6.2 Aircraft Material - Non Ferrous - Unsurya 2019

Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual
Module 6 – Materials and Hardware
Module 6
Materials and Hardware
6.2 Aircraft Materials – Non Ferrous
Manual No. : BCT-0011/M6 For Training Purpose Only Rev. 0: Aug 19, 2015
Airframe Powerplant 1
Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable
subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
 A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate.
INTRODUCTION
A non-ferrous metal is a metal which is not ferrous, including alloys, that does not contain iron in appreciable amounts. Generally more expensive
than ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals are used because of desirable properties such as low weight (e.g., aluminium), higher conductivity (e.g.,
copper), non-magnetic property or resistance to corrosion (e.g., zinc).Some non-ferrous materials are also used in the iron and steel industries. For
example, bauxite is used as flux for blast furnaces, while others such as wolframite, pyrolusite and chromite are used in making ferrous alloys.
The term “nonferrous” refers to all metals which have elements other than iron as their base or principal constituent. This group includes such
metals as aluminum, titanium, copper, and magnesium, as well as such alloyed metals as Monel and babbit.
Important non-ferrous metals include aluminium, copper, lead, nickel, tin, titanium and zinc, and alloys such as brass. Precious metals such as
gold, silver and platinum and exotic or rare metals such as cobalt, mercury, tungsten, beryllium, bismuth, cerium, cadmium, niobium, indium,
gallium, germanium, lithium, selenium, tantalum, tellurium, vanadium, and zirconium are also non-ferrous. They are usually obtained through
minerals such as sulfides, carbonates, and silicates.Non-ferrous metals are usually refined through electrolysis.
Certain non-ferrous metals, such as aluminium, copper and lead, are used in the commercially 'pure' state for engineering purposes - usually in the
form of sheets, tubes, wires or as thin coatings on other metals.
Cadmium, chromium, nickel, tin and zinc are also often used to provide protective coatings onother metals in order to retard the effects of corrosion.
Precious metals, such as gold, platinum and silver have been used for special work in high-grade electrical instruments, aircraft windshields and,
of course, space vehicles.
Mercury (quicksilver) - the only metal to remain liquid at room temperature - may be found in certain types of barometers, discharge lamps, small,
electrical circuit breakers, pressure gauges and vacuum pumps (it can also be found in the detonators of some explosive devices).
In a similar manner to steels, it has been discovered that tremendous advantages are to be gained by alloying non-ferrous metals with each other
and, indeed, with other (ferrous) metals and elements.
Aluminium, copper, magnesium and titanium alloys are among the more common non-ferrous metals that are used in aircraft construction and
repair.
Pure Aluminium
Pure aluminum is a silvery-white metal with many desirable characteristics. It is light, nontoxic (as the metal), nonmagnetic and non-sparking. It
is easily formed, machined, and cast. Pure aluminum is soft and lacks strength, but alloys with small amounts of copper, magnesium, silicon,
manganese, and other elements have very useful properties. Aluminum is an abundant element in the earth's crust, but it is not found free in
nature. The Bayer process is used to refine aluminum from bauxite, an aluminum ore. Because of aluminum's mechanical and physical properties,
it is an extremely convenient and widely used metal.
Pure aluminium is extracted from the mineral rock bauxite (named after the town of Les Baux, in France, where it was first found). It is a soft,
weak, ductile and malleable metal. Aluminium is approximately one third the weight of steel and has approximately one third the stiffness of steel.
While its strength may be improved by cold working, it remains a low-strength material. Aluminium is highly corrosion-resistant, due to the
rapid formation of a thin, but very dense oxide surface film, which limits further corrosion. Aluminium is also an excellent conductor of electricity
(and heat), however the conduction of electricity is markedly reduced when the oxide layer is formed.
Aluminium is obtained from bauxite ore, which is found in various parts of the world. Bauxite is a hydrated oxide of aluminium having the chemical
formula Al2O3 2H20.
The bauxite ore is given a caustic treatment, known as the Bayer process, which reduces the ore to a powder called alumina, or aluminium oxide.
The alumina is mixed with a catalyst called cryolite, and the mixture is placed in carbon-lined tanks which are equipped with large carbon
anodes. A high level of electric current is applied, and this causes the carbon of the electrode /anode to combine with the oxygen in the alumina
to form carbon dioxide (C02) gas.
Bauxite is crushed and treated with caustic soda solution to produce aluminium oxide combined with water. This is then heated to evaporate the
water. The pure aluminium oxide which remains can be converted into aluminium. The process is electrolytic i.e. electricity is used to separate the
aluminium from the aluminium oxide. A furnace made of steel plate and lined with carbon is used. Molten aluminium is deposited at the
cathode.Since aluminium oxide has a very high melting point, it is mixed with another aluminium mineral, cryolite, to form an electrolyte which
will melt at a low temperature.
When the electric current passes through the charge it melts and
aluminium particles, being positively charged, are attracted to the lining
of the furnace, which forms the negative electrode. Molten aluminium
collects at the bottom of the furnace and is tapped off when necessary.
Oxygen is given off the anodes. This oxygen then combines with the
carbon (from graphite) to produce carbon dioxide (C02). Hence, the anode
erodes away and needs to be replaced periodically.
The Bayer process is the principal industrial means of refining bauxite to

produce alumina (aluminium oxide). Bauxite, the most important ore of
Figure 2.1 Bayer Process
aluminium, contains only 30–54% aluminium oxide, (alumina), Al2O3, the
rest being a mixture of silica, various iron oxides, and titanium dioxide. The aluminium oxide must be purified before it can be refined to aluminium
metal.
Alumina — oraluminium oxide (Al2O3), is produced from extracted ore. Despite its name, it has nothing to do with clay or black soil but resembles
a flour or very white sand. Alumina is then transformed into aluminium through electrolytic reduction. One tonne of aluminium is produced from
every two tonnes of alumina.
Bauxite consist of 40-60% alumina, as well as earth silicon, ferrous oxide, and titanium dioxide. To separate pure alumina, the Bayer process
is applied. First, the ore is heated in an autoclave with caustic soda. It is then cooled and a solid residue (red mud) is separated from the liquid.
Aluminium hydroxide is then extracted from this solution and calcined to produce pure alumina.
The final stage is the reduction of aluminium through the Hall-Heroult process. It is based on the following principle: when the alumina solution
is electrolyzed in molten cryolite (Na3AlF6), pure aluminium is produced. The reduction cell bottom serves as a cathode, and coal bars immersed
in cryolite serve as anodes. Molten aluminium is deposited under a cryolite solution with 3-5% alumina. During this process, temperatures reach
950°C, considerably higher than the melting point of the metal itself, which is 660°C.
Properties:
 Light - Relative Density 2.7
 Weak - Tensile strength only 4 ton f/in2 (6.2 h bar) as cast but this can be increased up to 9 ton f/in2 (13.9 Hbar) by cold working i.e. rolling
 Good corrosion resistance - this is due to the very thin oxide film which forms on the surface of the metal when it is exposed to the atmosphere
 Good conductor of heat and electricity
 Non-magnetic
 Low melting point (660°C)
 Can be polished to reflect both light and heat.
Increasing Strength and Hardness
There are three methods of increasing the strength of hardness of aluminium, in increasing effectively:
 Reduce the grain size.
 Cold work (rolling or forging for example).
 Alloy the aluminium with other elements and age-harden (naturally or artificially).
Commercially pure aluminum is a white lustrous metal which stands second in the scale of malleability, sixth in ductility, and ranks high in its
resistance to corrosion. Aluminum combined with various percentages of other metals forms alloys which are used in aircraft construction.
Aluminum alloys in which the principal alloying ingredients are manganese, chromium, or magnesium and silicon show little attack in corrosive
environments. Alloys in which substantial percentages of copper are used are more susceptible to corrosive action. The total percentage of alloying
elements is seldom more than 6 or 7 % in the wrought alloys.
Aluminum is one of the most widely used metals in modern aircraft construction. It is vital to the aviation industry because of its high strength
to weight ratio and its comparative ease of fabrication. The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its light weight. Aluminum melts at the
comparatively low temperature of 1,250°F. It is nonmagnetic and is an excellent conductor.
Commercially pure aluminum has a tensile strength of about 13,000 psi, but its strength may be approximately doubled by rolling or other cold
working processes. By alloying with other metals, or by using heat-treating processes, the tensile strength may be raised to as high as 65,000 psi
or to within the strength range of structural steel.
Aluminum alloys, although strong, are easily worked because they are malleable and ductile. They may be rolled into sheets as thin as 0.0017 inch
or drawn into wire 0.004 inch in diameter. Most aluminum alloy sheet stock used in aircraft construction range from 0.016 to 0.096 inch in
thickness; however, some of the larger aircraft use sheet stock which may be as thick as 0.356 inch.
The various types of aluminum may be divided into two general classes :
(1) Casting alloys (those suitable for casting in sand, permanent mold, or die castings) (figure 2.2.), and
(2) Wrought alloys (those which may be shaped by rolling, drawing, or forging). Of these two, the wrought alloys are the most widely used in
aircraft construction, being used for stringers, bulkheads, skin, rivets, and extruded sections.
Aluminum casting alloys are divided into two basic groups. In one, the physical properties of the alloys are determined by the alloying elements
and cannot be changed after the metal is cast. In the other, the alloying elements make it possible to heat treat the casting to produce the desired
physical properties.
The casting alloys are identifiedby a letter preceding the alloy number. When a letter precedes a number, it indicates a slight variation in the
composition of the original alloy. This variation in composition is simply to impart some desirable quality. In casting alloy 214, for example, the
addition of zinc to improve its pouring qualities is indicated by the letter A in front of the number, thus creating the designation A214.
When castings have been heat treated, the heat treatment and the composition of the casting is indicated by the letter T, followed by an alloying
number. An example of this is the sand casting alloy 355, which has several different compositions and tempers and is designated by 355-T6, 355-
T51, or C355-T51.
Figure 2.2 Casting Process
Aluminum alloy castings are produced by one of three basic methods:
(1) Sand mold,
(2) Permanent mold, or
(3) Die cast.
In casting aluminum, it must be remembered that in most cases different types of alloys must be used for different types of castings. Sand castings
and die castings require different types of alloys than those used in permanent molds. Sand and permanent mold castings are parts produced by
pouring molten metal into a previously prepared mold, allowing the metal to solidify or freeze, and then removing the part. If the mold is made
of sand, the part is a sand casting; if it is a metallic mold (usually cast iron) the part is a permanent mold casting. Sand and permanent castings
are produced by pouring liquid metal into the mold, the metal flowingunder the force of gravity alone.
The two principal types of sand casting alloys are 112 and 212. Little difference exists between the two metals from a mechanical properties
standpoint, since both are adaptable to a wide range of products. The permanent mold process is a later development of the sand casting process,
the major difference being in the material from which the molds are made. The advantage of this process is that there are fewer openings (called
porosity) than in sand castings. The sand and the binder, which is mixed with the sand to hold it together, give off a certain amount of gas which
causes porosity in a sand casting.
Permanent mold castings are used to obtain higher mechanical properties, better surfaces, or more accurate dimensions. There are two
specifictypes of permanent mold castings:
(1) Permanent metal mold with metal cores, and
(2) Semipermanent types containing sand cores.
Because finergrain structure is produced in alloys subjected to the rapid cooling of metal molds, they are far superior to the sand type castings.
Alloys 122, A132, and 142 are commonly used in permanent mold castings, the principal uses of which are in internal combustion engines.
Die castings used in aircraft are usually aluminum or magnesium alloy. If weight is of primary importance, magnesium alloy is used because it is
lighter than aluminum alloy. However, aluminum alloy is frequently used because it is stronger than most magnesium alloys.
A die casting is produced by forcing molten metal under pressure into a metallic die and allowing it to solidify; then the die is opened and the part
removed. The basic difference between permanent mold casting and die casting is that in the permanent mold process the metal fows into the die
under gravity. In the die casting operation, the metal is forced under great pressure.
Die castings are used where relatively large production of a given part is involved. Remember, any shape which can be forged can be cast.
Die-Casting
This process uses a permanent metal mould, which results in more accurate, and better finished, castings than those produced in sand. Die-casting,
can be sub- divided into 'gravity' or 'pressure' processes, depending on how the metal is fed into the mould.
 Gravity Die-Casting - sometimes known as `Permanent-Mould Casting'. This casting process is virtually identical to sand-casting except
that the mould (die) is metal. A wide range of metals can be cast and hollow castings are possible if a sand core is used. Fine grain structures
are produced, due to the more rapid rate of cooling, compared to that achieved in sand-casting.
 Pressure Die-Casting - as implied, molten metal is fed under high pressure (thousands of PSI) and held during solidification. Most die-
castings are in non-ferrous materials (aluminium, magnesium, zinc, copper and their alloys), because steels have too-high a melting
temperature for the metal dies to accommodate. The dies are, usually, made from hard, tool-steels and are water cooled. This process can
achieve excellent detail, super finish, low porosity, and thin sections. Expensive equipment is necessary, but very high production rates are
possible. Automatic ejection occurs and, on small components, 100 units per minute is not uncommon. Hollow castings cannot be made by
die-casting.
Wrought aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys are divided into two general classes: Non-heat-treatable alloys and Heat-treatable alloys. Non-
heat-treatable alloys are those in which the mechanical properties are determined by the amount of cold work introduced after the final annealing
operation. The mechanical properties obtained by cold working are destroyed by any subsequent heating and cannot be restored except by
additional cold working, which is not always possible. The “full hard” temper is produced by the maximum amount of cold work that is
commercially practicable. Metal in the “as fabricated” condition is produced from the ingot without any subsequent controlled amount of cold
working or thermal treatment. There is, consequently, a variable amount of strain hardening, depending upon the thickness of the section.
For heat-treatable aluminum alloys, the mechanical properties are obtained by heat treating to a suitable temperature, holding at that temperature
long enough to allow the alloying constituent to enter into solid solution, and then quenching to hold the constituent in solution. The metal is
left in a supersaturated, unstable state and is then age hardened either by natural aging at room temperature or by artifcial aging at some elevated
temperature.
The International Alloy Designation System (PADS) Designation
Wrought aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys are designated by a four digit index system. The system is broken into three distinct groups:
 1xxx group,
 2xxx through 8xxx group, and
 9xxx group (which is currently unused).
The frst digit of a designation identifes the alloy type. The second digit indicates specifc alloy modifcations. Should the second number be zero, it
would indicate no special control over individual impurities. Digits 1 through 9, however, when assigned consecutively as needed for the second
number in this group, indicate the number of controls over individual impurities in the metal.
The last two digits of the 1xxx group are used to indicate the hundredths of 1 % above the original 99 % designated by the firstdigit. Thus, if the
last two digits were 30, the alloy would contain 99 % plus 0.30 % of pure aluminum, or a total of 99.30 % pure aluminum. Examples of alloys in
this group are:
 1100—99.00 % pure aluminum with one control over individual impurities.
 1130—99.30 % pure aluminum with one control over individual impurities.
 1275—99.75 % pure aluminum with two controls over individual impurities.
In the 2xxx through 8xxx groups, the firstdigit indicates the major alloying element used in the formation of the alloy as follows:
 2xxx—copper
 3xxx—manganese
 4xxx—silicon
 5xxx—magnesium
 6xxx—magnesium and silicon
 7xxx—zinc
 8xxx—other elements
In the 2xxx through 8xxx alloy groups, the second digit in the alloy designation indicates alloy modifcations. If the second digit is zero, it indicates
the original alloy, while digits 1 through 9 indicate alloy modifications.
The last two of the four digits in the designation identify the different alloys in the group. (figure 2.3.)
Percentage of alloying elements(aluminum and normal impurities constitute remainder)

