Questions for research:

1. Tabulate to how the functions of all cellular parts found in a typical animal cell.
Cellular parts in Animal Function(s)
Cell

Centrioles Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of microtubules

and are found only in animal cells. They appear to help in organizing cell division,
but aren't essential to the process.

Cilia and Flagella For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the locomotion of
individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or
materials past an immobile cell as well as moving a cell or group of cells.

Endoplasmic Reticulum The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that manufactures, processes, and
transports chemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. It is
connected to the double-layered nuclear envelope, providing a pipeline between
the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Endosomes and Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicles, formed via a complex family of
Endocytosis processes collectively known as endocytosis, and found in the cytoplasm of virtually
every animal cell. The basic mechanism of endocytosis is the reverse of what
occurs during exocytosis or cellular secretion. It involves the invagination (folding
inward) of a cell's plasma membrane to surround macromolecules or other matter
diffusing through the extracellular fluid.
Golgi Apparatus The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for the cell's
chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in the endoplasmic reticulum
and prepares them for export to the outside of the cell.
Intermediate Filaments Intermediate filaments are a very broad class of fibrous proteins that play an
important role as both structural and functional elements of the cytoskeleton.
Ranging in size from 8 to 12 nanometers, intermediate filaments function as
tension-bearing elements to help maintain cell shape and rigidity.
Lysosomes The main function of these microbodies is digestion. Lysosomes break down
cellular waste products and debris from outside the cell into simple compounds,
which are transferred to the cytoplasm as new cell-building materials.
Microfilaments Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called actin. These filaments
are primarily structural in function and are an important component of the
cytoskeleton.
Microtubules These straight, hollow cylinders are found throughout the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic
cells (prokaryotes don't have them) and carry out a variety of functions, ranging
from transport to structural support.
Mitochondria Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles that are found in the cytoplasm of every
eukaryotic cell. In the animal cell, they are the main power generators, converting
oxygen and nutrients into energy.
Nucleus The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information
processing and administrative center of the cell. This organelle has two major
functions: it stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's
activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism, protein synthesis, and
reproduction (cell division).
Peroxisomes Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in the cytoplasm,
roughly spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several types of
microbodies but peroxisomes are the most common.
Plasma Membrane All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their contents. In
prokaryotes, the membrane is the inner layer of protection surrounded by a rigid
cell wall. Eukaryotic animal cells have only the membrane to contain and protect
their contents. These membranes also regulate the passage of molecules in and
out of the cells.
Ribosomes All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny organelles composed of approximately 60
percent RNA and 40 percent protein. In eukaryotes, ribosomes are made of four
strands of RNA. In prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of RNA.
Plasma Membrane The cell membrane separates the cell from its external environment, and is
selectively permeable (controls what gets in and out). It protects the cell and
provides stability.
Proteins are found embedded within the plasma membrane, with some extending
all the way through in order to transport materials.
 Carbohydrates are attached to proteins and lipids on the outer lipid layer.
Cytoplasm Organelles are found here and substances like salts may be dissolved in the
cytoplasm.
Vacuoles Vacuoles are fluid filled organelles enclosed by a membrane. They can store
materials such as food, water, sugar, minerals and waste products.

2. What are somatic cells and gamete cells? Give examples

Somatic cells are any cells in the body that except the sperm cell or the egg cell. Nerve cells, skin
cells, and blood cells are a few examples of somatic cells. Gamete cells are cells responsible for the
reproduction of sexually reproducing organisms, egg cells and sperm cells are examples of this type of
cell.

3. What is mitosis? Give its significance and describe the salient features of each mitotic stage
Mitosis is the process in which one mother cell divides to produce two daughter cells that are identical
to the mother cell. The goal of mitosis is to make sure that each of the daughter cells gets the perfect, and
complete set of chromosomes. Interphase is the stage where the DNA is copied, prophase is where the
chromosomes pair up, metaphase is where the chromosomes line up at the equator, anaphase is where
the sister chromatids are pulled apart, and lastly telophase is where two identical daughter cells are made.

