SPOILAGE • Deterioration can be caused by action of animals, birds, • Under aerobic conditions

• Spoilage is the process in which food deteriorates to the point bruising, wounding, cutting, freezing, dessication or other – Surface slime
in which it is not edible to humans or its quality of edibility mishandling and growth of microorganisms; environmental  Caused by Pseudomonas,
becomes reduced. conditions, contact with spoiled foods. Moraxella, Alcaligens,
• Any change which renders a product unacceptable for human • Microbial spoilage maybe due to: Lactobacillus,
consumption. – Plant pathogens acting on stems, leaves, Streptococcus,
• Complex event in which a combination of microbial and flowers or roots Leuconostoc,Bacillus,Microc
biochemical activities may interact. – Saprophytic organisms occi
• One of the major reason that led to preservation. – Change in colour of meat pigments
Lactobacillus spp.- They are a major part of the lactic acid bacteria group (i.e., • Red colour, green,brown or
Factors determining the spoilage they convert sugars to lactic acid). grey
• Microbial colonization depends on A saprophyte or saprotroph is an organism which gets its energy from dead and • Oxidation, a chemical process that produces undesirable
– characteristics of product decaying organic matter. changes in color, flavor and nutrient content, results when air
– The way processed reacts with food components. When fats in foods become
– The way stored Bacterial soft rot rancid, oxidation is responsible.
• Factors are characterized into four: Caused by Erwinia carotovora, ferment pectins
Spoilage of Eggs
– Intrinsic parameters Pseudomonas marginalis, Bacillus and Clostridium cause
• Cracks, leaks, stained or dirty spots on exterior and blood
– Extrinsic parameters water soaked appearance, a soft, mushy consistency and bad
clots, bloodiness, translucent spots in the interior are all signs
– Modes of preservation and processing odour.
of spoilage
– Implicit parameters Anthracnose
• Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Alcaligens, certain coliform
Caused by Collectotrichum lindemuthianum.
bacteria. Proteus spp, Aeromonas, Serratia, Sporotrichum all
Types of Food Decay Spotting of leaves and fruits
cause rots in eggs
1. Putrefication –Decomposition of Protein by Anearobic Black mold rot
Microbes. – Caused by Aspergillus niger
Spoilage of Canned Food
2. Fermentation- Process of deriving Energy From the Oxidation – Dark brown to black masses of spores of the mold termed
• Chemical spoilage
of Organic Compounds as smut
– Hydrogen swell
3. Rancidity- Decomposition of Fats,Oils and Other Lipids by It causes a disease called "black mold" on certain fruits and vegetables such
– Discolouration of inside of the can
hydrolysis/Oxidation. as grapes, apricots, onions, and peanuts, and is a common contaminant of food – Cloudiness of liquors
Rhizopus soft rot – Loss in nutritive value
INTRINSIC PARAMETERS – Caused by species of Rhizopus • Biological spoilage
• Physical, chemical and structural properties. – Soft and mushy rot – Attacked by
• Inherent in the food itself. – Cottony growth of mold forms black spots of sporangia • Thermophilic and
• Important factors include water activity, acidity, redox covering the foods. • Mesophilic bacteria
potential, available nutrients and natural antimicrobial Rhizopus is a genus of common saprophytic fungi on plants and specialized A mesophile is an organism that grows best in moderate temperature, neither
substances. parasites on animals. too hot nor too cold, typically between 20 and 45 °C (68 and 113 °F).The term
EXTRINSIC PARAMETERS
Alternaria rot is mainly applied to microorganisms. ... Thermophiles contain enzymes that can
• Factors in the environment where food is stored
– Caused by Alternaria tenuis function at high temperatures.
• Temperature, humidity and atmosphere conditions.
– Greenish-brown to brown black spots
Spoilage can lead to…
MODES OF PRESERVATION AND PROCESSING
Fungal spoilage results in water soaked mushy areas, brown or cream coloured
Food Poisoning
• Physical or chemical treatment
areas. Rots of juicy fruits result in leakage.
• When someone gets sick from eating food or drink that has
• Change characteristics of food product
gone bad or is contaminated.
• Determine the micro flora associated with the product
Spoilage of Cereals
• There are two kinds of food poisoning: poisoning by toxic
IMPLICIT PARAMETERS OR MICROBIAL INTERFERENCE
• Moisture content above 12 to 13 percent may cause spoilage
agent or by communicable agent.
• These are the result of the development of synergistic or
of cereals
antagonistic microbes
• Little moisture cause mold growth and high moisture may
How can we prevent spoilage? By food preservation. What is food
• It can be said as the destruction of one organism by another
cause growth of yeasts and bacteria.
preservation?
species releasing H2 O2 , bacteriocin and other di-acetyl
• Microbial content, physical damage and temperature are also
compounds.
some factors.
Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food ,with an aim to
Microbial Spoilage
• Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor, Rhizopus, Fusarium are some
stop or slow down its spoilage while maintaining its nutritional value, texture,
1. Bacteria- In low acid food(milk)
common molds; produce mycotoxins.
and flavour.
2. Molds- In High Acid Food(tomatoe)
• Acetobacter spp, lactics and Coliforms, Micrococci and
Food preservation methods either kill microbes or prevent their growth.
3. Yeast-In High Sugar and Acid Foods
Bacillus are some species causing spoilage.
Some methods are:
4. fungi
1. Boiling
H202 –Hydrogen Peroxide
Spoilage of Milk
2. Dehydration
- Hydrogen peroxide is the simplest peroxide. It is used as an
• An excellent medium
3. Refrigeration & freezing
oxidizer, bleaching agent, and antiseptic.
• Souring
4. Canning
Bacteriocin- a protein produced by bacteria
– caused by Streptococcus lactis, Enterococci,
5. Using chemical preservatives
Di-Acetyl compound- Formula: C4H6O2 (iacetyl occurs naturally in alcoholic
Lactobacilli, Micrococci
6. Using Salt, sugar, oil, or vinegar
beverages and is added to some foods to impart its buttery flavor. )
• Gas production
7. Pasteurization
– caused by Coliform, Clostridium, Yeasts,
• Synergistic: Production or availability of essential nutrients
Bacillus
Food Preservation
due to the growth of certain organisms, which allow the growth
• Proteolysis
Food Preservation is a process in which
of another group which were otherwise unable to grow.
– cause bitter taste, caused by Bacillus,
 Food and vegetables are prevented from getting spoilt
• Antagonistic : Competition for essential nutrients, changes in
Micrococcus, Proteus, Pseudomonas,
 The color, test, and nutritive values of food is also preserved
pH value or redox potential or formation of antimicrobial
Flavobacterium, Serratia.
 Food products lasts for a long period of time: Shelf life of food
substances.
• Changes in colour and tastes
product is increased
 Retaining food over a period of time without being
Types of Spoilage
Spoilage of Meat
contaminated by pathogenic organisms or chemicals and
Two types of Spoilage:
• Raw meat is subject to spoilage by its own enzymes and
• Microbial spoilage without losing its colour, texture, flavour and nutritious value.
microbial action.
• Non- Microbial  Food Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of
• Excessive autolysis can cause souring
Based on rate of spoilage: bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms, as well as retarding
• Factors involving spoilage include
• Highly perishable the oxidation of fats which causes rancidity.
– The greater gut load of animal
– Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, most fruits and
– The physiological condition of the animal
vegetables. Types of Food
during slaughter as like fever, excited or
• Semi perishable Food Types:
fatigued.
– Potatoes, some apple varieties, nutmeats — Perishable
– Rapid cooling
• Stable or non-perishable - Lasts for less time 2 days to 1 week
• In biology, autolysis, more commonly known as self-digestion,
– Sugar, flour, dry beans - Example: Fruits, milk, vegetables, meat
refers to the destruction of a cell through the action of its own
— Semi perishable
enzymes.
Spoilage of Fruits and Vegetables - Lasts for around 2 months and are processed
• gut (gastrointestinal tract)
• The organism responsible for taints are acid tolerant bacteria: - Example: Ice-cream, cheese, bread, cake,
Spoilage of Fish
– Lactobacillus spp. pastries
• Spoiled by autolysis, oxidation or bacterial activity.
 — Shelf Stable • Bottling and canning are processes of preserving food by - Microorganisms live and multiply quickly on the surfaces of fresh food and on
- Has longer shelf Life more than 6 months heating and then sealing it in an airtight container. the inside of bruised, insect-damaged, and diseased food. Oxygen and
- Example: Food grains • The food is boiled to kill microorganisms and then sealed to enzymes are present throughout fresh food tissues. Proper canning practices

prevent other microorganisms from getting in. minimize the effects of these microorganisms.
Principles of Food Preservation — Pickling - However, the main objective of canning is to preserve the food by the
1. .Inhibit the growth and activity of Microorganisms • Pickling food in vinegar or other acids, makes it difficult for application of heat so that it can be safely eaten at a later time. Safety of the
-Asepsis(to keep out microorganisms) microorganisms to live. consumer is the primary concern when food is canned.
-Removal of microorganisms • Commonly pickled food include onions, parkias, soya beans  Food that is canned
-Stopping the growth and activity of microorganisms (low temperatures, drying and chillies. 1. Low acid foods: Meat, fish, poultry, dairy fall into a pH range of 5.0 to 6.8.
or chemicals) • Sugar can also be used in pickling fruits such as nutmegs, This large group is commonly referred to as the low acid group.
-Destruction of MO(heating or radiation) mangoes and cherries. 2. Acid foods: With pH values between 4.5 and 3.7. Fruits such as pear,
2. Protecting against self decomposition of food • The concentrated sugar solution used draws water from the oranges, apricots and tomatoes fall in this class.
-Inhibit the activity of Endogenous Enzyme (Phenolase) fruit thus preventing the growth of microorganisms. 3. High acid foods: Such as pickled products and fermented foods. The pH
-Delay or inhibit chemical reactions(Non-enzymatic browning) — Drying values range from 3.7 down to 2.3, jams and jellies are in this classification.
3. Protection from invasion and spoilage by insects and • Drying removes most water from food.  How to Can and Bottle
rodents • Most bacteria die or become inactive when the food is dried. Step 1: SELECTION
4.Protection against losses by mechanical causes - For canning, fruits and vegetables should be absolutely fresh. The fruit should
— Salting
• Salting is an age-old way of preserving food. The salt draws be ripe, but firm and evenly matured. It should be free from all unsightly
Importance of Food Preservation blemishes, insect damage and malformation. Over-ripe fruit is generally
out moisture and prevents microorganisms from growing. In
Important and vital in the food industry due to a number of – social, infected with microorganisms and would yield a pack of poor quality. The
this process, food such as fresh fish are gutted, washed and
psychological, and health factors coarse salt is rubbed into it. vegetables should be tender and reasonably free from soil , dirt, etc.
 Increases the shelf life of food — Vacuum packing
 Retain the quality of food – colour, texture, flavour & nutritional • Vacuum packing keeps food by sucking air out from its Step 2: SORTING AND GRADING
value packaging - After the preliminary sorting, the fruits and vegetables are graded.
 Increases food supply - The grading is done with respect to size, color etc.
— Cooling and freezing
 Adds variety to the food - Generally done by hands or the grading machines (screen graders, roller
• Cooling and freezing are the most common forms of food
 Decreases wastage of food graders, rope or cable graders etc.)
preservation.
 Make foods available throughout the year
• Cooling slows down the action of microorganisms, thus it
Step 3: WASHING
takes longer to spoil. It allows fruit from different parts of the
Food Preservation Methods - The graded fruits and vegetables are washed with water in different ways such
world to appear on our supermarket shelves.(0 to -40 C)
— Preservation methods vary according to as soaking or agitation in water, washing with cold or hot water sprays , etc.
• At freezing temperature, microorganisms become inactive, - Vegetables may preferably be soaked in a dilute solution of potassium
--------the food items, and
--------quantity of the items to be preserved thus food cannot spoil when it is frozen. (-18 0 C) permanganate to disinfect them.
 Principles of Food preservation can be broadly classified into — Waxing - Spray washing is the most efficient method of washing.
two types: • Waxing of fruit and vegetables is also common. Apples,
1) Bactericidal methods oranges, eggplants and tomatoes are dipped into liqiud wax Step 4: Peeling, Coring, Pitting
2) Bacteriostatic methods to prevent growth of fungi and loss of moisture. - Peeling of fruits and vegetables can be done in many ways: by hand or with