Alloy
Copper Silicon Manganese Magnesium Zinc Nickel Chromium Lead Bismuth
1100 - - - - - - - - -
3003 - - 1.2 - - - - - -
2011 5.5 - - - - - - 0.5 0.5
2014 4.4 0.8 0.8 0.4 - - - - -
2017 4.0 - 0.5 0.5 - - - - -
2117 2.5 - - 0.3 - - - - -
2018 4.0 - - 0.5 - 2.0 - - -
2024 4.5 - 0.6 1.5 - - - - -
2025 4.5 0.8 0.8 - - - - - -
4032 0.9 12.5 - 1.0 - 0.9 - - -
5052 - - - 2.5 - - 0.25 - -
6151 - 1.0 - 0.6 - - 0.25 - -
6053 - 0.7 - 1.3 - - 0.25 - -
6061 0.25 0.6 - 1.0 - - 0.25 - -
7075 1.6 - - 2.5 5.6 - 0.3 - -
Figure 2.3 Nominal composition of wrought aluminum alloys
Effect of Alloying Element
1000 series. 99 % aluminum or higher, excellent corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivity, low mechanical properties, excellent
workability but is not very strong. Iron and silicon are major impurities.
2000 series. Copper is the principal alloying element. Solution heat treatment, optimum properties equal to mild steel, poor corrosion resistance
unclad. The major benefit of copper is a large increase in strength, although if the alloy is not correctly heat- treated, intergranular corrosion can
occur between the aluminium and copper grains within the metal. These are probably the commonest aluminium alloys used in aircraft
construction. It is usually clad with 6000 or high purity alloy. Its best known alloy is 2024.
3000 series. Manganese is the principal alloying element of this group which is generally non-heat treatable. The percentage of manganese which
will be alloy effective is 1.5 %. The most popular is 3003, which is of moderate strength and has good working characteristics.
4000 series. Silicon is the principal alloying element of this group, and lowers melting temperature. Its primary use is in welding and brazing.
When used in welding heat-treatable alloys, this group will respond to a limited amount of heat treatment.
5000 series. Magnesium is the principal alloying element. It has good welding and corrosion resistant characteristics, if exposed to high temperature
or cold working, it can corrode quite badly. High temperatures (over 150 °F) or excessive cold working will increase susceptibility to corrosion.
6000 series. Silicon and magnesium form magnesium silicide which makes alloys heat treatable. It is of medium strength, good forming qualities,
and has corrosion resistant characteristics.
7000 series.Alloy are made harder and stronger by the addition of zinc. These are difficult to bend and are more often used where flat plates are
required. Zinc is the principal alloying element. The most popular alloy of the series is 6061. When coupled with magnesium, it results in heat-
treatable alloys of very high strength. It usually has copper and chromium added. The principal alloy of this group is 7075.
Marking of Aluminium Alloy Sheets
American sheet metal, for aerospace use from the manufacturer is usually marked with letters and numbers in rows about 5 inches apart. These
identification symbols may include a Federal specification number with temper designation, an the thickness of the material in thousandths of an
inch e.g.
QQ-A-250/5 2024 - T3 0.025
Colour coding can also be applied to American materials e.g.
QQ-A-250/5F Aluminium alloy Alclad 2024 sheet, temper condition - T3 White, Blue, White, Blue, White.
British sheet metal is stamped, on one corner showing specifications reference, inspection stamp, manufacturer, manufacturing batch number
and test report number. Each sheet is marked in green ink with the specification reference and manufacturers symbol, in lines, 4 inches apart.
Coloured bands on the stamped corner indicate the material specification and heat treatment.
These coloured bands may be applied to metal in the quarantine store.
Examples
BS L72 Solution treated and naturally aged Black, Brown
Annealed as rolled Brown, Yellow, Red,
Brown, Red, Green
BS L163 Solution treated and cold rolled (T3 condition) (superseded BS L72) Black, Brown
BS 1470 HSI5 - TB Solution treated and naturally aged Blue, Brown
Cast Aluminium Alloys
These are not used extensively on airframes mainly due to their lack of strength, poor fatigue characteristics and lack of elasticity when compared
to the wrought aluminium alloys.
The lack of elasticity is particularly relevant, as the very nature of an airframe structure requires the ability to flex considerably without cracking.
Although their use is obviously limited on airframes, cast aluminium alloys are used extensively on engines, where there is a need to produce
complex cored shapes such as crankcases, drive casings, cylinder heads etc. No other method than casting would be viable for such items. The
stresses can be kept to a modest level on these parts by producing robust castings of adequate stiffness.
Very few non-heat-treatable cast alloys are used in aerospace applications and, for high-duty engine casings and pistons, some very strong,
temperature-resistant alloys exist. One of the most common in the category is RR 58 (sometimes known as 'Y' Alloy), which is an age-hardening
material containing approximately 2 ½ % copper, 1 ½ % magnesium, 1 ½ % nickel, and 1% iron. A derivative of this material was also used (in
wrought form) for the skin of the supersonic Concord aircraft, due to the high metal temperatures encountered.
Cast aluminium alloys often contain silicon, which creates high fluidity and, thus, is good for producing complex shapes. It also reduces the
coefficient of linear expansion, so is often included in piston castings.
Pure Magnesium
Two thirds the weight of aluminium (with a relative density of 1.74), no metal can be cut, drilled, filed or shaped so easily as magnesium - provided
that certain precautions are taken to prevent it over-heating.
Magnesium burns readily, especially in small particles and dust. Great care must be taken when filing and grinding this metal and, if a fire
should occur, it must be extinguished with dry sand or an appropriate powder extinguisher but WATER MUST NOT BE USED.
Magnesium does not possess sufficient strength in its pure state for structural uses, but when alloyed with zinc, aluminum, and manganese it
produces an alloy having the highest strength to weight ratio of any of the commonly used metals.
Magnesium is probably more widely distributed in nature than any other metal. It can be obtained from such ores as dolomite and magnesite, and
from sea water, underground brines, and waste solutions of potash. With about 10 million pounds of magnesium in 1 cubic mile of sea water, there
is no danger of a dwindling supply.
Magnesium is obtained primarily from electrolysis of seawater or brine from deep wells. In its pure state it lacks sufficient strength and
characteristics for use as a structural metal. It can, however, be alloyed with a range of other elements to greatly improve its strength. These
elements include aluminium, manganese, thorium, zirconium, and zinc.
Some of today’s aircraft require in excess of one-half ton of this metal for use in hundreds of vital spots. Some wing panels are fabricated entirely
from magnesium alloys, weigh 18 % less than standard aluminum panels, and have flownhundreds of satisfactory hours. Among the aircraft parts
that have been made from magnesium with a substantial savings in weight are nosewheel doors, flapcover skin, aileron cover skin, oil tanks,
foorings, fuselage parts, wingtips, engine nacelles, instrument panels, radio masts, hydraulic fuid tanks, oxygen bottle cases, ducts, and seats.
Magnesium alloys possess good casting characteristics. Their properties compare favorably with those of cast aluminum. In forging, hydraulic
presses are ordinarily used, although, under certain conditions, forging can be accomplished in mechanical presses or with drop hammers.
Magnesium alloys are subject to such treatments as annealing, quenching, solution heat treatment, aging, and stabilizing. Sheet and plate
magnesium are annealed at the rolling mill. The solution heat treatment is used to put as much of the alloying ingredients as possible into solid
solution, which results in high tensile strength and maximum ductility. Aging is applied to castings following heat treatment where maximum
hardness and yield strength are desired.
Magnesium embodies fre hazards of an unpredictable nature. When in large sections, its high thermal conductivity makes it difficultto ignite and
prevents it from burning. It will not burn until the melting point of 1,204 °F is reached. However, magnesium dust and fne chips are ignited easily.
Precautions must be taken to avoid this if possible. Should a fireoccur, it can be extinguished with an extinguishing powder, such as soapstone or
graphite. Water or any standard liquid or foam fireextinguisher cause magnesium to burn more rapidly and can cause explosions.
Magnesium alloys produced in the United States consist of magnesium alloyed with varying proportions of aluminum, manganese, and zinc. These
alloys are designated by a letter of the alphabet, with the number 1 indicating high purity and maximum corrosion resistance.
Many of the magnesium alloys manufactured in the United States are produced by the Dow Chemical Company and have been given the trade
name of Dow-metal™ alloys. To distinguish between these alloys, each is assigned a letter. Thus, we have Dowmetal J, Dowmetal M, and so forth.
Another manufacturer of magnesium alloys is the American Magnesium Corporation, a subsidiary of the Aluminum Company of America. This
company uses an identificationsystem similar to that used for aluminum alloys, with the exception that magnesium alloy numbers are preceded
with the letters AM. Thus, AM240C is a cast alloy, and AM240C4 is the same alloy in the heat-treated state. AM3S0 is an annealed wrought
alloy, and AM3SRT is the same alloy rolled after heat treatment.
American magnesium alloys are identified by a series of letters and numbers. The first letter or letters identify the main alloying elements. The
middle digits identify the percentage of each of the identified elements. The last letter and number indicate the heat treatment of the alloy.
Example: AZ31A - T4
AZ The main alloying elements are aluminium and zinc
31 This is 3% aluminium and 1 % zinc
A Indicates that the alloy is original
-T4 The alloy has been solution heat treated.
Pure Copper
Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and
electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has a reddish-orange color. It is used as a conductor of heat
and electricity, a building material, and a constituent of various metal alloys.
Copper also has the ability to retard the progress of corrosion, by developing a patina of green copper carbonate (also called verdigris or aerugo)
on its surface.
With a conductivity (of electricity and heat) second only to silver, and having the ability to be beaten, cast, drawn, forged, pressed, rolled or spun
into many different (and often complicated) shapes, copper is a very versatile metal.
Despite a relative density of 8.96, copper's ductility and malleability allow it to be used in electrical systems (in bus bars, bonding, electrical motors,
wiring etc.), though neither copper, nor its alloys, find much use as structural materials in the construction of aircraft.
Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper.
Copper Alloy
Copper is one of the most widely distributed metals. It is the only reddish colored metal and is second only to silver in electrical conductivity. Its
use as a structural material is limited because of its great weight. However, some of its outstanding characteristics, such as its high electrical and
heat conductivity, in many cases overbalance the weight factor.
Because it is very malleable and ductile, copper is ideal for making wire. It is corroded by salt water but is not affected by fresh water. The ultimate
tensile strength of copper varies greatly. For cast copper, the tensile strength is about 25,000 psi, and when cold rolled or cold drawn its tensile
strength increases to a range of 40,000 to 67,000 psi.In aircraft, copper is used primarily in the electrical system for bus bars, bonding, and as
lockwire.
Of those (Heavy) alloys that use copper as a base; brasses, and various bronzes are the primary types used on aircraft.
Copper and its alloys constitute one of the major groups of commercial metals. More than 300 standard coppers and copper alloys are produced
by the copper and brass industry. These alloys encompass a wide range of wrought and cast materials that are available in virtually all of the
