to know whether, they have to follow
the traditional values or the emerging western values. Social worker has an important role
to deal with such children.
In the socialization process, the social worker has an important role. In family
social work and group work, he works with children with behavior problems, shy
temperament and with drawing tendencies. He helps the children in the socialization
process in the family, school and peer group relations.

Model Questions:
1. Discuss the changes in the structure and functions of the family?
2. Describe the global patterns of marriage?
3. Analyze the changes in marital relations and the problems in live-in-relation ship?
.

Quiz:
1. People shaking hands with each other reflect ----
(a) Cultural complex
(b) Cultural trait
(c) Cultural pattern
(d) Cultural heritage.
2. The concept of ‘looking glass self’ is associated with
(a) Cooley’s theory
(b) Mead’s theory
(c) Freud’s theory
(d) Self theory.

Key: 1—(b); 2—(a).

Glossary:
1. Developmental socialization
As an individual grows, he changes and moulds himself according to the
needs and standards of the society. The process of development is nothing but process of
socialization.
2. Re-socialization
It is a kind of learning of new ways of thinking and behavior different from
previous way of life. For example, re-socialization occurs when one converts into a
different religion.
3. Culture and civilization
Civilization is more complex and evolved form of culture. Civilization denotes
utilitarian things. A.W .Green holds that culture becomes civilization only when it
possesses written language, science, philosophy.
 8 .Social Norms and Social Values
The concept of social norms constitutes the foundation of social
structure. Norms represent a source of social order. No society and no social group can
exist without norms. They serve the individual as guide to conduct. They are standards of
group behaviours.

Social norms refer to shared standards of behaviour. Norms

represent standardized generalization. They are based on social values. They set limits
on individual behaviour. Norms are blueprints’ for behaviour. Norms are group shared
expectations; countless norms govern our social life in all our situations.

Personal and private norms and social norms:

Private norms are purely individual in character . They may influence only the
behaviour of the individual concerned. One may impose on oneself the norm of
following his own sheunce of activities. Operative social norms are always backed by
sanctions -rewards and punishments for confirmity and violation.

Norms and Values:

‘Values’ may be defined as measures of goodness or desirability. They provide

general guidelines for conduct they are referred to as “higher order norms”, Values are
cherished only through the observance of norms. A society may cherish the value of
privacy’. Norms define how the value of ‘Privacy’ translated into action in particular
situation.

Characteristics of Norms:

1. Social Norms are Universal:

 Social norms are the very basis of social order. No society can function
smoothly in the absence of norms. In fact the concept of society pre- supposes the presence
of norms.

2.Norms are related to functional order:

In every society we find two types of order:-

1. The normative order that insists how the individual ought to behave and 2. The
functional order that is based on actual behaviour of the people.

3.Norms incorporate value judgments:

Norms are standards or behavioural expectations of behaviour. They are

concepts which have been evaluated by the group and they incorporate value judgements.
In terms of norms, we judge whether some action is right or wrong. Norms denote
expected behaviour or even ideal behaviour.

4. Norms are relative to situations and groups:

Norms vary from society to society. Some times within the same society, they
differ from group to group. Each group in a society, to a certain extent, has its own norms.
Within the same society, norms differ with age, sex, occupation and social status of the
individual.

5.Norms are not always obeyed by all :

It is wrong to assume that people in a society obey all the norms always. Some
obey some norms at some times and disobey or ignore some others at some other times. If
every one every one always did the right things at the “right” time and place, there would
be ne need to have rules or laws.

6. Norms vary with sanctions:

 Norms also vary in the kinds of sanctions that are attached to the violation of
norms. Sanctions may be applied in various ways, ranging for the use of physical force to
symbolic means such as flattery. Rewards may include smiles, approval, praise,
appreciation, money, prestige etc. Conformity to norms is secured through both rewards
and punishments.

7. Norms are internalized :

Norms become the part and parcel of personality of the individual through the
process of socialization. In fact socialisation the is the process whereby an individual
internalizes the norms of the group. The cultural rules and restrictions are norms are
internalized by the new born individuals through socialisation. Hence they tend to honour
and obey them implicitly.

Conformity to Norms:

Society exerts pressure upon people to conform to norms. The sanction behind
the mores us to follow them. We conform to norms, because, we have been indoctrinated
to do so from our very childhood . We become habituated to norms. We appreciate the
utility of the norms. We gain identification with the group. Hence we conform to them.

Violation of norms:

People violate the normative expectations. Some norms which are not strongly
enforced, are violated. Complex societies have conflicting value sytems and hence it leads
to violation of norms.

Functional importance:

Norms assist survival. There are norms concerning courtship, marriage, child
bearing and child care which ensure survival. A normless society is an impossibility.
Norms and society go together. Norm permit efficient functioning of society. Norms help
the maintenance of social order. Norms give cohesion to society. Norms help self control.

Classification of Norms:

Norms are of two kinds. One is proscriptive and the other is perspective.
Prescriptive norms are the rules and regulations which must be followed in social activities
and behaviours. Proscriptive norms are prohibitive orders. These norms tell us what we
should not do.
The ideal norms and practical norms:

Ideal norms are those which each society force its members and expects that
these should be accepted and obeyed. Some people may not follow them. There are
practical norms. It is expected that the members of the society can follow and practice
them. These norms should be strictly followed.

Social Values:

Social values form an important part of culture of a society vales account for the
stability of the social order. They provide the general guidelines for conduct. They
facilitate social control.

In simple words, values may be defined as measure of goodness or desirability.

Values represent wide range of ideas that men should pursue in their life. The values of a
society provide goals or ends for its members to aim for. Values provide the general
guidelines for the behaviour of the people. Values such as respect for human diginity,
fundamental rights, patriotism, social equality, democracy etc. Guide our behaviour in
various ways. They hold the society together, because they are shared in common. Shared
values form the basis for social unity or social solidarity.

Values bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities:

Rules are accepted because, they embody the values. The Americans believe
that the capitalist organisation is the best because, it allows people to seek success in life.

Values help to bring about some kind of adjustment between different sets of rules:

Following the values, people can modify their rules. If the Indian people
cherish the value of “the principle of equality”, they have to modify the rules pertaining to
the relationship of husband and wife.

Four aspects of values:

1. (a) General values:

Values such as democracy, freedom, fundamental rights are very general in

character.

(b) Specific values:

 Values are often stated in specific terms. For example we may value health or
affluence.

Values are hierarchically arranged:

All values are not equally significant. We can make a distinction between,
‘Means values’, Ends Values, dominant values and ultimate values.’ Means values’ are
instrumental values. ‘Ends Values’ are more important than Mean values. ‘Ends Values’
are more important than Mean Values. If health is the value, maintenance of good nutrition
becomes means to that end.

Dominant values are those values which influence the behaviour of people to
a great extent. For example sacrifice and service are the two among many dominant values.
The ultimate values give meaning and direction to the lives of the people. Longevity is the
ultimate value to do service to society.

Explicit and Implicit Values:

Most of the values are clearly stated and explicitly held. Democracy, freedom,
social equality etc are explicitly held and cherished. Some of the values like respect for
elders and conformity are values implicitly held.

Values may conflict with one another:

In complex societies we generally observe not just one value system but more then
one. For example, the right to dissent, conformity, respect for authority, respect for elders
are values that are in conflict.

References:
1.Chauhan ,A.S. (2008), Society and Environment, Jain Brothers, New Delhi.
2. MacIver, R. M, Page, Charles. H(1959), Society, an introductory analysis, London,.
Macmillan &co. Ltd.
3. Myneni , S.R, (2011), Sociology for Pre Law Students, Allahabad Law Agency,
Faridabad(Haryana)
4. Navendu K. Thakur(2007),An introduction to Sociology for Law Students, Central Law
Publications, Allahabad.
5. Oommen ,T.K., Venugopal C.N,(2007), Sociology for Law students, Eastern Book
Company, Lucknow.
6. Shankar Rao, C.N.(2004) Principles of Sociology, S. Chand &Company Ltd, New Delhi.
7. Sharma,R.N(1975), Introductory Sociology, Rajhans Prakasham Mandir, Meerut.
8. Singh, B.R (2008), Principles of Sociology, Central Law Agency, Allahabad.
9. Singh, U.S.(2008),Hand Book On Pre- Law, 1st Year Sociology, Allahabad Law
Agency, Faridabad, Haryana.
10. Vidhya Bhushan, Sachdeva D.R.(2005),An introduction to Sociology, Kitab Mahal,
Allahabad.
11. Das,A.C, (1972), An Introduction to the Study of Society, Calcutta University Press.

Model Questions:

1. Describe the nature and scope of sociology and its relation ship with other social
sciences?

2. Discuss the importance of social Norms and Social Values?

3. Explain the theories and agencies of socialization ?

 Unit II : Sociology of Law
9. . Relation between sociology and law
The law has much to do with sociology. Law does not exist independent of society.
Society also cannot exist in the absence of law. Law is to be understood in its social
context. Law gets its authority from securing social interests. Law does not strive to
function independently of other social institutions such as religion, traditional mores from
the view point of legal sociology. Law is evolved over a time and developed through
interactions with other socio-economic and political structures and institutions. There is
interdependence of modern law with other social institutions. Law cannot be diverted from
social context. Law governs life to make it just, equitable and inclusive1

Rao quotes comte, to state that law is scrutinised with reference to its social utility.
Legal system gets structured in a manner conducive to social confusion. The oppressive
social order has been brought in by Aryan society. Tradition is bound to give room to
modernity. Besides legal remedy is always on hand to correct the social infirmities (Justice
M.N.Rao).

The role and power of law stem out of the needs of conflicting society. It needs to
engage itself with many informal practices like beliefs and traditions; through formal laws
of mainstream jurisprudence. Thus, the law in contrast to the traditional mores, has much
to do with sociology. The sociology of law does not normally view sociology and define
law as a sole system of rules, doctrines and decisions which exist independently of society,
out of which it has emerged. The rule based aspect of law is admittedly important but also
provides an in adequate basis for describing, analysing and understanding law in its social
context.Sociological jurists conceive that legal precepts get their ultimate authority from
securing social interests, even if their immediate authority comes from politically organised
society

Sociology of law is still a growing branch, so its contours cannot be sharply

demarcated. As Gurvich Puts it,"the sociology of law still has no clearly defined
boundaries. Its various experiments are not in argument as to its subject, or the problems
requiring solution or its relations with other branches of study of law.

Resistance to development of sociology of law

Initially, there was resistance to the development of sociology of law as a distinct

field, both from the jurists and some sections of sociologists. The jurists of ‘analytical’
school, who followed John Austin’s view, that law was the command of the sovereign,
were in favour of confining confirming their attention only to the law put in place by the
state. The jurists of the ‘judicial empiricist’ school, endeavoured to encompass, case law
and costumery law. The jurists in both these view points did not favour the idea of study of
law as part of the social system. Some sociologists were also against the development of
sociology of law as a branch of discipline for the fear that it would lead to entangling
sociology in value judgement (Indra Deva).

Interface between law and sociology: -

However, the development, both in the field of jurisprudence and sociology, led to
the emergence of the sociology of law. The interface between them yield fruit, which
neither of them can deliver alone. Sociology of law, being a branch of sociology, looks
upon law as a subsystem of the sociocultural system as a whole.

The function of law adds to the understanding of the process of social control.
development in judicial thinking have led to the growing concern for social relations in
law. this concern led to the birth of sociological jurisprudence. Recognition of such
dimensions in jurisprudence as well as sociology, has brought to the forefront the
importance of sociology of law.
To quote Ehrlich's conclusion:" at the present as well as at any other time, the centre of
legal development lies not in legislation, Nor in juristic science, nor in judicial decision,
but in society itself. (Indra Deva).

There is need to build bridges between sociological and legal relationship on the one hand
and the judicial practice on the other. it is perhaps true that judges and lawyers are so busy
the they find no time to keep abreast of the research in social science and law. however,
some way has to be found to remedy the situation. to promote interaction between
scholarship and practice, it is suggested to appoint one eminent law teacher to the position
of a judge in the supreme court or at least in High Court.

however, the interactions between Scholars of various fields is not rich enough. even in
USA, the interaction between the faculties of law and sociology are weak. In India, such
insulation is a stumbling block in the growth of sociology of law.

Concept of Social Justice

The concept of justice has two dimensions: - legal and Social Justice. Legal justice is
concerned with penal laws under criminal justice system, civil laws focus on rights and
duties. however legal justice cannot do away with social or human concerns. Social Justice
is taken to mean justice in social and inter class relations and access to opportunities. John
Rawls opines that justice is central to legal system and to the civilization. Roger Cotterrel
holds that," justice is one aspects of a sense of social Cohesion or integration". Duguit
opines that the fact of social life spontaneously produces law and justice out of
themselves.

Social Justice implies provision of equal opportunities for all irrespective of caste colour
and creed. social and economic inequalities create an unequal capacity which do not allow
to avail equal opportunities. Realisation of Social Justice is possible only by alteration of
the structure of the society by initiating a new social order. we have to harmonize the
conflicting interests of different sections of the society. the weaker sections should be
given differential treatment by law to extend Social Justice. it cannot be called
discriminatory treatment because, Welfare of the whole includes Welfare of the parts.

Social Justice includes economic justice also. In the Indian context social inequalities in
the Indian caste system makes upward movement of the downtrodden castes impossible.
social mobility is not possible in the rigid caste system. the scheduled caste, were subjected
to dehumanizing practice of untouchability. the Adivasi now known as schedule tribes are
not integrated in the mainstream of Civilization. the scheduled castes were deprived of the
right to worship in temples for long time.

References

1. M.N. Rao, Sociology of Law, Administrative Staff college, Hyderabad, 2013.

2. Dr. Kesava Rao, M.P (Rajya Sabha) and former Minister of Education, A.P quoted
in, Sociology of Law, Administrative Staff College, Hyderabad, 2013.
3. Pound Lectures on Jurisprudence
4. Indra Deva, (2010), Sociology of Law, Oxford India paper back, Oxford University
press, New Delhi.

Model Questions:

1. Discuss the relationship between law and Sociology?

2. Law is an instrument of social change. Discuss?
3. Give an account of sociology of legal profession in India?
 10 .Law And Social Change

Role of Law:

As a regulator of both social life and individual behaviour through its distinct
institutions and practices and as a body of doctrines that have immense social dimension,
law can not afford a dormant or static instrument because of its vital role and linkage with
various facets of human life (Roger Corterrel).

The complexity of widely changes on the one hand , and the values of law on the
other, other stand at bigger needs and prize difficulties in the management of change.
Law has to balance the extremes. One should take into contribution the directing of
change, the appropriate legal policy to bring the change and its justification in terms of
peopl’s participation. The extent, level and modality of change through law are important
factors that determine change management process.

In adereloring multicultural democracy like India, it is difficult to bring the

change in vilne of the vastner of the area and complexities of issues involved. Pluralism in
religion, language and ethinicity, multi- layered caste structure and regionalism. People’s
sentiments and goals of an inclusive and harmonious society, empowerment of backward
classes, women and umisohen is the responsibility of the legal system to build social
integration.

Objectives of Law:
 Law is a powerful instrument promoting benevolent objectives. State itself is
considered form for noble purpose. State’s important instrument, law, is also intended to
promote the cause of good behaviour and justice Aristotle envisaged about perfect
society. We call that legal and just which makes for and preserves the well - being of the
community through common political action.

He says, Political society exists for the sake of noble actions, and not of mere
companionship. Thomas Acnminas sai, “ Law strictly understood, has as its first and
principal object the ordering of the common good. John Finnis adneres to natural law as
the set of principles of practical reasonableness in ordering human life and human
community”. Thus higher purposes of justice, moral perfection and personality
development ought to be reflected in legal principle as natural law thinking propounds
(Iswar Bhat) .

Law as an Instrument of Social Change:

The most dependable instrument to plan and bring orderly change even
amidst critical situations is law because of its ability to restructure the relations. After
independence, the legislations opted for legislative changes in the fended system of
agrarian intermediaries, traditional norms of personal law, practices of untouchablity, and
industrial relations (P.Iswar Bhat).

“Genetic engineering, artificial insemination, test tube babies, surrogate

motherhood and cloning, pre-natal detection techniques and abortion have challenged the
values of life” further degration of the environment arsing from technological progress
has created pressure on legal system to enact legislations. The general policy is that law
should follow rather than be ahead of technological development.