4. Differentiate mitosis from meiosis in terms of:

a) Number of daughter cells produced
Mitosis creates two identical daughter cells that each contain the same number of
chromosomes as their parent cell. In contrast, meiosis gives rise to four unique daughter cells,
each of which has half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Because meiosis creates
cells that are destined to become gametes or reproductive cells, this reduction in chromosome
number is critical without it, the union of two gametes during fertilization would result in offspring
with twice the normal number of chromosomes.

b) Nuclear content
Mitosis is a single nuclear division that results in two nuclei, usually partitioned into two
new cells. The nuclei resulting from a mitotic division are genetically identical to the original. They
have the same number of sets of chromosomes: one in the case of haploid cells, and two in the
case of diploid cells. On the other hand, meiosis is two nuclear divisions that result in four nuclei,
usually partitioned into four new cells. The nuclei resulting from meiosis are never genetically
identical, and they contain one chromosome set only—this is half the number of the original cell,
which was diploid.

c) Rate of division
Mitosis is a fundamental process for life. During mitosis, a cell duplicates all of its contents,
including its chromosomes, and splits to form two identical daughter cells. Because this process
is so critical, the steps of mitosis are carefully controlled by a number of genes. When mitosis is
not regulated correctly, health problems such as cancer can result.

The other type of cell division, meiosis, ensures that humans have the same number of
chromosomes in each generation. It is a two-step process that reduces the chromosome number
by half—from 46 to 23—to form sperm and egg cells. When the sperm and egg cells unite at
conception, each contributes 23 chromosomes so the resulting embryo will have the usual 46.
Meiosis also allows genetic variation through a process of DNA shuffling while the cells are
dividing.

5. Explain why cancer is regarded as abnormal cell.

Cancer cells originate within tissues and, as they grow and divide, they diverge ever further from
normalcy. Over time, these cells become increasingly resistant to the controls that maintain normal tissue
.Resulting to divide more rapidly than their progenitors and become less dependent on signals from other
cells.Cancer cells can also invade neighboring tissues and sometimes even break off and travel to other
parts of the body, leading to the formation of new tumors at those sites.

6. Describe the occurrence of genetic diseases.

 Genetic disorder is a disease caused in a whole or in a part by a change in the DNA sequence
away from the normal sequence. Genetic disorders can be caused by a mutation in one gene or
monogenic disorder, by mutations in multiple genes or multifactorial inheritance disorder, by a
combination of gene mutations and environmental factors, or by damage to chromosomes .These
mutations are commonly inherited by an offspring to its parent or caused sometimes during the life of
someone. It is also due to environmental factors, such as cigarette smoke and exposure to radiation,
which cause changes in the DNA sequence.

7. In a tabular form, describe the structure, and identify the location and function of different types of
epithelial tissue.
Name Of Tissues Location
Simple Squamous Most commonly
1. lines the
cardiovascular and
lymphatic system (heart,
blood vessels, lymphatic
vessel linings),
2. forms the epithelial
layer of serous
membranes (peritoneum,
pleura, pericardium),.
Also found in air sacs of
lungs, glomerular
(Bowman’s) capsule of
kidneys, inner surface of
tympanic membrane
(eardrum).
Ciliated Simple columnar Lines some bronchioles
(small tubes) of
respiratory tract, uterine
(fallopian) tubes, uterus,
some paranasal sinuses,
central canal of spinal
cord, and ventricles of
brain.
Simple cuboidal Covers surface of ovary;
lines anterior surface of
capsule of lens of the
eye; forms pigmented
epithelium at posterior
surface of retina of the
eye; lines kidney tubules
and smaller ducts of
many glands; makes up
secreting portion of
some glands such as
thyroid gland and ducts
of some glands such as
pancreas.
Stratified Squamous Keratinized variety forms
superficial layer of skin.
Non-keratinized variety
lines wet surfaces (lining
of mouth, esophagus,
part of epiglottis, part of
pharynx, and vagina)
and covers tongue.
Structure Function
Simple squamous Present at sites of
epithelium is a single filtration (such as blood
layer of flat cells that filtration in kidneys) or
resembles a tiled floor diffusion (such as
when viewed from apical diffusion of oxygen into
surface; centrally located blood vessels of lungs)
nucleus that is flattened and at site of secretion in
and oval or spherical in serous membranes. Not
shape. found in body areas
subject to mechanical
stress (wear and tear).
Is a single layer of Cilia beat in unison,
ciliated column like cells moving mucus and
with oval nuclei near foreign particles toward
base of cells throat, where they can
be coughed up and
swallowed or spit out.
Coughing and sneezing
speed up movement of
cilia and mucus. Cilia
also help move oocytes
expelled from ovaries
through uterine
(fallopian) tubes into
uterus.
Is a single layer of cube- Secretion and absorption
shaped cells; round,
centrally located
nucleus. Strictly cuboidal
cells could not form
small tubes; these
cuboidal cells are more
pie-shaped but still
nearly as high as they
are wide at the base.
It has two or more layers Protection against
of cells; cells in apical abrasion, water loss,
layer and several layers ultraviolet radiation, and
deep to it are squamous; foreign invasion. Both
cells in deeper layers. types form fi rst line of
defense against
microbes.
Stratified columnar
Stratified cuboidal
Pseudostratified ciliated
columnar
Lines part of urethra; Basal layers in stratified Protection and secretion.
large excretory ducts of columnar epithelium
some glands, such as usually consist of
esophageal glands; shortened, irregularly
small areas in anal shaped cells; only apical
mucous membrane; part layer has columnar cells;
of conjunctiva of eye. uncommon
Ducts of adult sweat Stratified cuboidal Protection; limited
glands and esophageal epithelium has two or secretion and
glands, part of male more layers of cells; cells absorption.
urethra in apical layer are cube-
shaped; fairly rare type
Ciliated variety lines It appears to have Ciliated variety secretes
airways of most of upper several layers because mucus that traps foreign
respiratory tract; non- cell nuclei are at various particles, and cilia sweep
ciliated variety lines levels. All cells are away mucus for
larger ducts of many attached to basement elimination from body;
glands, epididymis, and membrane in a single non-ciliated variety
part of male urethra. layer, but some cells do functions in absorption
not extend to apical and protection.
surface.