• Waxed fruit need to be washed thoroughly or peeled before knife, by machine, by heat treatment(Scalding), by lye solution (dipping the
Bactericidal Methods: eating. fruits and vegetables in a solution of boiling caustic soda or lye solution of
 Most of the microorganisms are killed strength 1-2%for 30 seconds to 2 minutes.
— Pasteurization
Examples are- • Pasteurization means heating food to a certain temperature
o cooking, Step 5: Blanching
for some time followed by rapid cooling. Heating at such high
o canning, -Treatment of fruits and vegetables with boiling water or steam for short periods,
enough temperature kills most bacteria. However, it does not
o pasteurization, followed by cooling prior to canning, is called ‘blanching’.
affect the taste and nutritional value of the food.
o sterilization, - Blanching is done with the objective of: Loosening the skin of the fruit or
— Boiling
o irradiation etc. vegetable, Eliminate the no. of microorganisms, Inactivating the enzymes, thus
• As food is heated and cooked, the heat kills the MOs
preventing the possibility of discoloration, Improving the flavor by reducing the
• Boiling kills most bacteria. However, those not affected by
Bacteriostatic Methods: astringency in some foods.
heat will grow when the conditions are suitable.
 Based on prevention of multiplication of microorganisms
— Smoking
 May be achieved by Step 6: Can Filling
• Smoking is the process of drying food with smoke for a long
----removal of water -The cans are washed and subjected to a steam jet remove any adhering dust
period of time. This method is mainly used for fish, meat and or foreign matter.
----use of acids, oils or spices
----keeping the foodstuff in low temperature fruit such as banana. -Before filling of the contents(fruits and vegetables) a small amount of syrup(for
 Methods based on this principles are • The drying effects of smoke and the chemicals produced from fruits) or brine(for vegetables) is poured in the can so as to provide a medium
----Drying, the smoke help to preserve the food. to the contents
----freezing, -Can filling can be done by machine or hand filling can be also employed.
----pickling, Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw
----salting, and ingredients into food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by Step 7: Brining and the Addition of Syrup
----smoking humans or animals either in the home or by the food processing industry. Food - The cans are filled with hot sugar syrup for fruits(concentration 35- 40%) and
processing typically takes clean, harvested crops or slaughtered and butchered hot brine for vegetables (concentration 1-2%).
Techniques of Food Preservation animal products and uses these to produce attractive, marketable and often - The syrup or brine should be added to the can at a temperature of 79°C to
— Physical long-life food products. Similar process are used to produce animal feed. 82°C, leaving a headspace in the can so that when the filled can is closed on
— Chemical the double seaming machine, the headspace left inside ranges from o.32 cm to
Aims of Food Processing 0.47 cm.
Physical 1. To extend the shelf life to allow time for distribution, - Objective of this step is to improve the taste of the canned product and to fill
--freezing and canning(rely on killing the microorganisms or at least stopping sales and home storage. up the inter space between fruits and vegetables.
the their growth for long enough) 2. To increase variety in the diet by providing a range of attractive

--drying, gamma irradiation, exposure to ultraviolet or high intensity white light, flavours, colours, aromas and textures in food (collectively Step 8 Lidding or Clinching
ultra high pressure and filtration known as eating quality, sensory characteristics or - Cans after being filled, are covered loosely with lid and passed through the
Chemical organoleptic quality); . exhaust box.
— Preservatives 3. To provide the nutrients required for health (termed nutritional - Lidding is now replaced by clinching in which the lid is partially seamed to the
— Work either as: quality of a food). can by a single first roller action of double seamer.
 Direct microbial poisons or, 4. To generate income for the manufacturing company.

 Reducing the pH to a level that prevents the growth of MOs Step 9 Exhausting
Chemicals used today are: BOTTLING AND CANNING - By exhausting, risk of corrosion of tin plate and pin holing during the storage
1. Nitrates and Nitrites  What is bottling and canning? and discoloration of the product is reduced as the oxidation process is
----to preserve meats Bottling and canning are processes of preserving food by heating and then prevented.
2. Sulphites sealing it in an airtight container. The food is boiled to kill microorganisms and - Cans are passed through a trough of water at 82-87°C or a moving conveyor
----to prevent the browning of fruits and vegetables, then sealed to prevent other microorganisms from entering. belt through a steam box. The time varies from 5-25 min. on the nature of the
----to prevent fungal spoilage  Why is canning and bottling done? substance.
- The high percentage of water in fresh food makes them perishable. They spoil - During exhausting, expelling of all the gases takes place which prevents
Common food preservation methods: or lose their quality for several reasons. spoilage of the canned product by ceasing the chemical reactions and also the
— Bottling and canning bulging of can.
Step 10 Sealing Pickling Ingredients - For fermenting and brining - a crock or stone jar, an unchipped
- After exhausting, the cans are sealed by special closing machines known as >Pickles enamel-lined pan, a glass jar (preferrably large), or a bowl (for
double seamers. 1. Of pickling variety small quantities)
- There are hand operated as well as semi- automatic and fully automatic 2. 1-2 inch cucumbers for gherkins, 3-5 inches for dills - Use stoneware crocks
seamers. 3. Unwaxed - Food-grade plastic container
4. Process within 24 hours of harvest - Line a questionable container with a heavy food-grade plastic
Step 11 Sterilization and Processing >Salt bag
-Processing consists of heat treatment which is sufficient to eliminate the 1. Acts as a preservative by encouraging the growth of desirable - Must be large enough to allow several inches of space
growth of spoilage causing microorganisms. bacteria and inhibiting undesirable ones, which in turn between the top of the food and the top of the container
- All fruits can be satisfactorily processed at 100°C and vegetables at 116- produces lactic acid, a preservative - Containers, plates, and jars to be used for fermentation must
120°C. 2. Helps draw juices and sugar from the produce to make a brine be washed with soapy water and rinsed well with very hot
-The total time required to sterilize canned food is largely depends on: 3. Adds flavor and crispiness water
a) Size of can 4. Anti-caking materials can make brine cloudy - Cover container with a clean and heavy towel
b) Processing temperature 5. Do not alter amounts for fermented products - Keep at 65-80°F
c) Rate of heat penetration at the center of the can. 6. Concentrations can be altered for quick pack pickles Handling
d) pH of the food >Vinegar - Remove scum every day or two for plate method
e) The type and number of organisms present 1. Gives pickles a tart taste - Brine bag should not be disturbed until normal fermentation is
2. Acts as a preservative due to its acidity complete (bubbling ceases)
Step 12 Labeling and Storage >Alum and other firming ingredients - Generally complete in 2-4 weeks, taste to determine
-After the cans are closed, they pass through a detergent spray washer to 1. Improves pickle firmness for fermented pickles (however, does - Sauerkraut: During the first week, sauerkraut sometimes
remove grease and other material. The washing should consist of hot water not do the same for quick-process ones) produces a “rotten” odor but do not throw it out
(66°C) then by suitable pre-rinse, detergent spray wash. Followed by a fresh 2. Other firming agents include grape leaves, pickle crisp Pickling Equipment – JAR
warm water rinse (66°C). (calcium chloride), and lime (calcium hydroxide) - The jar must have a
-Immediately after processing, the cans are COOLING in water to a 3. Sugar - sweetens taste; counteracts the vinegar proper ring band, metal flat
temperature of 36°C to 42°C. to avoid thermophilic spoilage or can rust. If the 4. Spices/herbs - adds flavor with sealing compound, and
cans are cooled much below 36°C, they may not dry thoroughly and rusting 5. Water - makes liquid portion of brine clean jar lip and thread
well result. If the cans are cased at temperatures much over 42°C, thermophilic Other vegetables you can use - Use threaded home-canning jars with 2-piece lids
spoilage may occur. 1. Asparagus to zucchini - Free of cracks and chips
 Why are can containers essential? 2. Always use an approved recipe - Wash empty jars in hot soapy water and rinse well before use
The container plays a vital role in food canning, it must be: 3. Refrigerate for up to 2 weeks but do not delay processing - If your process time is under 10 minutes in a water bath
1) Capable of being hermetically sealed to prevent entry of microorganisms. 4. Try a freezer pickle recipe canner, jars must be pre-sterilized
2) Impermeable to liquids and gases, including water vapor. Other fruits you can use (full rolling boil for 10 minutes)
3) Maintain the state of biological stability (i.e. , commercial sterility) that was 1. Select firm and fresh fruit Pickling Equipment – LID
induced by the thermal process alone or in combination with other chemical and 2. Simmer whole fruit in a spicy, sweet-sour syrup - Use a 2-piece lid with a self-sealing lid and ring
physical processes. 3. Pack and process - Use lids within a year of purchase
4) Physically protect the contents against damage during transportation, Process Proper - Follow manufacturer’s directions in preparing lids for use
storage and distribution. - There are two types of pickle processing methods - Do not use old, dented, or formed lids
 Why cans? - The first uses vinegar to preserve the cucumbers Canning Techniques
For canning, the various materials used are tin, steel, plastic and glass - Vinegar has a strong acid content that doesn’t allow the growth >Hot water bath canner
containers with metal closures. Although the wide variety of containers for of harmful bacteria that can spoil the vegetables 1. Processes food at 212°F
canned foods, the metal ones are preferred because: - You can also make pickles using a salt brine and a scientific 2. Used only for high acid fruit, pickles
1) It has a high conductivity of heat. fermentation process >Pressure canner
2) It cannot easily be broken. 1|Soak in Brine Solution 1. Processes food at 240°F or 250°F
3) Being opaque, so any possible bad effects of light on food stuffs are avoided. - BRINE SOLUTION is made up of water, salt; one can also add 2. Used for low acid food such as meat, vegetables
4) Be able to withstand the stresses imposed during thermal processing and various spices, herbs, and garlic Pickling Errors
cooling. - Make brine with cold or room temperature soft water and make >Shriveled pickles
5) Be able to withstand the subsequent handling, which includes transportation, sure to measure carefully 1. Vinegar or salt solution was too strong
storage and distribution. - Vegetables must be covered in 1-2 inches of brine (plate 2 or 2. Overcooking or over processing

 Some defects in cans 3 quart jars filled with water; brine-filled bag with 1.5 3. Poorly developed cucumbers

1) Swell: bulging of both can ends by positive internal pressure due to gas tablespoons per quart water) 4. Cucumbers are too ripe

generated by microbial or chemical activity. Either hard or soft swell. - Brine needs to cover all of the vegetables to prevent spoilage >Hollow pickles

2) Flipper: a can with normal appearance but one end flips out when the can is due to oxygen exposure 1. Cucumbers held too long before pickling

struck against a solid object but snaps back to the normal under light pressure. - Complete covering also prevents the growth of molds and 2. Fermentation was too rapid

3) Springer: a can bulged from one end which if forced back into normal fungi that can ruin your batch of pickles >Words of Caution

position, the opposite end bulges. - Traditionally, the cucumbers must be densely packed, or 1. Level of acidity

4) Leakage: perforated can. weighted down, to prevent them from floating to the surface 2. Vinegar, food, and water proportions

5) Overfilled can: has convex ends due to overfilling and not regarded as - To achieve the perfect brine strength for homemade pickles, 3. Tested proportions of ingredients

