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Isotopes
- Same element, diff mass/neutrons
Phases of Matter 4. Isotones → same neutrons
1. Solid, liquid, gas, plasma (v hot), bose-einstein 5. Isobars → same mass but diff atomic # // Same
condensate (BEC) (v cold/super atom) pressure
6. Isoelectronic → same no. of electrons
7. Metals, nonmetals, metalloids
Terms
1. Saturated → max quantity of solutes that is
possible (max dissolve)
States of Matter Dependents 2. Unsaturated → less solute than solvent
1. KE (dissolvable)
2. Strength of attraction 3. Supersaturated → more solute than normal (can’t
dissolve anymore)
Types of Properties
1. Intensive (II) Diatomic Molecules
- Independent on amount of substance 1. Hydrogen
- BP, FP, MP, Density, Temp, pressure, buoyancy, 2. Oxygen
ductility, malleability, elasticity, viscosity 3. Chlorine
4. Bromine
2. Extensive (E - D) 5. Iodine
- Dependent on amount of substance 6. Fluorine
- Mass, volume, energy, force, entropy, electrical 7. Nitrogen
charge, enthalpy
Ions
3. Physical 1. Cations (+) , Anions (-)
- Doesnt have to be changed to another substance to
be observed NOMENCLATURE (Detailed in Notebook)
- BP, density, volume, mass, dissociation
4. Chemical
- Has to be changed to another substance to be
observed
- Flammability, reactivity w acid, corrosion
Types of Changes
1. Physical → reversible
2. Chemical → irreversible
Electromagnetic Structure of Atoms
Laws that support Dalton’s Atomic Theory 1. Waves → color of light changes w changing temp
1. Law of conservation of mass due to change in energy
2. Law of definite (or constant) composition 2. Electromagnetic radiation → c = λ
v (wavelength x
3. Law of multiple proportions frequency)
- Inversely proportional
Periodic Table Terms - Wavelength → distance bet 2 points in a wave
1. Proton, neutron, electron - Frequency → # of waves passing a given point per
- Protons and electrons same # unit time
- Neutrons depends on mass # Niels Bohr’s Phenomena
2. Groups (HAN CAN)
- Alkali metals
- Alkaline Earth metals
- Chalcogens
- Halogens
- Noble gas
Quantum Mechanics
1. Electron closer to nucleus more stable than further
aways
2. Electrons dont follow a well defined path
3. Probability of finding electrons gets lower as it goes
away from the nucleus
4 Quantum Numbers
1. Principle quantum # (n)
- n ↑ size ↑ ; n ↑ energy ↓
- n can never be 0
- n is always ≥ 1
2. Angular momentum quantum # (l)
- n - 1 values PERIODIC TRENDS
- Thus, can be 0 Size of Atom / Polarizability
- Describes the shape of the orbital (s 0, p 1, d 2, f 3) 1. ↑ Down the group
- S → spherical 2. ↓ Across period
- P → 2 lobes
- D → 4 lobes or 5 types Size of Ions
- F → 7 types 1. ↑+ ↓ Size
2. ↑- ↑ Size
3. Magnetic quantum # (ml) 3. ↑ down a column
- Range from -l ≤ ml ≤ l
- A whole number Metals
1. ↑ Down the group
4. Spin quantum # (ms) 2. ↓ Across period
- +½ (clockwise ↑) or -½ (counterclockwise ↓)
Ionization Energy
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle 1. Amount of energy needed to remove an electron
2. ↓ Down the group
3. ↑ Across period
Electron Affinity
1. Energy released when electron is added
2. ↓ Down the group
3. ↑ Across period
1. Numbers
- S → 2 Electron Negativity
- P → 6 1. Attract an electron
- D → 10 2. ↓ Down the group
3. ↑ Across period
2. Groups
- S → 1-2
- P → 3-8
- D → middle group
- F → Transition Ce/Th
3. ANOMALIES
- It is better to be half-filled and full-filled orbitals
- Example: C u → [ Ar] 4s1 3d5 instead of 4s2 3d4
4. Properties
- S block metals → r emove all electrons w the
highest n value
- P block metals → r emove np electrons before ns Polar Covalent Bonds
- D block metals → r emove n s before (n-1)d 1. 2 atoms share electrons unequally
electrons 2. The more electronegative diff → the more polar the
- Non-metals → a dd electrons to p w the highest n bond
value
Bond Energy Acids and Bases
1. Bond length → bet 2 nuclei 1. Arrhenius → Acid H+ prod, Base OH- prod
2. Bond order → # of shared electrons 2. Bronsted-Lowry → Acid H+ donor, base H+ acc
3. Lewis → acid: electron-pair acceptor; base: donor
