ETYMOLOGY OF RESEARCH

Obsolete French reserche, from recercher , to search closely, from old French:
re, re+cerchier, to search; its literal meaning is to “investigate thoroughly”

Research – is the use of appropriate methods to discover new knowledge,

develop new applications of existing knowledge, or explore relationships
between ideas or events.
Scientific discoveries, technological achievements and scholarly publication are
fruits of research.

Research always involves three basic steps:

1. the formulation of the problem
2. the collection and analysis of relevant information and;
3. an attempt to discover a solution or otherwise resolve the problem based on
evidence.

Research comprises "creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order

to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture
and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.“
It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work,
solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A
research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field.

Research projects can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic, or in

the example of a school research project, they can be used to further a
student's research prowess to prepare them for future jobs or reports. To test
the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate
elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.

The primary purposes of basic research are documentation, discovery,

interpretation, or the research and development (R&D) of methods and
systems for the advancement of human knowledge.

FORMS OF RESEARCH

Original research is research that is not exclusively based on a summary,

review or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This
material is of a primary source character. The purpose of the original research
is to produce new knowledge, rather than to present the existing knowledge in
a new form .

Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data and

harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories
for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world. It makes
practical applications possible.

Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for

example hermeneutics and semiotics. Humanities scholars usually do not
search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore the
issues and details that surround it. Context is always important, and context
can be social, historical, political, cultural, or ethnic. An example of research in
the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method.
Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate
a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past.

Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when
creative works are considered both the research and the object of research
itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely
scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth.

Parts of most of the formal research

1. Observations and formation of the topic:

Consists of the subject area of one's interest and following that subject area to
conduct subject related research. The subject area should not be randomly
chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to
determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow. A keen
interest in the chosen subject area is advisable. The research will have to be
justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the
topic.

2. Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between

two or more variables.

3. Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other

concepts.

4. Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and how

they will be measured/assessed in the study.

5. Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting

samples, gathering information from and/or about these samples by using
specific research instruments. The instruments used for data collection must
be valid and reliable

6. Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data in

order to draw conclusions about it.

7. Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables, figures, and

pictures, and then described in words.

8. Test, revising of hypothesis

9. Conclusion, reiteration if necessary
Steps in conducting Research
 Identification of research problem
 Literature review
 Specifying the purpose of research
 Determining specific research questions
 Specification of a conceptual framework, usually a set of hypotheses
 Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
 Data collection
 Verifying data
 Analyzing and interpreting the data
 Reporting and evaluating research
 Communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations

3 main forms of research process

Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a problem or

question.
Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a
problem or question.
Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical
evidence.

2 types of empirical research:

1. qualitative - understanding human behaviour
2. quantitative- systematic investigation of
quantitative properties

Research involves systematic investigation of phenomena, the purpose of

which could be for:

Information gathering and/or

Exploratory: e.g., discovering, uncovering, exploring
Descriptive: e.g., gathering information , describing, summarizing
Theory testing
Explanatory: e.g., testing and understanding causal relations
Predictive: e.g., predicting what might happen in various scenarios

Purpose of Research

Exploratory research is defined as the initial research into a hypothetical or

theoretical idea. This is where a researcher has an idea or has observed
something and seeks to understand more about it. An exploratory research
project is an attempt to lay the groundwork that will lead to future studies or
to determine if what is being observed might be explained by a currently
existing theory. Most often, exploratory research lays the initial groundwork for
future research.
Descriptive Research

Once the groundwork is established, the newly explored field needs more
information. The next step is descriptive research, defined as attempts to
explore and explain while providing additional information about a topic. This
is where research is trying to describe what is happening in more detail, filling
in the missing parts and expanding our understanding. This is also where as
much information is collected as possible instead of making guesses or
elaborate models to predict the future - the 'what' and 'how,' rather than the
'why.'

Explanatory Research

We began exploring something new with exploratory research. Then, we

conducted descriptive research to increase our knowledge of it. Lastly, we need
to explain it.