commercial mill and product forms (strip, plate, sheet, pipe, tube, rod, forgings, wire, bar, foil, extrusions, and castings). Cast products are available
in varied shapes and sizes as needed for specific applications.
The basic alloy systems for copper are:
 copper-zinc (brass),
 copper-tin (bronze),
 copper-nickel (cupronickels),and variations of these, including aluminum-bronzes, phosphor-bronzes, and nickel- silvers (copper-nickel-
zinc alloys).
Coppers and copper alloys are widely used because of their excellent electrical and thermal conductivities, ease of fabrication, good corrosion
resistance in diverse media, moderate cost, and good strength and fatigue resistance.
They are generally non-magnetic. New alloys continue to be developed and introduced to meet the challenging requirements of the electronics
industry.
Beryllium copper is one of the most successful of all the copper base alloys. It is a recently developed alloy containing about 97 % copper, 2 %
beryllium, and sufficient nickel to increase the percentage of elongation. The most valuable feature of this metal is that the physical properties can
be greatly stepped up by heat treatment, the tensile strength rising from 70,000 psi in the annealed state to 200,000 psi in the heat-treated state.
The resistance of beryllium copper to fatigue and wear makes it suitable for diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings, ball cages, and spring
washers.
Brass
Brass is a copper alloy containing zinc and small amounts of aluminum, iron, lead, manganese, magnesium, nickel, phosphorous, and tin. Brass
with a zinc content of 30 to 35 % is very ductile, but that containing 45 % has relatively high strength.
These alloys contain zinc as the principal alloying element with or without other designated alloying elements such as iron, aluminium, nickel and
silicon.
 Wrought. The wrought alloys comprise three main families of brasses: copper-zinc alloys, copper-zinc-lead alloys (leaded brasses) and
copper-zinc-tin alloys (tin brasses).
 Cast. The cast alloys contain four main families of brasses: copper-tin-zinc alloys (red, semi-red and yellow brasses); "manganese bronze"
alloys (high-strength yellow brasses); leaded "manganese bronze" alloys (leaded high- strength yellow brasses); and copper-zinc-silicon
alloys (silicon brasses and bronzes).
Brass is used in the manufacture of instrument mechanisms, bellows assemblies and pitot heads.
Binary alloys of copper and zinc are known as "brasses". Brasses with up to 15% zinc are ductile but difficult to machine. Machinability improves
with increasing zinc content up to 36% Zn.
Brasses with less than 20% Zn have corrosion resistance equivalent to copper, but with better tensile strengths. Brasses with 20 to 40% Zn have
lower corrosion resistance and are ubject to dezincification and stress corrosion cracking, especially when ammonia is present.
Muntz metal is a brass composed of 60 % copper and 40 % zinc. It has excellent corrosion resistant qualities in salt water. Its strength can be
increased by heat treatment. As cast, this metal has an ultimate tensile strength of 50,000 psi, and it can be elongated 18 %. It is used in making
bolts and nuts, as well as parts that come in contact with salt water.
Red brass, sometimes termed “bronze” because of its tin content, is used in fuel and oil line fittings.This metal has good casting and
finishingproperties and machines freely.
Bronze
Bronzes are copper alloys containing tin. The true bronzes have up to 25 % tin, but those with less than 11 % are most useful, especially for such
items as tube fittings in aircraft.
Today the term is generally used not by itself but with a modifying adjective.
 Wrought : For wrought alloys, there are four main families of bronzes: copper-tin-phosphorus alloys (phosphor bronzes), copper-tin-
lead phosphorus alloys (leaded phosphor bronzes), copper-aluminium alloys (aluminium bronzes) and copper-silicon alloys
(silicon bronzes).
 Cast : The cast alloys have four main families of bronzes: copper-tin alloys (tin bronzes), copper-tin-lead alloys (leaded and high-
leaded tin bronzes), copper-tin-nickel alloys (nickel- tin bronzes), and copper-aluminium alloys (aluminium bronzes).The
family of alloys known as "manganese bronzes," in which zinc is the major alloying element, is included in the brasses.
Among the copper alloys are the copper aluminum alloys, of which the aluminum bronzes rank very high in aircraft usage. They would findgreater
usefulness in structures if it were not for their strength to weight ratio as compared with alloy steels. Wrought aluminum bronzes are almost as
strong and ductile as medium carbon steel, and they possess a high degree of resistance to corrosion by air, salt water, and chemicals. They are
readily forged, hot or cold rolled, and many react to heat treatment.These copper base alloys contain up to 16 % of aluminum (usually 5 to 11 %),
to which other metals, such as iron, nickel, or manganese, may be added. Aluminum bronzes have good tearing qualities, great strength, hardness,
and resistance to both shock and fatigue. Because of these properties, they are used for diaphragms, gears, and pumps. Aluminum bronzes are
available in rods, bars, plates, sheets, strips, and forgings.
Cast aluminum bronzes, using about 89 % copper, 9 % aluminum, and 2 % of other elements, have high strength combined with ductility, and are
resistant to corrosion, shock, and fatigue. Because of these properties, cast aluminum bronze is used in bearings and pump parts. These alloys are
useful in areas exposed to salt water and corrosive gases.
Manganese bronze is an exceptionally high strength, tough, corrosion resistant copper zinc alloy containing aluminum, manganese, iron and,
occasionally, nickel or tin. This metal can be formed, extruded, drawn, or rolled to any desired shape. In rod form, it is generally used for machined
parts, for aircraft landing gears and brackets.
Silicon bronze is a more recent development composed of about 95 % copper, 3 % silicon, and 2 % manganese, zinc, iron, tin, and aluminum.
Although not a bronze in the true sense because of its small tin content, silicon bronze has high strength and great corrosion resistance.
Tin and Phosphor Bronze
Originally, the name "bronze" was reserved for the copper-tin alloys. These "tin bronzes" contain from about 1.25 to 10% tin. The most important
copper-tin alloys are those that have been deoxidized with phosphorus during the refining process. For this reason, they have taken up their
popular name "phosphor bronze". They possess good strength and cold forming characteristics and the typical bronze color.
The amount of residual phosphorus may range from a trace to about 0.35% or even higher in some special grades. The excess phosphorus, which
exists in solid solution, materially increases the hardness and strength of the alloy, but it does so at the expense of ductility and electrical
conductivity.
It improves the toughness, elevated temperature properties and resistance to corrosion. In amounts greater than 1.0%, phosphorus causes excessive
brittleness and impairs surface appearance but affords a good bearing surface, as is evident by the use of high-phosphorus bronze compositions for
gears and other machine parts subject to wear.
The phosphor bronzes include a variety of distinctive metals, characterized by strength, high resistance to corrosion and fatigue, and high yield
strength.
Casting bronzes frequently contain as much as 10% lead, and some bearing compositions as much as 25%. The high lead content precludes the use
of cold forming operations and limits the use of such alloys to temperatures below the melting point of lead.
The substitution of zinc for tin in the tin bronzes improves casting qualities, but zinc is seldom added in amounts greater than about 5% because
of unattractive color and lower corrosion resistance to some media.
Aluminium Bronze
Aluminum bronzes have high strengths (comparable to medium-carbon steel), high hardness in the as-cast state, and excellent corrosion resistance
properties. They possess good anti-frictional characteristics and resist scaling and oxidation at elevated temperatures. Aluminum bronzes can be
hot worked readily, and some grades possess good cold forming characteristics and respond to a form of precipitation hardening.
The aluminium bronzes are essentially copper-aluminum alloys, containing up to about 13.5% aluminum, small amounts of manganese and nickel,
and up to 4% iron for the purpose of hardening the alloys. The presence of iron in these alloys, in the form of an intermetallic compound (FeAl3),
contributes to wear resistance and hardness.
The good anti-frictional characteristics of these alloys make them suitable for bearings, bushings, rollers and gears. They resist scaling and
oxidation at high temperatures and can be hot worked readily.
Silicon Bronze
These alloys possess high strength (similar to mild steel) and good toughness, plus they exhibit excellent resistance to corrosion by brine and
sulfite solutions, non-oxidizing inorganic acids, alkalis and other media.
They are readily hot worked, and the low-silicon alloys particularly have good cold working characteristics. The high-silicon alloys have excellent
casting qualities and are superior in this respect to other high-strength nonferrous alloys such as aluminum bronze.
The composition of the silicon bronzes may vary between rather wide limits and may contain about 14% silicon, 0.25-1.5% manganese, 0.5-1.0%
iron when present, and zinc as high as 22%. The addition of about 0.5% lead produces alloys with good machining characteristics.
Manganese Bronze
Manganese bronzes are essentially high-strength, modified copper-zinc casting alloys containing 55-60% copper, 38-42% zinc, 0-1.5% tin, 0-2%
iron, 0-1.5% aluminum, and up to about 3.5% manganese.
These alloys are available in various wrought forms and are characterized by good mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Manganese
bronzes have poor cold forming characteristics, but they can be readily hot worked. Their principal uses are for ship propellers, rudders and other
marine fittings.
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Nickel
Nickel and the nickel-base alloys constitute a family of alloys with increasing importance in many industrial applications because they can be
corrosion resistant in a wide variety of service environments that range from sub-zero to elevated temperatures. Some types have an almost H
unsurpassed corrosion resistance in certain media, but nickel alloys are usually more expensive than, for example, iron-base or copper-base alloys
or than plastic materials of construction.
Aside from its application as an alloying element, Nickel as such is used as a material of construction, as a plating on a steel substrate or another
less noble metal, or as a cladding on steel. The plating may be deposited either by electrochemical techniques or as an electroless plating deposited
by a chemical reduction process.
Nickel piping is available as commercially pure wrought nickel and in a low-carbon version (< 0.02%).
Nickel Alloys
"Nickel alloys" are defined as alloys in which nickel is present in greater proportion than any other alloying element. The most important alloying
constituents are iron, chromium, copper, and molybdenum, and a variety of alloy classes is available.
Two groups of alloy classes can be distinguished:
(1) Allloys which depend primarily on theinherent corrosion characteristics of nickel itself (plus some influence of alloying elements),
(2) Alloys which greatly depend on chromium as the passivating alloying element (similar to the stainless steels). Usually, one distinguishes
the following alloy classes.
Room temperature yield strengths may range from about 30 to 200 KSI, depending on composition and degree of cold working. The maximum
yield strength is governed by alloy composition, the cold worked characteristics of the material, the maximum yield strength permitted by the
application, and the ductility specified. Room temperature specified minimum yield strengths op precipitation-hardenable Ni-alloys may vary from
50 to 150 KSI, typically being either 90 to 120 KSI, 120 to140 KSI, or 125 to 145 KSI.The mechanical properties of cold-worked tubing, especially
in thicker sections, may vary through the section.
Specific Alloys
HASTELLOY.- "Hastelloy" signifies a line of commercial alloys containing Ni, Mo, Cr, and Fe. The B- and C-designated alloys enjoy the widest