3. Trends 4. Acids lose H+ to be conjugate base
- ↑ bond strength, ↑ EN, ↓ bond length 5. Base → gains H+ → conjugate acid
- ↑ bond order, ↑ bond energy, ↓ bond length
- ↑ bond length, ↓ bond energy Solubility
- ↑ bond order 1. Dissolve in H2O → soluble
2. Doesnt → insoluble / generates precipitate
VSEPR
1. Best arrangement where electron repulsion is least GENERAL SOLUBILITY RULES
1. SOLUBLE
AXm a. Compounds of G1A
1. AX2 → Linear → 180 b. All nitrates (NO3-), acetates (CH3COO-),
2. AX3 → Trigonal Planar → 120 perchlorates (CIO4-)
3. AX4 → Tetrahedral → 109.5 c. Chlorides, bromides, iodides
4. AX5 → Trigonal bipyramidal → 90/120 d. All sulfates (not w G2A)
5. AX6 → Octahedral → 90
6. AX2E → Bent/V shaped 2. INSOLUBLE
7. AX3E → Trigonal Pyramidal a. Common metal hydroxides (except G1A)
8. AX2E2 → Bent/V shaped b. All carbonates, phosphates, NH4+ (except
G1A)
Polarity c. All sulfides (except G1A G2A)
1. Mirrored = non-polar
REDOX
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 1. Neutralization
1. Dissociation - Only for strong acids/bases
- Ionic substance dissolves in water
- Electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into ions 2. Redox
when dissolved in water - OIL, RIG
- Non-electrolyte may dissolve in water but doesn’t - LEORA → loses electron, Oxidation, reducing agent
dissociate ions when it does - GEROA → g ains electron, reduction, oxidating agent
2. Ionic 3. Oxidation number
- Ionic compounds are STRONG ELECTROLYTES - Elemental form → 0
- Sum = 0
3. Molecular - Monoatomic ion → ionic charge
- Strong aids/bases are STRONG ELECTROLYTES - Group 1 → +1
- Weak → WEAK ELECTROLYTES (partially - Group 2 → +2
dissociates) - Hydrogen → +1
- All other compounds → nonelectrolytes - Fluorine → -1
- Oxygen → -1 (peroxides)
4. Strong Acids - -2 for all other compounds (except w F)
- HCl - Other Group 7 → -1
- HBr
- HI
- HCIO3
- HCIO4
- HNO3
- H2SO4
5. Strong Bases
- All G1A metal h ydroxide
- 1st 3 Group 2A metal hydroxides (Ca, Sr, Ba)
Energy → A bility to do work or transfer heat / cannot be Specific Heat Capacity
created nor destroyed / transfered only 1. The amount of energy needed to raise the temp of
Work → E nergy used to cause an obj to move 1g of a substance by 1ºC or 1K
Heat → Energy used to cause temp of obj to rise
Colligative Properties of Solution
Types of Energy 1. Properties of a sol that depend on the ratio of the
1. Kinetic → energy in motion NUMBER OF SOLUTES to the no. of solvent present
2. Potential → not moving 2. DO NOT DEPEND ON THE NATURE OF CHEMICALS
S.I. UNIT of Energy → J TYPES OF COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
- 1 cal → 4 J **Mostly 3 words each**
1. Osmotic Pressure
Endothermic / Endergonic - Pressure needed to prevent osmosis
1. ΔE > 0 2. Vapor Pressure Lowering
2. Absorb heat (+ ΔH) - Add of nonvolatile solute to volatile solvent
3. Boiling Point Elevation
Exothermic / Exergonic - Add of nonvolatile solute and elevation measured
1. ΔE < 0 by Ebullioscopy
2. Released heat (- ΔH) 4. Freezing Point Depression
- Add of an insoluble solute to solid solvent
- Measurement of diff → cryoscopy
Heterogeneous Solutions
1. Suspensions
- Suspended particles too large and heavy to flow in
the solution → therefore settles
Energy
1. Q 2. Colloids
- + → system g ains heat - Suspended particles small and light → can be
- - → system loses heat carried by the motion of the particles
- Example: agar, gelatin, smoke, paint, blood, fog, hair
2. W spray, shaving, whipped cream
- + → work done ON system
- - → work done BY system Le Chatelier’s Principle
1. Equilibrium changed by pressure, temp, conc
3. ΔE 2. Pressure/volume/Amount → shift to fewer moles
- + → Net g ain of energy by system side
- - → Net loss of energy by system 3. Temp → inc temp, shift to endothermic side
4. Catalyst → no effect in reversible reaction
Intermolecular Forces
1. Ion-dipole Titration
2. H bond → N, O, F 1. To calculate conc of a solute in a solution
3. Dipole-dipole 2. Standard solution → known conc
4. Ion-induced dipole 3. Equivalence point → point where acid/base conc