8. In a tabular form, describe the structure, and identify the location and function of different types of
connective tissue.
Name Of Tissues Location Structure Function
A.) Embryonic
a. Mesenchyme Almost exclusively under Mesenchyme has irregularly Forms almost all other
skin and along shaped mesenchymal cells types of connective
developing bones of embedded in semifluid tissue.
embryo; some in adult ground substance that
connective tissue, contains delicate reticular
especially along blood fibers.
vessels.
b.Mucous connective Umbilical cord of fetus. Mucous connective tissue Support.
tissue has widely scattered
fibroblasts embedded in
viscous, jellylike ground
substance that contains fi ne
collagen fibers
B.)Loose
a. Areolar In and around nearly Areolar connective tissue is Strength, elasticity,
every body structure one of the most widely support.
(thus, called “packing distributed connective
material” of the body): in tissues; consists of fibers
subcutaneous layer (collagen, elastic, reticular)
deep to skin; papillary arranged randomly and
(superficial) region of several kinds of cells
dermis of skin; lamina embedded in semifluid
propria of mucous ground substance.
membranes; around
blood vessels, nerves,
and body organs.
b. Adipose Wherever areolar Adipose tissue has cells Reduces heat loss
connective tissue is derived from fioblasts (called through skin; serves
located: subcutaneous adipocytes) that are as an energy reserve;
layer deep to skin, specialized for storage of supports and protects
around heart and triglycerides (fats) as a large, organs. In newborns,
kidneys, yellow bone centrally located droplet. Brown adipose tissue
marrow, padding around (BAT generates heat
joints and behind eyeball to maintain proper
in eye socket. body temperature.
c. Reticular Stroma (supporting Reticular connective tissue is Forms stroma of
framework) of liver, a fine interlacing network of organs; binds smooth
 spleen, lymph nodes;
red bone marrow;
reticular lamina of
basement membrane;
around blood vessels
and muscles.
C.) Dense connective
a. Dense regular Forms tendons (attach
connective tissue muscle to bone), most
ligaments (attach bone
to bone), and
aponeuroses (sheetlike
tendons that attach
muscle to muscle or
muscle to bone)
b. Dense irregular Often occurs in sheets,
connective tissue such as fasciae (tissue
beneath skin and around
muscles and other
organs), reticular
(deeper) region of
dermis of skin, fibrous
pericardium of heart,
periosteum of bone,
perichondrium of
cartilage, joint capsules,
membrane capsules
around various organs
(kidneys, liver, testes,
lymph nodes); also in
heart valves.
D.) Specialized
connective
a. Hyaline cartilage Most abundant cartilage
in body; at ends of long
bones, anterior ends of
ribs, nose, parts of
larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchial tubes,
embryonic and fetal
skeleton.
b. Elastic cartilage Lung tissue, walls of
elastic arteries, trachea,
bronchial tubes, true
vocal cords, suspensory
ligaments of penis, some
ligaments between
vertebrae
c. Fibrocartilage Pubic symphysis (where
hip bones join
anteriorly), intervertebral
discs, menisci (cartilage
pads) of knee, portions
reticular fibers (thin form of
collagen fiber) and reticular
cells.
Dense regular connective
tissue forms shiny white
extracellular matrix; mainly
collagen fi bers regularly
arranged in bundles with
fibroblasts in rows between
them. Collagen fibers
(protein structures secreted
by fibroblasts) are not living,
so damaged tendons and
ligaments heal slowly.
Dense irregular connective
tissue is made up of collagen
fibers; usually irregularly
arranged with a few
fibroblasts.
Hyaline cartilage (hyalinos
glassy) contains a resilient
gel as ground substance and
appears in the body as a
bluish-white, shiny substance
(can stain pink or purple
when prepared for
microscopic examination; fi
ne collagen fibers are not
visible with ordinary staining
techniques).
Elastic connective tissue
contains predominantly
elastic fibers with fibroblasts
between them; unstained
tissue is yellowish.
Fibrocartilage has
chondrocytes among clearly
visible thick bundles of
collagen fibers within
muscle tissue cells;
filters and removes
worn-out blood cells in
spleen and microbes
in lymph nodes.
Provides strong
attachment between
various structures.
Tissue structure
withstands pulling
(tension) along long
axis of fibers.
Provides tensile
(pulling) strength in
many directions.
Provides smooth
surfaces for movement
at joints, flexibility, and
support; weakest type
of cartilage and can be
fractured.
Allows stretching of
various organs; is
strong and can recoil
to original shape after
being stretched.
Elasticity is important
to normal functioning
of lung tissue (recoils
in exhaling) and elastic
arteries (recoil
between heartbeats to
help maintain blood fl
ow).
Support and joining
structures together.
Strength and rigidity
make it the strongest
type of cartilage.
 of tendons that insert extracellular matrix; lacks
into cartilage perichondrium
d. Bone Both compact and Compact bone tissue
spongy bone tissue consists of osteons canals.
make up the various By contrast, spongy bone
parts of bones of the tissue (consists of thin
body columns called trabeculae;
spaces between trabeculae
are filled with red bone
marrow.
e. Lymphoid thymus and lymph nodes it consists of
and spleen. connective tissue formed of
reticular fibers, with various
types of leukocytes (white
blood cells)
f.Hematopoetic bone marrow of adults, Structurally, it consists of two
especially in the pelvis, major cellular elements, the
femur, and sternum stromal cells and the
parenchymal cells.
E).Blood plasma Within blood vessels Blood plasma and formed
(arteries, arterioles, elements: red blood cells
capillaries, venules, (erythrocytes), white blood
veins), within chambers cells (leukocytes), platelets
of heart. (thrombocytes).
Support, protection,
storage; houses blood-
forming tissue; serves
as levers that act with
muscle tissue to
enable movement
Houses and provides
a proliferation sites of
lymphocytes.
give rise to and house
erythrocytes,
leukocytes and
platelets
Red blood cells:
transport oxygen and
some carbon dioxide;
white blood cells: carry
on phagocytosis and
mediate allergic
reactions and immune
system responses;
platelets: essential for
blood clotting.