“The policy of development with human face has emphasised on right to

education, health and employment” cultural factors such as basic orientation in religion,
morality and social outlook influence the direction and extent of social change. Gender
bias, caste discriminations, superstitions reflect cultural bands that implde progressive
measures of reform. Law has inter connections with above factors( P.Iswar Bhat).
 Law And Social Change:

Sociology deals with social relationships, values, norms and attitudes. All
these form formulation of law. As social relationships, values, norms change, the law must
also change laws reflect the hidden social values. There may not be consensus on basic
values in all sections of society through the legal system is finding on all, ways and means
are devised to violate them. Whether the legal systems is functioning for the intended
objectives or unintended objectives is what we study in sociology of law. Through law can
not shape mores, it is shaped by mores. In India through legal mechanism, changes are
sought to be brought about. By treatment of social legislations, modifications are make
in existing laws. Many social legislations have been enacted for the upliftment of weaker
sections, women and children. The schedule castes and scheduled tribes (Prevention of
atrocities) Act,1989 provides for stopper punishments for atrocities committed aganist
Sen and S.Ts. Protection of civil Rights Act, 1955 prohibits the preaching and practice of
untouchability. A.P.Law transfer prohibition Act,1970, prohibits any transfer of land from
a scheduled tribe persons to a Non-Scheduled tribe person. There are obstacles in the
implementation of social enactments. There many be resistance from some sections of the
people. We have to devise ways for overcoming obstacles. The sociology of law is still in
the initial stage of development. As Ynervich puts it, “ The sociology of law still has no
clearly defined boundaries. Its various experts are not in agreement as its subject, or the
problems requiring solutions, or its relations with the other branches of law”.

In India, Systematic study of the functioning of the legal system has not been
undertaken by sociologists. In Sociology perspective , it is necessary to assess not only the
degree of achievement of the objectives of the enactment, but also the impact of social
legislations. One should know the use of innovative provisions of the Hindu marriage Act,
1955, or those of the special marriage Act, 1954, the facts about the degree of achievement
of the objectives of the Hindu succession Act, 1956,particularly with regard to an equal
share to the daughter in the property of the father.

Courts can find ways to render justice to the deprived, the under privileged and
the disabled, when injustice is done to them by the law enforcement agencies. Recently

the supreme court ruled that, there is no reason why many people are deprived of food
when the stocks of food grain are being accumulated, from time to time. The sociologists
may take up research work, using social science research techniques. In sociological
perspective, one should assess not only achievement of the objectives of the enactment of
legislations but also the Non-intended consequences. Sociological research can make
contribution in the formulation of laws, and in their enforcement laws are to be make in
accordance with the wishes and requirements of such people. The efficacy of social
legislations and the consequences of the various enactments can be revealed only by
sociological research. Sociological research can also contribute in the formulation of laws,
in their enforcement and in their exemption.

People are not aware of the laws and legal procedures. Nor the law-makes
and the judiciary are sensitive to the perceptions of the people. There should be some
mechanism to communicate the information to about the laws and to have their feed back
to understand the wishes and requirements of the people. Only through sociological
research, the opinion and requirements of the people can be revealed. In Shah Bano case,
the verdict of the supreme court was oppressed by Muslims women regarding the right of
maintenance to a divorced Muslim woman from her former husband. By empirical
research, one can assess him far the deprived classes could get the feminist of the
enactments relating to them.

DharmaSastras indicate that traditional Indian law is closely related with dharma.
Dharma is a very comprehensive concept. It is applicable to nature and people. It is
Dharma (Physical Property) of fire to burn things. Learning and performance of rituals are
the Dharma (duty) of the Brahamnism. One of the meaning of Dharma is law. Law is one
of the aspects of Dharma.

Indian Constitution for Social transformation:

The Indian constitution made provision for social transformation

and social justice. It has adopted both bottom- up and top-down approaches. It has made
special provisions for religious, ethics and linguistic minorities, protective discrimination
for vulenarable sections and mechanisms for attaining economic justice.

The Directive principles of state policy embodied in the Indian constitution , give certain
directions to the future legislature and executive as to what ought to be our economic
ideal and social order. Our constitution incorporates the principle of social justice in
articles 14, 15,16, 17, 19, 23, 24,38,39,40,46,330,332.

Articles 14 to 16 provide for equality and Non- discrimination. Article 17

abolishes untouchbility. Articles 38 to 48 incorporate the principles for Socio-economic
transformation. Article 46 directs the state to promote the education and economic interests
of weaker sections and in particular scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward
classes. Articles 330 and 332 relate to reservation of seats in Locksabha and legislative
assemblies, Article 335 makes provision for reservations for SCs and STs for their
employment.

Protection of civil rights Act, 1955 prohibits the preaching and practice of
untouchbility. A.P Land transfer prohibition Act, 1970, prohibits any transfer of Land
from a scheduled tribe person to Non- S.T. The immoral traffic (Prevention) Act, 1986
(the amended version of the suppression of immoral traffic girls and women, Act, 1956),
Provides for penalities for keeping a brothel, living on the learnings of a prostitute,
procuring or inducing a woman for prostitution. A.P Devadasi (Prohibition of dedication)
Act, 1988 bans the practice of dedicating women as Devadasis, Jogins, basavis, Parvathis,
Mathamma to mindu deithies, idols, temples etc.

Maternity benefit Act, 1961, is an Act to regulate the employment of women in certain
establishments for certain periods before and after child birth, to provide for maternity
and other benefits. The equal remuneration Act, 1976 is an act to provide for the payment
of equal remuneration to men and women workers and for the prevention of discrimination
aganist women. The employees state insurance Act, 1948, provide for medical benefits to
all employees of factories and establishment, earning leaves than Rs.1600/- per month. The
factories Act, 1948,deals with regulation of working hours and wages and employment of
young persons etc. The minimum wages Act, 1948 requires the state government to fix
minimum wages for many classes of labourers and revise them from time to time.

11. Legal Profession–Legal Aid to the Poor And Weaker Sections

Among the prominent features of Indian lawyers are their orientation to

courts to the exclusion of other legal settings; their orientation to litigation rather than
advising, negotiating or planning; their conjunction and orientation to rules; their
individualism; and their lack of specialization. Clients typically come to them at a
relatively late stage of a dispute, already committed to go to court. Ties with clients ( and
with legal agencies other than courts) tend to be episodic, not enduring. Lawyers have
little incentive to develop new expertise in matters relevant to the client’s affairs; nor do
they enjoy opportunities to pursue clients’ interests in arenas other than courts.

The lawyer’s business is usually at a court; he typically spends his working

like at a particular level of the system. The profession is relatively undifferentiated. Within
each level, lawyers are stratified by skill, influence, prestige and wealth. There is little
division of labour by socialization.( Beyond civil criminals) and like coordination in the
form of partnerships or firms.

Writing and teaching about the law are, with significant exceptions, confined
textual analysis, with little consideration either of underlying policy or problems of
implementation. The intermediary, negotiator, trustee, planner, advisor and spokesman
functions are performed by others – clerks and touts, village notables, politicians and
administrators.

Relations with clients are episodic and intermittent. The lawyer addresses
discrete problems in isolation from the whole situation of the client, and uniformed by
considerations of long range strategy. This kind of atomized legal service will not benefit
the poor and disadvantaged sections. The ways the poor could use the legal system require
innovative research and investigation. But lawyers are disinclined to pursue this research,
because of lack of imaginations, resources and models.

The poor and the disadvantaged are not organised to provide a

sustained market for such expertise if it were developed. The larger questions about the
delivery of legal services in India need inquiry into the possibility for legal aid in its
various dimensions. Much depends upon the adaptive capacity of the profession it also
requires that the demand for more differentiated, complex and widely distributed legal

services should be fulfilled. Only through the development of new forms of collaboration,
specialisation, and service delivery, can the promise of legal aid be fulfilled.

The lawyer is not confined to addressing specific problems of the client. Law practice in
united states is organised around different kinds of clients. The upper strata consists of
large firms which serve corporate clients. The lower strata practice as individuals or small
firms and serve individual clients. The lawyer can take a larger view and try to use the law
strategically to pursue the long range interests of the client. The traditional legal services
are provided by less specialized lawyers involved in less co-ordination of effort;
research, investigation and the use of experts are less elaborate.

Models of Legal services Delivery:

The service programme focuses on representation in court. Legal services are

viewed as court room representation by lawyers. This service type of legal service delivery
is limited to the pursuit of individual claims in the court room setting by formal legal
advocacy.

Strategic type of legal services delivery is a programme oriented to the long

run as well as to immediate advantage or relief to matters that effect groups rather than
isolated individuals. Such programmes focus on those complaints with a public dimension
where a whole class of persons are potential beneficiaries.

The strategic programme pursues the interests of its clients in legislative,

administrative, media, educational and political arenas. The strategic programme engages
in research, negotiation in a variety of settings. The distinction of strategic and service
types should not be taken to describe mutually exclusive and apposite types. There are in
practice many combinations of the two themes. The problem is to find ways to combine
the larger. Strategic vision with attentiveness to client needs and responsiveness to client
goals.

Style of Lawyering and Legal Aid in India:

Most lawyering in India is ‘automatic’. The lawyer addresses discrete problems in

isolation from the whole situation of the client. There is very little planning or preventive

work. Relations with clients tend to be episodic. The range of services offered is narrow.
There is little specialisation and little professional collaboration. Article 39 A provides for
free legal aid.

The state shall secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice, on a
basis of equal opportunity and shall, in particular free legal aid by suitable legislation or
schemes or in any other way (Article 39 A). Most of the programmes in India are close to
the service end. They are related to individual claims in court. They have no impact on
administration of government policy. The lawyers focus their efforts on court room
advocacy. Closely related to government policy is public interest litigation, this refers to
cases in which the Supreme court or a High court permits volunteer lawyers to bring a case
on behalf of victimised group prisoners, bonded labourers, neglected girls, pavement
dwellers threatened with some problems. But public interest litigation departs from
question of policy. It does not also mobilize the victims, nor help than to develop
capabilities for effective use of law.

The Indian legal service programmes are small and they are located in
voluntary sector. They are not sponsored by the government. Mostly they depend on short
term funding, very often from foreign sources. Some of the voluntary organizations are
undertaking strategic legal aid services in India. Though the typical features of legal life
in India are institutionalized, they are not fixed. There strategic programmes may provide
an impetus to the strategic use of law. The organisational innovation of lawyers for the
poor may contribute to the development of the Indian version of the law firm one many
anticipate more strategic use of law both by ‘have not’ and ‘have’ groups. Law has always
been used instrumentally in India. But now it will be used in a more compressive fashion.

In many ways is a propitious setting for innovative and aggressive legal services.
Government has distributed ‘rights’ and legal entitlements’ broadside to the poor and
unrepresented. There is no shortage of authoritative policy favourable to these groups.
There are legal enactments like land reformers, anti discriminatory measures, food
adulteration laws, regulation of working conditions of contract laboures etc . Even where
unfulfilled, these commitments may provide useful resources to social action groups.

Legal action can push the fulfilment of existing legal commitment. The pursuit of such
entitlement through legal action is familiar and acceptable if often in accessible to wide
sections of the population. Innovative lawyers and courts offer themselves as an instrument
for carrying out the redistributive and welfare policies of the higher state against the
resistance of locally dominant groups allied with local state. But the law provides a
channel through which persistent and imaginative lawyers can reinforce those
commitments whicle using them to secure readdress 4
 12. Legal Profession And Society

Legal practitioners in India are the second largest body of professionals in the world, and
they are represented in parliament and state legislatures. Galonter observes that the
Indianlawyer’s orientation is towards litigation rather than in advising, negotiating or
planning.They have ability to conceptualise in handling of rules. They have individualism
but lackrigorous specialisation. The lawyer plays the role of court room advocate, rather
than business advisor or negotiator, much less social planner. The ties with clients are not
enduring but episodic. However they have contributed to national movement for
independence, framing of the constitution, organisation of mass movements and restoration
of civil liberties.

Galonter reflects upon several ethical questions related to legal profession. He

observes that Indian lawyers are court –centred and individualistic in orientation. They
lack academic quality, are not planners and agents of modernization . Gajendra gadkar 5
pleads that lawyers should not confine themselves to their professional obligations and
litigants . They should provide intellectual leadership to the country.
 Singh refers to three functions of law, as indicator of change, as imitation of
change and integrator of change. According to Singh, law also performs an integrative
function.

Dualism is part of the constitution of India. The constitution speaks of

equality, social justice, freedom and secularism. But at the same time, the constitution by
its same provisions creates inequality, injustice, particularism etc. This inner contradiction
of India’s constitution has not been debated by law scholars and practioners. Bi-legalism
has become the norm today whether it refers to the constitution or to the people of India.

Most of the lawyers consider themselves as custodians of the clients’ legal

interest. They thought this to be their legal as well as moral responsibility. Lawyers
preferred relationship among colleagues more on professional plane rather than at
interpersonal level. Lawyers also consider themselves as protectors of legal apparatus of
Indian society. Some of them thought that legal association to the poor should be their
philosophy of life. It is up to lawyers to expose loopholes in legislation. Lawyers were in
favour of more autonomy for legal profession.

The legal profession has a unity of its own. Legal standards of models also helps to make it
a unified system.

Law education, apprenticeship, and academic work by lawyers constitute

the core of legal professionalism. Some lawyers thought that in put of morality and ethics,
courses on Indian society should be added to law course.

Legal apprenticeship is necessary for new entrants. They learn tricks of the
trade and actual court procedures and practices. They also learn how to deal with clients
and how to solve their legal problems.

The lawyers admitted their weaknesses including that of toutism, mal practices, bribery,
lack of punctuality, short termper, lack of proper attention to clients etc. Lack of proper law
education and professional control have also contributed to un professionalism in legal
profession. The Bar council does not exercise very effective control over the members.

Ideally lawyers should serve all segments of society and should also belong to all
situations of society. But lawyers serve mostly the upper and middle classes, and do not
belong to the lower sections of Indian society. Only economically well-off people can avail
lawyer’s services.

Rural clients selected their lawyers based on legal specialisation and caste affinity. Urban
clients considered specialization and neighbourhood affinity as the criteria for choosing a
lawyer. Urban clients comprise businessmen, professionals, government servants,
landlords, and organisations and agencies. Rural clients have litigation related to land,
property, crime, rivalry etc.

Unit III : Gender, Family and Marriage

13.Family as a Social Institution

Family is a key social institution found in all societies that unites individuals into
cooperative groups that serves the bearing and raising of children. Most families are built
on kinship, a social bond based on blood, marriage or adoption that joins individuals into
families. Kinship varied through history and varies today from one culture to another.
Today, most members of society regarded a family unit as a social group of two or more
people, related by blood, marriage, or adoption, who usually live together; Initially
individuals are born into a family composed of parents and siblings: A family of
orientation is central to socialisation. In adulthood, people have or adopt children of their
own (a family of procreation). Families form around marriage, a legally sanctioned
relationship.

Sociologist Christoper Carrington put it differently, ‘ I understand family as consisting of

people who love and care for one another, (Carrington,1999-5) family has changed over
time. Through out history, there have been all kinds of combinations. Families were varied
and complex.
The three generation (grand parents, Parents and child) and larger family is replaced with
a smaller nuclear pattern where the relationships between husband and wife becomes
more intense. Young and Willmott (1973) Suggested that those newer families were
becoming more symmetrical’ . That is , the relationships were becoming increasingly
equal with husband and wife spending more time together. One expects to find shifts from
an extended and often patriarchal form of family to a more nuclear and symmetrical form.
Families vary and change with class and environment.

Family in the world: 1900-2000.

Goran Therborn (2004) has written a major account of the family and social
change. According to him, there are three key elements shaping family structure.

1. Degree of male domination (Patriarchy)

In the twentieth century, there has been a major weakening of patriarchy in some
countries dub to the growth of schooling and education for girls – a factor which Therborn
sees as crucial.

2. The need for marriage in sexual regulation:

Western countries have become more open and intimate; and less bound by tradition.
This has been called detraditionalising of the family. Muslim cultures remain More
committed to the holy family. In sub- Saharan Africa, polygamy remains common. In
Asia more countries are committed to Monogamy.