spoiled. you should have at least 5-6% salinity Successful Pickling

- Other fermented vegetables require different salinity strengths 1. Selection and sorting
to preserve them properly 2. Washing
PICKLING
- After a day or two of fermentation, little bubbles of carbon 3. Soak cucumbers in ice water for 4-5 hours before pickling
dioxide form in the liquid surrounding the cucumbers 4. Allow 3-5 weeks for flavor to develop
Definition: A process of preserving good by anaerobic fermentation in brine to
- This lets you know the good bacteria is doing its job and the 5. Low temperature pasteurization
produce acid or marinating and storing it in an acid solution, usually vinegar or
brine is acidifying 6. Use fresh, whole spices or herbs (powdered spices will cloud
acetic acid, resulting in a food called a pickle.
2| Fermentation brine; garlic and dill is recommended; must be tied loosely in a
History: Called “achar” in Northern India, this food preservation technique
- You should leave your pickle jars covered with a clean towel clean cheesecloth bag)
began 4,000 years ago using cucumbers native to the country. It was used as
to allow the buildup of gas to escape 7. Use soft water for best-looking pickles
a way to preserve food for out-of-season use and for long journeys, especially
- If you want really sour pickles, you should allow the 8. Measuring ingredients
at sea.
fermentation process to go on for about two weeks 9. Use of canning or pickling salt
Prominent Features:
- Other fermented vegetables, such as turning cabbage into 10. Use white granulated sugar (brown can also be used,
1. Brining or corning
sauerkraut, can take as long as a month to achieve the desired substitutes are not recommended)
2. Food is salty or sour-tasting
results 11. Use soft water for best-looking pickles
3. pH is less than 4.6
Pickles with Salt Content 12. Use fresh, whole spices or herbs (powdered spices will cloud
4. Preserve perishable foods
- Fresh pack pickles may be prepared safely with reduced or no brine; garlic and dill is recommended; must be tied loosely in a
5. Antimicrobial herbs and spices
salt; they are acidified quickly with vinegar clean cheesecloth bag)
Types of Pickles
- Salt used in making brine pickles and fermented sauerkraut 13. Use white distilled and cider vinegar with 5% acidity (do not
1. Brined dill pickles (fermented)
- The function of salt in fermented foods is to encourage the dilute or decrease amount, do not use homemade vinegar)
2. Fresh pack or quick-process pickles
growth of desirable bacteria
3. Relishes
Pickling Equipment DRYING
4. Fruit pickles
- Utensils made of zinc, iron, brass, copper, or galvanized metal • One of the oldest method of preservation
Pickled Products:
should not be used • Removal of water/moisture from a product to a pre- determined
1. Pickled vegetables
- For fresh-pack pickling - large containers made of stainless level
2. Pickled fruits
steel or glassware
3. Pickled relish
 • the low water activity attained by food products extends the
shelf life of dried foods without the need for refrigerated
storage or transportation.
Water Activity
• Dehydration accomplishes preservation in two ways:
1. Removes the water necessary for growth of microbes and for
enzymatic activity.
2. Removal of water, as it increases the osmotic pressure by
concentrating salts, sugars, acids thus creating environment which is
unfavourable for growth of microbes.
Rate of Drying
The drying rate depends upon the following factors:
• Vapour pressure of water at drying temperature
• Vapour pressure of water in external environment
• Equilibrium vapour pressure of water in the food
• Moisture content of food
Factors that Influence Drying of Food
• Drying Temperature- This varies with food and the method of
drying, greater the temperature difference between heating
medium and food, greater the rate of heat transfer
• Relative Humidity of air- Sorption characteristic of food to be
dried should be known, as EMC is the lowest moisture content
that can be achieved under given set of temperature and
humidity conditions.
• Velocity of air- Higher the velocity of air, more efficient the
process of drying
• Drying Time- Drying time depends upon the type of food and
its moisture content and temperature
Purpose of Drying
• Preservation of foods
• Decreasing the weight and bulk of food to economize shipping
and canning costs
• Production of convenience products such as instant coffee,
milk powder, instant mash potatoes
Drying Processes
Drying processes falls in 3 categories:
1. Air and contact drying- Heat is transferred through food materials either from
heated air or heated surface.
2. Vacuum drying- Heat transfer is generally by conduction sometimes by
radiation.
3. Freeze drying- the water is sublimed off from frozen food, structure of the
food product is maintained.
Method of Drying
>Sun-drying
Cheap method. Sun drying of food refers to foods that are dried under the direct
sun
Radiant energy from sun provides heat to evaporate the water, while wind helps
to move the moisture and accelerates the process.
Disadvantages- difficultly in controlling drying conditions, protection from
insects, pests, etc., availability of sun.
Changes that occur during drying
1. Movement of solids- soluble solids move towards the surface
because of Shrinkage, concentration gradient set up between
surface and the wet center.
2. Shrinkage- may influence the drying rates, due to changes in
surface areas, pressure gradients.
3. Cellular structure- Blanching makes cells more permeable
hence cooked meat, vegetable dry easily.
4. 4. Case hardening- Common phenomenon in food with high
concentration of sugars and other solute.
5. 5. Porosity- Escaping steam tends to puff product which
desirable in bakery products, makes structure more porous so
as to facilitate mass transfer and increase drying rate.
6. 6. Chemical and other changes- Browning reactions, texture
changes, Flavour, Texture, Aroma, Denaturation of proteins.
Vacuum Packing
• a form of modified atmosphere packaging found around the
world.
• removes atmospheric oxygen from the primary package being
sealed.
Oxygen has been identified as a primary source of most product degradation.
The removal of oxygen can often extensively help extend product life.
By removing air from around the product, the levels of oxygen in the packaging
are reduced, impeding the ability of oxygen-breathing microorganisms to grow
and spoil the product. The lack of oxygen also reduces the amount of spoilage
due to oxidation – the process that causes apples and bananas to turn brown,
for example.
History of Vacuum packing
• The World War II opened its door for Vacuum Packing
Though early experiments of modified atmosphere packaging have been traced
back to the early 19th century, most accounts of vacuum packaging are not
acknowledged until after World War II. In France prior to WW II, the air was
removed from rubber latex bags and the bags were sealed. This concept
proved to increase the shelf life of frozen products. After WW II plastics became
more popular and commercialized, this opened the door for vacuum packaging
applications.
• Cryovac Vacuum Packaging in 1950’s
The Cryovac vacuum packaging process created in the 50s to package whole
turkeys was the first commercial use of vacuum packaging perishable items.
Since the introduction of commercial vacuum packaging, many companies and
individuals have contributed new methods, materials, and machines that have
improved the quality of human life.
• Introducing Inert Gas in 1970’s
By the 70s, the idea of introducing an inert gas into vacuum packaging helped
to dramatically increase the shelf life of perishable products. Since then, the
advancements in vacuum packing efficiency and increased shelf life have made
incredible advancements.
 Other Methods Similar to Vacuum Packing
Shrink packaging like vacuum packing uses a sealing bar and film to package
a variety of products. Products are enclosed in film and heat is applied to the
shrink film to form fit the film to the product. Air escapes the shrink wrapped
package through tiny vent holes along the film surface. These vent holes
prevent a shrink packaged product from being completely sealed from exterior
elements.
Vacuum packing removes oxygen from the primary packaging using suction.
Once the oxygen is removed from the package, the package is completely
sealed off from exterior elements. This modifies the atmosphere within the
package to extend the life of packaged products.
Vacuum packaging is essentially a ‘one size fits all’ technology – it relies solely
on removing air. MAP on the other hand can be tailored to the particular
foodstuff, with different gases and different proportions of gas in the mixture
used to give the maximum shelf life for the particular product and to retain the
quality and appearance of the product.
One area where MAP does score well when compared with vacuum packaging
is in the presentation of the product. In vacuum packaging, as the pressure
within the packaging is reduced the packaging material collapses and forms
itself tightly around the product. For some products, such as fresh meat, this
can distort the appearance of the product. Other products, such as shredded
cheese, are not suitable for vacuum packaging because the pressure of the
packaging material on the product would cause the product to deform and to
lose important characteristics.
Another aspect in which the two processes differ is in the ease of quality control
of the packaging process. In MAP packaging, air is flushed from the package
and replaced with the gas mixture, making it possible to constantly monitor the
gas content of the package during the packaging process. Once the package
is sealed, any leakage of the modified atmosphere can be detected, enabling
the integrity of the seal to be assured. For vacuum packaging, because there is
no gas present in the package, leak testing is typically done through manual
inspection, making quality control less straightforward.
PRO’s of Vacuum Packing
1. Increased Shelf Life - Studies have shown that vacuum packaging can
increase product shelf life from 50%-400%. The key to increasing product shelf
life is determining the ideal atmosphere within the packaging for the product
being packaged. This could be the introduction of an inert gas or the reduction
of oxygen to ideal levels. Vacuum packaging is also and preferred form of
packaging for many products going into long term freezer storage. The proper
vacuum bags can dramatically reduce freezer burn. It is a chosen form of
packaging for meat storage around the world.
2. Reduced Product Loss - Increased shelf life directly effects the reduction in
product loss for companies inventorying products. The reduced product loss
helps to increase bottom lines.
3. Sealed Barrier From External Elements - The most common vacuum bag
thickness is a 3 mil thickness with some bags up to a 6-8 mil thickness. With
the proper seal, vacuum packaging can protect products from dust, moisture,
insects, and a variety of other external elements that may harm or damage
products. Vacuum packaging is also an excellent barrier of protection against
freezer burn during long term freezer storage.
4. Seals in Flavors - Wet aging meats is a popular form of curing meat before
preparing it. This often uses natural juices from the meat with spices and flavors
vacuum sealed to lock in flavors during the curing process.
5. No Chemical Preservatives Required - Vacuum packaging eliminates the
need for chemical preservatives. With the right mixture of oxygen to inert gas,
products can last longer without the use of commonly used preservatives. The
earth's atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen which is the most commonly
used inert gas for vacuum packaging.
6. Improved Product Presentation - Most vacuum bags are crystal clear
allowing products within the packaging to be displayed on shelves. Vacuum
packaging is an affordable packaging solution the enables products to be shelf
ready with the application of a custom printed sticker.
7. Multiple Packaging Options - Vacuum sealing materials come with multiple
packaging options. Users can buy rolls of film or bags to seal products. Bags
can be found with reclosable zippers, easy open tear notches, foil lined,
channeled, and with a variety of other options to choose from.
8. Quick and Efficient Packaging - With the proper machines and materials,
vacuum sealing can be a very efficient process enabling hundreds or thousands
of products to be sealed per hour.
CON’s of Vacuum Packing
Cost Buying a vacuum packaging machine can be expensive. The initial cost of
a machine can be as between £32 and up to several hundred dollars,
depending on the quality and size of the machine. Also, there is the ongoing
cost of the packing material, which comes in rolls or bags. While it may save
you money in the long run, you should think about how much you will actually
use it. If you have limited freezer space and do not purchase in bulk, then a
vacuum packaging machine may not be a good investment. Do the math before
spending the money.
Safety Removing oxygen from the packaging is a main advantage to vacuum
packing. Certain bacteria that cause spoilage need oxygen to grow and
reproduce. Without oxygen the food will last much longer because the bacteria
can't "do their thing." But the advantage a low-oxygen environment creates can
also be a disadvantage. There are types of bacteria that cause diseases which
prefer low oxygen environments and grow very well in foods that have been
vacuum packed. If you feel the food you have is very clean and
uncontaminated, then this should not be a problem, but if there is any question
about the safety, then the food should not be vacuum packed, as you would
just be creating a perfect breeding ground for some very bad bacteria like
botulism.
Misconceptions Sealing food in vacuum packs does not eliminate the need to
handle it properly. Frozen food needs to be stored in the freezer and thawed in
an appropriate manner to minimise bacteria growth. Also, a vacuum seal is not
a heat process, which kills bacteria, so if they were there when you started, they
will still be there when you open the package. Vacuum packing does not
automatically make food safe and eliminate the need to take precautions. You
need to continue to be vigilant with food safety.
COOLING
What is cooling? The cooling process, which reduces temperature, slows down
the growth and multiplication of micro-organisms that cause food to spoil.
Slows down:
1. Molds – high acid foods
2. Bacteria – in low acid foods
3. Yeast – in high sugar and high acid foods
4. Fungi
Cooling vs. Freezing
>Cooling the idea is to slow bacterial action to a crawl so that it takes food much
longer
>Freezing the idea is to stop bacterial action altogether
Cooling Methods
>Room Cooling
 Is when produce cools passively inside a cool room.
 It minimises re handling.
 Slow cooling rates can increase weight loss and cause
condensation.
>Forced Air Cooling
 Air is pulled rapidly through bins or cartons of products
 such as vegetables.
 This increases the rate of cooling and avoids condensation.
>Hydrocooling
• Provide fast cooling so long as the water chiller has enough
capacity to remove the heat from the dip or drench water.
• Not suitable for all products.
>Ice
• Packing products with ice provide ‘insurance’ against poor
cold-chain practices and may be expected by customers for
certain product.
• Can cause freezing injury, increase rots and disease if it melts.
>Vacuum Cooling
• Involves reducing pressure inside a sealed chamber.
• Water in a product turns to vapor, absorbing heat energy.
• Works best for products that lose water easily.
• Fast and efficient.
Equipments Used for Cooling
 Gravity Coil
 Forced Air
  Refrigerator - The ideal temperature is 35 – 38 degrees Health risks associated with regular consumption of artificially wax coated • Vegetables and fruits are dipped in melted
Fahrenheit. At 40 degrees, bacteria grow. At 32 degrees, foods products: paraffin wax coat for about second. The wax
freeze, and we don’t want that. We just want to refrigerate, to • Risk of cancer solidifies immediately after being removed
cool it • Risk of liver and Kidney damage from the wax bath.
• Allergies 2. Brushing Method
FERMENTATION Tips to prevent health hazards • This is an automated method of waxing. The
What is Fermentation? • Follow the mantra of 3ws liquified wax is dispensed over a brush that

 Fermentation is a technology that utilizes the growth and • Buy more local and seasonal fruits continuously applies a thin layer of wax

metabolic activities of MO’s for the preservation and • Eat fruits without skin coating over the fruit and vegetable surface.

transformation of food materials Some fruits and vegetables that are waxed before transported For even application of edible wax, the brush

 During food fermentation, the growth of spoilage and • Apples needs to be completely saturated with the

pathogenic organisms is inhibited by the metabolites • Avocados wax.

generated by the fermenting organisms, thereby extending the • Bell 3. Spray Method

shelf life of perishable produce. • Hot peppers • Spraying of melted wax on the fruit which is

 Although ancient civilizations developed fermentation primarily • Cantaloupe subsequently brushed mechanically until a

as a way of preserving perishable agricultural produce, the • Cucumber film of desired thickness is obtained. The wax

technology has evolved beyond preservation into a tool for • Eggplant is dissolved in a suitable solvent. This

creating desirable organoleptic profiles in foods and improving • Grapefruit depends on:

their palatability. • Lemons 1. The pressure employed

• Limes 2. Volume of wax used

Discovery of Fermentation • Mangoes 3. Wax temperature

The French chemist Louis Pasteur founded zymology, when in 156 he • Melons 4. Distance of fruit from the spray

connected yeast to fermentation. When studying the fermentation of sugar to • Nectarines 5. Number of spray nozzles

alcohol by yeast, Pasteur concluded that the fermentation was catalyzed by a • Oranges 4. Manual Rubbing

vital force, called “ferments, within the yeast cells. • Papayas • This process is performed by applying the
• Parsnips wax coating over the products surface using

Types of Food Fermentation Processes • Passion fruit a brush with soft bristles or absorbent cloth.

1. Traditional • Peaches After application of edible wax, the product

A| Lactic acid fermentation – the anaerobic microbial breakdown of sugar, • Pears are air dried for abot 15 minutes.

yielding energy in the form of ATP and releasing waste products, specifically • Pineapple Wax Coating in Apples

lactic acid; examples are sausages, cheese, kombucha, Chinese fermented • Plums • Apples are first washed to wash away natural wax that may

sweetened tea, sauerkraut, a European fermented cabbage, and kimchi, a • Pumpkins contain soil and dirts. Coating is then carried out by applying

Korean fermented and spiced Napa cabbage. • Rutabaga thin layer of wax on the surface.