use. Hastelloy B, however, contains no chromium and should therefore only be used in reducing environments. Hastelloy C has excellent resistance
to a very wide range of chemicals (both oxidizing and reducing). Both alloys have a tensile strength of about 100,000 PSI and a yield strength of
about 45,000 PSI.
Equivalent alloys to Hastelloy B and C are nowadays available from different producers. In general, they are indicated as "Alloy B" and "Alloy C".
MONEL.- "Monel" is the proprietary name for one of the best known nickel alloys. Monel 400 is the most widespread grade and contains 67% Ni
and about 30% Cu (with up to 2.5% Fe). It is a general engineering alloy with good resistance to corrosion by seawater, mineral and organic acids,
pharmaceuticals, inorganic salts, etc. This nickel-copper alloy is ductile and tough, and can be readily fabricated and joined (welded, brazed). It is
slightly magnetic.
Equivalent alloys to Monel 400 are nowadays available from different producers and are indicated as "Alloy 400" (UNS N04400).
Monel K-500 has similar corrosion resistance to Monel 400 but is precipitation hardenable for increased strength, hardness and abrasion
resistance. It is, for example, preferred for pump shafts, impellers, bolts, valve trim and spindles, doctor blades and. scrapers, etc.
Tungum
Tungum is an alloy containing 81 % to 86% copper and small amounts of nickel, silicon, aluminium and zinc. It is highly resistant to fatigue and
corrosion. It is strong and ductile. It is used to make hydraulic and other pipelines.
Lead and Lead Alloys
Lead is bright and lustrous when freshly cut, but soon oxidized to a dull grey. It is very heavy, relative density 11.3 . It is soft and malleable,
resistant to corrosion and has a low melting point, 327°C.
Lead is a major constituent of soft solder. It is used to make flying control surface mass balance weights. It gives protection from X-rays and is
used to make containers for radio-active isotopes, used during certain non-destructive tests on aircraft engines and airframes.
White Bearing Metals
White bearing metals used in piston engines are either tin base or lead base. Tin base bearing models are known as Babbitt metals and contain
between 3.5% and 15% Antimony e.g. 7% antimony, 90% tin and 3% copper. They are generally heavy duty bearing metals.
The lead base white metals are intended for lower duty since they can withstand only limited pressures. They also contain tin and antimony e.g.
13% antimony, 12% tin, 0.75% copper and lead the remainder.
Lead and Bronze Bearing Metals
These are used in the manufacture of main bearings in piston aero-engines and for auto mobile and diesel crankshaft bearings. They have a high
wear resistance and good thermal conductivity which helps to keep them cool during operation.
Pure Titanium
Pure titanium at approximately 56% the weight of stainless steel has almost the same strength as iron. It is highly resistance to corrosion, non-
magnetic and is readily shaped by all of the methods, which relate to steel. Titanium is also soft and ductile.
Care should be taken when working with titanium. Titanium fires usually start through high- speed rubbing. The low thermal conductivity of
titanium prevents the rapid dissipation of heat, which progressively builds up locally, until ignition finally occurs. Accumulations of small
particles of small and dust are a possible fire riskand all such accumulations should be avoided.
The use of titanium is widespread. It is used in many commercial enterprises and is in constant demand for such items as pumps, screens, and
other tools and fixtureswhere corrosion attack is prevalent. In aircraft construction and repair, titanium is used for fuselage skins, engine shrouds,
frewalls, longerons, frames, fittings, air ducts, and fasteners.
Titanium is used for making compressor disks, spacer rings, compressor blades and vanes, through bolts, turbine housings and liners, and
miscellaneous hardware for turbine engines. Titanium, in appearance, is similar to stainless steel. One quick method used to identify titanium is
the spark test. Titanium gives off a brilliant white trace ending in a brilliant white burst. Also, identificationcan be accomplished by moistening
the titanium and using it to draw a line on a piece of glass. This will leave a dark line similar in appearance to a pencil mark.
Titanium falls between aluminum and stainless steel in terms of elasticity, density, and elevated temperature strength. It has a melting point of
from 2,730 °F to 3,155 °F, low thermal conductivity, and a low coefficientof expansion. It is light, strong, and resistant to stress corrosion cracking.
Titanium is approximately 60 % heavier than aluminum and about 50 % lighter than stainless steel.
Because of the high melting point of titanium, high temperature properties are disappointing. The ultimate yield strength of titanium drops rapidly
above 800 °F. The absorption of oxygen and nitrogen from the air at temperatures above 1,000 °F makes the metal so brittle on long exposure
that it soon becomes worthless. However, titanium does have some merit for short time exposure up to 3,000 °F where strength is not important.
Aircraft frewalls demand this requirement.
Titanium is nonmagnetic and has an electrical resistance comparable to that of stainless steel. Some of the base alloys of titanium are quite hard.
Heat treating and alloying do not develop the hardness of titanium to the high levels of some of the heat-treated alloys of steel. It was only recently
that a heat-treatable titanium alloy was developed. Prior to the development of this alloy, heating and rolling was the only method of forming that
could be accomplished.
However, it is possible to form the new alloy in the soft condition and heat treat it for hardness. Iron, molybdenum, and chromium are used to
stabilize titanium and produce alloys that will quench harden and age harden. The addition of these metals also adds ductility. The fatigue
resistance of titanium is greater than that of aluminum or steel.
Titanium becomes softer as the degree of purity is increased. It is not practical to distinguish between the various grades of commercially pure or
unalloyed titanium by chemical analysis; therefore, the grades are determined by mechanical properties.
Titanium alloys, apart from being light and strong, also have excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in a salt-laden atmosphere. To prevent
reaction with oxygen and nitrogen, in its pure form, titanium is treated with chlorine gas and a reducing agent, to produce a coating of titanium
dioxide.
When suitably alloyed, titanium based materials are heat-treatable. The strengthening is immediate i.e. it is not an age-hardening material.
Titanium alloys are used extensively in aerospace gas turbines, but their use is limited on subsonic civil airframes to fasteners, and high
temperature areas such as engine bays, heat shields, hot zone bulkheads, air ducts etc.
In appearances titanium is similar to 18/8 stainless steel. Two practical methods of identification apart from weight are:
 Spark test - a light touch of a grinding wheel will produce a brilliant white trace, ending in a brilliant white burst.
 Moisten the titanium and draw a line on a piece of glass - this will leave a dark line similar to a pencil mark.
Working with Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Titanium materials are, generally, not susceptible to normal corrosion attack, but it has been established that stress corrosion cracking can take
place in some welded structures which are exposed to trichloroethylene and other chlorinated hydro-carbons (the alloys most affected in practice
being the titanium-aluminium-tin family).
Titanium may also show evidence of deterioration in the presence of salt deposits or metal impurities, especially at high temperatures. It is,
therefore prohibited to use steel wool, iron scrapers or steel brushes for the cleaning of, or for the removal of corrosion from, titaniumcomponents.
If titanium surfaces need cleaning, then hand-polishing, or the use of soft bristle fiber brushes, with aluminium oxide compound or a mild abrasive
may be permissible. Use only the recommended procedures outlined in the relevant Maintenance or Overhaul Manual.
When it is necessary to machine a welded titanium structure, or doubt exists regarding the use of cutting fluids with a particular titanium alloy,
the material manufacturer should be consulted.
Titanium Designations
There are three types of classification titanium alloys were established to provide a convenient and simple means of describing all titanium alloys.
Titanium and titanium alloys possess three basic types of crystals: A (alpha), B (beta), and C (combined alpha and beta). Their characteristics are:
 A (alpha) —all around performance; good weldability; tough and strong both cold and hot, and resistant to oxidation.
 B (beta) —bendability; excellent bend ductility; strong both cold and hot, but vulnerable to contamination.
 C (combined alpha and beta for compromise performances)—strong when cold and warm, but weak when hot; good bendability; moderate
contamination resistance; excellent forgeability.
Titanium is manufactured for commercial use in two basic compositions: commercially pure titanium and alloyed titanium. A-55 is an example of
a com-mercially pure titanium. It has a yield strength of 55,000 to 80,000 psi and is a general purpose grade for moderate to severe forming. It is
sometimes used for nonstructural aircraft parts and for all types of corrosion resistant applications, such as tubing. Type A-70 titanium is closely
related to type A-55 but has a yield strength of 70,000 to 95,000 psi. It is used where higher strength is required, and it is specifed for many
moderately stressed aircraft parts. For many corrosion applications, it is used interchangeably with type A-55. Both type A-55 and type A-70 are
weldable.
One of the widely used titanium base alloys is des-ignated as C-110M. It is used for primary structural members and aircraft skin, has 110,000 psi
minimum yield strength, and contains 8 % manganese.
Type A-110AT is a titanium alloy which contains 5 % aluminum and 2.5 % tin. It also has a high minimum yield strength at elevated temperatures
with the excellent welding characteristics inherent in alpha-type titanium alloys.
Identification Tests
The approximate identification of some of the more commonly known metals may be established by making the following tests, but such tests are
unreliable and must not be employed when material to specification is required for use.
METAL IDENTIFICATION TEST
Aluminium Tin white in colour, light in weight, non-magnetic; soft, and sheet aluminiumbends easily.
Application of caustic soda turns metal white
Alclad Differs form sheet aluminium by being springy and more resistant to bending;application of
caustic soda turns the surface of sheet white and the edge black.
Duralumin Same properties as Alclad except that the application of caustic soda turnssurface black.
Magnesium alloys Tin white in colour, very light non-magnetic; easy to file, filings ignite in a flame; application of
copper sulphate causes effervescence and the affectedparts turn black.
Solder Tin white in colour, very heavy and soft; non-magnetic, low melting point(ascertained by use of
hot soldering iron); will mark white paper due to leadcontent, crackling sound when bent
indicates high tin content.
Titanium Very similar to stainless steel in appearance. High strength. High corrosionresistance. When
grinding, sparks are white.
Summary of Properties and Uses of Common Metals
Titanium Alloys Very high strength/weight ratio. Very good May be used to replace stainlesssteel & non- stainless steel as
physicalproperties and corrosion resistance at high asaving in weight. Used to manufacture compressor & fan
temperatures. blades in turbine engines. Firewall heat shields.
Aluminium Light in weight, soft, malleable,corrosion resistant, high Used extensively in light alloys as a base material. Examples:
electricalconductivity, thermal conductivity, inits pure Duralumin - Aluminium plus copper, magnesium,manganese,
state. and silicon. Used for aircraft structuralcomponents, tubes,
rivets, etc.
Hiduminium - Aluminium base, pluscopper, nickel,
magnesium, silicon.
Used for aircraft structural parts,rivets.
Nickel Strong - Good corrosion resistance at Mostly as an alloy and electro-plating.