Explanatory research is defined as an attempt to connect ideas to understand

cause and effect, meaning researchers want to explain what is going on.
Explanatory research looks at how things come together and interact. This
research does not occur until there is enough understanding to begin to
predict what will come next with some accuracy.
The person in the dark has fully explored the elephant and understands what it
looks like. Now, the process of 'how did it get here' and 'where is it going next'
comes into play. This often requires imaginative studies, more so than just
touching an elephant in the dark.

Specific Purposes of Research

1. to discover new facts about known phenomena

2. to find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing

methods and information

3. to improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products

4. to discover previously unrecognized substances and elements

5. to discover pathway of action of known substances and elements

6. to order related, valid generalizations into systematized science

7. to provide foe decision-making in business, industry, education, government,

and in other undertakings.

8. to satisfy researcher’s curiosity

9. to find answers to queries by means of scientific methods

10. to acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon to
another

11. to expand or verify existing knowledge

12. to improve educational practices for raising the quality of school products

13. to promote health and prolong life

14. to provide man with one more of his basic needs

15. to make work, travel, and communication faster, easier, and more
comfortable.

Characteristics of research

Empirical - based on observations and experimentation on theories.

Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.
Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are
kept constant.
Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process
Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in
their interpretation
Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical
Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into
numerical measures and are treated statistically

The Nature of Research

The research process is, for many of us, just the way we do things

Research can be a way of life; it is the basis for many of the important decisions
in our lives. Without it, we are deluged with information, subjected to the
claims of advertisers, or influenced by hearsay in making sense of the world
around us. This informal, experiential research helps us decipher the flood of
information we encounter daily.

Research is a natural day-to-day activity for the purpose of gathering

information.
Academic research is much like ordinary research, but it is more disciplined in
its methodology.

Types of Research

A. Experimental Research
Researchers are active agents and not merely passive observers.
Considered as ideal because it gives reliable evidence about causes and effects

3 types of Experimental Research:

1. True experimental research – has 3 properties

A. manipulation – achieved when the experimenter “does” something to at

least some study participants
Ex. introducing an experimental intervention, drug or treatment
 B. Control – achieved when the experimenter controls the actual
experiment by applying the principle of randomization and by careful
preparation of the experimental protocols and by use of a control group.
control group – group of subjects which is used to evaluate the
performance of the experimental group
experimental group – group of subject that is manipulated and given the
treatment or intervention, also called treatment group.

C. Randomization or random assignment – most trust-

worthy and acceptable method of equalizing groups

2. Quasi- experimental research – lacks at least one of the properties of

true experimental research, usually, randomization or control groups.
Considered not as powerful as true experiments in establishing casual
connections between the interventions and outcomes.
This introduces strategies to compensate for the absence of either
randomization or control groups.

3. Pre-experimental research – also called non-equivalent control group post

test –only design, considered fundamentally weak and is rarely used because it
lacks controls strategies to compensate for the lack of a comparison group or
randomization. The researcher also has a very little control over the study
situations

II. Non-Experimental Rersearch

There is no manipulation of conditions done by the researcher.
The study and observations are done under nature conditions and in an
uncontrolled environment.

2 Types of non-experimental research:

Basic research – is undertaken to increase or extend the base of knowledge in

a particular discipline.
Also termed as library or desk research.

Applied research – undertaken for practical reasons and applications and

focuses primarily on finding solutions to existing everyday problems.
Also termed as action research.

Types of Applied Research

o Descriptive – answers specific questions by describing and

elaborating on the nature of a certain phenomenon.
o Developmental – satisfies felt needs and answers questions by
developing new and more effective and efficient products,
treatments, procedures or methods
o Evaluative – tests the quality, effectiveness and efficiency of
products, treatments, procedures or methods.
 o Demonstration – shows how already-developed products,
treatments, procedures, or methods can be applied to specific
situations and conditions.
o Explanatory – is a scientific inquiry into how the variables of one
phenomenon relate to the variables of another. It is also termed as
correlational research.
o Problem-solving – identifies problems and generates alternatives to
solve these problems.
o Decision-making – is a type of scientific inquiry that selects the most
feasible course of action from given alternatives ton solve a particular
problem.
o Historical – is a scientific inquiry into past, events, conditions and
situations.
o Natural experiment – is a non- experimental study that investigates a
naturally-occurring event on phenomenon (ex. tsunami, earthquake,
hurricane) that has important health consequences and is presumed
to have implications on people’s behaviour or conditions by
comparing people exposed to the event with a non-exposed group.