3. Fertility and Birth Control:

The core development has been the falling birth rate in many countries- notably in
the West. All this is linked to the demographic transition and growth of family
planning.
 Theories and Ideas:

1. The classic approach- the functions of family:

1. Socialisation:

The family is the first and most influential setting for socialisation. Ideally
parents teach children to be well –integrated and contributing members of society (Parsons
and Bales, 1955). Family socialisation continue throughout the life cycle. Adult change
within marriage.

2. Regulations of Sexual activity:

Every culture regulates sexual activity in the interest of maintaining kinship

organisation and property rights. One universal incest taboo, a cultural norm, forbidding
sexual relations or marriage between certain kins; precisely which kin fall within the
incest taboo varies from culture to culture.

3. Social Placement:

Families are not biologically necessary for people to reproduce, but they do
provide for social placement of children6. Families clarify inheritance rights and allow for
the stable transmission of social standing from parents to children.

Race and Ethnicity:

Racial and ethnic categories will persist over generation only to the degree that
people marry others like themselves. Thus endogamous marriage also shores up the racial
and ethnic hierarchy.

A Radical Feminist approach to the family:

Many feminist’s see the family as the central location of women’s oppression.
They argue that men generally benefit greatly from families while women often do not.
Untile recently, men have always been head of the household and made the key decisions
about the family.
 Many studies suggest that women shall do more house work than men, still
spend more time, looking after the children. In modern families, there are now many
single parent households, where women are alone. Women are increasingly choosing
not to marry, to get divorced once married and not to have children; Twenty percent of
women remain childless, by choice. The family appears to carry out various societal
functions that are not performed by other means.

The family in the context of class and gender:

Social class, ethnicity and race and gender are powerful forces that shape
marriage and family life.

Class:

Families vary economically across social class. Class shapes a family’s

financial security and it can also affect the family size. Families are likely to be larger
among the working classes. The middle class women assumed or husband would provide
a safe and secure home.

What men and women hope for in marriage , is linked to their social class. The
children in more affluent families enjoy better mental and physical health, develop higher
self confidence and have greater achievement than poor children do (KromeroVsky,
1967;Boll, Robin,1976).

Gender:

Among all races, Lessie Bernard(1982), asserts that although, patriarchy has
diminished, with time, even today few marriages are composed of two equal partners.
Men still make most of the major decisions. Wives generally are economically dependent
upon husbands and are more likely to take responsibility for children and the housework
within the family7

Interaction and Micro-sociology of Family:

Family living offers an opportunity for intimacy, sharing fears. That is a result
of sharing a wide range of activities, a long period of time, members of families forge
emotional bonds. As young people reach adulthood, kinship ties typically open up, as
family members recognise that they share concern for one another’s welfare. They also
engage in emotional work.

Changes in the structure and functions of Family

The emerging democratic family structure is the major challenge to the Indian
society. Multiple family structures emerge as alternative family patterns. Family is
adapting itself to a multitude of pressures. Now women demand equal status in the family
and society.

The traditional concept of man for the field and women for the hearth is either
changed or reversed, particularly when women get employment and men remain
unemployed. There is role diffusion or role reversal or role confusion in modern society.
Families have plurality of forms- single person households, single parent families, mixed
marriages, cohabitation without marriage, childless couples, lesbian families, gay families,
etc

Advances in technology and medical sciences are posing new problems in the
families- test tube babies, medical termination of pregnancy, feminism movements, womb
for hire, artificial insemination, dual role of housewife, working women, house wife’s role
replaced by house husband’s role, etc are throwing challenge to the society in general and
to the institutions of family and marriage.

The egalitarian family policy aiming at giving women a higher educational

and employment status and property rights equal to men, is creating new problems in the
contemporary society- increasing rate of divorces, internet mate selection and marriages ,
marriages between colleagues, working families leaving the children at family or play
school and reduction of family status to that of a night shelter and wife and husband
working in different towns/ ci+ties and also in different countries.

The educated women are questioning family traditions and superstitious beliefs
and practices. They are working beyond their homes for their participation in various
spheres of human activity, on par with men. Higher education,the concept of equality and
self-respect, human rights perspectives, are affecting the patterns of marriage and family.

Changes in Marital Relations

There are changes in marital relations: (1) the separation of sex from marriage-
instances of extra- marital relations; (2) the issues of divorce and remarriage; (3) the
separation of child-bearing and child-rearing from marriage as a result of unmarried
motherhood; (4) the issues of women’s participation in labour force and men’s sharing of
domestic duties; there seems to be reversal of roles for men and women in family.

There seems to be a change in the existing social structuring and social definition of the
roles of husband and wife. The husband and wife will have to re-learn their roles and think
about alternative role models of their behaviour. There is need for a re-definition of role
expectations from husband and wife. They may either continue in their traditional roles, or
they may perform both the roles; or they may opt for a total reversal of their roles, subject
to the limitations of biological differences. [the social scientists and law- makers will have
to work for re-drafting family law to establish newer role models for husbands and wives]

The traditional family values are giving way to liberal and egalitarian family values.
Changes in family values, changes in social environment, impact of modern education,
political system, legal system giving equal rights to women, curbing caste and gender
related discrimination, work system and loosening of religion and caste barriers in social
interactions etc, have influenced family composition and dynamics.

Consensual Families

These families are composed of couples living together with consent generally
without legal or social sanctions of marriage. They are bound by emotional and sexual
relations but not married legally or socially. Consensual families are found to exist in India
but they are yet to be accepted by the society.
 14.Global Patterns of Marriage

Cultural norms, as well as laws people desirable or suitable

marriage partners. Some marital norms promote endogamy, marriage between people of
the same social category, endogamy limits marriage to others belonging to other race,
religion or social class. Exogamy allows marriage between people of different social
categories. Marriage out side the caste and marriage from a different village come under
exogamy.

In traditional societies today laws prescribe monogamy (one union). It is

a form of marriage joining two partners. Because of divorce and remarriage, serial
monogamy has become western marital practices. Many pre industrial societies prescribe
polygamy (many Union). It is a form of marriage one male and two or more females,
polyandry is a form of marriagejoining one female with two or more males. Polyandry
discourages division of land into small peaces to support a family, polyandry is also
linked to female infanticide –killing of female infants.

Historically most world societies have permitted more than one marital
pattern. Even then, most actual marriages have been monogamous (The cultural
preference for monogamy reflects two key facts of life, the really financial burden of
supporting multiple spouses and children and the numerical parity of the sexes, which
limit the possibility of polygamy.

We find the variety ways of living together, due to some of the recent changes
in personal life. These changing family patterns and personal lives are nothing new.
Nearly two centuries ago, the industrial revolution propelled people from farm to
factories. There was much concern over the decline of the family. Today many of the same
concerns surround the rising share of women working, whose careers draw them away
from home. In short, changes in other social institutions, especially the economy, keep
shaping ways of living together including marriage and family life8.

LIVE IN RELATIONSHIP:

In Lata Singh vs. State of U.P, the Supreme Court held that live
in relationship is not an offence. It is an arrangement whereby the people decide to live
together in an emotionally and/or sexually intimate relationship. The couples who are not
married live together. The legal definition of live in relationship is an arrangement of
living, under which the couple which is unmarried live together to conduct a long-going
relationship similarly as in marriage.

In 2003, Justice Malimath committee set up by Supreme Court

observed that if a man and woman are living together as husband and wife for a reasonably
long period, the man shall be deemed to have married the woman. The Supreme Court in
the case Chanmunia vs. Virendra Kumar observed that it is not necessary for a woman to
strictly establish the marriage to claim maintenance under Sec 125 of CrPC. A woman in a
live in relationship may also claim maintenance under Sec 125of CrPC.

The Supreme Court in Bharat Matha vs. Vijaya Rangavadhan,

ruled that if a man and woman are involved in a live in relationship for a long period, they
will be treated as married couple and their child would be legitimate.

According to Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, bigamy is prohibited

among Hindus. Live-in relationship is contrary to the Act as well as Hindu customs.

The Honorable Supreme Court of India in a recent judgement of

S.Khushboo vs. Kanniammy, concerning South Indian actress Khushboo affirmed that a
live in relationship will be acknowledged as a legalised marriage. The children born to
such parents would be called legitimate.

The Delhi High Court in Alok Sharma vs. Sate and Others
observed that live in relationships are walk in and walk out relationships. In case of failure
of these relationships, rare allegations are made by women against men. There is no need
to scrap the gender biased laws and abopt strict gender neutral laws.

Live in relationship is but degrading the values of marriage. In case

of failure of live in relationship one should realize that, it leaves behind deep scars for
being used and rejected.

The children of such relationship will also suffer from emotional disturbances, pent up
feelings and unhealthy personality development. The live in relationship can be terminated
by either party without the consent of the other. They cannot complain of infidelity or
immorality. Hence live in relationship has negative effect in the society.

Model Question:

1. Analyze various forms of social stratification in Indian society?

2. Explain the theories, means and agencies of social control?
3. Discuss the problems of schooling in India , How does the right to Education Act
2009 help to solve the problems of primary education in our country?
 14.Gender,women and law

Gender inequality– Theoretical Perspectives

It is customary to classify human community on the basis of sex. In no society of the

world have women enjoyed absolute equality on par with men. Everywhere they were
subjected to inequality, discrimination and exploitation. N.J Smelser points out that males
and females are constantly assigned two different social roles. There are two major
sociological perspectives, (a) functional perspective, and (b) conflict perspective, relating
to sex role differentiation. Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales, two functional sociologists
hold that the modern family needs two adults; father assumes the’ instrumental role’ which
is concerned with job and money; the ``````````mother provides the emotional affairs of
family. Conflict theorists see gender differences as a reflection of subjugation of one group
(Women) by another group, Men) Sexism is unfair discrimination on the basis of sex.
Barbara Bovee Polk (1974) has stated that men to maintain power and privilege over
women are practicing sex discrimination.

The theory of Bio-gender Universal states that biological differentiation deprived woman
of life chances as available to man. The theory of gender status Universal divided gender
status into public and domestic and closed the opportunities for power and authority for
women.

Janet Sheltzman holds that the gender based division of labour confines woman to
domestic tasks. Engel says that “as wealth increased, it gave man important status in the
family than woman”. Capitalists hold that sex inequality in the market is based on sex
inequality at home.

According to Ann Oakley, gender roles are culturally rather than

biologically determined. Infant Socialization shows how quickly gender expectations
become part of our experience; parents treat their infants differently according to their sex.
As the child develops more complex, cognitive learning appears. At this point sex role
expectations become even more marked (Weitzman 1979). Laver says that boy’s games

better prepare them for leadership. Girl’s experiences are different because they develop
different skills. The identification theory sees children as learning gender-appropriate
behaviours by indentifying with their same sex parent. Social learning theory emphasizes
the significance of the environment in explaining sex role socialization. Social learning
occurs through an ongoing process of reinforcement from the other people. (Frieze et al,
1078). Oakley opines that the housewife role is exclusively allotted to woman; it is
economically dependent on Men. Jessie Bernard argues that it is being relegated to the role
of the housewife.

There is a shift in policy approach towards woman from welfare, equality to ‘anti-poverty’
as categorized by Buvenic (1983). There are other approaches namely “efficiency” and
“empowerment”. Buvenic (1986) holds that the primary concern is with inequality. This
equity approach provides a framework to improve the status of women through official
legislation. The anti- poverty policy approach to women focuses mainly on their productive
role. This requires increased productivity of women in low income households. The
efficiency approach has implications for women not only as reproducers but also as
community managers. As workers they are equally capable; As managers they have shown
great commitment than men. The empowerment approach acknowledges the importance of
women to increase their power and to increase their own self-reliance and internal strength.

Status of Women in India

From Vedic times, women enjoyed a great deal of freedom. India has perhaps the longest
record of famous women in mythology and history. Women in Vedic age enjoyed a very
high status. They enjoyed the proprietary rights. After the Vedic period, the position of
women deteriorated considerably. The Hindu law giver Manu made women entirely
dependent on men. In Sutra period males were looked upon with preferential treatment.
Women were relegated to house-hold duties. During the Mughal period, the seclusion of
women was looked upon as a symbol of respectability. Even Muslims adopted the systems
of early marriage and dowry. They were generally polygamous. In the beginning of the
British period, the position of women deteriorated. In 1850 some reforms took place to
improve the status of women.

The decline in the woman’s status was reflected in the customs relating to marriage,
religion, property, widowhood, dowry, role in the family. But the spread of English
education enabled women to realize the subordinate position and persuaded them to
recognize their legitimate status.

Today women are one of the most powerless sections of Indian society. There is evidence
of gender inequalities in all sectors. The rising incidence of crime and violence against
women in the form of rape, dowry deaths, wife-beating and female foeticide are indicative
of powerless position of women in family and society. Gender inequality in India stems
from three important sources, (i) difference in women and men’s economic roles and
potential power, ii) Cultural traditions restricting movement and autonomy of women iii)
marriage and family practices. Sex ratio in India is in favor of the male population i.e, for
thousand men 933 women in 2011 census. The adverse sex ratio is due to the preference
for male child, discrimination against the female child, female foeticide.

In the Population Census of 2011 it was revealed that the population ratio of India 2011 is
940 females per 1000 of males. The Sex Ratio 2011 shows an upward trend from the
census 2001 data. Census 2001 revealed that there were 933 females to that of 1000 males.
As per the data published by the 2011 census India has managed to achieve an effective
literacy rate of 74.04 per cent in 2011. In the 2001 census the country's literacy rate stood
at64.8 percent. The most notable thing that came across in the 2011 census is the sharp
rise in the literacy of females over males. (Jan 10, 2017). The number of female workers is
about less than half the number of male workers. In terms of proportion, 68.4 percent of
the workers are males and 31.6 percent females.

Atrocities against women

Violence against women may be (i) rape, abduction, murder etc; (ii) domestic violence
such as dowry-deaths, wife battering, sexual abuse, maltreatment of widows and elderly
women,

(iii) Forcing of female foeticide, eve teasing, sati, harassment for more dowry etc. violence
against women may be physical or psychological violence or combination of both types of
violence.

Gender and Development – India’s Commitment.

The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its preamble, and
sections on Fundamental Rights, Fundamental duties and Directive principles. Our
development policies, plans and programs have aimed at advancement of Women in
different spheres. There is a marked shift in the approach to women’s issues from ‘welfare’
to ‘advancement’ and to empowerment with emphasis on a ‘rights based’ as well as
‘development-based’ approach.

The National commission for women was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to
safeguard the rights of women. The 73rd and 74th amendments(1993) to the constitution
of India provided for reservation of one-third of all seats, in the local village and
municipal bodies, for women, paving the way for their participation in decision making
at the local levels. Education, training, employment and self employment strategies are
playing a more and more crucial role in the emancipation of women. The women’s
movement, by the non-government organizations led to many initiatives for the
empowerment of women.

At the international level, India endorsed the Mexico plan of Action(1975), the Nairobi
Forward looking strategies(1995), the Beijing Declaration as well as the platform for
action(1995) for appropriate follow up. India has also ratified various international
human rights instruments, notably the convention on the elimination of all forms of
discrimination against women, as a mark of its commitment to human rights and the
advancement of women. Trafficking of women and children between countries of SAARC
region has been recognized as a priority area of action at the SAARC summit at Male,
Maldives in May, 1997.

However, there still exists a gap between the goals enunciated in the constitution and the
reality of status of women in India. The report of the committee on the status of women
in India, “Towards equality”, 1974, and National perspective plan for women 1988-2000
and the Shramashakti Report, 1988, analyzed the reality of the situation of the status of
women in India.

Gender disparity manifests itself in various forms i.e., 1) declining female ratio in the
population in the last few decades , (2) social stereotyping and violence at the domestic
and societal levels and (3) discrimination against girl children. Consequently, the access
of women in rural areas, in the informal, unorganized sector, to education, health and
productive resources is inadequate.