9. In a tabular form, describe the structure, and identify the location and function and determine the effect
of nerve impulses on the different types of epithelial tissue.
Effect on the different types
Nerve Description Location Function of epithelial tissue
Multipolar The cell bodies They control Motor neurons have main
Motor neuron neuron – of motor movements and processes, or axons, that
posesses a neurons are actions by passing extend from the ganglia to
single axon and located in the information from contractile muscles, and
many dendrites motor cortex, the brain and minor processes, or
and dentritic brain stem or spinal cord to the
dendrites, that connect
branches spinal cord. Its muscles.
axon project with the neuropile.
directly or
indirectly to
organs, mainly
muscles and
glands.
Pseudounipolar The cell bodies They relay Within each sensory
Sensory neuron neuron – of the sensory information from epithelium lie sensory cells
contains an neurons are the skin and that act as transducers,
axon that has located in the muscles back to converting signals from the
split into dorsal ganglia of the spinal cord and outside world into an
branches the spinal cord. brain. The electrical form that can be
information is then interpreted by the nervous
processed which system
makes one feel
pain and other
sensations.
Multipolar Located in the They connect Interneurons are synaptically
neuron – Central Nervous spinal motor and interconnected into
posesses a System sensory neurons. integrated circuits that
single axon and As well as process sensory information
many dendrites transferring signals and control the activity of the
between sensory musculature, secretory
 Interneuron and dentritic and motor epithelium, and blood
branches neurons, vasculature.
interneurons can
also communicate
with each other,
forming circuits of
various
complexity.