high temperatures.
Magnesium Alloy Light in weight, alloyed to give itstrength as pure Aircraft wheels, levers , brackets,car engines (cylinder heads).
magnesium is weak and soft.
Copper Tough, ductile, malleable. Highthermal and electrical Tubing, elect. Conductors, used as a base for many alloys e.g.
conductivity. brass,Bronze
Fair corrosion resistance. Joined bysoldering and
brazing.
Brass Copper + zinc + some tin,manganese, lead, Lightly stressed castings, pipefittings, tubing, filter gauzes,
nickel,aluminium, silicon. Good wearing, anti- bearingbushes.
friction,corrosion resistant.
Bronze Copper + tin + some nickel and lead. Bearing bushes.

Good wearing qualities. Goodcorrosion resistance. Good
anti-friction.
Phosphor Copper + tin + phosphorous. Bearing bushes.

Bronze Stronger than bronze and withstandsBearing
bushesheavy loads.
Solder Tin + lead Soft soldering.

Low melting point.
Zinc Soft - good corrosion resistance. Protection of all parts.
Forging
This is a squeezing/hammering technique, which is intended to achieve large deformation/shaping of the material. The process is usually carried
out hot (i.e. above the re-crystallisation temperature), so that these large deformations can be attained without being accompanied by any massive,
residual stresses.
Sometimes a cold forging operation may be necessary but, in this instance, the material will be harder, stronger and pre-stressed (i.e. still
containing unrelieved internal stresses).
Forging ranges from the simplest form of the hand operations, conducted by the blacksmith, to the massive, mechanical, powered rams, used for
very large forgings. The forging hammer will often have a relatively low strike rate, but sometimes high-speed, pneumatic hammers are used for
High-Energy-Rate Forming.
Forging not only shapes the metal, but also reduces grain size and produces a directional control of grain flow. Both of these are desirable features
for many engineering applications, particularly for highly-stressed components, such as crankshafts and especially if they are subject to a
mechanical fatigue environment.
Drop-stamping, or drop-forging, involves the use of shaped dies and a heavy drop-hammer, which usually falls under gravity. The piece of material,
to be forged, is placed between the top and bottom dies and the drop-hammer is allowed to fall the necessary number of times for the contact faces
of the dies to come together. 'Flash gutters' are provided, to accommodate the excess metal (flash), which squeezes out between the top and bottom
dies.
Connecting rods are typical components made by the drop-forging process.
Hot Pressing
Hot-pressing is similar, in principle, to drop-forging, but is actuated by one, long, steady, squeezing operation, as compared to a number of blows.
This processtends to affect the whole structure of the component, whereas some forging processes, using multi- (but light) blows will, mainly,
affect the material closest to the surface.
Upsetting (Upset-Forging)
Upsetting is, sometimes, called 'Heading' and usually involves locally heating of the end or ends of the material, immediately prior to forging.
Poppet valves are formed in this way, as well as forged bolts. Sometimes this process is done cold (in which case it is referred to as 'Cold Heading'),
and some rivet heads are formed in this way.
Rolling
Rolling can be carried out hot or cold.
When done hot, it is capable of achieving major re-forming/re-shaping, and slabs can be reduced to plate or sheet while bars of circular or
rectangular cross section can also be produced. Hot rolling can also produce structural shapes such as `H' or'I' section beams.
If the rolling is done cold, it is aimed at improved surface quality, better accuracy, and increased hardness/strength. Hot, dilute, sulphuric acid is
used to remove the hot scale from steel prior to cold rolling. The rolling process would also be used to produce the clad (and unclad) sheets of
aluminium alloys.
The following table shows some of the changes that take place when a sheet of annealed aluminium is rolled and its thickness reduced.
Reduction in sheet thickness Hardness

Tensile Strength N/mm2 Elongation
% HV
0 20 40 20
15 28 15 28
30 33 8 33
40 38 5 38
60 43 3 43
It can be appreciated from the above table that after about 60% reduction in thickness the material will be too brittle to be useful.
Drawing
Drawing is a purely, tensile operation, usually carried out hot. Wire, rod and tubing, can be produced by this process, where the material is pulled
through a shaped, hardened die. A ductile material is essential.
Deep Drawing/Pressing
This process uses a ram, to deform a piece of sheet metal into a recessed die and is usually done hot.
Pressing
Pressing involves the use of male and female formers for shaping sheet material. The sheet is placed between the formers, which are then forced
together by a powered ram. Pressing is usually done hot (except for the soft, ductile materials).
Stretch-Forming
This is a technique used for shaping sheet metal over a stretch-block or former. The sheet metal is firmly gripped by clamps and the sheet is then
stretched over the former (by moving the clamps or the former) and the material is stretched beyond its elastic limit so that permanent deformation
occurs.
This process is convenient for small batches of material (and is particularly financially attractive since only one former is needed) but, local changes
of form (concave/convex or vice versa) cannot be produced by this process.
Rubber-Pad Forming
In principle this process uses a flexible, rubber-pad, attached to a hydraulic ram, which forces a piece of sheet metal to conform to the shape of a
forming block.
Like stretch-forming, the process only uses one former, so it eliminates critical matching and alignment problems of conventional pressing, When
used for small batches (e.g. aircraft production), low-cost, easy to machine, materials can be used for the forming block.
Rubber-Bag forming (Hydro-forming) uses the same principle, but incorporates a flexible diaphragm and hydraulic pressure in place of the rubber
pad.
Extruding
The extrusion process, forces hot metal through a shaped die, to produce circular, rectangular, tubular, angular, half-round sections etc.
In some respects, the process is similar to drawing, but extruding forces metal from a heated billet, through hardened dies by compression, whereas,
in drawing, it is achieved by tension. Malleability is, therefore, an essential material property for the extrusion process.
Extruding is normally restricted to aluminium alloys and copper alloys, where extrusion temperatures of 400°C-500°C and 650°-1000°C
respectively are used. Steel `is extremely difficult to extrude, due to the excessive pressures required.
Impact-Extrusion
This process is, usually, a cold-forming operation, which is suitable to very soft and malleable materials (e.g. aluminium). The shaped component
is formed, by forcing a punch onto a 'blank' ofmaterial within a shallow recess. The extruded shape results from the metal being forced to escape
through the small gap, between the punch and the recess.
Sintering
Sintering; involves metal, in powder form, which is heated to approximately 70%-80% of its melting temperature and then squeezed to shape in a
die.
The process is often used to form components made from materials with a very high melting temperature (e.g. tungsten). It also allows non-
metallic materials, such as graphite and carbon, to be incorporated into the mixture.
The operation is usually conducted in a controlled atmosphere (typically argon or nitrogen) to prevent oxidation. Under the high pressures used,
a metallurgical bond occurs (diffusion bonding), between the particles of powder. The sintered end-product is, typically, around 10%20% porous
and can then be impregnated with graphite (or high melting-point grease), to provide excellent, self-lubricating properties for plain bearings,
bushes etc.
Sintering can be used where the combined properties of materials are required, as when copper and graphite are used for electrical brushes (i.e.
copper to carry the current and graphite to act as a low-friction contact) Tungsten carbide cutting tools can also be produced in this way, by
incorporating tungsten carbide particles within a cobalt matrix.
Hot, Isostatic-Pressing, uses a similar technique to sintering, but uses higher temperature and very much higher pressures to produce zero
porosity. The technique is sometimes used to heal micro-porosity in super-critical castings.)
Spinning
Spinning is an old process, in which a piece of sheet metal may be formed, to shape, around a
rotating former, which is mounted on the spindle of a lathe. The necessary force to deform the
sheet metal is generated by a long tool, which is levered about a suitably positioned fulcrum.
For thin gauge, soft metals, the tool can be manipulated by hand, while, for thicker gauge
materials, a hydraulic actuator is used on a purpose-built machine.
Cones, flares, bowls and bell-mouth shapes, are produced by spinning.
Chemical Milling
Chemical milling is, sometimes, referred to as chemical etching. It is a purely chemical process, not electro-chemical.
Although simple in principle, chemical milling offers a method of producing complex patterns and lightweight parts and is used for incorporating
integral ribs and stiffeners in sheet metal. Tapered sections can also be easily formed - the unwanted material being eaten away by a suitable
chemical.
The process is ideally suited to aluminium alloys. The chemical, in this instance, is a hot alkaline solution (usually caustic soda) and, while it is a
relatively slow process, its unique advantages make it very attractive for airframe components. The areas, which must not be eaten away by the
fluid, are simply protected by a thin layer of plastic, which can be brushed or sprayed on. Although the chemically etched surface is not very rough,
a drop in fatigue strength does result and, in critical applications, restoration of fatigue strength is desirable. A light, peening operation, using
glass beads or steel shot, achieves this.
Electro-Chemical Machining
Using electrolysis and, by making the work-piece the anode of the dc electrical circuit, an electrolyte is pumped rapidly (under pressure) through
the gap between the shaped cathode (also referred to as the tool) and the work piece.
The tool is moved slowly towards the work piece, by a ram, so that metal is progressively removed from the work piece, until the desired shape is
achieved.
The process is ideal for metals, which are difficult to machine by conventional methods, and the finish achieved is good. High electric current is
required, and other, essential, requirements for the process are that the tool needs to be a good conductor (copper or brass) and it must resist
corrosion, because the electrolyte is often a salt solution.
Electro-Discharge Machining E.D.M.
This process is, sometimes, called spark machining (or spark erosion), because, rather than using electrolysis, the technique involves the removal
of metal by the energy (and heat) of electrical sparks, which travel from the electrically negative tool electrode, through a dielectric fluid, and
explosively strike the electrically positive work piece.
The intense heat of the strike, causes local particles of metal to instantaneously vaporize, without a molten metal phase (a process known as
`sublimation'), though, away from the actual centre of the explosion, molten fragments of metal are washed away, with the vapors, by the dielectric
fluid.
A suitable fluid (usually kerosene) is fed, under pressure, between the electrode and the work piece, to maintain a uniform electrical resistance.
The spark rate is around 10,000 per second and the gap between the tool and the work piece is critical and must be maintained, throughout the
operation, at approximately 0.025 mm - 0.075 mm (0.001 in - 0.003 in).The real advantage of EDM is that, not only is it suitable on materials
which are difficult to machine conventionally, but it also excels in its ability to produce high-aspect ratio, very small holes of any cross-sectional,
in very hard metals.
Typical holes achievable, by this method, are in the regions of 0.025 mm diameter x 750 mm deep (0.010 in x 3 in).
A novel variation of EDM is a technique sometimes referred to as `wire-cutting', which uses a moving, fine piece of copper or nickel wire as the
electrode. The wire, 0.05 mm - 0.25 mm in diameter (0.002 in - 0.010 in), is positioned by, and fed over, two pulleys and resembles a simple band-
saw operation. The work piece is mounted on a table, which can be moved in two axes and, when the table is computer controlled, the wire-cutting
process can cut accurate, complex shapes in metals (e.g. dovetails, fir-trees etc.) which are difficult to machine with conventional tools.
Conventional Machining
Conventional machining is done, using seven basic techniques, which are:
o Drilling/reaming
o Turning
o Milling
o Sawing
o Shaping/planing/slotting
o Broaching
o Abrasive machining (i.e. grinding)
These techniques have been well established for many years, and most of the advances, until relatively recently, have been confined to tooling
improvements which have permitted higher material removal rates. The early, high-carbon steel tools, have been superseded by high-speed steels
(tungsten/cobalt alloy steels), cemented carbides and ceramics. So-called 'Machining Centres' have also been developed, which are capable of
automatic tool changes and of doing difficult types of machining without the need for transferring work to a different machine and re-setting up.
In this way a much more versatile machine tool has evolved. However, the biggest single machining advance in modern times (especially with
regard to aircraft manufacture) has been the introduction of Numerically Controlled (NC) machines. NC milling, in particular, has revolutionized
airframe manufacture.
NC machines are machines in which motion is controlled by a series of numbers, either via punched tape or magnetic tape. Instructions, on the
tape, are based on the Binary System (or a variant) which is common to most electronic computing devices. The primary advantage of NC
machining is the ability to accurately control the spindle, the tool or the work piece movements in three directions (x, y and z axes) independently
or simultaneously. NC machines are capable of producing compound shapes and contours, and are especially suited to the task of generating
integral spars, ribs, and stiffeners in slabs or forgings.NC machines usually incorporate a feed-back system, which `tells' the control unit how
much actual movement is made, analysis, is then done and final compensation eliminates any error (i.e. the motion ceases when the input and feed-
back signals agree). Electrical control of the machine servo-motors can control movements as small as 0.0005 mm (0.00002 in).
CNC machines (i.e. Computer Numerically Control) differ from NC machines only in that the electronic control unit on the CNC machine is more
sophisticated in that it is adaptable to a wide variety of software and can accommodate a diverse range of programs. Although the capital cost of
NC/CNC machines is high, the following advantages make such machines technically desirable and economically viable, where super-light,
complex, high-tech, manufacture is concerned:
o Complex shapes with integral features are possible
o The number of jigs and fixtures is reduced
o A reduction in manufacturing time
o Adaptable to short runs
o Greater accuracy and consistency
o Program can be changed to accommodate modifications
Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic Forming
Diffusion bonding and super-plastic forming is joining in the solid state. Unlike welding, no melting of the metallic materials takes place. Materials
are heated to high temperatures in a vacuum environment and subjected to pressures high enough to cause plastic deformation. Intimate contact
of the surfaces under these conditions assures a quality bond, having the strength and ductility of the parent metal.
Diffusion bonding, however, is a misnomer. There is no mass transfer of atoms across the joint interface. Re-crystallization is not required to
achieve high strength quality bonds. If thesurfaces to be joined are clean and free of metallic oxides or other forms of contamination, and are
brought together under high heat and forming pressure, they will join together to form a solid state bond. Atoms in the joint, will lock together
if they achieve interatomic spacing. High temperatures result in wide spacing as well as rapid molecular activity. Both of these factors assist in
achieving high quality bonds.
Titanium is a metallic material that is ideally suited for this type of processing. Titanium is highly reactive at elevated temperatures. Titanium
can be used in a high temperature vacuum environment as a getter. Titanium will absorb it's own surface oxides. When heated to temperature,
Titanium will stick to itself even under low pressure. Other materials can be readily joined together by these methods. The basic requirements
are the same. Even greater care must be taken to assure that contamination of the surfaces does not occur during heating to temperature. Titanium
foil can be used to clean up oxides within the vacuum chamber. Dissimilar metallic materials can also be joined together, if they are compatible
with each other. If they react with each other to form brittle intermetallics, then barrier materials must be placed within the joints to achieve a
transition.
Titanium can be joined together as sheet metal laminates, or as various combinations of sheet, plate, bar, or machined parts. Tooling is required
to hold the pieces together to form complex structures made up
from these elements. Large titanium structures have been
fabricated using these concepts for the production B-1 Bomber and
the Space Shuttle.
Tooling was machined from stainless steel plate or bar stock.