National Policy for Women

India’s national policy for the empowerment of women has been drawn up against this
background in the aftermath of the Beijing conference. The goal of this policy is to bring
about the advancement, development and empowerment of women. This is to be achieved
by changing societal attitudes, and elimination of all forms of gender based discrimination,
active participation of women in all spheres of life, incorporation of a gender perspective in
all policies, plans and programs. Many of the components of the National Policy are
already being translated into action. Recognizing that women’s representation in higher
decision making bodies is essential to provide voice to women’s issues and
perspectives, government had introduced a bill in parliament to reserve one-third of seats
for women in the national parliament and in the state legislative assemblies, over and
above the reservation already implemented at the local and municipal levels. Given the
imbalances in social development, reservations of seats through democratic consensus
building may be the best way of providing this crucial gender perspective to all
policies and programmes in India.

In the era of human rights, a right based approach to women’s concerns, the primary
institutional mechanisms available to guarantee and ensure fulfillment of their rights are
the courts with public interest litigation(PILs), the National Human Rights Commission,
and the National Commission for Women.

All laws are being reviewed in order to remove provisions which might discriminate
against women. Directions have been issued that the name of the mother should be
entered along with that of the father in all school records of the Central Board of
Secondary Education and other Central Boards.

One of the major challenges to the human rights of women in India stems from poverty and
under-development. Poverty deprives women and men of the right to enjoy basic
necessities of life while keeping them in dark about their personal, civil and political
rights. The focus is to enhance women’s empowerment through education, employment
and role in decision-making so as to give more meaning and content to their civil,
political, economic, social and cultural rights. Education, vocational training and self-
employment initiatives, with the active partnership of women’s non-governmental
organizations and micro-credit facilities have been strengthened.

Women constitute a disproportionate number of poor, and they assume increasingly

agricultural functions for a livelihood; equal access to land and other productive
resources for women, including suitable changes in inheritance laws, have been
considered necessary. The Hindu Succession Act has already been amended in a way that
women’s right to properties, including land, are protected.

Legislations On Women:

The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 legalizes abortion on health grounds.
The Act safeguards women from unnecessary and compulsory abortions. The child
marriage Restraint Act 1976 has raised the age of marriage of girl to 18 and boy to 21
years. The Act provides safeguards for girls from child marriage. The Immoral Trafficking
(Prevention) Act, 1986 safeguards women from prostitution. The Pre-natal Diagnostic
Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act, 1994, is made to prohibit the
misuse of Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques by diagnosing of pregnant women and also
identification of child in the womb whether it is male or female. The indecent
representation of women (prohibition) Act, 1986 is made to prohibit indecent
representation of women through advertisements, publications and writings, paintings,
figures or in any other manner. The Act safeguards women from indecent representation.
The commission of sati (prevention) Act, 1987 provides for more effective prevention of
sati. It safeguards women from Sati. The National Commission for women Act, 1990 was
enacted to facilitate the redressal of grievances of women. The Act provides for a setting
up a statutory body namely the National Commission for Women to take up remedial
measures, and facilitate redressal of grievances and advise the Government on all policy
matters relating to women. The Tamil Nadu Prohibition of Eve-teasing Act, 1988 provides
punishment for eve-teasing.

The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 provides for punishment for
domestic violence committed by husband and his relatives and also provides legal
assistance for women suffering from domestic violence.

It also provides interim maintenance to women and also for compensation and damages.
Women’s reservation bill, makes provision for reservation in legislatures and parliament,
after passing the bill the women get political power also.

The family Courts Act, 1984 was enacted to secure speedy settlements of disputes Family
Courts have been set up in some states to adjudicate cases relating to maintenance, custody
and divorce. The Act provides for setting up a Family Court for in-camera proceedings for
women. The Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalat (PMLA) evolved by the NCW is an alternative
justice delivery system which is part of the Lok Adalats (People’s Courts) for providing
speedy justice to women. NCW has been organizing PMLAs since 1995 in association with
NGOs to complement the judicial process. They function outside the formal legal system
and use community pressure and informal social control and mechanisms to punish
perpetrators of violence and restore women’s rights within the family. Cases of domestic
violence, rape, child sexual abuse, and harassment are handled
Remedial Legal Measures

During British period women were provided with some legislative protections. The
prevention of Sati Act of 1829 made the burning or burying alive of widows, culpable
homicide punishable with fine or imprisonment. The Widow Remarriage Act was passed
in 1856 to render remarriage of Hindu widows valid and to legalize the legitimacy of
children. The civil marriage Act, 1872 made marriage a secular ceremony, permitting
widow marriage and inter-caste marriage. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929
provides for punishment of a person who contracts a child marriage with imprisonment or
fine or with both. The Hindu married woman’s right to separate residence and
Maintenance Act, 1945 provides from maintenance for the wife form her husband by
getting herself separated from him under certain circumstances.

After Independence, a series of enactments were made for enhancing the status of women.
The Series of liberal and progressive legislations affecting women were enacted in our
country during preceding six decades for enhancing the status of women encompassing
various fields of legislation which can be categorized as constitutional, Penal, remedial,

beneficial, welfare and more particularly ‘gender specific’ legislation. After Independence
women were provided with institutional protections and various legislations are passed to
improve the status of women.

Constitution of India, 1950:

The constitution is the ‘mother of all laws’ in the sense that provisions of all laws have to
conform to the provisions of the Constitution of India. In this context the provisions of the
constitution relating to women assume vital importance. The constitution of India accepts
the principle of equality of gender. Article 14 of the constitution assures equality before
the law. Article 15 and 16 prohibit any type of discrimination on the grounds of Gender.
Article 16(1) guarantees equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to
employment or appointment to any office under the state. Article 15 (A) (e) intends that
one should remove all practices that are derogatory to the dignity of women. Article 39 (d)
provides for equal pay for equal work for Men and Women. Article 42 provides for
maternity relief and makes provision for just and humane conditions of work.
The Constitution of India not only guarantees equality to women but also empowers the
State to adopt measures to positive discrimination in favor of women. The principle of
gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble, Fundamental Duties
and Directive Principles of state policy. The 73rd and 74th amendments to the
Constitution of India provided for reservation of seats (at least 1/3) in the local bodies of
Panchayats and Municipalities for women. Another Constitution Amendment (84th
Constitution Amendment) reserving 33 per cent in Parliament and State Legislatures is in
the pipeline.

Indian Penal Code, 1860 :

Section 304(b) deals about murder of women in connection with demand of dowry.
Sections 312 to 318 deal about punishment for causing miscarriage. Section 354 provides
punishment for outraging the modesty of any woman, Section. 366 deals about kidnapping
for marriage against her will. Section 366-A deals about procurement of minor girls for
sexual purpose. Section 376 deals about punishment for rape. Section 494 protects women

from bigamy. Section 497 deals about protection of married women from adultery. Section
498-A of Indian Penal Code deals about subjecting women to cruelty by her husband or
relatives and Section. 509 provides punishment for uttering words and gestures or acts
intended to insult the modesty of a woman. Under Code of Criminal Procedure Code,
Section 125, a woman has got right to maintenance.

Indian Evidence Act, 1872:

Sections 113(a), 113(b) and 114(c) provide for presumptions as to abetment of suicide by a
married woman within 7 years of marriage, as dowry death of a woman and as to absence
of consent of woman for sexual intercourse.

Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956:

Section 18-A provides for obligations of husband to maintain his wife. Section 18(2)
provides right of wife to live separately and Section 19 provides for maintenance of widow
by her father-in-law.
Hindu Succession Act, 1956:

Section 14 of the Act provides for property of female Hindu to be her absolute property.
Section 23 provides right of female legal heirs in the dwelling house.

The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956, Section 6 of the Act provides for mother
as a natural guardian for minors below 5 years.

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955:

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 was passed with the main object of prohibiting polygamy,
raising the age of marriage and providing opportunities for wife for seeking divorce;
Section

13(2) of the Act provides for wife to present a petition for divorce. Section 13(b) provides
equal right for wife for getting divorce by mutual consent. Section 24 of the Act provides
for relief for interim maintenance and expenses. Section 25 of the Act provides for right to

a wife to seek permanent alimony and maintenance and Section. 26 of the Act provides
right to claim custody of children.

The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961:

Under the provisions of this Act demand of dowry either before marriage, during marriage
and or after the marriage is an offence. The Muslim Women (Protection of Right on
Divorce) Act, 1986, provides for maintenance of women by the relatives after the iddat
period.

Labour Legislations:

The Factories Act, 1948, provides for health, safety, welfare, and working hours for
women labourers working in factories. The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, provides for
payment of equal wages to both men and women workers for the same work or work of
similar nature. It also prohibits discrimination against women in the matter of recruitment.
The equal remuneration Act, 1976 provides for equal pay for equal work.
The Employees State Insurance Act, 1948, provides for maternity benefits to insured
women. The Act provides for insurance, pension and maternity benefits to women workers.
The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, is made to provide for maternity benefits of working
women with full wages for women workers.

Obstacles to Law

State has enacted and amended many laws to achieve gender equality before law. Inspite of
the legislation for women’s emancipation, no significant improvement could be made in
the status of women in India for various reasons such as (i) Lack of clarity in aims and
objectives of legislation, (2) lack of updating of laws (3) difficulties associated with
implementation, (4) Loopholes in laws.

There are obstacles of Judicial nature. Significant changes in their status could not be
achieved due to (i) conservative interpretation of laws, (ii) individual delays and heavy
expenses and (3) executive indifference, Social obstacles such as (1) structural inequalities,
(2) persistence of traditional social values, (3) fear of loss of morals. Obstacles from the
side of the women also contributed for their inability for emancipation. Low levels of
female literacy, lack of consciousness and lack of women’s organizations and women’s
trade union movement added to their deterioration of status.

Strategies for women empowerment:

With increase in education and employment and greater participation in political life, most
of the obstacles standing in the way of implementation of legal provisions could be wiped
off. Long-term strategies are needed to breakdown the structures of inequality between
genders, classes and nations. Short-term strategies are identified as the necessity to provide
ways of responding to current crisis. The empowerment approach acknowledges that their
strategies will not be implemented without systematic efforts by women’s organizations;
Women’s organizations have to use the methods of consciousness raising and popular
education. But this empowerment approach remains largely unsupported by National
Governments and their agencies, so the women’s organizations using empowerment
approach remain undjudged and reliant on the use of voluntary and unpaid woman’s time
and dependent on the resources of a few international and non-governmental agencies.

Violence against women needs to be addressed as violation of women’s right to a secure

and dignified life. In spite of number of good laws, institutions and machineries to deal
with the problem, the rising incidence of violence against women is a matter of concern.
Greater sensitization of the judiciary and law enforcement machinery, setting up alternative
grievance redressal machineries and authorized monitoring institutions and enhancing
women’s capabilities to fight for justice through collective strength appear to be the
strategies that need to be adopted. The family courts were established to settle family
disputes. In order to combat the practice of demanding dowry, anti-dowry police cells have
been set up. The dowry prohibition act has been strengthened making dowry deaths a new
and cognizable criminal offence. Pre-natal sex determination tests have been banned to
prevent female foeticide.

The impact of terrorism on women is an area of special concern. Terrorism threatens the
fundamental rights to life and liberty. Acts of brutal violence against women including
rape and molestation, and murder, abduction, and threats of violence instill a climate of
fear that disrupt the social fabric and economic life. The impact of terrorism on human
rights of women is something that has not received sufficient attention and merits study.

The girl child is a critical area of concern to women’s advancement. There is worldwide
recognition that investments made in the first and second decade of a woman’s life are
crucial to break the cycle of deprivation and inequality for adult women. The SAARC
region has been a pioneer in recognizing the special circumstances of the girl child and
adopting a plan of action for the survival, protection and development of the girl child.

The needs of the girl child, especially in the first decade of life, are different from those of
adolescents and adult women are acknowledged. Research at various levels: community,
province, national, regional and international, to identify the issues of ‘girl-child
perspective’ and ‘gender perspective’ should be taken up.

Gender inequality-issues

The issues of Woman’s Dependence, oppression exploitation, gender based disparity i.e
lower wages for woman, under reporting in labour force, disadvantaged position in health,
education; need to be tackled.

National Policy for empowerment of women (2001) reflects the following:

  Gender equality enshrined in Indian Constitution in its preamble, fundamental
rights, duties and directive principles.
 Constitution grants equality and positive discrimination in favour of woman.
 Our laws, policies, plans, programs aimed at women’s advancement.
 Shift of emphasis from welfare to development to empowerment.
 The National Commission for woman set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to
safeguard women’s rights
 73rd, 74th amendments (1993) provided reservation of status in local bodies.

The National Policy was drawn up after Beijing Conference. The goal of this policy is to
bring about advancement and empowerment of women.

Measures To Be Adopted:

The following measures need to be adopted for eliminating gender inequality:

 By changing Social attitudes

 To eliminate gender based discrimination
 Active participation of women
 To incorporate gender perspectives in all policies, plans and programmes
(Many Components of National policy already implemented)

 Creating an environment for full development of women to realize their potential

 The dejure and defacto enjoyment of all human rights on equal basis with Men in
all spheres
 Equal access to participation and decision making of women
 Equal access to women to health care, quality education at all levels; employment, social
security
 Strengthening legal system to eliminate all forms of discrimination
 Main streamlining gender perspective in development process
 Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence
 Building and strengthening partnership with society, women’s organizations.
 Changes in laws to eliminate discrimination to be gender sensitive to women’s needs.
 Women to get equal access to and full participation in decision making bodies –
legislative, executive, Judiciary
  To ensure mainstreaming of woman’s perspectives in development process as
participants

Economic Empowerment of women – Poverty Eradication:

 Poverty eradication programmes to address the needs of woman to offer support

measures to enhance their capabilities.
 To enhance women’s access to credit for consumption and production
 To recognize women’s contribution as producers and workers

 Strategies to be designed to of woman and empower them to meet negative enhance

capacity of woman and empower them to meet negative social and economic impacts of
globalization process.
 Programmes for training woman in soil conservation, social forest, dairy development
horticulture, livestock, poultry, fisheries etc. to be undertaken
 To give support in terms of labour legislation, social security to participate in various
industrial sectors
 Support services like child care facilities, crèches at work places, homes for the aged and
disabled to be expanded.

Social Empowerment of women:

 Universalize education, eradicate illiteracy, increase enrolment and retention rate of

girls, improve quality of education, and facilitate lifelong education.
 Nutrition and health services, reduction of infant mortality and maternal mortality, quality
health care access to safe and effective methods of family planning.
 To address the issues of nutrient deficiencies among pregnant and lactating woman
 Special attention to be given for safe drinking water, sewage disposal, toilet facilities and
sanitation especially in rural areas and urban slums.
 To provide housing for women including single woman, heads of households, working
women, students etc.
 To spread the use of solar energy, bio-gas, smokeless chulas to change the lifestyle of
rural woman.
 To bring about a greater involvement of women in Science and Technology
 Women in difficult circumstances:

Needed Intervention

 Special assistance to women in extreme poverty, the disabled, widows, elderly

women, single woman, Migrants, deserted women, prostitutes etc.
 Assistance for prevention of violence, sexual harassment at work place, customs like
dowry, rehabilitation of victims of violence, trafficking in women and girls.
 Strict enforcement of laws against prenatal sex selection, female foeticide, female
infanticide, child marriage, child abuse, child prostitution.
 Media to develop codes of conduct to remove gender stereotypes and promote balanced
portrayals of women and men.

References:

1. Caroline, O.N Koser (1997), Gender Planning in the Third World – Meeting Practical
and Strategic Needs, Summer School in women’s studies, Hyderabad, Asmita Resource
Centre for women’s studies.
2. Janet Stazman Chafepz (1991), 1 Gender, family and Economy’s publications, New
Delhi.

3. Joan Hobar (1991 Gender, Family, Economy, Sage publications, New Delhi.

4. Narendra K. Singh, Gender inequality – A Theoretical construct in Anita (ed), quest for
equality

5. Ronald G. Ehrenberg, Robert S. Smith (1994), Modern Ethnicity in Labour Economics,

Theory and Public Policy; Harper Collins College Publishers.

6. Shankar Rao, C.N (2006) Sociology, Principles of Sociology with an introduction to

social thought, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
7. Oreze, Jean and Sen Amartya, 1995: Indian Economic Development and Social
Opportunity, Bombay.

8. Majer, C. 1993: Gender Planning and Development : Theory, Practice and Training,
London, Routledge

9. Krishna Iyer, V.K (1984) Woman Unbound : A plea for Gender Justice, Society for
community organization trust, Madurai.