Research Problem

The purpose of research is to seek an answer or solution to a problem, and the

research problem is a troubling condition that an investigator wants to “solve”.
The problem is to be addressed is termed: Statement of the Problem
It is presented in precise terms and indicates the need for study
Research questions – these are specific queries or questions that the
researcher wants to be answered by his study.

This is the key step in the research process as it identifies the direction that a
research investigation will take.

For this reason, the statement of the problem should:

1. reflect clearly a well-defined, specific focus;
2. Specify the key variables ( the subject under investigation ) and express the
relationship between the variables simply, specifically and clearly; and
3. Specify the population to be studied.

Research problems can be major or minor

Major problem- is the main issue to be answered by the investigation
Minor problem – major problem broken down into smaller problems or sub-
problems
There can be 3-8 minor problems derived from the major problem and these
serve to guide data collection, collation and analysis.

Research problems may be presented in an interrogative form, with a major

question followed by specific questions to answer a single problem, or as a
broad declarative statement followed by specific statements (Polit & Hungler,
1985).
Selection of Research Problem

 Thought to be the most difficult step in research process

 Health care researchers who encounters difficulty in workplace are already
facing a potential research problem
 The presence of a gap or discrepancy between “what is” and “what should
be”, therefore is one cause of research problem. It ca arise from a gap
between “what is” and what should be” that causes perceived difficulty and
felt discomfort in the workplace and which requires an investigation or
inquiry
 Sources of Research Problem
 Conflicts in organizational structure, policies, programs and interpersonal
relationships due to conflicting ideas, beliefs, values and opposing theories
to explain various phenomena.
 The rapid advancement of science and technology presents other sources
of problems such as introduction of new equipments and gadgets. This may
arise on the feasibility of use, efficiency and the need for the development
of support methods or programs.

 Rapidness by which information travels presents a rich source of problems.

 Ex. current journals, scientific books, graduate thesis, dissertations are
easily communicated and accessed, motivating readers to undertake their
own investigations leading to productive changes
 Published stories and best practices and success of institutions both in
education and clinical practice can motivate leaders to re-think their ways.
 Problems are endemic to all healthcare facilities and therefore can always
be investigated by healthcare providers.

Criteria for Selection of the Research Problem

1. Problem criteria
A. Significance – most important criterion for the selection the research
problem to be studied
B. Researchability – problem of moral or ethical nature may not be
amenable to scientific investigation. It may be the subject of discussion or
debate but is incapable of being researched.
C. Feasibility- assessing feasibility includes various considerations:

1. timing and amount of available time

2. availability of study participants who can make themselves
available and who are willing to cooperate
3. Identifying and accessing participants with the desired
characteristics for study.

2. Researcher criteria - the interest of the researcher in a particular topic.

3. Researcher support – support of research may come to various sources such

as individuals, groups, agencies, institutions, and the community and may be in
the form of administrative assistance, facilities, equipment and financing.
Without adequate researcher support, the study may not be feasible.
4. Ethical considerations – primary ethical consideration in research is the
subject’s safety and well being.

The Purpose of the Study

The study purpose states the justification, reasons, motivations or the rationale
for the study by presenting its overall goals (broad), and objectives (specific).
Characteristics of Objectives:

S – pecific
M – easurable
A – ttainable
R – ealistic
T – ime –bounded

Statement of purpose is in declarative form and uses words such as;

Purpose
Goal
Intent
Objective
Application

Statement of Purpose;
The aim of this study is to compare the effectiveness of patient-controlled and
nurse-administered analgesia for controlling pain in patients with terminal
stage of cancer.

