GRD Journals- Global Research and Development Journal for Engineering | Volume 5 | Issue 2 | January 2020

ISSN: 2455-5703

Evolution of Greek Enumeration & Numerical

Notations thereto in furtherance of Arithmetical
Operations
Dr. Sankar Prasad Mukherjee Joydev Bera
Research Guide Research Scholar
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
Seacom Skills University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India Seacom Skills University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Abstract
The Greek number system was immensely interesting in respect to their approach and methodology, which were uniquely based
upon their alphabets. Twenty four letters of Greek alphabets were in use with additional three strange antique letters , , and
along with the symbol M (Myriad representing numbers more than ten thousands).Greek Mathematicians, one of the very
important contributions was in giving some ideas of fractions. In case of describing bigger numbers like lakhs and crores, they
employed unique approach called Tetrads and Octads. With such kind of numerology, they were able to perform all the
arithmetical operations, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division etc. but did not spend much effort attempting to justify
these operations. Autors‟ belief is to present an amount of assessment collected from various sources about the contributions of
Greeks in the way of advancement of Mathematical evolution.
Keywords- Attic System, Herodianic Sign, Alphabetic Numerals, Tetrads, Octads, Arithmetical Operation, Apollonius,
Continued Multiplication, Square Root

I. INTRODUCTION
We can stand as base with several texts and literatures written in Greek language, which were developed approximately during
the period of 6th century BC to 5th century AD. It is appealing and encouraging sign of the times that more and more our
acknowledgement was attracted to pay due appreciation with a clear understanding of the gift of the Greeks to mankind. The
very important contributory aspect of Greek Mathematics is the major shift from its earlier fragmented concepts to a smooth
interwinding growth as a subject along with the inventions, theories, proofs and their implementations/applications. This is of
paramount importance and major shift towards overall progress and dividends in Mathematics.

A. Alphabetic Numbers and Large Numbers

Greek numeral system was very interesting in respect to its approach and methodology having a bit similarity to other systems
viz, Egyptian; Babylonian etc. Numerical symbols in earliest Greece were called “Herodianic Signs”. These signs occur
frequently in Athenian inscriptions and these systems numerical notations generally called Attic system. The Ionic Greek
replaced the Greek Attic system of enumeration into Ionian numerals (Alphabetic numerals or alike string numeral as used in
present day computer arithmetic), which was not positional. . Around 450 B.C, Ionic Greek adopted alphabetic notations and the
alphabet denoted the numbers 1-9, 10-90 and 100-900 in same way as Egyptian. The following table shows the alphabetic
symbols and respective values-
Table 1: Greek Alphabetic Symbols
Units Tenths Hundredths
Symbol value Symbol value Symbol value
 1  10  100
 2  20  200
 3  30  300
 4  40  400
 5  50  500
6  60  600
 7  70  700
 8  80  800
 9 90 900

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 Evolution of Greek Enumeration & Numerical Notations thereto in furtherance of Arithmetical Operations
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The first nine letters of Greek alphabet as shown in table no 4.1 were associated with the first nine integers as found in
modern numerals, the next nine letters represented the first nine integral multiple of 10 and the last nine letters were used for the
first nine integral multiples of 100. So we can infer that they were well versed in array system of ascending form; and at the same
time base of 10 i.e, decimal system.
In Greek numeral systems, larger numbers were also available, which are appeared below-

As indicated earlier, we find here base of 10. They also wrote the numbers from right to left i.e, position / place value
way. They placed unit number first in right, then place tenth in one left, then hundredth and so on. Once idea of place value is
available, one can represent large numbers and they have ample knowledge about that Arithmetic.

Example: - 32538 = 

Here they used the orthodox way of writing the large number; they used this way of writing tens of thousands was by means of
letter M with the number of myriads above it.

Example: - 91755876 = 

B. Tetrad’s and Octads

We find a reference in “Pappus, Book II : the only difference” which contains Apollonius arithmetical works, that Apollonius
called this „tetrads‟, (set of four digits)  , , ,  etc., „simple myriads‟, „double‟, „triple‟ etc,
which means 10000, 100002, 100003 and so on. The abbreviation for these successive powers in Pappus are , ,  etc.
Nicolas Rhabdas denotes the successive powers of 10000. Who says a pair of dots above the ordinary numerals denoted the
number of myriads, two pairs of dots above the numerals denoted the double myriad and three pair of dots denoted triple myriad
and so on. Thus

= 9000000, = 2 (10000)2, = 40 (10000)3 and so on.