10. Unathur : Woman and Law : Constitutional rights and continuing inequalities in Alfred
de Suiga (ed)

11. Rasher Archarna : Woman and Family Law Reform in India Sage Publications, New
Delhi, 1992.

12. B.S Bhargava and K.C Vaidya Position of woman in political institutions in Journal of
Rural development Vol II No. 5; 1992

13. Neera Desai and Maithreyi Krishnaraj (1987) Women and Society in India, Ajantha
Publication, 1987

14. Urmila Phadnis and Indira Malani (ed); (1978), : Women of World, Illusion and
Reality, Vikas Publishing House, 1978.

Siddhartha Dash, Women Empowerment in India, Orissa Review, December, 2004, page
56.

Reddy G.B., Women and Law in India — Issues and Challenges, AIR 2003 Jour 331.

Krushna Chandra Sena, Violence against Women: A Human Right Violation, AIR 2003
Jour 312.

Josli, K. C., Universalisation of Human Rights of Women: Supreme Court Sets The Pace,
AIR 2001 Jour 59.

Bhatt D. K., Human Rights and Status of Women: A Socio-Legal Analysis, AIR 2000 Jour
79.

National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001, Govt. of India.

R. Revathi, Laws Relating to Domestic Violence, 2004, Asia Law House, Hyderabad.

15. S. R. Myeni, Women and Law, 2003, Asia Law House, Hyderabad.

Unit IV : Social institutions and Social control

16. Inequality, Social Divisions And Social Stratification

Sociologists start to speak of social divisions, human differences
that are rendered socially significant; sociologists use the concept of social stratification to
refer to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. Five basic
principles tend to organize them everywhere.

1. Social stratification is a characteristic of society not simply a reflection of

individual differences. It is a system which confers unequal access to resources.
Members of industrial societies consider social standing as a reflection of personal
talent and effort. Children form into wealthy families, are more likely than those
born into poverty to enjoy health, achieve academically, succeed in their life’s
work and live well into old age. Neither rich nor poor people are responsible for
creating social stratification, yet this system shapes the lives of them all.
2. Social stratification persists over generations.
 Inequality persists over time. In all societies parents confer their social
position on their children, so that pattern of inequality stay much the same form
generation to generation. Some individuals experience social mobility, change in
one’s position in a social hierarchy. Social mobility may be upward or downward.
Most often people move horizontally when they exchange one occupation for
another; that is comparable. For most people, social standing remains much the
same over life time.

3. Social stratification is universal but variable.

Social stratification seems to be found everywhere. At the same time ,what is

unequal and how unequal, it varies from one society to another. Among the members of
technologically simple societies, social differentiation may be minimal and based mostly
an age and sex, though these factors still matter in most societies today as well9.

4. Social Stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs:

Any system of inequality gives some people more resources than others but defines
certain arrangements as fair and just. What is unequal differs from society to society. It
also explains why people should be unequal. People with greatest social privileges, they
express support for their society’s system of social stratification. These with fewer social
resources are more likely to seek social change.

5. Social stratification engenders shared identities as belonging to a particular social

category different form others. Identity serves to mark off one social division from another,
often being closely linked to different kinds of culture as well. For example, for marx, a
sense of class consciousness was very significant.

Forms of social divisions:

Sociologists focussed primarily with social and economic positions. People are
ranked in term of their economic position, their power and their prestige. It included
systems of slavery, caste and the modern class system. But recently sociologists recognised
that social divisions are based on gender, ethnicity, sexuality, disability and age.
Closed and open systems:

There are four of the major systems of stratification, which have been found
through out history. Sociologists often stress the degree of social , closure and mobility
that is allowed in the society. Closed systems allow little change in social position, while
‘Open’ systems permit some mobility10

Slavery:

Slavery is a form of social stratification in which people are owned by others as

property. Slavery turns human beings into things to be bought or sold. Many early
civilizations relied heavily on slave labour. Between the fifteenth and Nineteenth centuries
there was a major slave trade in to the new world.

Modern Slavery:

The Brithish empire abolished slavery in 1833. The American civil war brought
slavery in the united states to an end in 1865. Although slavery no longer exists in its
classical forms, it still persists in a variety of forms in many parts of the world today.

The English social scientists Kervin Bales (2004) suggests that traditional and
modern slavery differ. For him, modern slavery is not about direct ownership, but about
control through violence, visually with major elements of economic exploitation. This
could include bonded labour, debt bondage, prostitution and servile marriage. Women are
given in marriage without the right to refuse. Modern slaves are found among the poor, the
uneducated and the low section groups.

The estate system:

There were three major groups- nobility, clergy and commoners. Land was
controlled by powerful lords who enlisted the military to protect their land. Peasants were
dominated by the local mobility, while having some control over their piece of land . The
tenants were dependent on the lords; the lord was linked to the monarch and so forth.

The Caste System:

 The caste system is usually seen as a form of social stratification based on inherited
status or ascription. The caste system is ‘Closed’ so that birth alone determines one’s
status with no opportunity for social mobility based on individual efforts.

The Indian systems of caste is usually discussed in terms of varna, a sansskrit

word that means ‘colour’. It denotes four major categories. Brahmins (priests and
writers),who claim the highest status, kshatriyas (Warriors and rulers), Vaishyas, (the
merchants and land owners) and sudras (artisans and servants). People outside the system
become “Untouchables” and often have the most unpleasant work-handling sewage,
burning corpses, scavenging. Each caste develops a closed community which lays down
clear rules about washing, eating or communicating with other people. It suggests ideas of
ritual purity, pollution and exclusion. In the past it was largely a fixed system- no
movement between castes was possible.

Caste systems rank categories of people in a rigid hierarchy. Some scholars

believe that the concept can only be really applied to the system found in India - System
that is how under change – others see it as a more widespread system, one which is found
in deep South in America in the post slavery period, south Africa Under Apartheid, in
Thailand, the gypsies in England.

The Class System:

Industrial Societies depend on developing specialised talents. Industrialisation erodes

caste in favour of social class; social stratification resulting from the unequal distribution
of wealth, power and prestige. Unlike caste, estate and slavery, it is a system that claims to
be more often and based on individual achievement. A class system is seen to be more
‘Open’ in that people gain schooling and skills may experience some social mobility in
relation to their parents and siblings. Mobility, in turn, blurs class distinctions. Social
boundaries also break down, when people migrate from countryside to the city, lured by
greater opportunity for education and better jobs11
 People in industrial societies come to think that everyone is entitled to ‘rights’
rather than those of particular social standing. The principle of equal standing before the
law steadily assumes a central place in the political culture of industrial class system. Class
systems are no different from caste systems in one basic respect; people remain unequal.
The Social stratification now rest less entirely on the accident of birth, class system, for
instance, may allow more individual freedom in work carreers (when they are available )
and in such things as the selection of marriage partners.

18.Religion as a Social Institution

Throughout human history, human beings living in small societies

attributed birth, death and whatever happens in between to the operation of supernatural
forces. Over the course of last several centuries, science has emerged as an alternative way
of understanding the natural world. Scientific sociology offers various explanations of
how and why societies operate the way they do.

Religion is a matter of faith, belief anchored in conviction rather than

scientific evidence. Sociologists recognize that religion appears central to every culture on
earth. Durkheim distinguishes between the concepts of profane and sacred. Profane means
outside the temple. that which is an ordinary element of everyday life. But we set
something apart, which Durkheim designated them as sacred i.e., that which is
extraordinary, inspiring a sense of awe , reverence even fear. Religion is a social
institution involving beliefs and practices based upon the conception of the sacred.12

Around the world, matters of faith vary greatly. No one thing is sacred to
everyone. The sacred is the focus of ritual, which is formal, ceremonial behaviour -
Durkheim refers to the totem, an object in the natural world collectively defined as sacred.
The totem may be an animal, or an elaborate work of art becomes- the centre piece of
ritual. It symbolises the power of society.

Major functions of religion pointed out by Durkheim:

1. Social cohesion:

Religion unites people through shared symbols , values and norms. Religious
doctrines and rituals establish rules of ‘fair play.’ That makes organised social life
possible.

2. Social Control:

Every society uses religious imagery to promote conformity. Sometimes infuse

cultural norms especially mores relating to marriage and reproduction, with religious
justification.

3. Providing meaning and purpose:

Religious beliefs offers the comforting sense that people are less likely to
collapse in despair, when confronted by life’s calamitie’s. Our major life-course
transitions including birth, marriage and death- are usually marked by religious
observances. Durkheim’s analysis contends that religion represents the collective life of
society. But there is tendency to down play religion’s dysfunctions- it generates social
conflict.
 Maxweber saw religion as being a major force for social change. The
protestant ethic served as a major catalyst for the development of capitalism.

1.John J Macionis, Ken Plummer,(2004) ibid, 660-662.

Marx claimed the religion served ruling elites by legitimizing the status quo
and diverting people’s attention from the social inequalities of society. Religion works both
to create and to reinforce system of stratification. Gender and ethnicity also figure in
religion’s tie to social inequality. All worlds major religions have reflected and
encouraged made dominance of social life13.

All world religions seem to be patriarchal. They usually have male gods. They
devise ways of excluding women from their organisation. All the world major religions
have reflected and encouraged male dominance of social life. Many religions predominate
in a specific geographical region or society- Arab societies of middle East, Hinduism
closely fused with the culture of India.

Social conflict analysis reveals the power of religion to legitimate social

equality. Marx holds that religion has promoted change as well as equality. Nineteenth
century religious groups in the united kingdom were at the fore front to abolish slavery. In
the united states, religions organisations were at the core of the civil rights movement.

Feminist argue that unless traditional notions of gender are removed from
our understanding of god, women will never have equality with men. World religions
show few signs of changing their orthodox lives of women.

19.Education as a social Institution

All societies pay attention to ways of transmitting their culture

and values. In the modern world, these have house in schools and broader educational
process . Education as a social institution is guiding the social learning of knowledge, job
skills, cultural norms and values. In industrial societies much education is a matter of
schooling, formal instruction, under the direction of specially trained teachers.
 Formally, elders devoted much time to passing on both cultural beliefs and
knowledge of the natural world to the younger generation. As agrarian societies grew in
size and complexity, people needed to learn only specialised knowledge for their field of
work, rather than general knowledge. The English word ‘school’ comes from the Greek
word for ‘leisure’.

In some developing regions, including central Asia and central America,

religious organisations play a major role in providing education to children. In other
regions, particularly eastern Asia, Europe, the united states, Canada, Australia and
Newzeland, the state formally coordinates and regulates the majority of the schools.

All low-income countries have one trait in common; there is limited

access to formal schooling. Universal education might seem a relatively straight forward
good, but it has proved as difficult as any to achieve. In poorest nations, more than 10 per
cent of primary aged children are out of school. At secondary level, the number attending
school is much lower.

Across the globe, some 69 million school age children were not going to
school in 2008

The illiteracy issue:

Despite the world growth in education, illiteracy remains a major issue. A

person can be said to be literate, “who can with understanding both read and write a short
simple statement on his or her everyday life. The number of literate adults world wide has
been increasing rapidly. The figure doubled from 1.3 billion in 1970 to 3.4 billion in 2000.
At the start of the twenty –first century, by 2005-06, there were an estimated 781 million
illiterate adults in the world. About 64 per cent of whom are women. As a consequence,
illiteracy disadvantages many.

The new illiteracy:

As societies develop and expand their information technologies, so illiteracy

will come to mean the inability to use computers, word processing, email and websites 14
argues that the answer to widespread illiteracy is not to transpose western- style schools
into the rest of the world.

Education for social change:

Paulo Freire’s book on pedagogy of the oppressed (1972) refers to his key idea
of conscientisation, where education becomes a tool to transform the social order.
Ultimately education struggles for liberation from all kinds of oppression. Many of his
ideas are used across the world to bring about social change.

Instead of formal degrees on paper, people in developing areas need

practical knowledge and skills to provide for their basic life needs, to generate wealth in
ways sensitive to local cultural norms. In high income societies, schooling serves means of
trading people to participate democratic political life and apply the economic knowledge
and technological skills which are important in the modern world. At the same time,
schooling can also serve as major mechanism for reproducing social inequalities.

Schooling in India:

India has become a middle income country, but there are large number of
families who live in poverty and depend upon the earnings of children. Many children
work up to 60 hours a week and this greatly reduces the time and opportunity for
schooling.

Still about 90 percent of children in India complete primary schools -

typically in crowded school room, where one teacher attends to 60 children. Children in
poorest families often begin full –time work at an early age to help supplement the family
income. Fewer than helf of Indian children go on to secondary education.

Pronounced partiarchy also shapes Indian education. 59 per cent of boys

but only 49 per cent of girls attend secondary schools. While just over one-third of the
Indian population is illiterate, two –thirds of women lack basic literacy skills. A large
majority of the children working in Indian factories are girls. There are economic costs to
raising a girl; parents must provide a dowry and after the marriage , a daughter’s work
benefits her husband’s family

The functions of Education:

 Functionalism highlights the way the institutions of a society are interdependent
and interconnected with others. It explains the ways in which institutions work and
function in a society - to maintain order. It also explains about the disruptions and
breakdowns - the dIsfunction. Durkheim believed that education served a major role of
creating a moral bond. Education helped sustain social cohesion.

Functions of Schools:

Intellectual: They provide basic thinking skills for analysis and evaluation.

Political : They inculcate people into the norms of their society and train them to be
good Citizen.

Social : They socialise students into the culture and values of their society.

Economic : They prepare students for later occupational roles and train them for the
division of labour.

Modern schools are also the means by which modern democratic societies are
shaped. They create opportunities for development and success and help to lead a more
meritocratic society. Meritocracy implies that success is linked to achievement rather than
accidents of birth.

Many of the studies of schools point in the same directions: subcultures emerge
in schools for different groups kids might conform, rebel, withdraw or develop their own
path ways (turning to sports). Most common was the development of a subculture of
academic achievement and a subculture of low achievers, often demoralised and bored
with school.

David Hargreaves and Stephen Ball showed that how children got classified
into types, which are frequently based more on behaviour than ability, children selected
from lower streams are identified as trouble makers. Being ‘bad’ often gave them an

inverse kind of status. Paul Willis showed the disaffected youth of schools simply take this
culture with them into the ‘work place’ (or more commonly the street culture of no work).
 Early studies of classroom interaction in the U.K. suggest that, while
teachers may strive to be impartial, they are culturally conditioned to assess their students’
ability by ranking them on a scale of other characteristics such as appearance, personality,
enthusiasm and conformity. Which bear little relation to actual ability15. In those days,
teachers often favoured boys over girls.16 . Here we also see the significance of labelling
pupils in certain ways as slow learners or ‘trouble’. Children defined as low achievers at
school actually become low achievers. Is a matter of expectations. The social background
of the students also a role in how they experience education. Paul Willis (1977) found
among the working class boys that they generated an anti-school culture. They had little
time for the middle – class school values or for posh qualifications seeing them as boring
and waste of time.

Education at all levels, becomes a means for reproduction of society’s

inequalities; it can act as a means of social control, reinforcing acceptance of the status
quo. In various ways, schools operate to reproduce status hierarchy.
 20. social control, functions, agencies, types and theories

INTRODUTION:

Social control is the way in which our social order maintains itself. It is the
mechanism for guiding human behaviour. It directs human behaviour to socially
desirable goals; it promotes social continuity and stability. In the absence of social
control the society cannot function and fulfil human needs.

DEFINATION:

1. The sum of those methods by which a society tries to influence human

behaviour to maintain a given order – K. MANNHEIM
2. System of devices where by society brings its members into conformity with
the accepted standards of behaviour -E. A. ROSS

SELF CONTROL AND SOCIAL CONTROL:

Self control refers to the conformity to social norms by the individuals not because of
the sanctions of the society, but because the individual accepts the norms as proper.
The individual will feel guilty when he violates them. But social control is the
influence which the society exerts on the individual for the purpose of the group as a
whole. Self control is from within whereas social control is from outside.