This statement of purpose identifies the study population, and the

independent and dependent variables:

Population – Patients with terminal-stage cancer

Independent variable – Patient-controlled analgesia versus nurse-
administered analgesia
Dependent variable – Control of pain

Research Question:
What is the relative effectiveness of patient-controlled analgesia versus nurse-
controlled analgesia with regards to:

A. medication consumption and

B. Control of pain in patients with terminal cancer?

The statement of purpose or intent, which clearly spells out what is meant to
be accomplished by the study, should also include a declaration of what the
study does not intend to cover. This part of the research is termed: RESEARCH
DELIMITATION
The 10 important characteristics of a good research problem for a thesis
Characteristics of a good thesis research problem
1 . The problem can be stated clearly and concisely.
2 . The problem generates research questions.
3 . It has a base in the research literature.
4. It is grounded in theory.
5. It relates to one or more academic fields of study.
6. It has potential significance/importance.
7 . It is do-able within the time frame, budget.
8. Sufficient data are available or can be obtained.
9. The researcher’s methodological strengths can be applied to the problem.
10. The problem is new; it is not already answered sufficiently.

The Problem Can Be Stated Clearly and Concisely

Unless the problem can be stated clearly and concisely it is probably a poor
problem or a non-problem. The best way to test the problem statement is to
write it into a concise sentence or paragraph and to share it with others. If the
problem cannot be stated in a clear paragraph it has difficulties and will not
endure as a suitable problem. Of course, it is not easy to express complex
issues in simplistic terms and it may take many weeks and countless drafts
before the statement is satisfactory. Good critics are essential. If your spouse
or mother cannot understand it, it is probably flaky.

The Problem Generates Research Questions

The problem should generate a number of more specific research questions.
These turn the problem into a question format and represent various aspects
or components of the problem. The research questions make the more general
statement easier to address and provide a framework for the research.
Formulating these questions can be a challenge, particularly specifying them at
the right level of abstraction.

It Is Grounded in Theory
Good problems have theoretical and/or conceptual frameworks for their
analysis. They relate the specifics of what is being investigated to a more
general background of theory which helps interpret the results and link it to
the field.

It Relates to One or More Academic Fields of Study

Good problems relate to academic fields which have adherents and
boundaries. They typically have journals to which adherents relate. Research
problems which do not have clear links to one or two such fields of study are
generally in trouble. Without such a field it becomes impossible to determine
where, in the universe of knowledge, the problem lies.

It Has a Base in the Research Literature

Related to the former points, a well-stated problem will relate to a research
literature. Tight problems often relate to a well-defined body of literature,
written by a select group of researchers and published in a small number of
journals. With some problems, it might at first be difficult to establish the
connections and literature base, but there should be a base somewhere.

It Has Potential Significance/importance

This is the important ‘so what’ question: Who cares once you solve the
problem? Assume that you have solved the problem and answered the
questions and then ask yourself if you are any further ahead. At the very least,
the problem must have importance to the researcher, but ideally it should also
be of consequence to others.

It Is Do-ableWithin the Time Frame, Budget

There are logistic factors in terms of your ability actually to carry out the
research. There is no point pursuing a problem which is not feasible to
research. Do not do a study of education in India unless you have the means to
go there and collect data ̶ which may require years to collect. This factor helps
explain why few theses relate to longitudinal data. The only exceptions come
from research shops where there is a long history of collecting and studying
data on a defined population. Terman’s study of genius (1954) in which a
defined sample was traced over 30 years, is a good example.

Sufficient Data Are Available or Can Be Obtained

In some cases, there are insufficient data to address the problem. Historical
persons may have died, archival materials may be lost, or there may be
restrictions on access to certain environments. As noted, it is difficult to
conduct research on a distant country unless you can go there and collect local
data. One under-used approach is to use an existing database. Some data
banks have been developed over many years and contain many opportunities
for exploration of new questions and issues.

The characteristics of a good research problem

SMART
S-Specific
M-Measurable
A-Attainable/Achievable
R-Realistic
T-Time Bomb/Time Conscious

The characteristics of a good research problem. (according to someone's

second year research teacher.
1. The topic should be of good interest to you.
2. Useful for the concerned people in a particular field
3. Progress Novelty
4. Invites more complex designs / more variables
5. Time-bounded
6. Does not carry ethical or moral impediments

It's up to you to choose and that's simply it!