B| Fungal Fermentation – fungi, like yeasts and mycelial fungi predominate and • Squash • The coating process can either be by dipping, brushing, or

play a functional role, i.e., they contribute to the desirable attributes of the • Potatoes spraying with wax. Also, the wax applied can be an animal

fermented product; examples are soy sauce and tempeh, an Indonesian soy • Tomatoes wax, vegetable wax or mineral and synthetic wax but the most

sauce • Turnips common wax used on apples is called carnauba wax or

C| Alkaline Fermentation – the protein of the raw materials is broken down into Advantages shellac(vegtable wax)

amino acids and peptides; ammonia is released during the fermentation, raising • Preserves and increase the shelf life of product • An apple with a good waxy coating will store better than one

the pH of the final products and giving the food a strong ammoniacal smell; • Reduces moisture loss with partial waxy coating or no coating at all.

examples are natto, a Japanese soy product, and pidan or century egg. • Reduces Postharvest decay

2. Industrial • Prevents damage and disease Smoking

A| Submerged fermentation – a method of manufacturing biomolecules in which • Decreases the rate of transpiration -is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing

enzymes and other reactive compounds are submerged in a liquid such as Disadvantages it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood.

alcohol, oil or a nutrient broth; examples are vinegar, alcoholic beverages, and • Added Cost

yoghurt • Surface burn History

B| Solid-state Fermentation – a method that uses solid medium to culture • Wax Whiting >The smoking of food likely dates back to the paleolithic era. As caves or simple

mycelial and harvest enzymes on the substrate surface in the absence of or • Off flavour development huts lacked chimneys, these dwellings would probably have become very

containing a small amount of liquid; examples are chocolate, coffee, sake, a • Can be hazardous to one’s health smoky.

Japanese rice beer. Three Main Types of Wax >It is supposed that early humans would hang meat up to dry and out of the
• Pack out wax – For food destined for immediate consumption way of pests, thus accidentally becoming aware that meat that was stored in

Benefits of Fermented Food • Storage wax – For foods intended to be stored for a long time smoky areas acquired a different flavor, and was better preserved than meat

1. Fermented food improve your nutrition by increasing the • High shine wax – To give food an extra shine that simply dried out.

nutrient content of your food Kinds of Wax >Until the modern era, smoking was of a more "heavy duty" nature as the main

2. Fermented food have medicinal properties Vegetable Wax goal was to preserve the food. Large quantities of salt were used in the curing

3. Fermented food remove anti-nutritional factors • Carnauba wax process and smoking times were quite long, sometimes involving days of

4. Fermentation can salvage your waste food, turning it into • Candelilla wax exposure.

fermented food. • Sugarcane wax > This process was later combined with pre-curing the food in salt or salty brine,
• Palm wax resulting in a remarkably effective preservation process that was adapted and

WAXING • Esparto wax developed by numerous cultures around the world

A process of covering fruits and vegetables with an artificial waxing material • Japan wax >The advent of modern transportation made it easier to transport food products

that prevents moisture loss which in turn prevents shrinkage of fruits and • Oricury wax over long distances and the need for the time and material intensive heavy

vegetables and extends their shelf life. It replaces the fruits and vegetables’ Animal Wax salting and smoking declined. Smoking became more of a way to flavor than to

natural wax. • Bees wax preserve food.

• Spermaceti wax >In 1939 a device called the Torry Kiln was invented at the Torry Research

Natural wax – Acts as a barrier to reduce moisture loss that may result in • Shellac wax Station in Scotland. The kiln allowed for uniform mass-smoking and is

product shrivelling, wilting, textural changes, appearance changes, and edible Mineral and Synthetic Wax considered the prototype for all modern large-scale commercial smokers.

quality changes. • Paraffin wax > The advent of modern transportation made it easier to transport food products

Research by scientific authorities suggests that food-grade wax or edible wax • Ozocerite over long distances and the need for the time and material intensive heavy

is safe to eat as they are not broken down by the body for absorption and are • Montan wax salting and smoking declined. Smoking became more of a way to flavor than to

eliminated by the body. • Synthetic wax preserve food.

• Polyethylene >In 1939 a device called the Torry Kiln was invented at the Torry Research

However, these waxes are mixed with additives such as glycerols, lactic acid Waxing Methods Station in Scotland. The kiln allowed for uniform mass-smoking and is

(to adjust pH of coating material) and morpholine (to ensure cooating is applied 1. Dipping Method considered the prototype for all modern large-scale commercial smokers.