CHARACTERISTICS OR FEATURES OF SOCIAL CONTROL:

1. Social control is exerted through public opinion, coercion, religion or customs.

2. Social control is the influence exerted by groups such as the family, the state,
the club.
3. It is enforced either by society itself or by the state.
4. Society exercises social control by informal means such as customs, folk ways,
and mores.
5. Society exerts social control by formal means such as police, judiciary, and
law.
6. It maintains law and order.
7. Customs and traditions play important role in social control.
8. Social control exercises influence for promoting the welfare of the group as a
whole.
NEEDS AND FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL CONTROL:

Society needs arrangement to maintain solidarity and social order. To maintain

social harmony in society, there is a need for social control mechanism. Social control
is necessary to sustain social organisation. It helps in controlling social conflicts and
tensions. Social solidarity and unity is maintained through social control. It helps in the
socialization of individuals and continuity of traditions. It provides social sanctions in
the society. The elder members of the family enforce their ideas over their children.
Marriages are arranged by the elder members of the family. In religious matters the old
parents influence the behaviour of the members; the family maintains unity because of
family norms.

Social control regulates human behaviour and society. In the absence of social
control, every individual is left to behave freely and the society would be reached to a
state of jungle.

AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL:

E. A. ROSS describes a number of agencies which are influencing human

behaviour throughout human history to keep individuals under control ; sum of
important means or agencies of social control include folkways, mores, customs,
personality, religion, social suggestions, and public opinion and law. Some other
informal agencies are gossip, sympathy, and sociability, resentment, sense of
justice, beliefs, morals etc.

The means of the social control may be classified into two types- formal and
informal means of social.

( A) INFORMAL MEANS OF SOCIAL CONTROL :

The following are the informal means of social control. They are:
1. BELIEFS:
We have religious and supernatural beliefs of hell and heaven, nemesis,
immorality of soul, rebirth and karma. Gillin and Gillin say, “The belief in
these supernatural sanctions of conduct has great advantages, sometimes legal
and social sanctions may not be able to bring pressure on the individuals for
conformity. The concept of god or goddess of punishment will control the inner
 motives of the individuals. People conform to these beliefs and norms, not by
external influence or pressure but by their inner self and sentiments.
2. CUSTOMS:
Earlier, customs ruled the world and regulated human behaviour. People never
hesitate to obey the customs, without any physical force ,we follow them as
part of our day to day life. This saves us from social ridicule. Customs regulate
social life to a great extent.
3. MORALS:
We have been following morals from the hoary past. They are regulating our
behaviour. Morals are concepts of good and bad, right and wrong. In civilised
societies, non violence, truth, justice, equality etc are considered as moral
conduct. Violation of these morals is condemned.

4. NORMS:

Norms are rules and regulations. They provide guidelines for action. All the
social institutions have their own norms. There are family norms, caste norms
and religious norms. Violation of these norms is not accepted by the society.
There was social ridicule and criticism for the violation of social norms.
5.FOLKWAYS:
folkways are ways of the people. They are the patterns or modes of behaviour
accepted by the people. They are taught from childhood. Hence they exert
powerful influence over man’s behaviour in the society. They are the
foundations of group culture.
6.MORES:
mores are related to fundamental needs of the society. They express the group
sense of what is right for the welfare of the group. They imply value
judgement. They mould human behaviour. They restrain the individual from
doing wrong acts. They are the instruments of social control. There are mores
like monogamy, endogamy etc. Mores control man’s behaviour in society.
7.VALUES:
Values are culturally defined goals. They reflect what is desirable for the
society. They are goals worth striving for. Every society aspires for certain
goals and values to be attained. These values hold the members together. They
contribute for the prosperity of the society. They are the means of social control.
8.IDEALS:
Every country will set before it certain ideals to be achieved. There are social
ideals which prove very effective in social control. Liberty, fraternity, equality
are some of the ideals of the democracy. A democratic country will endeavour
to attain these ideals. These ideals are means of social control.
9.RITUALS AND CEREMONIES:
We perform rituals and ceremonies as part of our social obligations and duties
on important occasions, festivals and celebrations. They have psychological
aspects and help in maintaining social control. Ceremonies impress the
importance of an occasion and makes one realise about the importance of our
social obligations.
10.SUGGESTION:
The suggestions of the great people will work subconsciously and influence our
thinking and attitudes. These suggestions motivate us to work for the welfare of
the society. They help in meeting the needs of the society.
11.FAMILY:
Family is the first agency for the socialization of the child; it is in the family
that the individual learns the social norms and values. He learns his social
behaviour in the family. It is in the family a person is taught to behave and
respect social laws and obey social controls. He is brought under the control of
mores and traditions of the family.
12. ART AND LITERATURE:
Both art and literature influence our imagination and exert control on human
behaviour our culture is expression of our life in art, architecture, painting,
music and dance. They mould our imagination and thinking. Literature
comprises poetry, drama and fiction. They express our way of life. Art and
literature appeal to our emotions. They control human behaviour.
13. LEADERSHIP:
Even association of people needs leader to guide, direct and channelize its
functions. Now the society has become complex. It is divided into many
groups. They are social, economical, political, religious, and cultural groups
etc. Each group has its leaders, who control behaviour of the people. This
leadership has become an instrument of social control.
 14.RELIGION:
Religion is a powerful weapon of social control. Supernatural powers of the
religion dominate our minds. Many of our past traditions, rites, Codes of
conduct are influenced by the religion. It supports our social morality in many
respects. Religion regulates human behaviour and conduct. Religion teaches us
about social good. Maciver and Page state that religion has social and moral
reflections; human behaviour is influenced and regulated by religion.
(B) FORMAL MEANS OF SOCIAL CONTROL:
1. EDUCATION

Education is a great vehicle of social control. After the family the second agency
that socialises the child in the school and the class room. The culture, its values and our
heritage is transmitted to the child through education. It is in the school, the child learns
social behaviour, the discipline, the rules and regulations. Education moulds the behaviour,
conduct and personality of the child.

2. ADMINISTRATION OF LAW:

Rass says that law is the most specialised engine of social control. It is enforced by a
sovereign political authority by the courts of the state. Law empowers the government to
punish those who violate the social order. It protects and helps the society for its existence.
Society without law cannot exist. Law exercises powerful control upon the behaviour of
the people. It protects the obedient from the disobedient to law.

COERCION AND PHYSICAL FORCE:

Coercion is the ultimate means of social control. By using physical force, we achieve a
desired end. The coercion may take the form of corporal punishment, imprisonment and
death penalty. Physical force can have immediate effects upon the offender, but it was not
a permanent solution. A society depending upon external force shows its Weakness, but
not its strength. The fear of physical punishment deters the people from violating social
order. The police, army and weapons are all instruments of physical force. It is the most
important means of social control.
TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROL:

Karl Mannheim classified two types of social control.

1. DIRECT SOCIAL CONTROL:

In primary group such as family, neighbourhood, play group and other primary
groups we find direct social control. An individual is directly influenced by his
parents, friends, peer group, colleges and neighbours. His behaviour is controlled
by their criticism, praise, suggestion or persuasion etc. This is direct social control.
2. INDIRECT SOCIAL CONTROL:
In secondary groups we find indirect social control. Secondary group control the
individuals indirectly. Institutions, customs, traditions, national and international
organizations with which we interact indirectly influence our behaviour. In the
complex society, we interact with many organizations in our day to day life, we
follow their rules and regulations to carry on our social and economic activities. It
is not that there are no individuals behind this control. But these individuals are not
seen by the persons affected.

Kimball young has divided social control into three types.

1. POSITIVE:
As member of society, we want to get reward or acceptance or recognition by
the society. Hence we constantly want to conform to its traditions, norms values
and ideals accepted by the society. For conformity to its norms and values, we
get recognition, fame and respect etc.
2. NEGATIVE:
Society discourages and prevents people from indulging in anti-social activities,
deviant behaviour and criminal activities by fear of punishments. The
punishment vary from moderate to severe physical or verbal or in any other
from. Examples of verbal punishments include defamation, criticism, ridicule
etc. The physical punishment may take the form extradition from caste fear of
punishment in gather form may help to prevent people from violating the
socially accepted customs, traditions, values and ideals.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL:

Social control can be classified into two other forms, formal and informal.

FORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL:

The formal type of social control includes government, law, Army, Jail, penal code.

INFORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL:

Informal social control includes traditions, customs, folkways, mores etc. Social control
can be classified into two other types, control by sanction and control by socialisation and
education.

Control by Sanction:

In this method, control is exercised by rewards and punishments. Those who conform to
norms and traditions are rewarded. Those who violate the norms and traditions are
punished.

Control by socialisation and education:

Socialisation is a continuous and ongoing process from the cradle to the grave; Right
from the birth, the child undergoes socialisation process in the family, school and in other
institutions,Through socialisation process; The institutions of the society regulate the
behaviour of the individual and exert control over him.

Through education, we are inculcating the norms, values, ideals of society. We regulate
the behaviour of the individual through education. Education exercises social control on
the individual.

THEORIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL:

The sociologists presented many theories of social control to explain the process of social
control.

1. Durkheim’s theory of social control:

Durkheim’s theory of social control is based upon collective representations and

collective consciousness. Members of the society share common beliefs, values, tradition
and ideals, collective representation are spread throughout the society. They exercise
control over behaviour of the individual. They have power to influence the behaviour of
the people in society. The examples of collective representatives are the national flag,
saved books, religious beliefs. They exercise social control.

2. Ross’ theory of social control:

All societies are generally classified into natural society and class based societies. He
believes that various customs and faiths are more powerful than the state. These beliefs
help individual in socialization. Customs and beliefs regulate human behaviour and the
society. They are the informal means of social control. If the laws enacted by the state are
against the customs , the people may not accept those laws. They cannot be implemented in
the society.

3. Cooley’s theory:

Cooley’s theory is based on social participation and socialization. By social participation,

people follow the beliefs, values, social norms. Social participation helps for conformity to
the norms.The social institutions are involved in the socialization of the individual. Social
control is exercised through the socialization of the individuals.

Herbert Spencer’s Theory:

According to spencer, morality, custom and religion are important means of social control.
Morals are concepts of good and bad, right and wrong. Morals regulate human behaviour
and the society. In the modern society, the morals have taken the form of our ideals like
truth, justice and equality. Earlier customs regulated human behaviour. Even today,
customs are the informal means of social control. Religion is a powerful weapon of social
control. Reiligion regulates human behaviour and conduct.

Parson’s Theory:

Parson’s theory of social control is based on institutional means. He talks about

arrangement of institutions and institutional practises.
Any social system has functional problems. The functional problems are:

1. Pattern maintenance and tension management. Tension management is one of the

functions of social systems. The tension and disturbance should be managed.

2. The social system should adapt to social and non social environment.

3. Every social system has one or more goals to be attained through cooperative effect.

4. To achieve the goals of social systems, people are required to work in cooperation with
each other to get integration. These are the functional problems of social systems. If it does
not, the system would cease to exist.

QUIZ:

1. When a person gives up habit of gambling and drinking because it spoils his family life
and health, he exercises:

A. self control

B. social control

C. economic control

D. moral control

2. Folk ways and Mores are:

A. formal means of social control

B. informal means of social control

C. negative means of social control

D. positive means of social control

Key : 1- (a) ; 2- (b)

REFERENCES:

1.Chauhan ,A.S. (2008), Society and Environment, Jain Brothers, New Delhi.

2. MacIver, R. M, Page, Charles. H(1959), Society, an introductory analysis, London,.

Macmillan &co. Ltd.

3. Myneni , S.R, (2011), Sociology for Pre Law Students, Allahabad Law Agency,
Faridabad(Haryana)

4. Navendu K. Thakur(2007),An introduction to Sociology for Law Students, Central Law

Publications, Allahabad.

5. Oommen ,T.K., Venugopal C.N,(2007), Sociology for Law students, Eastern Book
Company, Lucknow.

6. Shankar Rao, C.N.(2004) Principles of Sociology, S. Chand &Company Ltd, New Delhi.

7. Sharma,R.N(1975), Introductory Sociology, Rajhans Prakasham Mandir, Meerut.

8. Singh, B.R (2008), Principles of Sociology, Central Law Agency, Allahabad.

9. Singh, U.S.(2008),Hand Book On Pre- Law, 1st Year Sociology, Allahabad Law
Agency, Faridabad, Haryana.

10. Vidhya Bhushan, Sachdeva D.R.(2005),An introduction to Sociology, Kitab Mahal,

Allahabad.

11. Das,A.C, (1972), An Introduction to the Study of Society, Calcutta University Press

Model Question:

1. Anaylasie various forms of social stratification in Inidan society?

2. Explain the theories means and agencies of social control?
3. Discuss the problems of schooling in India. How does the right to education Act
2009 help to solve the problems of primary education in our country?
 Unit:V (A) Social change

21.Social change, Evolution and Progress,

Introduction:
Social change refers to any modification in established patterns of inter – human
relationships and standard of conduct.
Change is the law of nature. What is today shall be different from what it would be
tomorrow. The social structure is subject to constant change. Family and religion will not
remain the same during this period. These institutions are changing. Society is an ever
changing phenomenon.
Objectives
On the completion of this lesson, you should be able to :
1) Explain the meaning and definition of social change
2) Define the concepts of evolution and progress.
3) Explain the Biological factors, technological factors
4) Explain the theories of social change.
Definition
Gillin and Gillin Defined
“Social change is variation from accepted modes of life, whether due to alteration
in geographical conditions, cultural environment, composition of population or ideologies
and whether brought about by diffusion or invention within the group”.
The modes of life include norms, values, religious beliefs, methods of cultivation.
Wilbert E.Moore
“Social change is significant alteration of social structure including consequences
and manifestations of such structures, embodied in norms, values and cultural products and
symbols”.
There are various aspects of change which include : a) the sources (or factors), 2)
the speed or rate of change, 3) the forms of change; 4) the direction of change; 5) automatic
or induced change.
Sources of change

1) Gillin and Gillin

According to Gillin and Gillin, there are psychological, physical, biological,

cultural and personality factors of social change.
2) Maciver and page

Maciver and page identified biological, technological and cultural factors of social
change.

We can divide these factors into five broad categories namely physical, biological,
psychological, technological and cultural factors.

The biological factors bring changes through population changes. The

psychological factors through imitation or customs and mores, the physical factors through
natural calamities, technological factors through inventions and cultural factors through
changes in ideas, beliefs and attitudes.

Rate of change

The speed of change in the world is faster due to technological factors. Great
changes are measured in decades, years and even months. The development of techniques
of communication affected social relations in many ways. The use of motion pictures,
television, radio, brought enormous changes in society.

Forms of change

1) There are changes in the life cycle of the individual – in fancy, childhood, adulthood and
old age. He undergoes socialization process.

2) The biological changes such as population growth, change in the ratio between the
sexes and different age groups. They represent social change.

3) There may be changes in the sub – systems independent of other parts of the social
order.

4) There may be major changes in the society in the cultural sphere such as norms, values
and beliefs.

Direction of change

Process

Process refers to continuity. A process is continuous change taking place in a

definite manner.

When we express not only continuity but direction of change, we use certain terms
such as evolution, development and retrogression.
Regression , Evolution , Revolution

Regression is backward movement. Evolution is gradual, continuous change in a

particular direction. Revolution is rapid, radical and violent change. Rapid changes take
place in the technological sphere. We find slow rate of change in political, family and other
institutions.

Chain Reactions of Social change

Society comprises inter related parts. Change in one part effect change in other
parts of the society. Industrialization destroyed domestic production. Women seek
employment in factory and office. It has affected family life. When ideology changes,
women and children get rights. According to articles 14, 15 , 16 of the Indian constitution,
women got equal rights along with men. Women’s rights are protected under the Indian
constitution.

After the commencement of the Indian constitution , many changes have taken
place in social, political, economic and cultural life.

Unplanned or Non- directed social change

Floods, Famine , Earthquakes are unplanned. They are not of human control.
Through natural calamities , changes takes place. Hydrogen bomb, Atom bomb, invention,
cloning, genetic technology may lead to unplanned change.

Planned or (directed social change)

Social change can be brought about with social planning. By plans and human
effort, social change can be brought about USSR brought changes by planned effort. The
five year plans in India brought about number of changes in the Indian society.

Social Evolution

The term evolution is derived from the latin word ‘evolvere’. It means to develop or
to unfold. Hidden or latent characters reveal themselves. Evolution means more than
growth. Evolution involves something more intrinsic, a change not merely in size but at
least in structure also. The word ‘growth’ connotes a direction of change but only of a
quantitative character, e.g. we say population growth. We cannot speak of evolution, when
a system is changed by forces acting from without.