Writing the Title of the Investigation

Below are five general principles that, if followed, will produce a great title:
A great title summarizes the main idea of the paper. Your title should identify
the key issues under investigation as well as how they relate to each other. The
title “The Effects of Transformed Letters on Reading Speed” achieves this goal,
whereas the title “Transformed Letters and Reading Speed” identifies the
elements but misses the relationship.

2. A great title has a length of 12 words or fewer. If your attempts to create a

summarizing title have produced a five-line manifesto, try to pare it down to
the essentials. Keep in mind that 12 words is a guideline, not a hard ceiling.

3. To digest by cutting the fat. “The Results of a Study of The Effects of Heavy
Metal Music on Plant Growth” can slim down to “The Effects of Heavy Metal
Music on Plant Growth” or even A great title includes only words that
contribute meaning. Phrases such as “A Study of,” “An Experimental
Investigation of,” or “The Results of” are like empty calories (not unlike most of
what’s in that Red Bull...). Make your title easier the jazzier “How Heavy Metal
Music Stimulates Plant Growth.”

4. for an academic audience, you might be perusing Androids Dream of

Electric Sheep: Empathy in Nonhuman A great title gives away the ending. If
your title is in the form of a yes–no question, try rephrasing it so that the
question is answered or the answer at least alluded to. This primes the reader
for deeper comprehension. If Philip K. Dick had written Species before bed
tonight. (Click the image of the book cover at the right to read about his actual
book, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep.)

5. A great title says it with style. Academic writing must be precise, but it
needn’t be fusty. Consider these titles of real published psychology
articles: “The Unicorn, the Normal Curve, and Other Improbable
Creatures” (Micceri, 1989, Psychological Bulletin) . This title pique readers’
interest while also conveying essential information about the content of the
article.

Selecting and Limiting Your Topic

 Effective writing depends on the writer’s ability to limit the scope of a

subject. We are never able to write everything that could be said about a
topic; most writing assignments include specified length limits.
 Limiting your subject begins with answering certain questions:
 What subjects interest you as a writer?
 What do you think will interest your readers?
 What information can you find regarding your subject?
Your Interests as a Writer

Which aspects of your subject are most interesting to you? Often, we write
with more enthusiasm when we feel strongly about a topic. View your topic
from a variety of perspectives and find the angle that interests you most.
Readers respond positively to sincere interest conveyed in words.

Your Reader’s Knowledge of the Subject

Knowing your audience can help you develop a clear sense of purpose and
direction. What do you want to tell them? What do you want to share with
them that they may not know? Will you need to supply background knowledge
for the audience or do you share a common knowledge base? Answering these
questions defines the focus of your writing

Information on Your Subject

Most writing requires the use of accurate information from reliable sources.
Although we begin with our own experiences and understanding, development
of the topic depends on research. Locate information. Are there journal articles
on the topic? Are there online resources? Are the sources credible? Will your
reader accept information from those sources? Select a topic for which there is
ample information. Consult your instructor or research librarian to refine your
search skills.

HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is a prediction or a testable statement about the relationship

between two or more variables which a researcher aims to test to see if it is
supported or rejected.

Characteristics of an Ideal Hypothesis

1. An ideal hypothesis is based on sound and justifiable rationales and worded

simply, clearly and generally in the present tense
2. A hypothesis should be testable, meaning it states the expected
relationship/s between the independent variable (presumed cause) and the
dependent variable (presumed effect or response, or outcome variable) within
a population.

The hypothesis should contain a phrase that shows specific relational aspect of
the prediction.
Example : greater than, more than, less than, associated with, related to,
different from, and the like.

3. a hypothesis only contains one independent variable

Non-testable hypothesis:
Nursing graduates who attend review classes are not likely to experience
failure in their licensure examination.
Testable hypothesis:
Nursing graduates who attend review classes are less likely to experience
failure in their licensure examination than those who do not attend review
classes.

 Ex. of two-independent variable hypothesis:

 There is a difference between the degree of stranger anxiety shown by
infants towards male and female health personnel and that between
personnel wearing white and those wearing pink uniforms.
 Note: What should the researcher do if gender seems to have an effect
on stranger anxiety but color of uniform doesn’t?