Tooling may also be fabricated from castings to achieve greater
resistance to creep deformation under sustained pressures during
bonding. Castings also provide a more cost effective method of
fabrication for some tooling configurations.
Stainless steel retorts were used to enclose the bond assembly.

Vacuum lines were attached to purge the interior of the container.
Inert gas was used to flush out air. Multiple purges were required.
Titanium structures were heated to temperatures of 1700 F under

a pressure of 2,000 pounds per square inch, and held at pressure for
three hours. The mass was then allowed to cool to room temperature. The retort was opened, the tooling removed, and a single Titanium part
was removed that was made up from hundreds of individual pieces.
TESTING MATERIAL
A non-ferrous metal is a metal which is not ferrous, including alloys, that does not contain iron in appreciable amounts. Hardness testing is a
method of determining the results of heat treatment as well as the state of a metal prior to heat treatment. Since hardness values can be tied in
with tensile strength values and, in part, with wear resistance, hardness tests are a valuable check of heat treat control and of material properties.
Practically all hardness testing equipment now uses the resistance to penetration as a measure of hardness. Included among the better known
hardness testers are the Brinell and Rockwell, both of which are described and illustrated in this section. Also included is a popular portable-type
hardness tester currently being used.
Factors that require consideration in proper selection of a hardness testing (order does not necessarily reflect degree of importance):
 Hardness range of the test material.

 Size of the workpiece
 Shape of the workpiece
 Degree of flatness of the workpiece
 Surface condition of the workpiece
 Nature of the test material homogeneous or nonhomogeneous
 Effect of identification marks
 Number of identical pieces to be tested
 Equipment availability
Hardness Range of Material
To select the optimal testing methode, it is essential to have some knowledge of the hardness range of the material being tested, which can be
determined from its general composition and processing history. In many instances, some trial and error is essential to arrive at the desired result.
For nonferrous metals, selection of a method is seldom a problem. The Rockwell B scale is probably used more than any other test and will usually
suffice for testing most copper, aluminium, and amgnesium alloys. The Rockwell B scale represents good starting point. If reading exceed 100
HRB, another scale should be selected – probably the Rockwell C. As a rule, Rockwell B readings in excess of 100 occur only on heat treated
copper alloys.
On the other hand, if Rockwell B readings are below 50, the identer is sinking too deeply for accurate readings, and the load should be decreased
or the size of the identer should be increased, as in the Rockwell E or F scale.
Nonferrous metals also may be tested with the Brinell method, usually with a 500 kg load. However, the accuracy of the Brinell test decrease
rapidly when the size of the impression is less than 3 mm (0.12 in) or more than 6 mm (0.24 in). All of these approaches assume that the size and
thickness of the work metal are compatible with the identation depth.
There are exceptions, but as a rule, parts made from rolled products or forgings of the same composition can be considered the same as far as
hardness testing is concerned. Similarily, cast versions of steels and nonferrous metals usually may be given the same consideration as their forged
and rolled counterparts.
Brinell Tester
The Brinell tester uses a hardened spherical ball, which is forced into the surface of the metal. This ball is 10 millimeters (0.3937 inch) in diameter.
A pressure of 3,000 kilograms is used for ferrous metals and 500 kilograms for nonferrous metals. The pressure must be maintained at least 10
seconds for ferrous metals and at least 30 seconds for nonferrous metals. The load is applied by hydraulic pressure.
Rockwell Tester
The Rockwell hardness tester measures the resistance to penetration, as does the Brinell tester. Instead of measuring the diameter of the
impression, the Rockwell tester measures the depth, and the hardness is indicated directly on a dial attached to the machine. The dial numbers in
the outer circle are black, and the inner numbers are red. Rockwell hardness numbers arc based on the difference between the depth of penetration
at major and minor loads. The greater this difference, the less the hardness number and the softer the material. Two types of penetrators are used
with the Rockwell tester, a diamond cone and a hardened steel ball. The load which forces the penetrator into the metal is called the major load
and is measured in kilograms. The results of each penetrator and load combination are reported on separate scales, designated by letters. The
penetrator, the major load, and the scale vary with the kind of metal being tested.
Clad aluminum alloy sheets cannot be tested directly with any accuracy with a Rockwell hardness tester. If the hardness value of the base metal
is desired, the pure aluminum coating must be removed from the area to be checked prior to testing.
Barcol Tester
The Barcol tester (figure 2.4) is a portable unit designed for testing aluminum alloys, copper, brass,
or other relatively soft materials. It should not be used on aircraft steels. Approximate range of the
tester is 25 to 100 Brinell. The unit can be used in any position and in any space that will allow for
the operator's hand. It is of great value in the hardness testing of assembled or installed parts,
especially to check for proper heat treatment. The hardness is indicated on a dial conveniently
divided into 100 graduations.
The design of the Barcol tester is such that operating experience is not necessary. It is only
necessary to exert a light pressure against the instrument to drive the spring loaded indenter into
the material to be tested. The hardness reading is instantly indicated on the dial.
Several typical readings for aluminum alloys are listed in tabel. Note that the harder the material is,
the higher the Barcol number will be. To prevent dam-age to the point, avoid sliding or scraping
when it is in contact with the material being tested. If the point should become damaged, it must be
Figure 2.4 Barcol Hardness Test
replaced with a new one. Do not attempt to grind the point.
Each tester is supplied with a test disk for checking the condition of the point. To check the point, press the instrument down on the test disk.
When the downward pressure brings the end of the lower plunger guide against the surface of the disk, the indicator reading should be within the
range shown on the test disk.
Alloy and Temper Barcol Number
1100-O 35
3003-O 42
3003-H14 56
2024-O 60
5052-O 62
5052-H34 75
6061-T 78
2024-T 85
Durometer Tests
The durometer is a portable hardness tester for measuring hardness of rubber, plastics, and some soft metals. The instrument is designed to apply
pressure to the specimen and the hardness is read from a scale while the pressure is maintained. Various scales can be used by changing the
indentor and the load applied.
Shore (Durometer) figure 2.5 is one of several measures of the hardness of a material. Hardness may be defined as a material's resistance to
permanent indentation. The term durometer is often used to refer to the measurement as well as the instrument itself. Durometer is typically used
as a measure of hardness in polymers, elastomers, and rubbers.
Durometer, like many other hardness tests, measures the depth of an indentation in the material created by a given force on a standardized presser
foot. This depth is dependent on the hardness of the material, its viscoelastic properties, the shape of the presser foot, and the duration of the test.
ASTM D2240 durometers allows for a measurement of the initial hardness, or the indentation hardness after a given period of time. The basic
test requires applying the force in a consistent manner, without shock, and measuring the hardness (depth of the indentation). If a timed hardness
is desired, force is applied for the required time and then read. The material under test should be a minimum of 6.4 mm (0.25 inches) thick.
Test setup for type A & D
Durometer Indenting foot Applied mass (kg) Resulting force (N)
Hardened steel rod 1.1 mm – 1.4 mm diameter, with a

Type A 0.822 8.064
truncated 35° cone, 0.79 mm diameter.
Hardened steel rod 1.1 mm – 1.4 mm diameter, with a 30°