According Herbert spencer, social evolution, means progress from indefinite,

incoherent homogeneity to a definite, coherent heterogeneity. It is gradual, progressive
through a process of differentiation and integration. Evolution is a continuous process of
differentiation – cum – integration.

All that is implicit is made manifest, slowly. Structure changes with increase in
size. There will be qualitative and quantitative changes. It is characterized by
differentiation. We find variety of difference in between primitive and civilized societies,
differentiation in social institutions. There is difference between social change and social
evolution. By social change, we mean change in social systems. In social change, there is
no implication regarding direction. Social evolution is continuous change in structure and
function.

Social progress

Progress means moving forward in the direction of some goal. Progress is a change
in the same direction to fulfill the desired aim. Progress refers not merely direction, but
direction towards final goal.

According to Ogburn , progress “is a movement towards an objective, thought to be

desirable by the general group. According to Maciver, “ By progress, we imply not merely
direction , but by direction towards some final goal, some destination determined ideally”.
According to Lumley , “ progress is change, but it is change in a desired or approved
direction, not any direction. When we say that we are progressing, we mean that society is
flourishing both materially and morally. Evolution is merely change , the change may be
for the better or the worse. Progress means change for the better, and hence implies a value
judgment.

Social progress is welcomed by all , it satisfies our values. Social change is process
of becoming different. Change refers to ‘ What is ‘ ;progress refers to ‘What ought to be’.
Social progress is related to planned change. Social evolution is related to inevitability of
causation with no fixed goal or destination.
 22.Theories and Factors of social change

Biological factors of social change

Biological process determines the numbers, the composition, the selection and the
hereditary quality of successive generations. The population of a given society may be
biologically different, more numerous, less numerous, more healthy, less healthy, more
fertile and less fertile.

Social arrangements such as taboos on inter – marriages, restrictions on the

marriage, age at marriage lower the biological quality of population. Population changes
occur due to migration, fall of birth rate, fall of death rate. Due to advance of science, death
rates have decreased. When birth rate is falling, the proportion of younger population
decreases. Death and birth rates and the marriage rates are responsible to determine the
changes in social attitudes.

Natural selection

Darwin formulated the principle of natural selection. According to natural selection

theory, the less favorable are eliminated in the struggle for existence. The more favorable
are encouraged. The struggle for existence has various aspects. It includes adaptation to the
nature, the climate and seasonal changes, variations in food supply. It also includes
resistance to diseases. It is the struggle of preying species to capture their prey and of the
latter to avoid capture.

Social Selection

Natural selection is always to be environmental. The environment has itself ceased

to influence the individual. Man follows his own ways. Social heritage modifies the
alternatives of natural selection. The physically weak man is no longer unfit to live, by his
moral and intellectual attainments. He can become one of the ablest members of the
society. The qualities favored by natural selection such as physical fitness and bodity
strength are less important than those favored by social selection.

Natural selection acts only through the death rate while social selection has
emphasis on birth rate. Natural selection focuses on birth rate and death rate. Social
selection is preventive as well as creative. In natural selection, man has to come to terms
with nature. Social selection is made by man’s effort. Natural selection is by way of
competition and conflict, while social selection is the way of cooperation and benevolence.
Natural selection is based upon natural conditions , while social selection is based upon
social conditions.

Technological factors of social change

Technology affects society greatly. The introduction of machine has far reaching
consequences. The present age is often called the ‘ age of power ‘ , the scientific age.
Mechanization has changed not only the economic structure of society but also our social
organization, and old ideologies. When our production technology has changed, our beliefs
and the traditions have crumbled.

Men are devoted to more to quantity than to quality. Social relations are influenced
by technological change. Changes in agricultural technology have affected the rural
community. Communication is an important factor determining our social life. Changes in
our mode of transportation have affected our social relationships.

Modern factory promotes unionism. Industrialization has effected changes in the

status of women. It destroyed domestic production and led to higher specialization.
Technological developments intensified competition. They resulted in expansion of
economic functions, higher standard living, breaking of old family system, spread of
fashion and growth of democracy. The modern life is marked by desire for speed. People
work for immediate results and for quick advantages, they seek novelty everywhere. There
are no permanent interests of culture. Everything has become means to means and to no
final ends, functions of functions , no values beyond.

Atomic energy is serviceable to men. But is used for destructive purposes it is not
being used for constructive purposes. Technological advancement is characterized by
greater efficiency, more specialization and increasing division of labour.

Deterministic theories

Changes in environment initiate social change. There is relationship between

economic factors and structure of society. The structure of society is economic creation.
Marxist theory

Production is a determinant of economic relationships. Technology determines

mode of production. The cultural life and social forms are reflection of economic order.
Economic situation is the foundation of social order. The history of existing society is the
history of class struggle. Economic factors have influence over society. The productive
process demands a transformation of economic relationships and there with of the whole
social superstructure. Changes in the techniques of production will lead to the changing
social structure.

Veblen’s theory of technological determinism

In human life, our habituation and mental discipline are inherent in the kind of
work by which we live and the kind of technique which that work involves. It influences
men’s thoughts, their relations with one another. Habituation is the great moulder of the
minds as well as the bodies of men. “ The way of habit is the way of thought”. It is thus the
difference in environment which explains the difference in the social structure. The growth
habits and conventions are conditioned by the material environment. Man is what he does.
“As he acts, so he feels and thinks”. Social structure changes, develops, adapts itself, only
through a change in the habits of thought.

The deterministic theories unduly simplify the situation with which they deal. Marx
oversimplified the class structure of the society. In relation to working class, all other
classes are only reactionary classes. The theory overrides, cultural, religious, racial and
national distinctions.

Veblen never tries to show the correspondence between cultural conditions and
their influence on human behavior and society. We find cultural difference between the
people at the same level of technical advance, the primitive people living in semi –
isolation.

Cultural factors of social change

W.F.Ogburn – cultural factors influence human behavior and society

 W.F.Ogburn formulated cultural lag. He distinguishes between material and non –
material culture. Changes occur in material culture; they stimulate changes in non –

material culture. The adaptive culture is show to respond. Factory system came first. The
workmen compensation acts came later.

Something falls behind. Material culture and technological advance are pace – makers and
non – material culture is the laggard. There is lag between basic technology and higher
technology. Lag is not applicable to technology and culture. Technological lag is
preferable.

Technological lag

Technology is fast changing. When the corporation is expanding in scale due to

advancement of technology, the management is not able to keep pace with the fast
changing technology. The failure of management to cope up with the changes in
technology is called technological lag.

We explicit efficiently the products of the forest, but fail to apply equal efficiency
to maintenance of the forest.

Technological Restraint

There is technological restraint determined by bureaucratic interest. There is also

restraint imposed by economic interest. Because of threat to profits. The employer opposes
new methods. Trade unions oppose the use of labor saving devices. Technological methods
of advanced civilization are imposed on a relatively primitive people.

Restraint by cultural interest

Technology is opposed by tradition and mores. Technology threatens cultural life.

Primitive people resist technology. When alien technology is imposed on high culture, it is
resisted. Gandhi clung to old ways of spinning to maintain culture. Discoveries of science
are decried by tradition. Contraceptives are opposed by tradition.
Culture clash

There is conflict of opposing values. The fear of alien technology disturbs old
values. There is conflict between two culture patterns. There is conflict between imported
culture and indigenous culture. The culture clash is the sword of division within countries.

Cultural ambivalence

Sumner

By cultural ambivalence, we mean inconsistency in mores. Clashing culture leads

to ambivalence. One cannot achieve accommodation. One is subjected to counter demands
of clashing cultural demands.

Culture determinant of change

There is connection between beliefs and institutions, valuations and social relations.
Cultural change involves social change.

Directional role

Culture responds to technology. It acts back on it. Culture influence the direction of
technological change. We produce whatever we will. One can produce necessaries or
luxuries. The ship can sail to various ports. The port we sail to is cultural choice. Machine
is the enemy of culture. It also became means to culture. High culture needs the equipment
of civilization.

Maxweber

Culture is the basic condition of social change. It is also a source of social change.
It acts on utilitarian order also. Culture deals with the material objects as well as the non –
material objects of life. Culture determines the kind of technology, tools of work and the
transport as well as the non – material objects such as the ideals and values. The food we
take, the tools we use, the dress we wear are all influenced by our culture. Changes in
culture will lead to changes in material and non – material aspects of our life.
Capitalism and Protestantism

There is relationship between Protestantism and capitalism. Religion influences our

values and our ways of life. Protestantism prepares the way for the development of
capitalism. There is close relationship between the ethics of Protestantism and economic
development. The virtues of thrift and savings are the ethics of Protestantism which lead to
economic development. Weber holds that in the countries where Protestantism is followed

are more developed than other countries. Social systems are creations of cultural values. In
Protestantism there are ethics like hard work, time is money which are conducive to
economic development.

Hob house

Hob house holds that there is relation between changing social forms and, changing
beliefs and cultural attitudes. The organic needs of food and shelter can be satisfied. The
competitive interests of possession, power are culturally determined. The western culture
promotes competitive interests. There is keen competition for power and position in
western societies. The success of life is measured in terms of achievements. People who
achieve the accumulation of wealth and other pursuits of life are considered successful in
life.

Manifestation of cultural change

Culture reflects our valuations and styles. Because of the influence of western
culture, our valuations and styles have also changed. The traditional values have been
replaced by the modern values of life. The traditional values of Purusharthas, of Dharma,
Artha, Kama, Moksha are not being pursued today; people are more concerned for the
accumulation of wealth. Most of the people today have no other values except monetary
values. Our culture is manifested in the styles of our dress, our decorations and fashions.
The styles of life are always changeful. Today we find suppression of the old values and
styles by the new values and styles. There are oscillations between conservatism and
radicalism, orthodoxy and tolerance. Culture is always in flux.

Indices of cultural change

Cultural trends are not measurable directly many aspects of our culture are
intangible, we cannot see them with our naked eye. We can witness the changes in the
culture as reflected in decorations and dress we wear. We can also trace the changes in
opinions through voting. It is not easy to study changes in ideas and philosophies. Changes
in attitudes are indicated through their effect on our habits, customs, fashions, art and
literature. There are rapid shifts in attitudes in modern society. As culture changes our
attitudes and our habits change. Today because of the impact of western culture, our habits
and fashions have changed a great deal.
 16.Juvenile Delinquency

THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION:

According to Sutherland, criminal behavior is learnt, not

inherited. As in the case of normal behavior, criminal behavior is also learnt through
interaction with others. The principle of differential association, as propounded by
Sutherland, pre supposes that there are criminal as well as non-criminal associations. When
circumstances are favorable to violation of law, the individual develops a tendency to
commit crime. Some people have acquisitive tendencies for gaining social status and
seeking pleasure in life. Learning takes place by personal contacts with other people. If the
person is more exposed to the views which support crime, he is likely to commit crime.
Family and friends have the most frequent and longest lasting associations. They teach the
children about how to behave. Children in slums who associate with street
criminals, tend to adopt delinquent behavior.

Theories of juvenile gang delinquency:

Poverty and lower class status may not directly lead to

delinquency. But they influence the formation of juvenile gangs. There is more possibility
for the formation of gangs in the areas inhabited by lower class persons. According to
Thrasher, group delinquency develops in slums to derive excitement from the adventure
involved in such deviant acts. A.K. Cohen states that there is peculiar culture among the
gang delinquents called as ‘delinquent sub-culture’. The members of the gang share a
number of problems and the sub-culture is a response to find out the solutions to the
problems. They take pleasure in delinquent acts, for the discomfort they have caused to
others. What leads young persons to gang culture is the economic injustice and not the
class expectation problem. There are differences in access to legitimate means according to
positions in social structure. Delinquent opportunity depends on the possibility of unequal
opportunities for illegitimate means.

Role of school in delinquency:

The school plays a significant role in causing delinquency among

children. Truancy and the problems of absenteeism are some of the factors in the school
structure responsible for delinquencies. In India, most of the government schools are ill-
equipped and suffer from shortage of faculty and infrastructure facilities. The
lower class children cannot afford to pay the fees to the best schools. Some of the parents
need supplementary incomes by employing their children.

The imitation theory:

The movies and television have their impact on juvenile delinquency.

Juvenile delinquency was the result of what youngsters saw in movies. The theory of
imitation was replaced by psychological approach of William Healey and Cyrill Burt.
According to them, violence depicted in films and elsewhere provided, ‘vicarious
enjoyment’ and served as “Safety valves and healthy outlets” to potential aggressive
tendencies. The safety valve theory was also without scientific support as the imitation
theory.

Social control theory:

Control theories do not make a clear distinction or clear-cut

categorization of delinquent and non-delinquent youths. They focus on ‘restraining and
controlling’ forces which keep a person in check. Delinquency occurs, when these forces
are weakened. Jackson Toby states that, the temptation to violate the norms is common
among all persons, but control will depend upon the advantages, an individual may have in
conformity to norms. School performance determines the conformity. Ivan Nye, another
control theorist, holds that family was single most important control group in determining
juvenile behavior. Walter C. Reckless propounded that his ‘containment theory’.
According to this theory, delinquency was the result of all kinds of external and internal
pressures and pulls with reference to an individual. External containment consists in
effective family living and support groups; inner containment is the product of
internalization and consists in self-control, ego strength, super ego etc. According to
Matza, delinquent behavior is due to weakening of social control. He points out that
delinquents do not regard their behavior as morally justified, but rationalize it on the
ground of ‘pervasive sense of injustice’. Hirschi, holds that individuals tightly attached to
the family, the school and peers would be less likely to commit delinquent acts. He further
states that the factors such as attachment, commitment, involvement and belief in
individual, and social institutions, will also prevent them from delinquent activities.
Model Questions

1) Analyse the concepts of Social change, Evolution and progress?

2) Explain the theories and factors of social changes?
3) Discuss the exploratory, descriptive and analytical types of Research design?

Quiz

1) According to Spencer, a master key for social evolution is :

a) Natural Selection

b) Social Selection

c) Institutional Selection

d) Cultural Selection

2) The factors that determine the numbers , the composition, the selection and the
hereditary quality of the successive generations bringing social change is due to :

a) Environmental factors

b) Biological factors

c) Geographical factors

d) Cultural factors

Key : 1- (a) 2- (b)

References

1.Chauhan ,A.S. (2008), Society and Environment, Jain Brothers, New Delhi.

2. MacIver, R. M, Page, Charles. H(1959), Society, an introductory analysis, London,.

Macmillan &co. Ltd.

3. Myneni , S.R, (2011), Sociology for Pre Law Students, Allahabad Law Agency,
Faridabad(Haryana)

4. Navendu K. Thakur(2007),An introduction to Sociology for Law Students, Central Law

Publications, Allahabad.
5. Oommen ,T.K., Venugopal C.N,(2007), Sociology for Law students, Eastern Book
Company, Lucknow.

6. Shankar Rao, C.N.(2004) Principles of Sociology, S. Chand &Company Ltd, New Delhi.

7. Sharma,R.N(1975), Introductory Sociology, Rajhans Prakasham Mandir, Meerut.

8. Singh, B.R (2008), Principles of Sociology, Central Law Agency, Allahabad.

9. Singh, U.S.(2008),Hand Book On Pre- Law, 1st Year Sociology, Allahabad Law
Agency, Faridabad, Haryana.

10. Vidhya Bhushan, Sachdeva D.R.(2005),An introduction to Sociology, Kitab Mahal,

Allahabad.

11. Das,A.C, (1972), An Introduction to the Study of Society, Calcutta University Press
 Unit V (B) Social Research

24.Steps in Social Research

INTRODUCTION

Planning involves deciding things in advance. The steps in research or the plan of study are
the guidelines to be followed by the author. The steps are the different stages involved in
the research process. These steps give the right direction for the study. If these steps are
planned in advance, it would facilitate research work.
In preparing the research design or plan of study, the following steps are
involved.

1. THE TITLE:
The title of the research proposal is to name the topic. The title
should suggest the theme of the study. It should give sufficient information about
the nature of the study.

2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

It is an attempt to focus on a clear goal.It includes determining objectives of the
study, definition of the concepts, identification of variables and formulation of
hypothesis.