There should be two hypotheses – one pertaining to gender and the other one
pertaining to uniform color.
Because a researcher cannot half accept a hypothesis, Searle (2000)
recommends that a hypothesis contains only one independent and dependent
variable.
Having only one independent variable helps prevent the problem of
confounding. Confounding occurs when two potentially effective independent
variables are allowed to covary, simultaneously making it impossible to
determine what variable is responsible for the obtained difference in the
dependent variable. (Shaughnessy) et al., 2009).

Classification of Hypothesis
2 Types of Hypothesis
1. Research hypothesis – is a formal declarative statement of expected
relationships between variables being tested. It is stated in a simple, clear and
concise manner that presents a general positive prediction about the
relationship between two phenomena or variables that the researcher is going
to test in the study. It is considered a proposed solution or answer to the
research questions.

The research hypothesis is also referred to as scientific,

substantive or declarative hypothesis.

2. Null hypothesis
The null hypothesis is a formal statement indicating that there is no
relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
The null hypothesis is a “hypothesis of no difference” (Siegel, 1956), and states
that there is no difference or no correlation in the scores of the population in
the study. This type of hypothesis is also known as statistical hypothesis
because it is most frequently utilized by scientific researchers.

Advantages of using the null hypothesis:

1. evidence of scientific objectivity
2. researcher impartiality
3. reduced research bias.

3. Alternative (or experimental) hypotheses

  Experimental hypotheses are operational statements of the hypotheses,
meaning they actually state the precise behaviors or responses that are
going to be used to measure the variable under investigation Searle,
2000)
Ex.
 Experimental hypothesis: The duration of the first stage of labor of
women who walk during labor is shorter than the duration of the first
stage of labor of women who do not walk during labor.

This alternative hypothesis is what the researcher hopes to find to be correct.

It is a precise statement in terms of the measurements that will actually be
made.

Research Hypothesis (general declarative prediction). There is a relationship

between the woman’s walking during labor and the duration of the first stage
of labor.

Null hypothesis (statistical, ‘no significance” prediction). There is no

relationship between the woman’s walking during labor .

Hypotheses maybe simple or complex and directional or non-directional.

Simple hypotheses – express an expected relationship between one
independent variable and one dependent variable. They are also called
univariate hypotheses.
Ex.
“Nurses with more work experience (independent variable) provide better care
(dependent variable) than nurses with less working experience”.

“Patients receiving a warmed solution for flushing episiotomy wounds

(independent variable) will have shorter wound healing time (dependent
variable) than patients receiving a room temperature solution”
Complex hypotheses – predict the relationship between two or more
independent variable and/or two or more dependent variables. They are
referred to as multivariate to as multivariate hypothesis because they involve
multiple variables .
If possible, have only one independent and one dependent variable.

Types of complex hypothesis:

1. Complex hypothesis – multiple independent variables.
This type of complex hypotheses has two or more independent variable and a
single dependent variable.
Ex. “Nurses with a higher educational attainment (independent variable-1) and
more work experience (another independent variable-2) provide better care
(single dependent variable) than nurses with a lower educational attainment
and less work experience”.

2. Complex hypothesis – multiple dependent variables.

This type of complex hypotheses has a single independent variable and two or
more dependent variables.
Ex. “Nurses with more work experience (single independent variable) provide
better care (dependent variable -1) and finish nursing tasks earlier (dependent
variable-2) than nurses with less work experience”.

3. Complex hypothesis-multiple independent and dependent variables.

In this type of complex hypotheses , both the independent and dependent
variables are multiple, two or more.
Ex. “ Nurses with higher educational attainment (independent variable-1) and
longer work experience (another independent variable -2) provide better care
(single dependent variable-1) and finish nursing tasks earlier (dependent
variable-2) than nurses with a lower educational attainment and less work
experience”.

Directional hypothesis – clearly specify the ff.

1. the qualities of the research variables
2. the existence of the relationship between variables and;
3. the expected direction of the relationship between variables.
Hypotheses derived from theory are almost always directional (Polit & Beck,
2004)

Example of directional hypothesis:

1. Older people are at greater risk of acquiring
influenza (H1N1) than younger people
The older the person, the greater the risk that he
or she will acquire influenza (H1N1)
Younger people tend to be less at risk of acquiring influenza (H1N1) than older
people
*These examples are directional because there is an explicit prediction that
older people are at a greater risk of acquiring influenza (H1N1) than younger
ones.