thinly and evenly) which can be hazardous to health if consumed repititively. • This method is used when products are >Although refinements in technique and advancements in technology have
coated with paraffin wax made smoking much easier, the basic steps involved remain essentially the
same today as they were hundreds if not thousands of years ago.
Types of Smoking
Cold smoking differs from hot smoking in that the food remains raw, rather than
cooked, throughout the smoking process.
Smokehouse temperatures for cold smoking are typically done between 20 to
30 °C (68 to 86 °F).
In this temperature range, foods take on a smoked flavor, but remain relatively
moist.
Cold smoking does not cook foods, and as such, meats should be
fully cured before cold smoking.
Cold smoking can be used as a flavor enhancer for items such as cheese or
nuts, along with meats such as chicken breasts, beef, pork chops, salmon,
scallops, and steak.
The item is often hung in a dry environment first to develop a pellicle, then it
can be cold smoked up to several days to ensure it absorbs the smokey flavour.
Some cold smoked foods are baked, grilled, steamed, roasted, or sautéed
before eating.
Cold smoking meats is not something that should be attempted at home
According to the US National Center for Home Food Preservation:
Most food scientists cannot recommend cold- smoking methods because
of the inherent risks.”
Cold smoking meats should only be attempted by personnel certified in
HACCP, or Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points, to ensure that it is
safely prepared.
Warm smoking exposes foods to temperatures of 25–40 °C (77–104 °F).
Hot smoking usually occurs within the range of 52 to 80 °C (126 to 176 °F).
Hot smoking exposes the foods to smoke and heat in a controlled environment
such as a smoker oven or smokehouse. Hot smoking requires the use of a
smoker which generates heat either from a charcoal base, heated element
within the smoker or from a stove-top or oven; food is hot smoked by cooking
and flavoured with wood smoke simultaneously.
They are typically safe to eat without further cooking
When food is smoked within this temperature range, foods are fully cooked,
moist, and flavorful. If the smoker is allowed to get hotter than 85 °C (185 °F),
the foods will shrink excessively, buckle, or even split. Smoking at high
temperatures also reduces yield, as both moisture and fat are cooked away.
Liquid smoke, a product derived from smoke compounds in water, is applied to
foods through spraying or dipping.
Smoke-roasting refers to any process that has the attributes of both roasting
and smoking. This smoking method is sometimes referred to as barbecuing or
pit-roasting.
It may be done in a smoke-roaster, a closed wood-fired oven, or a barbecue pit,
any smoker that can reach above 121 °C (250 °F), or in a conventional oven
(one that a person does not mind having smoky all the time) by placing a pan
filled with hardwood chips on the floor of the oven so that the chips can smolder
and produce a smoke-bath.
Wood smoke The optimal conditions for smoke flavor are low, smoldering
temperatures between 300 and 400 °C (570 and 750 °F).
When smoking using wood chips or chunks, the combustion temperature is
often raised by soaking the pieces in water before placing them on a fire.
--High-temperature fires see the flavor molecules broken down further into
unpleasant or flavorless compounds.
--This is the temperature of the burning wood itself, not of the smoking
environment, which uses much lower temperatures. Woods that are high in
lignin content tend to burn hot; to keep them smoldering requires
restricted oxygen supplies or a high moisture content.
Hardwoods are made up mostly of three materials: cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose are the basic structural material of the
wood cells; lignin acts as a kind of cell-bonding glue.
Some softwoods, especially pines and firs, hold significant quantities of resin,
which produces a harsh-tasting soot when burned; these woods are not often
used for smoking.
Cellulose and hemicellulose are aggregate sugar molecules; when burnt, they
effectively caramelize, producing carbonyls, which provide most of the color
components and sweet, flowery, and fruity aromas.
Lignin, a highly complex arrangement of interlocked phenolic molecules, also
produces a number of distinctive aromatic elements when burnt, including
smoky, spicy, and pungent compounds such as guaiacol, phenol, and syringol,
and sweeter scents such as the vanilla-scented vanillin and clove-like
isoeugenol.
Types of Smokers Pellet Smokers A pellet smoker is a temperature controlled smoker that burns
Offset Smokers The main characteristics of the offset smoker are that the wood pellets made of dried out sawdust, about an inch long and 1/4 inch wide.
cooking chamber is usually cylindrical in shape, with a shorter, smaller diameter The wood pellets are stored in a gravity-fed hopper that feeds into a motor
cylinder attached to the bottom of one end for a firebox. To cook the meat, a controlled by the temperature regulator. This motor pushes the pellets into an
small fire is lit in the firebox, where airflow is tightly controlled. The heat and auger that sits underneath the heat box. An ignition rod within the auger ignites
smoke from the fire are drawn through a connecting pipe or opening into the the pellets where a combustion fan keeps them smouldering.
cooking chamber. Above the auger is a heat shield to disperse the direct heat before it reaches
The heat and smoke cook and flavor the meat before escaping through an the heat box to allow the wood smoke to keep the heat box at an even
exhaust vent at the opposite end of the cooking chamber. temperature throughout. The heat sensor inside the heat box relays the current
Most manufacturers' models are based on this simple but effective design, and temperature inside the box back to the temperature regulator which then
this is what most people picture when they think of a "BBQ smoker". Even large controls the fan speed and pellet hopper motor.
capacity commercial units use this same basic design of a separate, smaller
fire box and a larger cooking chamber. Preservation
Smoke is both an antimicrobial and antioxidant, however it is insufficient alone
Uptight Drum Smoker The main characteristics of the offset smoker are that the for preserving food as smoke does not penetrate far into meat or fish; it is thus
cooking chamber is usually cylindrical in shape, with a shorter, smaller diameter typically combined with salt-curing or drying.
cylinder attached to the bottom of one end for a firebox. To cook the meat, a Smoking is especially useful for oily fish, as its antioxidant properties inhibit
small fire is lit in the firebox, where airflow is tightly controlled. The heat and surface fat rancidification and delay interior fat exposure to degrading oxygen.
smoke from the fire are drawn through a connecting pipe or opening into the Some heavily-salted, long-smoked fish can keep without refrigeration for weeks
cooking chamber. or months.
The heat and smoke cook and flavor the meat before escaping through an
exhaust vent at the opposite end of the cooking chamber. Health Concerns
Most manufacturers' models are based on this simple but effective design, and Regularly consuming smoked meats and fish may increase the risk of several
this is what most people picture when they think of a "BBQ smoker". Even large types of cancer and cardiovascular disease.
capacity commercial units use this same basic design of a separate, smaller Eating smoked products increases your risks of stomach infections associated
fire box and a larger cooking chamber. with bacterial contamination such as E.coli and Listeria monocytogenes. There
is also increased Stroke and Diabetes Risk in eating smoked foods.
Vertical Water Smoker A vertical water smoker (also referred to as a bullet
smoker because of its shape)is a variation of the upright drum smoker. It uses List of Smoked Food and Beverages
charcoal or wood to generate smoke and heat, and contains a water bowl >Beverages
between the fire and the cooking grates. The water bowl serves to maintain • Lapsang souchong tea leaves are smoked and dried over pine
optimal smoking temperatures and also adds humidity to the smoke chamber. or cedar fires
It also creates an effect in which the water vapor and smoke condense together, • Malt beverages
which adds flavor to smoked foods. • The malt used to make whisky
In addition, the bowl catches any drippings from the meat that may cause a • Rauchbier (smoked beer)
flare-up. Vertical water smokers are extremely temperature stable and require >Fruits and Vegetables
very little adjustment once the desired temperature has been reached. Because • Capsicums: chipotles (smoked, ripe jalapeños), paprika
of their relatively low cost and stable temperature, they are sometimes used in • Prunes (dried plums) can be smoked while drying
barbecue competitions where propane and electric smokers are not allowed. • Wumei are smoked plum fruits
• Iburi-gakko are a smoked daikon pickle from Akita Prefecture,
Propane Smoker A propane smoker is designed to allow the smoking of meat Japan
in a somewhat more temperature controlled environment. The primary >Meat, Fish, Cheese
differences are the sources of heat and of the smoke. In a propane smoker, the • Beef
heat is generated by a gas burner directly under a steel or iron box containing – Pastrami (pickled, spiced and smoked beef
the wood or charcoal that provides the smoke. The steel box has few vent holes, brisket)
on the top of the box only. By starving the heated wood of oxygen, it smokes • Pork
instead of burning. Any combination of woods and charcoal may used. This – Bacon
method uses much less wood but does require propane fuel – Ham
– Bakkwa
Smoke Box Smokers This more traditional method uses a two-box system: a • Turkey
fire box and a food box. The fire box is typically adjacent or under the cooking • Sausage
box, and can be controlled to a finer degree. – Salami
• Jerky
Electric Smokers The most convenient of the various types of smokers are the • Fish
insulated electric smokers. These devices house a heating element that can – Eel popular in eastern/northern Europe[25]
maintain temperatures ranging from that required for a cold smoke all the way – Traditional Grimsby smoked fish (cod and
up to 135 °C (275 °F) with little to no intervention from the user haddock)
Although wood chunks, pellets, and even in some cases automatically-fed – Haddock and Arbroath Smokies (haddock)
wood pucks are used to generate smoke, the amount of flavor obtained is less – Buckling, kippers and bloater (herring)
than traditional wood or charcoal smokers. – Salmon
– Mackerel
Trench Smokers In this method the firebox is a narrow trench cut down a slope • Egg (eggs and fish eggs)
pointing into the prevailing wind. The middle part of the trench is covered over • Cheese
to make it into a tunnel. – Gouda
At the upper end of the trench is a vertical framework covered to form a chimney – Gruyère
within which is placed the rack of foodstuff. At the lower upwind end of the • Other proteins
trench is lit a small smokey fire, and sustained day and night until the foodstuff – Nuts
is cured. – Tofu
• Spices
Commercial Smokehouse Commercial smokehouses, mostly made from – Paprika
stainless steel, have independent systems for smoke generation and cooking. – Salt
Smoke generators use friction, an electric coil or a small flame to ignite sawdust
on demand. Curing
Heat from steam coils or gas flames is balanced with live steam or water sprays >Curing is a method of preserving food (usually meat or fish) to prevent
to control the temperature and humidity. Elaborate air handling systems reduce spoilage. Food can be cured by brining (soaking food in saltwater solution),
hot or cold spots, to reduce variation in the finished product. Racks on wheels smoking, or salting (packing food in salt) but curing mainly refer to salting.
or rails are used to hold the product and facilitate movement.
>Curing with salt and sugar may be called salting, salt-curing, sugar-curing or
honey-curing. The application of pellets of salt, called corns, if often called
corning. Curing in a salt solution or brine is called wet-curing or pickling or
brining. The curing of fish is sometimes called kippering
>Historically, people around the world have cured meat, in order not to waste
valuable food, and to insure against poor harvests or hunting seasons. Although
a salt-rich diet is currently implicated in risk for heart disease, in the past protein
deficiency was a greater problem.
>Salted meat and fish are commonly eaten as a staple diet in North Africa,
Southern China and in the Arctic where they are associated with
nasopharyngeal cancer caused by infection by the Epstein-Barr virus. One
study hypothesizes that the actual vector is an anaerobic bacteria found in
salted fish.
What Salt Curing Does
>The salt works on at least three stages. First, it inhibits bacterial growth,
thereby preserving foods like duck breasts or salmon for moderate lengths of
time.
>That said, it doesn’t inhibit all bacterial growth. Instead it allows for a moderate
amount of fermentation (causing somewhat sweet twang flavor).
>Second, salt breaks down protein in muscle fibers so the meat or fish is more
tender – as evidenced in graviax, corned beef brisket, or kosher chickens.
>In the final stage, salt can be used as a dehydrating agent, which creates a
dense and chewy but nonetheless tender meat or fish – the signature texture
of ham, lox, or bacon.
Chemical Action of Curing
>Salt inhibits the growth of spoilage-causing microorganisms by drawing water
out of microbial cells through osmosis.
>As the unwanted bacterial population decreases, other beneficial bacteria,
primarily of the lactobacillus genus, grows and generate an acidic environment
(around 4.5 ph).
>Osmosis is a process that causes a liquid to pass through the semipermeable
membrane of a living cell into a solution of higher solute concentration. With
this process, salt draws out moisture from the product.
>The sugar included in the cure is used as the food by the lactobacilli; generally
dextrose is preferred over sucrose, or table sugar, because it seems to be more
thoroughly consumed by the bacteria.
>This process is in fact a form of fermentation, and, in addition to reducing
further the ability of spoilage bacteria to grow, accounts for the tangy flavor of
some cured products.
>Concentrations of salt up to 20% are required to kill most species of unwanted
bacteria. Smoking adds chemicals to the surface of an item which affect the
ability of bacteria to grow, inhibit oxidation (and thus rancidity), and improve
flavor.
>Smoking helps seal the outer layer of the food being cured, making it more
harder for bacteria to enter. It is usually done with other forms of curing like
salting.
>Common smoking styles include hot smoking, smoke roasting, and cold
smoking. Smoke roasting and hot smoking cook the meat between 160 to 225
C which denatures the protein, thoroughly cooking the meat. Cold smoking
does not cook the meat and merely injects smoky attributes to the meat and is
cooked at most 27 C. If the meat is cold smoked, it should be dried quickly to
limit bacterial growth during the critical period where the meat is not yet dry.
>Nitrates and nitrites not only help kill bacteria, but also produce a characteristic
flavor, and give the meat a pink or red color.
>Nitrate (NO3), in the form of either sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate, is used
as a source for nitrite (NO2). The nitrite further breaks down in the meat into
nitric oxide (NO), which then binds to the iron atom in the center of myoglobin’s
heme group, preventing oxidation.
Controversy Regarding the Use of Nitrate and Nitrites
>The presence of nitrates and nitrites in food is controversial due to the
development of nitrosamines when the food, particularly bacon, is cooked at
high temperatures.
>The nitrate and nitrite compounds themselves are not harmful, however, and
are among the antioxidants found in fresh vegetables.
>The usage of either compound is carefully regulated in the production of food
products.
>In the United States, their concentration in finished products is limited to 200
ppm, and is usually lower. Finally, they are irreplaceable in the prevention of
botulinum poisoning from consumption of dry-cured sausage. The lethal dose
of nitrile for human is 22mg / kg of body weight.
Health Concerns Regarding the Consumption of Cured Foods
• The consumption of these foods causes harmful effects on our
body since processed meat contains harmful chemicals that
are not present in fresh meat.
• Chronic diseases such us: high blood pressure, heart
diseases, bowel and stomach cancer
ADDITIONAL INFO: All meat that has been smoked, salted, cured, dried or
canned is considered processed.
Best Food Suitable for Curing
>In general, meat and fish are the best options since these types of food are
typically sensitive to external factors and fast to spoil.
> Particularly those varieties that are relatively high in fat like brisket, duck, ham,
and salmon. Already tender or soft flesh cuts like tenderloin or shrimp would
gain little from the salt-cure, no more than a strange aftertaste or smell. Plus it
would also result to being too soft from the salt’s action
> Vegetables also benefit less from a salt-cure except those with high water
concentration like cabbage, cucumber and eggplant.
> Once these vegetables are salted, they release much of their liquid and are
then suitable for sauces, relishes, and the like. If not presalted, they would
release liquid into the dish and water down the taste
Curing Time
> Fish like salmon or halibut is cured for 24 to hours, depending on how firm
the flesh is. Meats are cured for longer periods of time since their muscular
structures are more resilient to the salt’s action.
> Also, the larger the cut, the longer the cure. But timing is crucial since it can
affect the overall quality of the cured produce. Too little time in a salt bath, the
fish or meat will not be adequately tenderized, too long and the whole produce
will be unappealingly soft or mushy.
Shelf Life
> Home-cured meat and fish recipes don’t usually last longer compared to
commercial products unless they used the same chemicals and equipment in
curing.
Necessity of Curing
> Untreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that
depends on several factors including ambient humidity, temperature, and the
presence of pathogens.
> Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days
without spoiling, even in winter. If kept in excess of this time, meat begins to
change color and exude a foul odor, indicating the decomposition of food.
> Ingestion of such spoiled meat can cause serious food poisoning, like
botulism.
- Botulism is a disease caused by food poisoning caused by
botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum bacteria.
> While the short shelf life of fresh meat does not pose a significant problem
when access to it is easy and supply is abundant, in times of scarcity and
famine, or when the meat must be carried over long voyages, it spoils very
quickly. Thus, preservation of foods is useful for transport and storage.
> Curing is able to significantly extend the life of meat before it spoils, by making
it inhospitable to the growth of spoilage microbes.
Effects of Meat Preservation: on Health
>The preservation of meat has allowed safe and plentiful access to this nutrient-
rich food for thousands of years.
>It has prevented countless cases of malnutrition and food poisoning.
>Since the 20th century, with respect to the relationship between diet and
human diseases, scientists have conducted studies on the effects of lipolysis
on vacuum-packed or frozen meat.
>In particular, by analyzing entrecotes of frozen beef during 270 days at -20 C,
scientists found an important phospholipase that accompanies the loss of some
unsaturated fat n-3 and n-6, which are already low in the flesh of ruminants.
-Lipolysis is the breaking down of fats in our bodies through
the use of enzymes.
Effects of Meat Preservation: on Trade
> The improvement of methods of meat preservation, and of the means of
transport of preserved products, has notably permitted the separation of the
areas of production and the areas of consumption, which can now be distant
without it posing a problem, permitting the exportations of meats.
> For example, the appearance in the 1980s of preservation techniques under
controlled atmosphere sparked a small revolution in the world’s market for
sheep meat: the lamb of New Zealand, one of the world’s largest exporters of
lamb, could be sold as fresh meat.
• This meat could be preserved for 12-16 weeks, which could be
a sufficient duration for it to reach Europe by boat.
• Before, the meat of New Zealand was frozen, thus had much
lower value on European shelved.
• The arrival of the new “chilled” meats lead to New Zealand’s
ability to compete with local producers when it came to fresh
meat.
Examples of Cured Food
• Prosciutto
• Salami
• Spanish chorizo
• Pepperoni
• Bacon
• Pancetta
• Jamon Serrano
• Jamon Iberico
• Kunchiang
• Corned beef
• Blood Sausage
Freezing
>Freezing is the easiest, most convenient, and least time-consuming method
of preserving foods. Most foods freeze well—with the exception of produce with
a high water content, cream-based items, and cooked starchy foods such as
cooked noodles and rice.
> Freezing, in food processing, method of preserving food by lowering
the temperature to inhibit microorganism growth. The method has been used
for centuries in cold regions, and a patent was issued in Britain as early as 1842
for freezing food by immersion in an ice and salt brine. It was not, however, until
the advent of mechanical refrigeration that the process became widely
applicable commercially. In 1880 a cargo of meat shipped from Australia to
Britain under refrigeration accidentally froze, with such good results that the
process was at once adopted for long-distance shipments and other storage. In
the 20th century quick, or flash, freezing was found to be especially effective
with certain types of food.
>Except for beef and venison, which benefit from an aging process, meat is
frozen as promptly as possible after slaughter, with best results at temperatures
of 0 °F (−18 °C) or lower. Fruits are frozen in a syrup or dry sugar pack to
exclude air and prevent both oxidation and desiccation.
>Most commercial freezing is done either in cold air kept in motion by fans (blast
freezing) or by placing the foodstuffs in packages or metal trays on refrigerated
surfaces (contact freezing).
>All fresh produce contains enzymes, compounds that help the plant ripen and
mature. During freezing, enzyme action is slowed but not stopped. If not
inactivated, these enzymes can cause color and flavor changes and loss of
nutrients during freezer storage. Also, freezing stops, but does not destroy, the