3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

The objectives will have to be specified for gathering data. The objectives will spell
out the nature of the studies and goals to be attained. According to the objectives,
the hypothesis may be formulated and tested. The objectives of the study will guide
the researcher in the proper direction to proceed with his work.

i) SOCIO-CULTURAL CONTEXT OF THE STUDY:

The socio-economic conditions, the cultural context of the
persons, their behaviour patterns are to be ascertained.

ii) GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS TO BE COVERED:

The geographical areas are to be delimited and they are to be
specified in the research design.

iii) DIMENSIONS OF THE STUDY:

There may be some limitations for the study.
These limitations should be mentioned clearly in the research
design. Definition of the terms used in the research becomes
necessary.

4. REVIEW OF LITERATURE:
One should review the relevant books, articles, thesis,
research studies connected with the problem chosen. It is necessary to
examine how the problem under study relates to previous research studies.

5. OURCES OF INFORMATION TO BE TAPPED:

There are two types of sources i.e., documentary and field
sources. Field sources are direct sources. Documentary sources are
published and unpublished documents; reports, statistics, letters, diaries
etc. Primary sources include data gathered at first hand. Primary sources
may be collected by direct observation, personal interview and other
devices.

6. DEVELOPMENT OF BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Bibliography is to be prepared after the consultation of the available
sources. The books, journals, articles, referred by the scholar should be included in
the Bibliography with the name of the author, title of the reference, publisher’s
name and the date of publication.

7. NATURE OF THE STUDY:

One should ascertain the nature of the study, whether it is
a case study, statistical study or experimental study or a combination of
these types. The specific nature of the study is to be decided and toprepare
the research design accordingly.

8. DEFINING THE POPULATION AND SELECTION THE SAMPLE:

 Population here means the total group to which the
findings of the study can be applied. The population may be a political
party, the working class families in a given area, the retired teachers of a
state, science graduates in a university and so on. If the total group is
studied, it is called census study. When the total group is too large, only a
sample is taken from it. The sample would represent the whole group. The
sample may be random, purposive or stratified.

9. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION:

If the study requires information from secondary sources,
the researcher should refer literature and documentation. If the study
requires primary data, methods like observation, interview, questionnaire
maybe used.

10. ANALYSIS OF DATA:

The process of analysis includes editing and coding. By
coding we mean giving each item a systematic number. Analysis also
includes tabulation. By tabulation we mean entering items in each category
in the form of tables. We also calculate statistically the various measures
such as averages, deviations, correlation etc.
11. INTERPRETATION:
Statistical measures are only mathematical conclusions of
living realities. The living realities are expressed in the form of numerical
symbols. Real findings of the study are hidden under statistical measurements.
The researcher has to bring out these findings. Only the conclusions warranted
by data should be drawn. Interpretation requires insights into relationships
between variables.

12. CHAPTER SCHEME AND REPORT-WRITING:

The preparation of a chapter outline is necessary step in
writing the rough draft. One should determine the number of chapters and the
name of each chapter. The basis for each chapter scheme is the objective of the
research problem. The first chapter is usually an introductory one and the last
chapter deals with the findings, conclusions and suggestions.

13. RESEARCH REPORT:

The findings are to be presented logically in the form of a
report. The report should contain the statement of the problem, the research
procedure and the findings of the study. The research report should be scientific
one. It is at the same time a great art. It must be readable as a good piece of
literature.

14. BUDGETING (TIME-COST ANALYSIS):

It is necessary to estimate the time that would be required to
complete the research work. We must have a break-up of the different periods.
In each of these periods, various stages such as pre-testing, data collection,
analysis, report writing etc., could be completed.
Budgeting is complicated one. It requires financial experience.
The overall cost of the research project can be calculated. Expenditure
involved in each of these stages may be calculated. Expenses in every single
item should be estimated in advance. Agencies sponsoring research require
detailed financial statement.

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Questions

1. Discuss the major steps in research and plan of study.

2. Explain the different stages in research and plan of study.

Suggested books

1. Ackoff R.L (1953), The design of social research, university of

Chicago press, chicago.

2. Goode and Hatt (1952),methods in social research, Mcgraw Hill

series, New York.
3. Sarevanavel.p (2004) Research Methodology, kitab mahal,
Allahabad.Wilkinson Bandarkar (1982), Methodology and
Techniques of social research, Himalaya publishing house,
Bombay

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25.RESEARCH DESIGN: EXPLORATIVE, DESCRIPTIVE AND ANALYTICAL DESIGN

INTRODUCTION:

An artist makes a design before he executes his ideas, an architect prepares a blue print before he
approves a construction. Any prudent man makes a plan before he undertakes work. The
researcher also makes a plan before he undertakes a project.

DEFINITION:

Pauline V Young defines a research design as “the logical and systematic planning and directing
a piece of research, the design “results from translating a general scientific model into varied
research procedures”

Prof. Miller has defined it as “ the planed sequence of the entire process involved in conducting a
research study”

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN:

A research design is a plan for the collection and analysis of data. It is a logical strategy to
answer a question. It is a strategy to describe a situation. It is a strategy to discover a problem or
test a hypothesis. We need a blue print for the construction of a house with a minimum cost. So
also, we need a plan of study to minimize the cost of research.17

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

A good research design is characterised by objectivity. Reliability, validity, generalisation. The

design should minimise bias and maximise reliability of data collected. A good research design
has the following characteristics.

1. OBJECTIVITY:

The researcher should avoid personal bias in putting the questions to the respondents. He should
not influence the respondents in giving the answers.

17
Prof. M. Lakshmipathiraju (2006). Social work research, centre for Distance Education, Acharya Nagarjuna
Universit, nagarjuna nagar- 522510, Andhra Pradesh.
126
2. RELIABILITY:

It means consistency in response. If the research asked the question about the causes of over
population and if the same answer is given repeatedly by the respondent, then there is said to be
reliability in research.

3. VALIDITY

Tools for measurement should be used for which they are made. An intelligence test constructed
for measurement of intelligence should measure only intelligence and nothing else.

4) GENERALIZATION

It means application of the results of data to the larger group. If the same inferences drawn from
the sample are applicable to the larger group or universe from which the sample is selected, the
generalization is said to be correct.

TYPES OF DESIGN

We have the following types of research design

1) Exploratory or formulative

2) Historical design

3) Descriptive design

4) Analytical design

5) Experimental design

6) Diagnostic design

The researcher will decide which particular design is appropriate for his study. He selects a
particular design depending on the research problem. In certain cases, a combination of two or
more types of design may be necessary, if the study is complex.

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EXPLORATORY OR FORMULATIVE DESIGN

In explaratory studies, we discover new ideas and insights. Studies of entirely of new field,
which has not yet developed, are called exploratory studies. The exploratory studies must be
flexible. We cannot apply rigorous methods of study, sicme it is a new field and there may not be
earlier studies. Literature may not be adequately available. The researcher tries to get familiarity
with the phenomenon. Exploratory study is also called experience survey. It provides
information and experience about practical cases18

SURVEY OF LITERATURE

In exploratory studies, literature may not be available largely. Hence the literature of the related
fields is a good source of information. Journals, articles and research reports dealing with similar
areas are other sources of information.

EXPERIENCE SURVEY:

This is also called experience survey. We have to interview people who are connected with the
problem. These people may have personal knowledge of the problem. We may interview a social
worker dealing with the nexalites if the problem is related to it.

We may interview a local leader dealing with the issues connected with the problem under study.
These people will be useful informants. The sample is not selected at random but purposively.

We need not have structured interviews. The interview may be unstructured and informal. Since
the experiences of people are recorded, the study is called Experience survey.

INSIGHT STIMULATING EXAMPLES:

Sometimes actual cases would promote insights into the problems, cases like new comers to a
community, immigrants to a country, visitors and strangers to a place will provide insights into
the problem. Study of such cases will give us greater understanding of the problem. In
Exploratory studies, we study relatively a new phenomena. We want to have familiarity with

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such a new phenomena. The phenomena has not been studied by the previous scholars. We have
to explore the problem. We have to formulate a more precise research problem.

DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN:

Descriptive studies are undertaken to portray the characteristics of groups or situations. There
should be more accuracy in these studies. We have to minimise bias, If these studies are
undertaken for the discovery of a problem they are also called diagonistic studies.

EXAMPLES OF DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES:

In descriptive studies, we study special characteristics of a caste, community, racial group,

marriage process, leisure time activities, working habits, etc. attitudes of people towards capital
punishment, president’s rule and family planning are some of the example of descriptive studies.
Patterns of behaviour may also be studied. Under descriptive studies, we may try to find out,
what kind of people becomes naxalite, the pattern of voting may be studied, which occupations
are likely to cause psychatric problems may also be studied.

CHARACTERISTICS:

In descriptive studies the researcher has to define his objectives clearly he must specify what he
wants to measure. The descriptive design cannot be flexible as exploratory design. The aim of
the descriptive study is to obtain complete and accurate information. The researcher should avoid
bias. The descriptive study tries to answer the questions of who, where, when and how much. It’s
essential function is reportorial. They give us an idea regarding the magnitude of the problem.

ANALYTICAL STUDIES:

Analytical studies require analytical design. Experimental or analytical design are almost the
same. If analysis takes place along with experiment, it becomes analytical study, analytical
methods need not always employ experimental methods.

Descriptive studies form a basis for analytical study. In analytical problems, we are interested in
the how and why. In analytical studies we examine the relationship existing among already
described phenomena. Thus, descriptive studies form the basis for analytical studies. The
analytical study is basically concerned with the problem of ascertaining causality i.e. to say it
answers the questions of how and why.
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THE FUCNTION OF ANALYTICAL STUDY

Analytical study ascertains what happens and how and why it happens, when two or more factors
result in a given factor. Analytical design is generally basic to all scientific analyses. The
analytical design in the laboratory takes the form of experimental method.

ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH DESIGN:

Research design has the fo0llowing advantages,

1. Saves a lot of researcher’s time.

2. Guides him for executing the steps in research.

3. Ensures project time schedule.

4. An unplanned research work is fruitless and leads to wastage of time, money and effort.

QUESTIONS:

1. Discuss the meaning, importance and advantages of research design.

2. Give an account of exploratory, descriptive, and analytical design.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Ackoff. R.L, (1953), The design of social research, university of Chicago press, Chicago.

2. Goode and Hatt (1952), Methods in social research, the Mcgraw hill series, new York.

3. Saravanavel (1952), Research methodology, kitab mahal, Allahabad.

4. Wilkinson and Bhandarkar (1982), Methodology and techniques of social research, Himalaya
Publishing house, Bombay.

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 26. HYPOTHESIS

Meaning:

Hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which remains to be tested empirically. It

guides in further investigation. Columbus hypothesized that since the world is round, he could
reach Asia by travelling west. The hypothesis may be a guess, imaginative idea which becomes
the basis for investigation. It is a proposition which can be put to test to determine validity.19

Definition of hypothesis:

George A. Lundberg defines that, "A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of
which remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage, the hypothesis may be every hunch
guess, imaginative idea, which becomes the basis for action or investigation.”

William C. Emor says, “When propositions are formulated or empirically tested, they are
called hypotheses.”

Types of hypothesis:

1. A hypothesis may affirm characteristics of objects, persons, events or situations e.g. Darwin’s
“Survival of the fittest”.

2. It may deal with the association among variables e.g. crime and poverty.

3. It may assert a casual relationship between two variables e.g. weekly test and performance.

Sources of hypothesis:

The hypothesis may be drawn from findings of earlier studies, from past experiences, similar
problems, from insights, from existing theories etc. The following are some of the major sources.

1. General culture :

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The general pattern of culture helps to formulate a hypothesis. Culture influences thinking
process. Indian culture has a meta physical bias. Meta - physical ideas may form the basis for
hypothesis.

2. Scientific theory:

Theory helps us for further generalisations. These generalisations form part of hypothesis.

3. Analogies:

Sometimes a hypothesis is formed from the analogy. Similarities are drawn from other subjects.
Similarities between social phenomena and plant ecology are sometimes drawn.

4. Personal experience:

Sometimes the individual sees the facts in right perspective and formulates the hypothesis. The
falling of an apple formed the basis for the force of gravitation. This was the personal experience
of Newton.

5. Null hypothesis:

Null hypothesis is a negative form of enunciating the real research hypothesis by which one
assumes that no significant relationship exists between the two variables and seeks to ascertain
the improbability of such a state of affairs. By disproving or rejecting the null hypothesis, the
research thesis is established.20

Qualities of a workable hypothesis :

1. Specific:

The hypothesis should be specific but not general. A general hypothesis may be vague. A
specific hypothesis can be of any real value

2. Conceptually clear:

The terms used in a hypothesis should be defined in the light of existing concepts. The
hypothesis must be fitted into conceptual framework.

3. Related to available techniques

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The hypothesis must be capable of being tested and verified. We must know whether the
techniques are available to test out hypothesis.

4. Related to body of knowledge :

The hypothesis must be related to the theory already evolved. The hypothesis when it is proved
correct, it becomes a part of broader theory. The hypothesis can be tested against the background
of theory.

5. Capable of empirical test:

The hypothesis must be capable of being tested empirically.

6. Simple:

The hypothesis must be simple and to the point. It should be like occan’s razor. It means that it
should be as sharp as razor’s blade. William Occam was an English philosopher in 14th century.
Insight into the phenomena is essential for simplicity.

Utility of Hypothesis in Scientific Research:

Hypothesis is the very foundation of the scientific research. A well formulated hypothesis is half
of the research work already done following are the advantages of the hypothesis.

1. Hypothesis gives point to enquiry:

It makes the inquiry more specific and to the point

2. Hypothesis helps in deciding the direction in which to proceed:

A person proceeding in the right direction can ultimately reach his destination. So also a scientist
with proper hypothesis can arrive at right conclusions. Hypothesis gives direction to the enquiry.

3. Hypothesis helps in selecting pertinent facts:

We have to study the facts which are relevant to our problem. We have to deal with pertinent
facts. A hypothesis is essential to determine the facts relevant to our study.

133
 4. Hypothesis helps in drawing specific conclusions:

Hypothesis helps in drawing proper conclusions. Goode and Hatt said," without hypothesis, the
research is unfocused, a random empirical wandering. The results cannot be stated/ studied as
facts with clear meaning. Hypothesis is necessary link between theory and investigations, which
lead to discovery of addition to knowledge.

Functions of Hypothesis:

1. To test theories:

The hypothesis should be capable of being tested empirically. If the hypotheses are tested
empirically and proved correct, they become part of theory. Hypotheses are usually derived from
theory in the form of propositions. If these propositions are tested empirically and proved
correct, the theory is confirmed. If the hypothesis is not proved correct, we have to modify the
theory.

2. To suggest theories:

According to Goode and Hatt, "Every worthwhile theory permits the formulation of additional
hypothesis this when tested are either proved or disproved and in turn constitute further tests of
original theory.

3. To describe social phenomena:

When hypotheses are tested, they explain the social phenomena associated with them. The
phenomena may be totally new or partly known earlier or not known earlier.

Difficulties in formulation of hypothesis:

The formulation of hypothesis has certain difficulties as pointed out by Goode and Hatt.

1. Lack of theoretical background:

If hypothesis is not related to definite theoretical background, one cammot arrive at certain
conclusions.

2. Lack of logical background:

If hypothesis lacks the logical use of the theoretical background, it may not give useful
conclusions.

3. Lack of knowledge of scientific methods:

One should have knowledge of scientific methods for formulation of hypothesis. Lack of
scientific knowledge presents difficulty in formulation of hypothesis.
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Relation between theory and hypothesis:

Hypothesis is formed at the start of the research. Theory is one of the major sources of
hypothesis. We develop propositions and statements from out of the theory. At first stage of
enquiry, a hypothesis is made, which is only a tentative supposition or guess. When a hypothesis
is verified and found to be true, it becomes a theory. Theory is elaborate hypothesis is according
to William H. George. The hypothesis actually emerges from the theory.

Questions:

1. Discuss the qualities of a good hypothesis

2. Explain the advantages and functions if hypothesis

Reference books:

1. Goode and Hatt,(1981), Methods in social research, Mcgraw Hills, London.

2. Kerlinger, Fred (1983), Foundationd of Behavioral Research, Surject Publications, Nee Delhi.

3. Saravanavel, (2004), Research Methodolog, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.

4. Wilkinson and bhandarkar, (1986), Methodology and techniques of social research, Himalaya
Publishing House, Bombay.

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136