Type D 4.550 44.64
conical point, 0.1 mm radius tip
Shore hardness is a measure of the resistance of a material to penetration of a spring loaded needle-like indenter
Hardness of Polymers (rubbers, plastics) is usually measured by Shore scales.
Figure 2.5 Durometer Hardness Test
Shore A scale is used for testing soft Elastomers (rubbers) and other soft polymers.
Hardness of hard elastomers and most other polymer materials (Thermoplastics, Thermosets) is measured by Shore D scale.
Shore hardness is tested with an instrument called Durometer. Durometer utilizes an indenter loaded by a calibrated spring. The measured
hardness is determined by the penetration depth of the indenter under the load.
Two different indenter shapes (see the picture below) and two different spring loads are used for two Shore scales (A and D). The loading forces
of Shore A: 1.812 lb (822 g), Shore D: 10 lb (4536 g).
Shore hardness value may vary in the range from 0 to 100. Maximum penetration for each scale is 0.097-0.1 inch (2.5-2.54 mm). This value
corresponds to minimum Shore hardness: 0. Maximum hardness value 100 corresponds to zero penetration.
INTRODUCTION
A non-ferrous Aluminum is a white, lustrous metal, light in weightand corrosion resistant in its pure state. It is ductile,malleable, and nonmagnetic.
Aluminum combined withvarious percentages of other metals, generally copper,manganese, and magnesium, form the aluminum alloysthat are
used in aircraft construction. Aluminum alloysare lightweight and strong, but do not possess thecorrosion resistance of pure aluminum and are
generallytreated to prevent deterioration. “Alclad” is analuminum alloy with a protective coating of aluminumto make it almost equal to the pure
metal in corrosionresistance.
Several of the aluminum alloys respond readily toheat treatment. In general, this treatment consists ofheating the alloy to a known temperature,
holding thistemperature for a definite time, then quenching the partto room temperature or below. During the heatingprocess, a greater number
of the constituents of the metalare put into solid solution. Rapid quenching retains thiscondition, which results in a considerable improvementin
the strength characteristics.
The heating of aluminum alloy should be done in anelectric furnace or molten salt bath. The salt bathgenerally used is a mixture of equal parts of
potassiumnitrate and sodium nitrate. Parts heated by this methodmust be thoroughly washed in water after treatment. Thesalt bath method of
heating should never be used forcomplicated parts and assemblies that cannot be easilywashed free of the salt.
Temper Designations
The treating of aluminium after it is milled sometimes called temper) is designated by a letter following the four digit TADS number. Each letter
signifies exactly how the aluminium was treated. Not all treating is heat treating and not all treating affects temper.
F as fabricated, no digits appended (no special control)
W solution heat treated, no digits appended
O Annealed, no digits appended
H Strain Hardening (designation by two or more numbers)
 H1 Strained hardened only
 H2 Strain Hardened and annealed
 H3 Strain Hardened and stabilized thermally
An additional digit may follow which designates hardness
 H_2 quarter hard
 H_4 half hard
 H_6 three quarter hard
 H_8 fill hard
Example:
3040-H41 would signify a treating of strain hardening to half hard.
T Thermally treated (designation by one or more numbers)
 T1 Cooled from hot work an naturally aged
 T2 Annealed
 T3 Solution treated and cold worked
 T4 Solution treated and naturally aged
 T5 Cooled from hot work and furnace aged
 T6 Solution treated and furnace aged
 T7 Solution treated and stabilized
 T8 Solution treated, cold worked, and furnace aged
 T9 Solution treated, furnace aged, and cold worked
 T10 Cooled from temperature, furnace aged, and cold worked
 T51 Stress relieved by stretching
 T510 Stress relieved by stretching with no further processing
 T511 Stress relieved by stretching and minor straightening
 T52 Stress relieved by compression
 T54 Stress relieved stretching and compression
 T42 Solution treated from O or F temper and naturally aged
 T62 Solution treated from O or F
Additional digits may be used after the first T temper digit to indicate subsequent stress relieving by processes such as stretching, compressing,
or a combination.
The British Standards (BS) Designation
British Standards for general engineering use BS 1470 -1475. In this series the prefix N is used to denote non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys and
prefix H for the heat-treatable alloys. British Standards for aerospace use: BS X LXX. (The "L" series)
e.g. BS 3 L72 indicates the 3rd amendment to the basic L 72 spec.
LM - indicates a cast material. The wrought materials are commonly abbreviated to L71, L72, L73 etc.
Examples of some of these aircraft BS codes are:
a) L159 DURALUMIN Solution-Treated - Artificially aged
b) L163 ALCLAD Solution-Treated - Naturally aged
DURALUMIN (or simply DURAL) is a trade name for an Al/Cu/Mg/Si/Mn alloy, originally manufactured by the Duren Aluminium Company
(Germany) and first used on airship frames, but it tends to be used as a generic name for similar alloys, regardless of source of manufacture.
ALCLAD is a trade name of the ALCOA Company, but also tends to be used as a generic name for similar alloys, regardless of source of
manufacture.
More modern wrought aluminium alloys are covered by BS 1470 to BS 1475. Each alloy is identified by a number. Prefix letters (before number)
indicate its form and whether or not it is a heat treatable alloy. Suffix letters (after number) show what treatment it has received.
Heat treatment (first prefix letter)
N non heat treatable alloy
H heat treatable alloy.
Form of material (second prefix letter)
Some examples are:
S plate, sheet and strip (BS1470)
T drawn tube
F forgings and forging stock (BS 1472)
R rivet, bolt and screw stock
Condition (Suffix letter(s) )
M asmanufactured state
Module 6 – Materials and hardware
0 Annealed state
OD Annealed and lightly drawn
T Solution-treated, no precipitation required
W Solution-treated, can be precipitated
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated
H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, H8 strain hardened material subjected to cold work after annealing or a combination of cold work and partial
annealing. Designations are inorder of increasing tensile strength.
TB Material solution heat treated and naturally aged.
TD Material solution heat treated and cold worked and naturally aged.
TF Material solution heat treated and precipitation heat treated.
TH Material solution heat treated, cold worked and then precipitation heat treated.
Examples
1. The specification number NS5-H4 refers to the non heat treatable alloy number 5, in the form of half hardened aluminium alloy plate.
2. The number HT20-TB refers to the heat treatable alloy number 20 in the tube form which has been solution treated and naturally aged.
The cast aluminium alloys are covered by BS1490. The specification numbers give information on the form and condition of the material.
Conversion of Designations
The closest UNS conversion for TADS aluminium follows the information above. The UNS system uses the first digit "9" to differentiate
Airframe Powerplant Copyright by GMF
Learning Services
66
wrought aluminium from cast aluminium. So IADS 6061 aluminium would be UNS A96061, however there is no room in the UNS system for
traditional temper tags such as TADS 6060-T6. It remains to be seen how new UNS standards will address this.
Clad Aluminium Alloys
Though strong, aluminium alloys are not as resistant to corrosion as pure aluminium and, for external use such as skins, the high-strength sheet
has a thin layer of pure aluminium hot-rolled onto the surfaces. These are then known as clad materials with commercial names such as.
Alclad and Pureclad.
Alclad is a `pure' aluminium coating that is rolled onto the surface of an aluminium alloy, which may, then, be heat-treated. The thickness of the
coating is approximately 5% of the material thickness on each side. For example, if an Alclad sheet of aluminium alloy has a thickness of 1.2 mm
(0.047"), then 0.06 mm (0.0024") of `pure' aluminium is applied to each side.
This clad surface greatly increases the corrosion resistance of an aluminium alloy. If, however, the cladding is penetrated, corrosive agents can
attack the alloy under the cladding. For this reason, sheet metal should be protected from scratches and abrasions. In addition to providing a
starting point for corrosion, abrasions can create potential `stress raisers' (points from which cracking can initiate).
HEAT-TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Heat-treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and subsequent cooling of alloys in their solid state. Its purpose is to make the
metal harder, stronger and more resistant to impact but it can also make the metal softer and more ductile for working into a required shape
(bending etc.). One treatment cannot give all of these properties. Some treatments are achieved at the expense of others when, for example, a
hardened material usually becomes more brittle.
Learning Services
67
Heat treating processes for aluminum are precision processes. They must be carried out in furnaces properly designed and built to provide the
thermal conditions required, and adequately equipped with control instruments to insure the desired continuity and uniformity of temperature-
time cycles. To insure the final desired characteristics, process details must be established and controlled carefully for each type of product.
The general types of heat treatments applied to aluminum and its alloys are:
 Preheating or homogenizing, to reduce chemical segregation of cast structures and to improve their workability
 Annealing, to soften strain-hardened (work-hardened) and heat treated alloy structures, to relieve stresses, and to stabilize properties
and dimensions
 Solution heat treatments, to effect solid solution of alloying constituents and improve mechanical properties
 Precipitation heat treatments, to provide hardening by precipitation of constituents from solid solution.
There are two basic divisions of aluminium alloys with respect to heat treatment:
o Non-heat treatable - those that can be softened but not hardened by heat treatment.
o Heat treatable - those that can be softened and hardened by heat treatment.
Alloys 1100, 3003 and 5052 are not heat treatable. If they are heated to their annealing temperature and allowed to cool slowly they will be
softened to theirannealed, or -0 condition.
Note:
When discussing heat treatment of aluminium alloys, annealing (although a heating process) is often not considered to be a "heat treatment"
since its purpose is to return the alloy to its original grain structure after cold working. The term "heat treatment" therefore refers only to the
process of hardening the alloy by controlled heating and cooling.
The heating and cooling cycles occur in most treatments and it is only the time and temperatures which differ. Aluminium alloys have two main
heat-treatments, which are referred to as solution heat-treatment and precipitation heat-treatment.The procedures for heat-treating aluminium
Learning Services
68
alloys are critical if correct properties are to be obtained.
Uniform heating is absolutely essential and two methods are used:
 A muffle furnace or
 A salt bath
The muffle furnace uses hot air, which circulates around an inner chamber in which the aluminium alloy is placed.
The salt bath employs molten mineral salts (water would evaporate long before the required temperatures were reached. The salts (usually
nitrate of soda or similar) are solid at room temperature, but become liquid when they are electrically heated. Gradual heating of the bath is
necessary to avoid spattering or spitting. The aluminium alloy (pre-dried, also to avoid spattering) can then be submerged within the heated
liquid. Another precaution when using a salt bath is to avoid any adjacent flames or sparks, because the salts are inflammable. Accurate
thermostatic control is vital, as narrow tolerances on temperatures are specified (typically plus or minus 5°C).
Quench tanks must be sited nearby the furnace or salt bath, to avoid delay between removing from the heating source and quenching. Most
quench tanks contain cold water but hot water is sometimes specified (especially for heavy sections e.g. large forgings). Limits are also stipulated
for the permissible period between heating and quenching which is known as the lagtime (typically 10 seconds max.). If these lag-times are
exceeded, material properties or corrosion resistance may be adversely affected. If the cooling rate, during quenching, is too slow this may also
affect the corrosion resistance.
Thorough washing of the material in cold water is essential after salt bath heat-treatment to remove any salt residue.
There is no limit to the number of times that heat-treatment may be carried out on normal aluminium/copper alloys but, if the material is clad
with pure aluminium, for corrosion resistance (Alclad), then a maximum of three treatments is imposed. This is to limit the migration of copper,
from the alloyed material, into the pure aluminium cladding, which would significantly reduce its corrosion resistance.
Learning Services
69
There are two types of heat treatment applicable toaluminum alloys. They are known as solution andprecipitation heat treatment. Certain alloys
develop theirfull strength from the solution treatment, while othersrequire both treatments for maximum strength.
SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT
The solution treatment consists of heating the metal to the temperature required to cause the constituents to go into a solid solution. To complete
the solution, often the metal is held at a high temperature for a sufficient time, and then quenched rapidly in cold water to retain this condition.
It is necessary that solution heat treatment of aluminum alloys be accomplished within close limits inreference to temperature control and
quenching. Thetemperature for heat-treating is usually chosen as highas possible without danger of exceeding the meltingpoint of any element
of the alloy. This is necessary toobtain the maximum improvement in mechanicalproperties. If the maximum specified temperature isexceeded,
eutectic melting will occur.
The consequencewill be inferior physical properties, and usually aseverely blistered surface. If the temperature of the heattreatment is low,
maximum strength will not beobtained.
The process consists of heating the sheet to a temperature of 500°C (to take the alloying elements into solution), keeping it at that temperature
for a suitable period, (20 minutes for sheet) and then immediately quenching into cold water not exceeding 20°C.
The time of heat treatment will depend on the size of the job and the type of alloy. Typical soaking times for sheet aluminium alloy are as follow.
This allows the material to reach therequired temperature.
METAL GAUGE TIME
22 SWG 12 to 18 minutes
Learning Services
70
If required, forming may be carried out, but must be completed within two hours of quenching. Four to five days must then be allowed for
natural ageing to take place.
Certain rivets e.g. BS SPL37 made of Duralumin must be solution heat treated before use and used within two hours of quenching. (A period of
20 minutes is specified for American 2024 rivets). Age hardening can be delayed by storing the rivets at a low temperature immediately after
quenching. At a temperature of 0°C to -5°C they will keep for 45 hours and at a temperature of -15°C to -20°C for 150 hours. The rivets must
be used within two hours of removal from cold storage. If the rivets have not been used within 2 hours they may be solution treated again, up
to a maximum of three times. Further heat treatments would increase the grain size and result in low strength even after ageing.
After solution treatment the rivets should be quenched in clean, cold running water. All traces of the salts must be removed before drying,
otherwise corrosion may occur in the future.
Refrigeration
To prevent the start of natural age hardening, solution treated alloys may be stored in a refrigerator at temperatures as low as -20°C. This
allows the storage of aluminium alloy parts awaiting pressing operations. Solution treated rivets may also be stored in this way.
Solution treatment is sometimes called re-crystallization. This operation serves to distribute thecopper uniformly throughout the aluminium
(i.e. to create a solid solution). The heating may be achieved (as previously stated) in an oven or, more commonly (to obtain better overall
heating),in a bath of special, molten salts. However, although the aluminium can accommodate 5% or soof copper in solid solution at high
Learning Services
71
temperature, this condition is unstable at lower temperatures and, after the alloy has cooled to room temperature, most of the copper slowly
comes out of solution and separates into local 'islands' of copper aluminide.By cooling the alloyed metals very quickly (quenching), the copper
becomes trapped 'in solution', making the aluminium very strong.
PRECIPITATION (AGE) HARDENING/NATURAL AGE HARDENING
The precipitation treatment consists of “aging” material previously subjected to solution heat treatments by natural (occurs at room temperature)
or artificial aging (figure 2.6). Artificial aging consists of heating aluminum alloy to a specific temperature and holding for a specified length of
time. During this hardening and strengthening operation, the alloying constituents in solid solution precipitate out. As precipitation progresses
the strength of the material increases until the maximum is reached. Further aging (overaging) causes the strength to decline until a stable
condition is obtained. The strengthening of the material is due to the uniform alignment of the molecule structure of the aluminum and alloying
element.
Natural aging alloys can be artificially aged; however, it increases the susceptibility of the material to intergranular corrosion. If used, it should
be limited to clad sheet and similar items.
The gradual formation of the copper alumide 'islands' (also referred to as 'slip'), causes an increase in hardness and strength and these properties
reach maximum values after several days (or weeks in some instances). Because of the time lapse involved, this gradual hardening is termed 'age-
hardening'. Although copper may be the major alloying element (in the '2000 series' alloys) other elements, including magnesium and manganese
can also be present.
Although the aluminium/copper alloys are the most common age-hardened, high-strength metals, they are not unique. Aluminium, when alloyed
with 5%-7% Zinc, is also able to be age-hardened. This is a more modern alloy than the aluminium/ copper type and is the highest-strength
aluminium alloy in general use. This alloy is used in heavy loaded applications such as Main Spars, Landing Gear and Main plane Attachment
brackets etc.
Learning Services
72
The Mechanics of Age Hardening
We shall use the example of aluminium/copper to illustrate the process. An aluminium alloy containing 4% copper at room temperature (21
°C) will have 0.5% of the copper in solid solution with the aluminium. The remaining 3 ½ % of copper is chemically combined with the
aluminium to form the intermetallic compound CuAl2.
The ability of copper to dissolve in aluminium increases with temperature so that, as the alloy is heated, the CuA12 is dissolved with the 4%
copper is in solid solution with the aluminium.
When the alloy is slowly cooled from about 500°C, the CuAl2 will gradually re-appear as fairly large particles, visible under the microscope. At
room temperature only 0.5% of the copper remains in solid solution.
Learning Services
73
Figure 2.6 Solutionising, Naturally aging and Artificial aging
If however, the alloy is quenched from 500°C, no CuAI2 is seen in the structure. After a period of about two hours, the tensile strength and
hardness begin to increase until, after about 5 days, these properties are at a maximum.
This is known as "Age Hardening" and the heat treatment process is known as "Solution Heat Treatment" (S.H.T.), or Solutionising.
The reason for this increase in strength and hardness can be explained in a simple way. After the quenching treatment, all the 4% copper is
trapped in solid solution at room temperature. The structure is unstable and so, small particles of CuAl 2, (too small to be seen under an optical
microscope) begin to precipitate (come out of solution). These small particles continue to come out of solution until, after five days, only ½%
copper is in solid solution. The remaining 3 ½% of copper has combined with aluminium to form very small particles of CuAI2, dispersed
throughout the structure. These particles will obstruct slip on more planes than the relatively large particles of CuAI2, present after a slow cool
from 500°C.
Learning Services
74
Artificially aged alloys are usually slightly “overaged” to increase their resistance to corrosion, especially the high copper content alloys. This
is done to reduce their susceptibility to intergranular corrosion caused by under aging.
Artificial Age Hardening (Precipitation Treatment), although the process of age hardening (Natural or Artificial) is technically called
precipitation treatment, the term "Precipitation Hardening" is often taken to mean the process of Artificial Age Hardening. This process enables
a strength and hardness of aluminium alloys over and above that which would be possible by natural age hardening.
Some of the heat treatable aluminium alloys do not age harden naturally after solution treatment and require heating to a temperature between
1100°C and 200°C, to allow the CuAl2 particles to come out of solution.
Heat uniformly for the requisite period at a temperature between 160°C and 190°C, then allow to cool in air.
Examples:
Temperature °C Time in hours