The Sand-Reckoner of Archimedes was a computational accomplishment of another kind. Archimedes‟s Psammites or
Sand-reckoner was another special system to express very large number. It contained a new system of notation for expressing
numbers in excess of one hundred million.
This goes by Octads: 100002 = 100000000 = 108
All numbers from 1 to 108 from first order. The last number 108 from first order is taken as the unit of second order,
which consists of all numbers from 10 8 to 1016, similarly 1016 is taken as unit of third order, which consists of all numbers from
1016 to 1024 and so on.

C. Fraction
An ordinary proper Fraction was expressed in various ways. Fractions was denoted by first writing the numerator marked with an
accent and then followed by two accented numbers representing the denominator and written as twice. Thus ’ ” ”

and . In case of Fractions having unity for the numerator, the ’ was omitted and denominator
was written only once. Thus ” .
There are a few differences in Diophantus numeral system when compared to their system. In this system, the
numerator of any Fraction is written in the line, with the denominator above it, without any accents or marker. A line is put
between the denominator above and the numerator below, which describes in Tannery edition of Diophantus. Thus we can say,

. A few more examples from Diophantus be given below-


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 Evolution of Greek Enumeration & Numerical Notations thereto in furtherance of Arithmetical Operations
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(1)

(2)

They expressed the Fractions as the sum of submultiples, when numbers are partly integral and partly fractional. Thus from the

previous table ; etc. Also expressed the large numbers by writing the numerator first and the
denominator and separated by ’, which means the Fractions are expressed as the numerator divided by the denominator:

thus 2507874 / 353147.

To calculating Astronomical problems, the Greeks used system of Sexagesimal fractions which appears in the Syntaxis
of Ptolemy (100 AD – 170 AD). Around 2nd century AD, in his Syntexis Ptolemy divided the circumference of a circle into 360
parts with four right angles subtended by it at the centre. Each part is called degrees. And also divided each degre () into
60 parts sixtieth or minutes , each of these again into 60 seconds and so on. Thus there was a convenient fractional system exists
for arithmetical calculations. So the Fractions we represent by , so many of these we write , and so on. Here the
ordinary numerals with units  written first, then the numbers of sixtieths or minutes with one accent and thereafter the
seconds with two accents and so on, so forth.
Thus   = 3 ( denoted the abbreviation of the unit );
  ’ ” = 34 52’ 20”.
Similarly, we expressed   ’ ” = 8’ 41”
Where p denotes the segment of the diameter.

D. Arithmetical Operations
The arithmetic operations are complex in that so many symbols are used. For addition and subtraction, the Greek would keep the
several powers of 10 separate in a manner practically corresponding to our system of numerals, the hundreds, the thousands etc
being written in separate vertical rows.
Example of addition represented bellow- Example of Subtraction be represented bellow-

Greek multiplication method was somewhat different from Egyptian method. This method dependent on the direct use
of multiplication table. When they multiply two numbers, they wrote the numbers in two columns. First is multiplier and second
is multiplicand. Then they wrote half of the number in first column of the preceeding row and double the number in second
column of the preceeding row and so on, until they have 1 in first column. Then cuts the all numbers in the second column which
are opposite even numbers in first column and odd all the numbers left in second column, which is the required result.
Example :- 203 is to multiplied by 81
81 203
40 406
20 812
10 1624
5 3248
2 6496
1 12992

16,443 = 81 x 203

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 Evolution of Greek Enumeration & Numerical Notations thereto in furtherance of Arithmetical Operations
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The great commentator Eutocius of 6th century AD, gives a great many multiplications appear at the left and a numerical
translation of the symbols and operations at the right are from his commenries on the third proportion of Archimedes on the
measure of the circle.

The multiplicand is considered first. Then multiplier is written below where kept before the multiplier i.e,

All the digits of multiplicand are multiplied by the highest power of 10 in the multiplier. Similarly the process continues
to required steps developing on the digits and the steps total will be the result.
Example :- To find the square of  (or 543)

Example showing multiplication in three steps where multiplicand and multiplier are respectively three digit numbers. The total
of the above three steps is the result.

As  represents 500, so  multiplied by  will give 250,000, which expressed as ; as  represents 40, so  multiplied by 

will give 20,000, which expressed as ; as  represents 3, so  multiplied by , will give 1,500, which is expressed as .

Therefore (i) the first partial product is or 271,500.