5. Dipole-induced dipole are equal
6. London dispersion 4. End point → color change observed
5. Analyte/Titrate → unknown
Viscosity 6. Titrant → known
1. Resistance for liquid to flow
2. Inc viscosity → inc intermolecular forces
Surface Tension
1. Energy required to inc the SA by a unit amount
Enthalpy
1. ΔH → q → heat gained or lost
2. ΔH + → Endothermic
3. ΔH - → exothermic
4. Measured through a calorimeter
Saturated Hydrocarbons
Scientist Discovery
1. Colorless, tasteless, odorless
Democritus Atom → basic unit of matter 2. BP MP inc as MW inc and london dispersion forces
inc
John Dalton Billiard Ball Model 3. Non polar; Insoluble in water
4. Stable
J.J. Thomson Plum pudding model; electron
5. Tetrahedral
Ernest Rutherford Gold foil experiment; Protons
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
James Chadwick Neutrons 1. Nonpolar
2. Stable
Niels Bohr Planetary Model 3. Trigonal planar
Erwin Schrodinger Quantum Theory
4. Alkyl Halide Reaction
- HC + halogen → substitution
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Might be accompanied w a hydride shift or methyl
Isomers shift
1. Diff compounds w same molecular formula 5. Pyrolysis / Cracking
- HC w higher molecular weight → breaks down w
Structural Isomers heat
1. Chain isomers → arrangement of C atoms
2. Functional isomers → diff functional grps, same Alkyne Reactions
molecular formula 1. Oxidation
3. Positional isomers → position of unsaturated - Produces glycol
bonds/functional grps
2. Reduction
Stereoisomers - Hydrogen replaces a bond
1. Same mol formula and sequence of bonded atoms
→ differ in the 3D orientations of their atoms 3. Addition
2. Cis (same side) / Trans (opp side) - Acid replaces a bond
4. Polymerization
- Unsaturated molecules combine to form polymers
Naming
3. E-Z Isomerism
- E → higher priority grps are on opp sides of double 1. Meth 7. Oct
bond [E-PPISITE] 2. Eth 8. Non
- Z → higher priority grps are on the same side of the 3. Prop 9. Dec
double bond [Z-AME] 4. But 10. Unde
5. Pent
Diastereomers 6. Hex
1. Not mirror images
Branches
1. iso -
Enantiomers
2. Tert -
1. Non-super impossible 3. Sec -
2. Mirror images
Cyclo-
Racemic
1. Cyclopropane
1. 50:50 → optically inactive
2. Cyclobutane
3. Cyclopentane
Mesocompound
4. Cyclohexane
1. Optically inactive; symmetrical
5. Cycloheptane
6. Cycloctane
Rotations
1. Dextrorotatory (D) → (+) clockwise → R Naming Aromatic
2. Levatotatory (L) → (-) counter-clockwise → S 1. Ortho → 1, 2
2. Meta → 1, 3
Chiral → several of C atoms bear 4 different substituents 3. Para → 1, 4
Alcohol Classification CARBOHYDRATES
Monosaccharides (MG FG)
1. Glucose, fructose, galactose, Mannose
Disaccharides
1. Sucrose → Glucose + Fructose
- Table sugar
1. Soluble in water → dec as MW inc - In plant leaves → Transports carbs for
2. Low BP and MP when MW inc photosynthesis
3. Glycols → alcohols w 2 or more OH grps
2. Maltose → Glucose + Glucose
4. Oxidation Reaction 3. Lactose → Glucose + Galactose
- 1º Alcohols → aldehyde → COOH
- 2º Alcohols → Ketone Polysaccharide
1. Most complex → oligosaccharides
5. Ester Formation 2. Glycogen
- Alcohol + acids → E
ster - Animals store this in the form of glucose
3. Starch
Aldehydes (3l side) - Amylose in plants
1. 1 C → formaldehyde // Formalin - Iodine test for s tarch
a. Very toxic to microorganisms 4. Cellulose
2. 2 Cs → acetaldehyde - In wood and plant fibers as structural elements
a. Industrial manufacturing chemical - For rigidity
5. Chitin
Ketone (middle) - Exoskeleton of arthropods
1. 2 Cs → Acetone (dimethyl ketone) - Fungi cell wall as structural element
a. Made from o xidation of isopropyl alcohol
2. Methyl ethyl ketone → o xidation of 2-butanol Carbohydrates: Function
1. Energy stores, fuels, metabolic intermediates
Esters 2. Structural framework of DNA & RNA
1. Formed when COOH + OH are dehydrated 3. Structural elements in bacterial & plant cell walls
2. Used in perfumes, flavoring extracts 4. Linked to prot & lipids
Ethers Bacterial Polysaccharides
1. Dehydrating 2 OH 1. Function
2. Oxygen sandwiched bet 2 org grps - Forms biofilm