The non-directional hypotheses – do not clearly stipulate the direction of

relationship between variables; they merely predict the type of relationship.

Example of non-directional hypothesis:

1. “There is a relationship between the age of a person and the risk of
acquiring influenza”.

*This hypothesis just predicts that there is a relationship between the age and
the risk of acquiring influenza, but does not predict the direction of the
relationship

2. “Older people differ from younger ones with respect to their risk of
acquiring influenza”.
*This hypothesis does not say if the age will be related to higher or lower risk
of acquiring influenza

3. “There is a correlation between board examination result and number of

hours spent watching television”. This hypothesis does not say if watching
television will be related to better or worse board examination result s.
Single most important characteristic of hypothesis is their testability.

Examples of non-testable hypothesis:

1. “Mothers who deliver in the home tend to be at greater risk of developing
an infection.”
2. “Nurses with more work experience (independent variable) provide better
care (dependent variable)
*These examples are not true hypothesis, incorrectly stated, and not testable
because they do not show relationships between variables and cannot be
measured and analyzed.
After the testing of hypotheses, through statistical procedures, they are either
accepted (supported by data)or rejected. (not supported by data). (Polit &
Beck, 2004).

Research Variables

Research variables – refer to the varying characteristics, properties or qualities

of people, things, phenomena, situations, events or conditions under
investigation which can be quantitatively ore qualitatively assessed.
Kinds of Research Variables:
A. Explanatory variables – independent and dependent variables represent or
explain the phenomena under study.

1. independent variable – is the presumed cause or stimulus of phenomena

under investigation. It is also termed as: cause variable or stimulus variable.
In studies that analyze the consequence of a new treatment(ex. procedure,
method, drug or device), the independent variable is referred to as
experimental or treatment variable.
2. dependent variable – is the presumed effect or response to the causal
phenomena under investigation. It is also termed as effect variable or response
variable.
In studies that analyze the outcome of a new intervention, procedure, method
or device, the dependent variable is referred to as outcome variable.

Independent Variable also termed as:

1. cause
2. stimulus
3. experimental
4. treatment variable

Dependent Variable also termed as:

1. effect
2. response
3. outcome
4. criterion variable

Criterion variable – criteria against which the intervention or treatment’s

success can be assessed. If a dependent variable fulfil’s this function, it is
referred to as, criterion variable.
B. Attribute and active variables – represent the characteristics of the
subjects.

1. An attribute variable is one that is already present in the subjects of the

study. The researchers simply observes and evaluates.
Ex. If the subject participating in the investigation has already inherent
characteristics like age, sex, height, weight or religion, these pre-existing
characteristics of the research subject are termed as attribute variable.
2. An active variable is one that is created by the researcher.
3. An active variable (created) in a study could be an attribute variable
(inherent) in another study.

C. Organismic and environmental variables – are not the direct focus of the
investigation but need to be controlled tightly as they could affect or
contaminate the results of the study.

1. Organismic variables are the factors related to the research subjects.

Ex. demographic: age, sex, ht., wt.
physiological: vitals signs, lab. Results
psychological: fear, mood or affect
2. Environmental variables are the factors outside of the organism/person
that bear influence on the phenomenon under investigation. These include
physical, economic, sociological and other factors.

Organismic and environmental variable are considered contaminating factors

and are termed as: extraneous or exogenous variables.
Extraneous variables include antecedent variables and intervening variables.
Antecedent variables – are the characteristics the participants have brought
into the study
Intervening variables – are factors that arise during the study that can
influence the results.
Intervening variables is also called correlated variable
An intervening variable, coming between the independent and dependent
variables, bears influence on the effect of the independent variable to the
dependent variable and can effect internal validity.

D. Continuous and discrete variables are factors that relate to the range of the
values of variables.

1. continuous variable is one that takes on a wide range of values between

two points and that can be presented infinitely in a continuum.
2. A discrete variable is one that has a small range of values or a finite
number of values between any two points.
Reference: Dr. RPS-Introduction to Research in the Health Sciences First
Edition