microorganisms that cause spoilage or illness.
Inactivation of Enzymes in vegetables
> Contrary to some publications or folklore, blanching is essential for obtaining
top quality frozen vegetables. Blanching vegetables before freezing inactivates
the enzymes. During blanching, the vegetable is exposed to boiling water or
steam for a brief period. The vegetable is then rapidly cooled in cold water (60
degrees Fahrenheit or below) for the same amount of time to prevent cooking.
> Blanching also helps destroy microorganisms on the surface of the
vegetables. When blanched, vegetables such as broccoli and spinach become
more compact. Following the recommended times for blanching each vegetable
is important. Over-blanching results in a cooked product and loss of flavor, color
and nutrients. Under-blanching stimulates enzyme activity and is worse than no
blanching at all.
> The use of microwave ovens for blanching has become popular. However,
microwave blanching is not recommended as it produces uneven results
because of varied heat patterns within a microwave oven and from one
microwave oven to another. Microwave blanching requires working with only
small quantities at a time; there is no time saved when working with large
quantities of vegetables.
Prevention of Color Changes in Fruits
> Enzymes in fruits can cause browning and loss of Vitamin C. Fruits are not
usually blanched. Instead, ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is used to control enzymes
in frozen fruits. Commercial mixtures of ascorbic acid are available for home
use. Citric acid or lemon juice also may be used to prevent darkening of fruits,
but they are not as effective as ascorbic acid. Packing fruit in sugar or sugar
syrup will also control browning, but not as effectively as ascorbic acid.
Prevention of Off-Flavors
> Another type of change that can occur in frozen products is the development
of rancid off flavors. This occurs when fat, such as in meat, is exposed to air
over a period of time. It can be controlled by using a storage method that does
not allow air to reach the product. Therefore, it is always advisable to remove
as much air as possible from the freezer bag or container to reduce the amount
of air in contact with the product being frozen.
Freezer Storage
> To maintain top quality, store frozen fruits and vegetables at 0 degrees
Fahrenheit or lower. The only way to be sure your freezer is at the right
temperature is to use a freezer thermometer. Storing frozen food at
temperatures higher than 0 degrees Fahrenheit increases the rate of
deterioration and shortens the shelf life of food. >Fluctuating freezer
temperatures can cause the ice in the food to thaw slightly and then refreeze.
Every time this happens, the smaller ice crystals form larger ones, further
damaging cells and creating a mushier product.
> Moisture loss, or ice crystals evaporating from the surface of a product,
produces freezer burn—a grainy, brownish spot where the tissues become dry
and tough. Freezer-burned food is likely to develop off flavors, but it will not
cause illness. Packaging in heavyweight, moisture-resistant materials will
prevent freezer burn.
Containers for Freezing
Foods for the freezer should be packed properly to protect their flavor, color,
moisture content, and nutritive value. Select packaging materials with these
characteristics:
• moisture and vapor resistant
• durable and leak-proof
• resistant to oil, grease and water
• not susceptible to becoming brittle and cracking at low temperatures
• able to protect foods from absorbing other flavors or odors
• easy to seal
• easy to label
Suitable packaging materials include rigid plastic containers with straight sides,
glass jars made for freezing and canning, heavy-duty aluminum foil, moisture-
vapor resistant bags, and freezer paper. Containers intended for short-term
storage, such as bread wrap; cottage cheese, milk or ice cream cartons; regular
aluminum foil; or waxed paper do not provide effective protection against flavor
and moisture loss or freezer burn during long-term storage. Plastic containers
designed for long-term freezer storage may or may not be suitable for direct
use in a microwave oven.
Packaging Food
>Cool all foods and syrup before packing. Pack foods in quantities that are
usable for a single meal.
>Pack cold foods tightly into containers. Because most foods expand on
freezing, allow ample headspace (space between food and closure). The
amount of space needed will vary depending on the food and size of containers.
When packing food in bags, press out excess air before sealing. Label and date
each package. It is also helpful to list number of servings on the label.
>For quick freezing, spread packages among already frozen foods. Leave a
small space between packages and add only the amount of unfrozen food to
the freezer that will freeze within 24 hours: about 2 to 3 pounds of food to each
cubic foot of freezer capacity.
Freezing Pointers
• Freeze foods at 0 degrees Fahrenheit or lower. To freeze
foods rapidly, set the temperature control at –10 degrees
Fahrenheit or lower 24 hours in advance.
• Keep a thermometer in the freezer to assure proper freezing
temperatures are maintained.
• Freeze foods immediately after they are packaged and sealed.
• Do not overload your freezer with unfrozen food. Overloading
slows down the freezing rate, and foods that freeze too slowly
may lose quality.
• Place packages in contact with refrigerated surfaces in the
coldest part of the freezer.
• Leave a little space between packages so air can circulate
freely
Advamtages
Freezing food is the best way to preserve color. If you want the strawberries to
stay bright red, use the freezer. It also preserves far more nutrients and is safer
than canning.
Disadvantages
The formation of ice crystals can break down the skin on fruits and vegetables,
changing the texture. When you thaw those nice red strawberries, put them in
a bowl because they will disintegrate and create a puddle!
Irradiation
Food Irradiation is a technology that improves the safety and extends the shelf
life of foods by exposing food to ionizing radiation that can penetrate food to
kill, prevent the reproduction of microorganism and insects.
• Radiation is broadly defined as energy moving through space
in invisible waves
• The radiation of interest in food preservation is ionizing
radiation, also known as irradiation
• These shorter wavelengths are capable of damaging
microorganism such as those contaminate food or cause food
spoilage and deterioration.
The fundamental difference between food irradiation and pasteurization is the
source of the energy used to destroy the microbes. While conventional
pasteurization relies on heat, irradiation relies on the energy of ionizing
radiation.
Why Irradiate Food?
■ Pathogen Reduction– to effectively eliminate organisms that
cause foodborne illness, such as Salmonella and Escherichia
coli (E. coli).
■ Shelf life Extension– to destroy or inactivate organisms that
cause spoilage and decomposition and extend the shelf life of
foods.
■ Insect Disinfection– to destroy insects in or on tropical fruits
imported into the United States. Irradiation also decreases the
need for other pest-control practices that may harm the fruit.
■ Delay of Sprouting and Ripening – to inhibit sprouting (e.g.,
potatoes) and delay ripening of fruit to increase longevity.
■ Sterilization – irradiation can be used to sterilize foods, which
can then be stored for years without refrigeration. Sterilized
foods are useful in hospitals for patients with severely impaired
immune systems, such as patients with AIDS or undergoing
chemotherapy. Foods that are sterilized by irradiation are
exposed to substantially higher levels of treatment than those
approved for general use.
How is Food Irradiated?
■ Gamma Rays
– Gamma Radiation has been used to sterilize
medical, dental and household products. In
addition, it has been used for radiation
treatment of cancer. These are emitted from
radioactive forms of cobalt or cesium.
■ X-rays
– These are produced by reflecting a high-
energy stream of electrons of a target
substance into food. The fields of medicine
and industry make use of X-rays to produce
images of internal structures
■ Electron beam
– Also called e-beam, it functions similarly to X-
rays in high-energy electrins are propelled
from an electron accelerator into food
Gamma Irradiator
1. To kill bacteria in fruits and vegetables, the food is loaded into
large containers called pallet carries, which moves through the
plant on a monorail system
2. Fruits and vegetables are exposed to gamma rays as they
pass racks of cobalt 60. This kills pests. For other foods,
irradiation can extend shell life and kill bacteria such as
salmonella that can cause fatal diseases.
3. Unused cobalt 60 is stored underground in a water tank, the
blocks radiation
4. Fruits and vegetables complete the circuit in 30 to 60 min. They
are then unloaded and taken for processing
How Does Irradiation Work?
■ Food is exposed to a carefully measured amount of intense
ionizing radiation
■ When food is irradiated, the radiation energy breaks the bonds
in the DNA molecules of microorganism. Thus, the organism
dies or becomes unable to reproduce
■ Frozen foods take larger radiation dose to kill microbes
■ The effectiveness of the process depends on the organism’s
sensitivity to irradiation
In irradiation, the process involves exposing the food, either packaged or in
bulk, to carefully controlled amounts of ionizing radiation for a specific time to
achieve certain desirable objectives. When microbes present in the food are
irradiated, the energy from the radiation breaks the bonds in the DNA
molecules, causing defects in the genetic instructions. Unless this damage can
be repaired, the organism will die or will be unable to reproduce, which matters
if the food is frozen or fresh, because it takes larger radiation dose to kill
microbes in frozen foods. Thus, effectiveness of the process depends also on
the organism’s sensitivity to irradiation, on the rate at which it can repair
damaged DNA, and especially on the amount of DNA in the target organism
such as parasites and insect pests, which have large amounts of DNA, are
rapidly killed by an extremely low dose of irradiation. But it takes more
irradiation to kill bacteria, because they have less DNA and viruses are the
smallest pathogens that have nucleic acid, and they are, in general, resistant
to irradiation at doses approved for foods. If the food still has living cells, they
will be damaged or killed just as microbes are, which is a useful effect that can
be used to prolong the shelf life of fruits and vegetables because it inhibits
sprouting and delays ripening.
Is Irradiated Food Safe to Eat?
The FDA has evaluated the safety of irradiated food for more than 30 years and
has found the process to be safe. The World Health Organization (WHO), the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) have also endorsed the safety of irradiated food.
What Foods are irradiated?
■ Beef and Pork Crustaceans (e.g., lobster, shrimp, and crab)
■ Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Lettuce and Spinach Poultry
Seeds for Sprouting (e.g., for alfalfa sprouts)
■ Shell Eggs Shellfish - Molluscan (e.g., oysters, clams,
mussels, and scallops) Spices and Seasonings
How to know if a product is irradiated?
The FDA requires that irradiated foods bear the international symbol for
irradiation. Look for the Radura symbol along with the statement “Treated with
radiation” or “Treated by irradiation” on the food label. Bulk foods, such as fruits
and vegetables, are required to be individually labeled or to have a label next
to the sale container.
Benefits of Food Irradiation?
Food irradiation can offer a wide range of benefits to food industry and the
consumer. From a practical point of view, there are three general application
and dose categories that are referred to when foods are treated with ionizing
radiation:
■ Low-dose irradiation – up to ª 1 kGy (sprout inhibition; delay of
ripening; insect disinfestation; parasite inactivation).
■ Medium-dose irradiation – 1 to 10 kGy (reduction in numbers
of spoilage microorganisms; reduction in numbers or
elimination of non-spore-forming pathogens, i.e. disease
causing microorganisms).
■ High-dose irradiation – above 10 kGy (reduction in numbers of
microorganisms to the point of sterility).
Perhaps the most important application of this method of food preservation is
to ensure the hygienic quality of solid or semi-solid foods, especially those of
animal origin, through inactivation of foodborne pathogens.
PROs of Food Irradiation
1. It prevents food-borne illness
Through irradiation, organisms that cause food-borne illnesses such as
Salmonella and Escherichia coli are effectively eliminated.
2. It helps preserve food
Irradiation destroys and inactivates organisms that cause food to spol and
decompose. As a result, the shelf life of foods are extended.
3. It controls insects
Often times, tropical fruits imported into the US bring with them unwanted
insects. Since insects are known to disrupt as well as bring disease, eliminating
them for the sake of consumers is always good. Also, irradiation limits the need
for pest-control practices that cause further damage to fruit.
4. It delays sprouting and ripening
A delay in sprouting – for example, in potatoes – increases its longevity. The
same foes also result to delaying the ripening of fruit.
5. It provides sterilization
Irradiation can be used to sterilize food which means it can be stored for a long
time without the need for refrigeration. Sterilized foods are useful in places like
hospitals, particularly for patients who have impaired immune systems such as
those with AIDS or those who are undergoing chemotherapy.
In addition, foods that are sterilized by irradiation are exposed to higher levels
of treatment than those approved for general use
CONs of Food Irradiation
1. It is
One of the main concerns of consumes regarding irradiated food is that it is
radioactive. As such, the food is harmful to eat. However, this has been
debunked as irradiated foods have been proven not to be radioactive. Extensive
testing has also been done and it shows that irradiating food is just as safe as
canning, pasteurizing and freezing.
2. It gives consumers less
Consumers who are still skeptical of such practices want to be able to choose
between food that has been irradiated and those that have not. Authorities have
made sure this happens through mandatory labeling.
3. It raises concerns about food
Given that irradiation eliminates food-borne pathogens and extends shelf life,
there are concerns that food hygiene practices aren’t put into place. People
believe that hygiene practices as well as food handling techniques would be
less stringent.
While it’s true that irradiating food removes some harmful elements, it’s never
a substitute for food hygiene. Consumers still need to exercise proper handling
and sanitation when it comes to food, whether or not it was irradiated. In other
words, it’s not a reason for society to be reckless given that certain elements
that cause harm and detriment have been removed from food before they are
distributed for public consumption.
4. It eliminated warning signs of food
There is concern that irradiation will make it hard to tell whether or not food has
gone bad because that certain element has been stripped before it landed in
someone’s grocery basket. Normal indicators such as smell or mold are
destroyed thanks to irradiation.
While it does lengthen shelf life, it doesn’t totally free it from spoilage is the point
detractors want to bring across. Basically, how can they tell it is truly spoiled
when the factors that lead to spoilage have been removed?
5. It doesn’t benefit
Many consumers believe that irradiating food is just based on market needs,
and not really the needs of the consumer.
FAQs about Food Irradiation
>What is the difference between irradiated and radioactive foods?
Irradiated foods are those that have been deliberately processed with certain
types of radiation energy to bring about some desirable properties (for example,
to inhibit sprouting or to destroy food-poisoning bacteria). Apart from foodstuffs,
many other materials are commercially irradiated during manufacturing. These
include cosmetics, wine bottle corks, hospital supplies and medical products,
and some types of food packaging. Radioactive foods, on the other hand, are
those that have become accidentally contaminated by radioactive substances
from weapons testing or nuclear reactor accidents.
>Can irradiated food become toxic?
NO. Since the late 1940s irradiated foods were considered to require careful
toxicological investigation before this process could be applied to food
manufacturing. In actual fact it was firmly concluded by a study conducted in
Germany as far back as 1926 that irradiation did not produce any toxic factors
in animal diets. The standard procedure for this purpose was to feed the
foodstuff to be tested to laboratory animals and look for possible effects of
longevity, reproductive capacity, tumour incidence, and other indicators of the
animals’ health status.
>Will irradiation increase the cost of food?
Any food process will add cost. In most cases, however, food prices do not
necessarily rise just because a product has been treated. Many variables affect
food costs, and one of them is the cost of processing. Canning, freezing,
pasteurization, refrigeration, fumigation, and irradiation add cost to the product.
These treatments will also bring benefits to consumers in terms of availability
and quantity, storage life, convenience, and improved hygiene of the food.
Reduced losses will bring revenue to producers and traders, thus in turn,
compensating treatment costs.
>Does irradiation make food radioactive?
NO. Irradiation does not make food radioactive. Everything in our environment,
including food, contains trace amounts of radioactivity. This means that this
trace amount (about 150 to 200 becquerels/kg) of natural radioactivity from
elements such as potassium is unavoidable in our daily diets
Irradiation does not make foods radioactive, compromise nutritional quality, or
noticeably change the taste, texture, or appearance of food. In fact, any
changes made by irradiation are so minimal that it is not easy to tell if a food
has been irradiated.
Chemical treatment
radioactive  Chemical food preservatives are substances which, under
certain conditions, either delay the growth of microorganism
without necessarily destroying them or prevent deterioration of
quality during manufacture and distribution.
 These include some natural food constituents which, when
added to food, retard or prevent the growth of microorganisms.
choice  Many chemicals will kill micro-organisms or stop their growth
but most of these are not permitted in foods.
 Chemical food preservatives are those substances which are
added in very low quantities (up to 0.2%) and which do not
hygiene alter the organoleptic and physico-chemical properties of the
foods at or only very little.
>this approach minimizes undesirable changes in product properties and
reduces concentration of additives and extent of processing treatments.
 Preservation of food products containing chemical food
preservatives is usually based on the combined or synergistic
activity of several additives, intrinsic product parameters (e.g.
Composition, acidity, water activity) and extrinsic factors (e.g.
Processing temperature, storage atmosphere and
temperature).
spoilage  Chemical food preservatives are applied to foods as direct
additives during processing, or develop by themselves during
processes such as fermentation. Certain preservatives have
been used either accidentally or intentionally for centuries, and
include sodium chloride (common salt), sugar, acids, alcohols
and components of smoke. In addition to preservation, these
compounds contribute to the quality and identity of the
products, and are applied through processing procedures such
consumers as salting, curing, fermentation and smoking.
Traditional chemical food preservatives and their use in fruit and vegetable
processing technologies:
 Common salt: brined vegetables;
 Sugars (sucrose, glucose, fructose and syrups):
 Interaction of sugar with other ingredients or
processes such as drying and heating;
 Foods preserved by high sugar
concentrations: jellies, preserves, syrups,
juice concentrates;
 Indirect food preservation by sugar in
products where fermentation is important
(naturally acidified pickles and sauerkraut).
 Sugar is used partly for this purpose in making jams, jellies,
and marmalades and in candying fruit.
 The use of vinegar and salt in pickling and of alcohol in
brandying also falls in this category.
 Another group of chemical food preservatives includes some
natural food constituents such as ascorbic acid (vitamin c),
which is added to frozen peaches to prevent browning and a
long list of chemical compounds foreign to food and classified
as antioxidants, bleaching agents, acidulants, neutralizers,
stabilizers, firming agents, and humectants.
Organic chemical preservatives
 Sodium benzoate and other benzoates are among the
principal chemical preservatives.
 The use of benzoates in certain products in prescribed quantity
(usually not exceeding in 0.1%) is permitted in most countries,
some of which require a declaration of its use on the label of
the food container.
 Since free benzoic acid actually is the active agent, benzoates
must be used in an acid medium in order to be effective.
The ability of cranberries to resist rapid deterioration
is attributed to their high benzoic acid content.
 Benzoic acid in more effective against yeasts than against
molds and bacteria.
Inorganic chemical preservatives
 Sulfur dioxide and sulfites are perhaps the most important
inorganic chemical preservatives
 Sulphites are more effective against molds than against yeasts
and are widely used in the preservation of fruits and
vegetables.
 Sulfur compounds are extensively used in wine making and,
as in most other instances when this preservative is used,
much care has to be exercised to keep the concentrations low
in order to avoid undesirable effects on flavour.
 Oxidizing agents such as nitrates and nitrites are commonly
used in the curing of meats
Gaseous chemical food preservatives
 Sulfur dioxide and sulphites
 The antimicrobial action of sulphur dioxide
against yeasts, molds and bacteria is
selective, with some species being more
resistant than others.
 Sulphur dioxide and sulphites are used in the
preservation of a variety of food products. In
addition to wines these include
dehydrated/dried fruits and vegetables, fruit
juices, acid pickles, syrups, semi-processed
fruit products, etc. In addition to its
antimicrobial effects, sulphur dioxide is added
to foods for its antioxidant and reducing
properties, and to prevent enzymatic and non-
enzymatic browning reactions.