Similarly, we get the second and third partial product. (ii) The second partial product is or 21,720 and (iii) the
third partial product is or 1629.

Then add all partial product and get the final result. Thus the square of the number  (or 543) is or
294,849.

Greek methods for division depends on multiplication and subtraction. For example, suppose (169,744) is
divided by  (412).

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 Evolution of Greek Enumeration & Numerical Notations thereto in furtherance of Arithmetical Operations
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Divisor Dividend Quotient

 (412) (169,744)  (400) 1st term

412 x 400 = 164800
Remainder = 4944 ( )
412 x 10 = 4120  (10) 2nd term
Remainder = 824
412 x 2 = 824  (2) 3rd term
Hence the whole quotient is  (412).

E. Apollonius Process of Continued Multiplication

Apollonius ( late 3rd – early 2nd centuries BC) was a great geometerand astronomer in Greece. His objectives was to discover a
easy method of constructed product of numbers of factors. Each factor is represented by single letter in Greek notation. So,
instead of multiplication of large numbers, he confined the multiplication of any number of factors as shown below :
1) A number of units as 1,2,3,……….,9
2) A number of even tens i.e, 10, 20, 30, ………. , 90
3) A number of even hundred 100, 200, 300, ……….., 900
It may be noted that it does not deal with factors above 100 i.e, not in thousands. The reason behind it was the Greek numerical
alphabet was upto only 900.
The attracction of this method is consecutive separate multiplication as (a) the base of several factors and (b) the factors
containing the powers of ten.
Also given that 30 is the multiple of 10 with base 3 and 800 is the multiple of 100 with base 8. The multiplication of three
numbers such as 2, 30, 800; Apollonius multiplication process expressed the product of tens and the hundred and lastly multiples
of two products, where the bases of these three numbers are 2, 3 and 8.
Finally the product can be expressed as the number of units less than myriad, then number of myriads, number of „double
myriad‟, „triple myriad‟ etc; which expressed in the form A0 + A1M + A2 M2 +…………
Where M is a myriad i.e, 104 an A0, A1, A2 ……. represents some number less or equal to 9999.

F. Extracting the Square Root

Now, we discuss the process of extracting the square root of a number. Theon‟s ((70 AD- 135 AD), Greek Mathematician)
extraction of square root is rather geometrical, yet it is based on the Algebra‟s binomials expansion. In his commentary of
Ptolemy almagest explained the process of extracting square root of a number. To extract square root, he took first the root of
nearest square number and subtracted from the number, itself. Then he doubled this first root and divided this above subtracted
reduced number, and took the remainder term. Finally, took the root of this remainder. Thereafter, added first root and root of
remainder terms.
First, Theon‟s algorithm was based on Euclid‟s elements-II. 4, which claimed: “If a straight line is cut at random, then
the square on the whole equals the sum of the squares on the segments plus twice the rectangle contained by the segments.” That
expressed in the form as,

Fig. 1: Square to extract square root

Theon first illustrated this process by finding square root of 144. The steps were as follows-
1) To take highest possible denomination in the square root is 10.
2) Subtract 102 from 144, leaves 44.
3) Double the root I.e, 2 x10 = 20, because there are two rectangle.
4) Divide 44 by 20 to get 2 with a remainder 4, i.e, 2 . 20 + 2 2 = 44
5) Then, 4 is the final small square; whose root is 2.
6) Thus, √

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 Evolution of Greek Enumeration & Numerical Notations thereto in furtherance of Arithmetical Operations
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We can say that process of reducing by squares on the basis of Geometrical concept.

II. CONCLUSION
It was most amazing that at the initial stage, the Greeks used a very unique approach to tackle numerology and arithmetical
operations using alphabetic numbers. They represent numbers by alphabetic symbols (but not positional). With such kind of
numerology they were able to perform all the Arithmetical operations. Later on, one of the eminent Mathematicians, Apollonius
(late 3rd century BC to early 2nd century BC) developed continued multiplication methodology of big numbers in a simple
manner.
The other amazing methodology to be mentioned was extracting of square root using Geometry by Theon ((70 AD- 135
AD), another great Greek Mathematician). So we can conclude that the evolutionary history of Mathematics is indebted to
various countries, places and great inventors at different point of times.
As in this article we see the alphabetic numbers along with amazing approach of arithmetical operations; continued
simple multiplication methodology of big numbers and uncommon way of extracting square root using Geometry.

REFERENCES
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[5] Burton, D.M. 2011. The History of Mathematics: An Introduction
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