165 12 to 18
175 9 to 12
185 3 to 6
Quenching
The basic purpose for quenching is to prevent the immediate re-precipitation of the soluble constituents after heating to solid solution. To obtain
optimum physical properties of aluminum alloys, rapid quenching is required. The recommended time interval between removal from the heat
and immersion is 10 seconds or less. Allowing the metal to cool before quenching promotes inter granular corrosion and slightly affects the
hardness. There are three methods employed for quenching. The one used depends upon the item, alloy, and properties desired.
Learning Services
75
COLD WATER QUENCHING.—Small parts made from sheet, extrusions, tubing, and small fairings are normally quenched in cold water.
The temperature before quenching should be 85°F or less. Sufficient coldwater should be circulated within the quenching tanks to keep the
temperature rise under 20°F. This type of quench will ensure good resistance to corrosion, and is particular y important when heat-treating
2017 and2024 alloys.
HOT WATER QUENCHING.—Large forgings and heavy sections can be quenched in hot or boiling water. This type of quench is used to
minimize distortion and cracking, which are produced by the unequal temperatures obtained during the quenching operation. The hot water
quench will also reduce residual stresses, which improves resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
SPRAY QUENCHING.—Water sprays are used to quench parts formed from alclad sheets and large sections of most alloys. Principal reasons
for using this method are to minimize distortion and to alleviate quench cracking. This system is not usually used to quench bare 2017 and 2024
due to the effect on their corrosion resistance.
Annealing
Annealing as with steel serves to soften the aluminium alloy, to enable it to be worked without cracking. Even in this condition, ageing will
gradually occur and 24 hours is the normal limit for working after annealing, although this can be extended if the material is stored under
refrigerated conditions to slow the ageing process. A temperature of -5°C will provide approximately 2 days' delay while one of -20°C will
provide approximately 1 week's delay in the age-hardening process. The maximum for refrigeration is approximately 150 hours at -20°C.Typical
annealing procedure may be achieved by raising the temperature of the alloy to between 340°C and 410°C. The alloy is then cooled slowly at
about 10°C per hour (rates will differ with each particular alloy), until it reaches a pre-determined temperature. At this point it is allowed to cool
naturally.
These, heat-treatable type, alloys must never be installed in an aircraft structure while in the annealed state, since material properties and
corrosion resistance will be severely affected.
Learning Services
76
Annealing serves to remove the strain hardening that results from cold working and, in the case of the heat-treated alloys to remove the effect
of the heat treatment. Annealing is usually carried out in air furnaces, but salt baths may be used if the melting point of the bath is low enough.
A bath made up of equal parts by weight of sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate is satisfactory.
ANNEALING OF WORK HARDENED MATERIAL.—Annealing of material that was initially in the soft or annealed condition but which
has been strain-hardened by cold working, such as 1100, 3003, 5052, etc., is accomplished by heating the metal to a temperature of 349 ±5°C
(660 ±10°F). It is only necessary to hold the metal at this temperature for a sufficient length of time to make certain that the temperature in all
parts of the load has been brought within the specified range. If the metal is heated appreciably above 354°C (670°F), there is a partial solution
of the hardening constituents, and the alloy will age harden while standing at room temperature unless it has been cooled very slowly. If the
temperature is not raised to 343°C (650°F), the softening may not be complete. The rate of cooling from the annealing temperature is not
important. However, a slow cool is desirable in case any part of the load may have been heated above the recommended temperature range.
ANNEALING OF HEAT-TREATED ALLOYS.— The heat-treatable alloys are annealed to remove the effects of strain hardening or to
remove the effects of solution heat treatment.
To remove strain hardening due to cold work, a 1-hour soak at 640° to 660°F, followed by air coding, is generally satisfactory. This practice is
also satisfactory to remove the effects of heat treatment if the maximum of softness is not required.
To remove the effects of partial or full heat treatment, a 2-hour soak at 750° to 800°F, followed by a maximum cooling rate of 50° per hour to
500°F, is required to obtain maximum softness.
To remove the effects of solution heat treatment or hardening due to cold work, the high zinc-bearing alloy 7075 should be soaked 2 hours at
775°F, air cooled to 450°, and soaked 6 hours at 450°. The stabilizing temperature at 450° is necessary to precipitate the soluble constituents
from solid solution.
The annealing of solution heat-treated material should be avoided whenever possible if subsequent forming and drawing operations are to be
formed. If such operations are not severe, it is generally advantageous to repeat the solution heat treatment and form the material in the freshly
Learning Services
77
quenched condition.
Learning Services
78

6.2 Aircraft Material - Non Ferrous - Unsurya 2019

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

6.2 Aircraft Material - Non Ferrous - Unsurya 2019

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual

Module 6 – Materials and Hardware

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence

The Bayer process is the principal industrial means of refining bauxite to

 Light - Relative Density 2.7

 Good conductor of heat and electricity

 Low melting point (660°C)

 Can be polished to reflect both light and heat.

Increasing Strength and Hardness

 Reduce the grain size.

 Cold work (rolling or forging for example).

Figure 2.2 Casting Process

Aluminum alloy castings are produced by one of three basic methods:

(1) Sand mold,

(2) Permanent mold, or

(3) Die cast.

(1) Permanent metal mold with metal cores, and

(2) Semipermanent types containing sand cores.

The International Alloy Designation System (PADS) Designation

 2xxx through 8xxx group, and

 9xxx group (which is currently unused).

 1100—99.00 % pure aluminum with one control over individual impurities.

 1130—99.30 % pure aluminum with one control over individual impurities.

 1275—99.75 % pure aluminum with two controls over individual impurities.

 6xxx—magnesium and silicon

Percentage of alloying elements(aluminum and normal impurities constitute remainder)

2011 5.5 - - - - - - 0.5 0.5

2014 4.4 0.8 0.8 0.4 - - - - -

2017 4.0 - 0.5 0.5 - - - - -

2117 2.5 - - 0.3 - - - - -

2018 4.0 - - 0.5 - 2.0 - - -

2024 4.5 - 0.6 1.5 - - - - -

2025 4.5 0.8 0.8 - - - - - -

4032 0.9 12.5 - 1.0 - 0.9 - - -

5052 - - - 2.5 - - 0.25 - -

6151 - 1.0 - 0.6 - - 0.25 - -

6053 - 0.7 - 1.3 - - 0.25 - -

6061 0.25 0.6 - 1.0 - - 0.25 - -

7075 1.6 - - 2.5 5.6 - 0.3 - -

Figure 2.3 Nominal composition of wrought aluminum alloys

Effect of Alloying Element

and has corrosion resistant characteristics.

Marking of Aluminium Alloy Sheets

QQ-A-250/5 2024 - T3 0.025

Colour coding can also be applied to American materials e.g.

These coloured bands may be applied to metal in the quarantine store.

BS L72 Solution treated and naturally aged Black, Brown

Annealed as rolled Brown, Yellow, Red,

Brown, Red, Green

BS 1470 HSI5 - TB Solution treated and naturally aged Blue, Brown

Cast Aluminium Alloys

AZ The main alloying elements are aluminium and zinc

31 This is 3% aluminium and 1 % zinc

A Indicates that the alloy is original

-T4 The alloy has been solution heat treated.

The basic alloy systems for copper are:

Tin and Phosphor Bronze

iron, 0-1.5% aluminum, and up to about 3.5% manganese.

Nickel and Nickel Alloys

Two groups of alloy classes can be distinguished:

Lead and Lead Alloys

White Bearing Metals

Lead and Bronze Bearing Metals