Sulfur dioxide and sulfites are perhaps the most important inorganic chemical
preservatives. Sulfites are more effective against molds than against yeasts
and are widely used in the preservation of fruits and vegetables. Sulfur
compounds are extensively used in wine making and, as in most other
instances when this preservative is used, much care has to be exercised to
keep the concentrations low in order to avoid undesirable effects on flavour.
 Carbon dioxide
 Used as a solid (dry ice) in many countries as
a means of low-temperature storage and
transportation of food products. Beside
keeping the temperature low, as it sublimes,
the gaseous co2 inhibits growth of
psychrotrophic micro-organisms and
prevents spoilage of the food (fruits and
vegetables, etc.).
 Used as a direct additive in the storage of
fruits and vegetables. In the controlled/
modified environment storage of fruit and
vegetables, the correct combination of o2 and
co2 delays respiration and ripening as well as
retarding mould and yeast growth.
 The final result is an extended storage of the
products for transportation and for
consumption during the off-season. The
amount of co2 (5-10%) is determined by
factors such as nature of product, variety,
climate and extent of storage.
 Chlorine
 Various forms of chlorine constitute the most
widely used chemical sanitizer in the food
industry
 These compounds are used as water
adjuncts in processes such as product
washing, transport, and cooling of heat-
sterilized cans; in sanitizing solutions for
equipment surfaces, etc.
 Important applications of chlorine and its
compounds include disinfection of drinking
water and sanitation of food processing
equipment.
General rules for chemical preservation
1. Chemical food preservatives have to be used only at a dosage
level which is needed for a normal preservation and not more.
2. "reconditioning" of chemical preserved food, e.g. A new
addition of preservative in order to stop a microbiological
deterioration already occurred is not recommended.
3. The use of chemical preservatives must be strictly limited to
those substances which are recognized as being without
harmful effects on human beings' health and are accepted by
national and international standards and legislation.
Factors which determine/ influence the action of chemical food preservatives
I. Factors related to the chemical preservatives:
-chemical composition
- concentration
Ii. Factors related to micro-organisms:
A.) Micro-organism species; as a general rule it is possible to take the
following facts as a basis:
 Sulphur dioxide and its derivatives can be
considered as an "universal" preservative;
they have an antiseptic action on bacteria as
well as on yeasts and molds
 Benzoic acid and its derivatives have a
preservative action which is stronger against
bacteria than on yeasts and molds
 Sorbic acid acts on molds and certain yeast
species; in higher dosage levels it acts also
on bacteria, except lactic and acetic ones
 Formic acid is more active against yeasts and
molds and less on bacteria
B.) The initial number of micro-organisms in the treated product determines the
efficiency of the chemical preservative.
The efficiency is less if the product has been contaminated because of
preliminary careless hygienic treatment or an incipient alteration. Therefore,
with a low initial number of micro-organisms in the product, the preservative
dosage level could be reduced.
Iii. Specific factors related to the product to be preserved:
a) Product chemical composition;
b) Influence of the ph value of the product: the efficiency of the
majority of chemical preservatives is higher at lower ph values,
i.e. When the medium is more acidic.
c) Physical presentation and size which the product is sliced to:
the chemical preservative's dispersion in food has an impact
on its absorption and diffusion through cell membranes on
micro-organisms and this determines the preservation effect.
Therefore, the smaller the slicing of the product, the higher the preservative
action. Preservative dispersion is slowed down by viscous foods (concentrated
fruit juices, etc.)
Iv. Miscellaneous factors:
a) Temperature: chemical preservative dosage
level will be established as a function of
product temperature and characteristics of
the micro-flora
b) Time: at preservative dosage levels in
employed in industrial practice, the time
period needed in order to obtain a "chemical
sterilisation" is a few weeks for benzoic acid
and shorter for sulphurous acid
Chemical food preservatives
>citric acid - fruit juices, jams, and other sugar preserves
>acetic acid- vegetable pickles and other vegetable products
>sodium benzoate - vegetable pickles, jams, jellies and semi-processed
products
>sodium propionate – fruits and vegetables
>potassium sorbate – fruits, vegetables, pickled products, jams and jellies
>mathyl paraben – fruit products, pikles and preserves
>sulphur dioxide – fruit juices, dried/dehydrtaed fruits and vegetables, and
semi-procesed products
Unsafe & untested chemicals are in our food
 Our food contains chemicals that may result in serious health
risks, especially for young children
 These substances are used to flavor, color, preserve,
package, process, and store our food, but many never appear
among the list of ingredients.
 After a tough fight, congress recently reformed the chemical
safety system for products like clothes, couches, and cleaning
products.
A Broken System
 The Food Additives Amendment of 1958 gives the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) oversight of chemicals added to our
food directly as ingredients and those that end up in food as
contaminants from production, processing, and packaging.
 FDA is in charge of keeping our food safe, but it doesn’t have
the tools or the authority to do its job.
To make safer food available to all, we must:  Adjustable spray pattern – fan to jet
 END SECRECY:  Water saving designs – Auto Shut off
The Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) loophole allows  Pressure Washers not recommended in-plant use but may be
companies to secretly decide on the safety of chemicals in our suitable for field harvest equipment
Foaming System
food – without FDA’s review or the public’s knowledge.
• Centralized Systems
Congress needs to create a more streamlined, public process
• High Efficiency
fore FDA to make safety decisions and encourage innovation.
• Reduce Water Use
 USE MODERN SCIENCE:
• Reduce Chemical Use
When FDA reviews chemicals in our food before they are
• Speed Up Cleaning Process
used, it makes our food supply safer. But the agency needs to
• Save Labor
use the most modern science to and do the best job. • Portable – tank foamers
 ENSURE EXISTING CHEMICALS ARE SAFE: • Wall-Mounted
Thousands of chemicals were approved by FDA decades ago, Maintenance of Cleaning Equipment
when we had far less understanding about their impacts on • Use the correct chemicals to clean equipment, make sure
human health. FDA needs to reassess their safety. Congress there are no food residues and rinse the equipment with clean
needs to provide FDA with the tools so the agency can get the water of drinking quality.
information it needs to set priorities and make decisions about • Make sure all cleaning cloths are washed and boiled each day.
Do not hang them on equipment, products or window ledges
the 10,000 chemicals in our food.
to dry.
• Clean as you go - do not leave dirty equipment until the end of
Sanitation in Food Handling
the day before cleaning it.
Terminology
• Keep the outside area around the processing room clean and
• Cleaning – use of chemical and mechanical processes to
tidy
remove soil from a surface Seven Steps to effective sanitation
• Sanitation/Sanitizing – the application of a specific chemical (a 1. Dry Clean-Up
sanitizer) or other treatment to a previously cleaned surface to • Remove all raw product, finished goods, and packaging
kill bacteria materials from the area to be cleaned
Sanitation is also used to describe the combined cleaning and sanitation • Sweep, scrape, scoop all gross soil for disposal as solid waste
process - sanitation team, sanitation shift, etc. • Clean sensitive equipment by hand and cover
2. Pre-Rinse
Why is Food Sanitation Important? • Work from higher to lower positions
• Work from the walls toward the center of the room or wherever
• Minimizes the risk of foodborne illness
drains are located
• Less risk for your business and,
• Inspect if the area is ready for foaming
• Improved customer relations
• Clean the drains to avoid contaminating previously cleaned
surfaces and equipment
Personal Hygiene when Processing Food
3. Chemical Cleaning
• Wear a hat/hairnet that completely covers the hair. Do not • Apply appropriate detergent, usually as a foam application
comb your hair in a processing room or storeroom. • Apply foam starting at the bottom and work up to the top
• Cover all cuts, burns, sores, and abrasions with a clean,  Cover all surfaces
waterproof dressing.  Allow to sit on the surface but not dry
• Do not smoke or eat in any room where there is open food • Foam collapses and releases solution to the surface
because bacteria can be transferred from the mouth to the 4. Scrub
food. 5. Rinse
6. Inspect and Re-Clean
• Do not spit in a processing room or storeroom.
7. Sanitize or Disinfect, Rinse and Sanitize
• Wash hands and wrists thoroughly with soap after using the
toilet, eating, smoking, coughing, blowing your nose, combing
Four Factors that affect how the chemicals work
your hair, handling waste food, rubbish or cleaning chemicals.
Time
Dry them on a clean towel before handling food again.
• too little: not enough surface interaction
• Keep fingernails cut short.
• too much: temperature cools, detergent deposits
• Do not wear perfume or nail varnish as these can contaminate • just right: surface wets, soils are removed and washed away
products. Temperature
• Do not handle any food if you have sores, boils, septic spots, • use the correct temperature according to the SSOPs
a bad cold, chest infection, sore throat or a stomach upset. • water should be 120°F at the end of the wash cycle
Report any of these to the manager and do alternative work. • too hot: proteins denature and deposit, dangerous for
• Do not cough or sneeze over food. personnel
Personal Protective Equipment Chemical Concentration
• too little: not enough cleaning power
• gloves, lab coats, coveralls and footwear
• too much: may reduce efficiency, may leave residues, wastes
• eye, face, and head protection required
money
• use the correct materials for the task
• just right: does the job
Sanitation in Food Processing
Mechanical Action
• Put all wastes into bins that are not used for anything else.
• loosens soils and disrupts biofilms
Empty the bins periodically during the day away from the • need to have contact with all surfaces
processing site. • use turbulent flow, slugging
• Prevent all animals from entering the processing area or Cleaning Agent
storerooms. • Acid Cleaners
• Visitors should only enter the processing room wearing • Alkaline Cleaners
protective clothing and under supervision • Non-Caustic Cleaners
• Keep food covered whenever possible. • Chlorinated Caustic Cleaners
• Keep all food, tools, and equipment off the floor. • Neutral Cleaners
• Store ingredients in sealed containers. • Solvent-Based Cleaners
• Do not use broken or dirty equipment. • Displacement cleaners
Cleaning Equipment • Combination Cleaners (Blend On-Site)
>Wash Down Hoses and Spray Guns How to select chemical cleaners
• Water is a precious resource • Depending on the soil to be removed
• Plant pressure should be sufficient for cleaning and to support  Substrate – substance/ layer
• Stainless steel
the number of hoses in use, but <160 psi to avoid aerosol
• Softer metals
formation
• Plastics or synthetic
 Aerosols are liquid or solid particles suspended in the
atmosphere • Porous materials
 • Water and Waste Water Considerations
Chemical properties
• the physical state (solid, liquid, gas), concentration, and pH of
the chemicals
• physical hazards (flammable, explosive, reactive)
• heath hazards (burns, poisons, carcinogens)
Detergent Components
• Surfactants and Wetting Agents – aid soil penetration,
emulsification
• Builders – Add alkalinity and improve surfactant performance
by lessening water hardness (chelating agents)
• Solvents – help dissolve or disperse fatty soils
• Corrosion Inhibitors – protect substrate surfaces from adverse
effects of acidic, caustic and chlorinated cleaning compounds
Chelating agents are chemical compounds that react with metal ions to form a
stable, water-soluble complex. They are also known as chelants, chelators, or
sequestering agents. An example of a chelating agent is ethylenediamine.
Scrubbing
• Start before the foam dries
• Use extension poles with pad holders
• Nylon bristle brushes
Rinsing
– removes the cleaning chemicals and the soil before they dry or soil is
redeposited on the surface
• Use potable water
• Rinse from the top-down and periphery toward the drains
• Avoid overspray and splashing from floors and drains
• Remove all chemical residues
Inspect cleaned surfaces and re-clean if needed
• Inspect all surfaces for residual soil
• Water sheets off a clean surface
• Water beads up on a dirty surface
• Visual Inspection – use flashlights for checking
• Use ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) testing swabs
• Re-clean areas where residual soil remains
Sanitizing
• Application of an approved compound to kill bacteria
• Concentration – mix it correctly as specified by SSOP
(Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures)
• Contact time – leave it on the surface for the time specified on
the label and SSOP
• Does not need to be rinsed
Additional note: Develop Standard Sanitation Operating Procedures (SSOPs)
specifically for equipment and environmental areas to meet the needs of your
facility to use:
• include step-by-step directions on how to clean, and how often
to clean
• specify the correct chemicals, times, temperatures and
processes
Salting
Preserving food with salt is an ancient human practice that dates back before
written records. Beef jerky, pickles, and smoked salmon are all examples of
common food that are preserved with salt.
Salt has been used as a preservative for ages, and works to preserve food in
two ways:
1. Salt dries food. Salt draws out water out of the food and
dehydrates it. All living things require water and cannot grow
in the absence of water, including the bacteria which can
cause food poisoning.
2. Salt kills microbes. High salt is toxic to most microbes because
of the effect of osmolarity, or water pressure. Water diffuses
between cells in the environment so that the concentration of
solutes is the same on both sides of the cell. In very high salt
solutions, many microbes will rupture due to the difference in
pressure between the outside and inside of the organism. High
salt can also be toxic to internal processes of microbes,
affecting DNA and enzymes. Solutions high in sugar also have
the same effects on microbes, which is why it is used as a
preservative of foods such as jams and jellies.
Brine or Dry Salting
When we cure food with salt it can either be done by applying actual salt
granules to the food or via a brine that the food is immersed in. Both processes
draw moisture out of the food to dehydrate it but some application work in
slightly different ways that affect how the food is preserved.
Salted Fish
Cod is often preserved in salt using a 20% brine solution. At this level of 20%
salinity, water is effectively drawn out of any microorganism that will spoil the
meat. The fish will last several months in the fridge longer than it would without
the salt.
If we pack food with salt, the concentration of the salt causes an imbalance.
Osmosis works to try and balance the salinity of the cells of the food with the
salinity around the food. As salt is drawn into the food water is drawn out, the
food gets drier and drier making it an inhospitable place for food spoilage
organisms to grow.
Salt Used in Fermentation
Vegetables are regularly preserved in brine but do not rely on just salt as a
preservative. Dill pickles are packed in jars with a brine of about 3-5% salinity.
At this level, the salt isn’t strong enough as a preservative on its own. Most
bacteria cannot survive but some can, fortunately, friendly bacteria called
lactobacillus are one of the few types of bacteria that can thrive in a brine like
this. The lactobacillus ferments the sugar present in the vegetables and turns
the brine acidic. The salty and acidic environment pickles the vegetables and
stops any food spoilage organisms from growing.
Curing Salts – Nitrates and Nitrites
Meat is often cured with salt with a whole subsection of foods preserved meats
called charcuterie. Curing meat with salt relies on the same principles of
drawing moisture out of the meat and spoilage organisms. However, salt alone
is not enough for modern food safety and hygiene. Another type of salt called a
curing salt is used. This curing salt is often referred to as Prague powder or
instacure.
The addition of nitrites and nitrates to salt is far more effective at inhibiting
bacterial growth in preserved meats. Prague powder or curing salt is a mixture
of regular salt and a compound called sodium nitrate or sodium nitrite
depending on the type of cure being done. The salt is pink to differentiate it to
regular table salt.
Curing salts with salts with the addition of sodium nitrate or nitrite are carefully
measured according to the amount of meat being cured. They enhance both
the flavor and color of the meat as well as enhancing the unique flavor that is
synonymous with cured meat.
Purpose of Salting
 Salt inhibits the growth of MOs by drawing water out of the
microbial cells through osmosis due to the high concentration
of salt outside the cell. the cel loses water until it reaches a
state where it cannot grow and then cannot survive any longer
[hypertonic nature]. Concentrations of salt up to 20% are
required to kill most species of unwanted bacteria.
 Smoking, often used in the process of curing meat, adds
chemical to the surface of the meat that reduce the
concentration of salt required
 It was discovered in the 19th century that salt mixed with the
nitrites [saltpeter] would color meats red, rather than gray, and
consumers at that time then strongly preferred the red-colored
meat. The food hence preserved stays healthy and fresh for
days avoiding bacterial decomposition.
Methods of Salting
Dry Salting
 Dry salting, also called corning, is a process where meat is dry-
cured with coarse “corns” or pellets of salt.
 Salting meat can be accomplished by adding salt [dry], or in
brine
Dry Salting Procedure
 The salt solution is prepared by adding the necessary amount
of edible common salt to water and dissolving it by intensive
stirring
 To obtain the recommended salt concentration of about 14%
the amount of salt necessary for different volumes of water
[expressed in liters] is indicated:
Water [in liters] Salt [in grams]
5 810
6 975
7 1140
8 1300
9 1460
10 1630
 As soon as the salt is dissolved in the water, the meat strips
are dipped into the solution soaked for about five minutes and
then drained
 Draining should be done by placing the strips into a plastic
sieve on order to allow the brine to drop off for collection and
re-use
 After that drying [by uniform circulation of air] and then meat
storage is done
 Sugar may be added for taste and flavor enhancement, sugar
is added to counterbalance all of the salt
Brining
Brining Procedure
 Wash the meat and sterilize the jars or crocks then put the
meat into jars after cutting
 Now add about a pound of salt and half a cup of sugar to three
quarters of water. Add other ingredients such as herbs and
spices
 Repeat this process until you have enough water for all of the
jars. Fill each one up
 Unlike dry curing, the meat will need attention on a weekly
basis. Each week the meat must be taken out of the jar, stir
the brine well and then place it back
 After four weeks of repeating this process, the meat is ready.
If the brine gets too thick, it must be replaced with a fresh
batch.
Pasteurization
 There is a general and urgent need for rapid procedures,
applicable to process control, to monitor food safety and
quality.
 Pasteurization is a process in which certain packaged and
non-packaged foods (such as milk and fruit juice) are treated
with mild heat, usually less than 100 °C (212 °F), to eliminate
pathogens and extend shelf life.
 The process safeguards foods by destroying or inactivating
organisms that contribute to spoilage, including vegetative
bacteria but not bacterial spores.
 The process was named after the French scientist Louis
Pasteur, whose research in the 1880s demonstrated that
thermal processing would inactivate unwanted
microorganisms in wine.
 Today, pasteurization is used widely in the dairy industry and
other food processing industries to achieve food preservation
and food safety.
Different Types of Thermal Processing Methods
 Thermization: Heat the milk to between 57°C to 68°C and hold
for 15 minutes. Thermization targets pathogenic bacteria while
leaving the good bacteria in the product. The low temperatures
do not alter the structure and taste of the milk.
 Batch pasteurization: Also known as low-temperature long
time (LTLT) pasteurization. Heat the milk to 63°C for 30
minutes. The extended holding time causes the alteration in
the milk protein structure and taste.
 Flash pasteurization: Also known as high-temperature short
time (HTST) pasteurization. Heat the milk to between 72°C to
74°C for 15 to 20 seconds. Targets resistant pathogenic
bacteria spores (Clostridium botulinum spores).
 Ultra-high temperature (UHT) pasteurization: Heat the milk to
between 135°C to 140°C for 2 to 4 seconds. The extreme heat
targets Coxiella burnetii, which causes Q-fever. The heat kills
all the vegetative forms of bacteria and the milk can survive for
9 months.
 Canned sterilization: This is a wet treatment of canned milk
products in an autoclave/specialized treatment chambers.
Heat to between 115°C to 121°C for 10 to 20 minutes.
Milk pasteurization is the process of heating milk (or milk product) to a
predetermined temperature for a specified period without re-contamination
during the entire process.
The predetermined temperature usually depends on the heat resistance of
spoilage microorganism that the pasteurization program is targeting to destroy.
Methods Used in Milk Pasteurization
High-Temperature Short Time (HTST) Pasteurization
 This type of pasteurization is also known as flash
pasteurization.
  Flash pasteurization involves heating milk to 71.7°C for 15  There are customers who will consume skim milk only while
seconds to kill Coxiella burnetii, which is the most heat there are those who will take low fat milk. There are those who
resistant pathogen in raw milk. will take standardized milk while there are those who prefer