3. Highly flammable - Provides protective matrix for growth
4. Resistant to biological oxidation - In prokaryotes
5. Highly explosive
2. Characteristics
Aminds - Attached to surface
1. Reaction bet o rganic acids and ammonia - Harbors community of bacteria
- That contribute to biofilm prod & maintenance
Amines - Gel-like consistency
Peptidoglycan
1. Constitute cell wall of bacteria
2. Determines shape of plasma membrane
Glycoproteins
1. Cell-cell, cell-mole recognition
Dehydration → removal of H (usually to form H2O) 2. Markers to identify type of cell
Hydration → adding H2O → add OH 3. Antifreeze → for fish living in subzero waters
4. Protein turnover → used to mark protein for age
TRIGLYCERIDES TRIVIA
1. Gold is the most stable metal
2. Metal o
xides are basic → turns litmus paper blue
3. Non-metal oxides are acidic → turns litmus paper
red
4. Amphoteric oxides → neutral
5. Sigma bonds → single bonds → strongest
6. Pi bonds → double/triple bonds
7. Higher specific heat capacity = insulator
Lipids
8. Hydrogen → lightest element
1. Function
9. Mercury → only metal liquid at RT
- Make up physical structure of membrane → lipid
10. Bromine → only nonmetal liquid at RT
bilayer
11. Nitrogen → most abundant gas in air
- Always in multiples of 2 → synthesis & digestion to
12. Oxygen → most abundant element on earth
form acetyl molecule
13. Aluminum → most abundant metal on earth
14. Argon → most abundant noble gas
2. Energy source
15. Potassium → intracellular cation
- Fatty acids → long chain starting w carboxylic acid
16. Sodium → extracellular cation
- More oxygen → oxidized, more hydrocarbon →
17. COMMON COMPOUNDS**
reduced
- Fatty acid more reduced → greatest potential to be
oxidize
Fats → F A glycerides → solid in RT
Oil → F A glycerides → liquid in RT
Waxes → esters of long-chain acids and alcohols
Detergents → has surfactant w oil soluble and water soluble
part
Soap → derived from s aponification o
f fats and oils
INDICATORS
Benedict’s Solution
1. Simple Carbs
2. (+) → Brick Red
3. (-) → Blue
Iodine Solution
1. Complex Carbs (Starch)
2. (+) → Black
3. (-) → Dark Red
Biuret Solution
1. Protein
2. (+) → Violet, Black
3. (-) → Blue
Sudan IV
1. Lipids
2. (+) →Reddish-orange
3. (-) → Dark Red
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS (Table in UPLINK book)
EQUATIONS Molarity
1. Density → m/v 1. Molarity = mol of solute / vol of sol in L
a. g/mL
2. Temperature Molality
a. K → C (+273) 1. m = moles of solute / kg of solvent
3. Wave
a. c = λv Mass/Volume Percent
- Speed of light → 3 x 10^8 1. Mass or vol of solute / mass or vol of solution x 100
b. E = hv
- h = planck’s constant 6.626 x 10^-34 Converting a concentrated solution into a diluted solution
c. E = h c/λ 1. M1V1 = M2V2
- Molarity and volume
Stoichiometry
1. Types of reactions Energy
- Composition 1. ΔE = q + w
- Decomposition
- Combustion (w O2) → involves explosion Specific Heat
1. q = mcΔT
2. Balance Equations 2. c of Water → 4 J/gºC
3. Molecular weights/Mass
4. Percent composition Ideal Gas Equation
a. % Element = [(# od atoms)(Atomic weight) PV = nRT
/ FW of compound ] x 100
5. Empirical formula Boyle’s Law
a. Simplest ratio P1V1 = P2V2
b. Percentage / MM → mol → ratio of moles
6. Molecular formula Charles Law
a. Actual amounts (balanced) V1/T1 = V2/T2
b. Depends on the grams/weight given in
question Avogadro’s Law
7. Structural formula P1/T1=P2/T2
a. Approximate arrangement
8. Theoretical yield → same process as limiting The Combined Gas Law
9. Percent yield P1V1,/V1n1 = P2V2,/V2n2
Limiting Reactants Law of Partial Pressures
1. The smaller # is limiting PT = P1 +P2 + ….
2. Will ask for grams of the product and give you
equation
3. Steps
- Get mols
- Mols per ratio of the products
- Smaller mol of product is limiting
Moles
1. Avogadro’s # → 6.02 x 10^23 atoms/mol
2. Mol = g/MM
3. Mol = Atoms or formula units/Avog #
g → MM ← MOLES ← AVOG # → FORMULA UNITS
Stoichiometric Calculations
1. Balance
2. G of reactant
3. Mold of reactant from (g)
4. Mold of product from moles of reactant (using
balanced eq.)
5. G of product from moles of product conversion