10. In a tabular form, describe the structure and function of the following parts of a nerve tissue:
NERVE TISSUE STRUCTURE FUNCTION

Neuron Neurons are specialized cells

that transmit chemical and
Neurons have all the
electrical signals in the brain;
normal components
they are the basic building
of a cell (nucleus,
blocks of the central nervous
organelles, etc.)
system.
neurons also contain
unique structures for
receiving and
sending the electrical
signals that make neuronal communication possible.

Synapse A The junction between the

synapse terminal of a neuron and either
is a another neuron or a muscle or
junction gland cell, over which nerve
through impulses pass, which relays
which a information to another neuron.
neuron
relays

information to another neuron; it has three main

components: The axon terminal, or pre-synaptic side
where information is transmitted from, the synaptic cleft,
and the dendrite, or post-synaptic side, receiving the
information.
Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters are
substances which neurons use
Neurotransmitter
to communicate with one
receptors are present
another and with their target
in the plasma
tissues in the process of
membrane of
synaptic transmission
postsynaptic cells (in
(neurotransmission).
some cases also in
the presynaptic
terminal), which
selectively bind the
transmitter. They are
integral membrane
glycoproteins with
multiple transmembrane segments.

Neuroglia Neuroglia function to hold

neurons in place to supply
them with nutrients, provide
insulation, and remove
pathogens and dead neurons.
 Neuroglia cells do not
have axons, dendrites,
or conduct nerve
impulses. Neuroglia are
typically smaller than
neurons and are about
three times more
numerous in the
nervous system.

Schwann Cells Schwann cells help to improve

nerve signal conduction, nerve
Schwann cells
regeneration, and antigen
are a variety
recognition by T cells.
of glial cells
Schwann cells play a vital role
that keep
in nerve repair. These cells
peripheral
migrate to the site of injury and
nerve fibers
release growth factors to
(both
promote nerve recovery, then
myelinated
myelinate newly generated
and
nerve axons.
unmyelinated) alive. In myelinated axons, Schwann
cells form the myelin sheath.

11. What are the two types of epithelial membranes? Where are they specifically located and what are the
fluids secreted by each?
The two main types of epithelial membranes are the mucous membranes and serous membranes.
Mucous membrane is a membrane lining body cavities and canals that lead to the outside, chiefly the
respiratory, digestive, and urogenital tracts. Mucous membranes line many tracts and structures of the
body, including the mouth, nose, eyelids, trachea (windpipe) and lungs, stomach and intestines, and
the ureters, urethra, and urinary bladder. They contain mucosal cells that secret mucus, a gel-like fluid
containing mainly water (~95%), mucins (0.5–5%), inorganic salts (~1%), proteins (0.5–1%), lipids, and
mucopolysaccharides [23,24].

Serous membrane or sersosa lines a body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior, and it
covers the organs that are within the cavity. Serous membranes consist of areolar connective tissues
covered by mesothelium. The mesothelium of a serous membranes secretes serous fluid, a watery
lubricant that allow organs to glide easily over one another or to slide against the walls of cavities.

12. What is collagen? What vitamin is closely associated to the synthesis of collagen.
Collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body, found in the bones, muscles, skin, and
tendons. It is the substance that holds the body together. Collagen is made up of amino-acids, which
are in turn built of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Vitamin C is the vitamin that is significant for the
synthesis of collagen. Vitamin C is the basic cofactor for the two chemicals required for collagen
amalgamation, which are prolyl hydroxylase (to balance out the collagen atom) and lysyl hydroxylase
(to give structural strength cross-connecting).

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