 Since it is technically impossible to bring the milk to that exact high fat milk.

temperature, it is always safe to work with a range of  Standardization is necessary to ensure that all the customers
temperatures. To be safe, you can heat the milk to between are catered for. Again, it is during the process of
72°C to 74°C for 15 to 20 seconds. standardization that you get to separate the butterfat that is

 This will ensure that the milk is heated uniformly to the required used for making cream and other fat based products such as

temperature. butter and ghee.

 This method is most suitable in continuous pasteurization 5. Homogenization stage

systems.  Homogenization is a physical process of breaking down the

 Flash pasteurized milk will keep for between 16 and 21 days. the milk fat globules into tiny droplets to discourage cream

For commercial reasons, some manufacturers intentionally separation.

reduce the number of days to push the products out of the  Tiny droplets of fat do not rise in a milk column since reducing

shelves. their sizes also increases their density in the milk.

Low-Temperature Long Time (LTLT) pasteurization  A milk homogenizer working at between 100 to 170 bars splits

 Here, the temperatures used for pasteurization are reduced to all the fat globules into very tiny droplets that increases the

63°C and held for 30 minutes. level of integration of the fat in the milk.

 The prolonged holding period alters the structure of the milk  As a result, the milk fat remains uniformly distributed in the

proteins making it better suited for making yogurt. milk.

 This method is best for batch pasteurization where the milk is 6. Heating section

held in a jacketed vat for effective pasteurization.  Utilizes heat from steam to raise the temperatures of the milk

 There are many designs of batch pasteurizers in the market from about 60°C to the required 72°C that is effective to kill the

that are suitable for both domestic and commercial use. Clostridium botulinum spores.

Ultra High Temperature (UHT) Pasteurization  The steam exchanges heat with the milk across the PHE

 This is a completely closed pasteurization method. The plates in a counter current motion.

product is never exposed even for a fraction of a second during  At the end if this section, there is a temperature sensor, which

the entire process. controls the flow diversion valve.

 It involves heating milk or cream to between 135°C to 150°C  Any milk that does not attain the required temperature is

for one to two seconds, then chilling it immediately and diverted back to the heating section until it attains the required

aseptically packaging it in a hermetic (air-tight) container for temperatures.

storage. 7. Holding section

 Despite the risk of Millard browning, UHT pasteurization  After heating, milk flows into the holding tubes whose lengths

remains the most popular milk preservation method for safe have been calibrated with the milk flow rate to ensure that milk

and stable milk. takes at least 16 seconds in the tubes. All the milk must

Steps of Pasteurization maintain the required pasteurization temperatures at the end

1. Milk chilling of the tubes.

 Chilling is not a pasteurization process but it is a necessary  In case of a breach, a sensor will trigger the flow diversion
step when dealing with large volumes of milk. valve to take the milk back to the heating section to bring the

 Milk leaves the cow’s udder at temperatures above the milk to the required temperature.

ambient, which encourages rapid bacterial multiplication that  Once the milk has attained the required temperatures at the
speeds up spoilage. end of the holding tubes, milk flows back to the regeneration

 However, reducing the temperatures to between 2° C to 5° C section to heat the incoming chilled milk while in itself being

arrests bacterial growth and metabolism. cooled down to about 30°C.

 This provides a head start at keeping the quality before proper 8. Cooling/chilling section

pasteurization commences.  After regenerative cooling of pasteurized milk, it moves to the

2. Pre-heating (regeneration) and Standardization Stage cooling section of the PHE where chilled water/PHE coolant

 After bulking, the chilled milk is heated to about 40°C to lowers the temperature of pasteurized milk to 4°C.

facilitate easy separation of butterfat during standardization.  The chilled milk is then pumped to the packaging machines for

 The system uses regenerative heating, i.e., it uses the heat of aseptic packaging and subsequent storage in the cold room.

the already pasteurized milk to heat up the incoming chilled Significance of Pasteurization

milk. The chilled milk, in a counter current flow, cools down the Proper pasteurization is necessary for the following reasons:

pasteurized milk.  The chief objective of milk pasteurization is to destroy

 The purpose of standardization is to obtain a product with pathogenic bacteria that could have a public health concern.

uniform content of butter fat. By destroying these microorganisms, the product becomes

3. Clarification stage safe for public consumption.

 Clarification is essential for removing all foreign matter from  Secondly, pasteurization eliminates destructive bacteria and

the product. enzymes that could cause spoilage of the product. This leads

 Large solid particles are removed by straining the milk through to a prolonged shelf life of the milk.

tubular metallic filters.  There is need to ensure that the product can keep for longer

 A centrifugal clarifier (not the one used for standardization) is periods without expensive storage equipment. Pasteurization

used to remove all soil and sediments from milk. will eliminate spoilage bacteria and enzymes and extend the
shelf life of the product.
 The filters, usually fitted in parallel twins permits continuous
processing as one can be cleaned while the other is running.

 Clean the filters regularly (between 2 to 10 operational hours

depending on the level dirt) to avoid growth of bacteria.
4. Standardization stage
 It is important to standardize milk fat to ensure that you end up
with a product of consistent quality in the market. Different
consumers prefer different products.