Chap 1a) Introduction

Chap 1b) Classification of Instrumentation

Chap 1c) Static performance characteristic of instrument

Chap 1d) Dynamic performance characteristic of instrument

 Instrument Characteristic
1. Every instrument should have their own performance characteristics.
2. Performance characteristic – the detailed specifications (such as qualities, traits)
of the instrument that are required for its satisfactory performance in
application.
3. It indicates the capabilities and limitation of the instrument for particular
application.
4. It is important to understand performance characteristic of the instrument as it
enables us to estimates pros & cons of the instrument during the application.
5. Consequently, we only can select the right instrument for a given application.
6. Instrument performance characteristics can be classified as:
- Static Characteristics, and
- Dynamic Characteristics
A patient’s temperature chart shows
changes taking place over time.
Instrument Characteristic
Temperature, oC

Time, s
 Measurand (Process)
Characteristic

Fig. Temperature profile

Dynamic
Static
(Steady-State)
 Performance Characteristic

Static Characteristic Dynamic Characteristic

Definition: Definition:
When the desired input to the When the desired input to the
instrument is constant or varying instrument is NOT constant or
slowly with time. varying rapidly with time

• Parameters used to describe static • Parameters used to describe dynamic

performance are: performance are:

1. Accuracy
1. Types of input changes:
2. Precision
Periodic, Transient,
3. Resolution
Random
4. Sensitivity
2. Responses to step input:
5. Linearity
1st order response;
6. Hysteresis
2nd order response
7. Drift
Rise time, overshoot, decay
8. Over load
ratio
9. Capacity
10. impedance loading
 The static characteristics are defined for instruments which
measure quantities that DO NOT VARIES MUCH with time.

Some common static performance parameters to describe an instrument are

accuracy, precision, sensitivity, linearity, resolution, and etc. These
information can be gained by conducting specified tests/calibration on the
instrument

A) Static performance parameters

Unfortunately, NO measurement can be made with perfect accuracy and

precision. Therefore, it is necessary to know the various types of errors and
uncertainties you might encountered when doing a measurement.

B) Error and uncertainties

1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
 Accuracy
Definition: The closeness of the instrument output to the true
value of the measured quantity (as per standard)

❖ It is specified as the % deviation or inaccuracy of the measurement from true

value.
❖ Depends on inherent limitations of the instrument & on the various
systematic error involved in measurement
❖ The accuracy of the instrument can be specified:
%

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 – 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

% 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = × 100
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 – 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

❖ Eg. A chemical balance reads 1 g with an error of 10−2 g, the accuracy would be specified as 1%.
❖ Eg. An error of ±1% of full-scale deflection of a voltmeter having a range of 1000 V means that a
true voltage of 100 V could be read from 90 to 110 V.
1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
 Precision
Definition: The ability of the instrument to reproduce a certain
set of readings within a given accuracy.

High precision Poor precision with

with poor accuracy average accuracy

High precision Poor precision

with high accuracy with poor accuracy
1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
 Resolution / Discrimination
Definition: The smallest increment in the measured value that can
be detected with certainly by the instrument
❖ It is the degree if fineness with which a measurement can be made
❖ The least count of any instrument is taken as the resolution of the instrument. A
high resolution is one can detect smallest possible variation in the input
❖ Example:
• A voltmeter that can measure voltage in the range of 0.000 to 100 V has
resolution of 0.001 V.

• Meanwhile, a ruler with a least count of 1 mm may be used to measure to

nearest 0.5 mm by interpolation. Its resolution is considered 0.5 mm

❖ A high resolution instrument can detect smallest possible variation in the input
1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
 Threshold
Definition: The minimum/maximum value of the input below
which no output can be detected

❖ It is particular case of resolution.

❖ Both threshold & resolution can either be specified as absolute
quantities in term of input units/ as % of full scale deflection.
❖ If the instrument input is gradually increased from zero then there
will be a MINIMUM value in the input to be achieved before the
instrument can give an output value.
1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
Fuel lever gauge in our car
 Statistic Sensitivity
Definition: The ratio of the magnitude of response (output signal) to
the magnitude of the quantity being measured (input signal)

❖ Also termed as scale factor /gain of the instrument

❖ Determined from result of static calibration

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 Δ𝑞0

Static Sensitivity, K = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 Δ𝑞𝑖

❖ Sensitivity is represented by the slope of the input output curve if

the ordinate are represented in actual units
1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
 Linearity
Definition: The ability of an instrument to reproduce the input
characteristics symmetrically and linearly.

❖ A linear indicating scale is one of most desirable features of any

instrument

❖ Therefore, manufacturers ALWAYS attempt to design their

instruments so that the output is linear function of the input.

❖ Unfortunately, Linearity is never completely achieved and the

deviations from the ideal are termed as Linearity error

❖ In commercial instruments, the max departure from linearity is

specified by this following way:
• Independent of the input
• Proportional to input
• Combined
 Nonlinearity: Independent of the input

1. If the deviations of the output of the

instrument from the best fitting
straight line (drawn through the
calibration points) does not vary with
the input

2. Then non-linearity is specified in the

terms of higher value of the
maximum deviation that occurs on
the positive and negative sides of the
best fitting or idealised straight line.

3. This value is normally expressed as ±

percentage of full-scale deflection.
 Nonlinearity: Proportional to input

1. If the deviation of the output of the

instrument from idealized straight line
vary with the input, then non-
linearity is specified as function of
the input

2. The max deviation point on the + and

– sides of idealized straight line are
join with the origin and their slope
are determined

3. The higher value of % change slope

with respect to the idealized line is
expressed as ± % non linearity with
respect to the magnitude of input
values
 Nonlinearity: Combined

1. In certain cases, the deviations of the

output may NOT vary with the input
for part of the range & may SHOW
proportional variation with another
part of the range.
1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
 Range and Span
Definition: The range of the instrument is specified by the lower &
upper limits
Definition: The algebraic difference between lower & upper range
values is termed as span of the instrument

❖ The range of the instrument can either be unidirectional (0-100 0c) or

bidirectional (-10 to 100 0C)
1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
 Hysteresis
Definition: The magnitude of error caused in the output for a given value of
input, when this value is approached from the opposite directions
(i.e. from ascending order and then descending order).

❖ This is caused by backlash, elastic deformations, magnetic

characteristics, but mainly caused due to frictional effects.
1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
 Dead Band
Definition: The largest change of measurand to which the
instrument does not respond

❖ As shown in figure below, due to hysteresis, dead band appears.

1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
 Backlash
Definition: The max distance / angle through which any part of the
mechanical system may be moved in one direction w/o causing
motion of the next part

❖ In mechanical engineering, backlash, sometimes called lash or play, is

a lost motion in a mechanism caused by gaps between the parts.

❖ Can be minimized if the component are made to very close tolerances

1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
 Drift
Definition: The variation of the output for a given input caused
due to change in the sensitivity

❖ The change in the sensitivity may caused by certain interfering inputs

such as temperature changes, component instabilities and etc..
1. Static performance parameters

Accuracy Precision Resolution Threshold

Static Range &

Linearity Hysteresis
sensitivity Span

Dead
Backlash Drift
band
Example 1
• A load cell calibrated at a T of 20 0C has the following output/input
characteristic
0.04 0.08

However, when it is used in an environment of 400C, its characteristic

change to the following:
Load in KN 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
Deflection of meter in mm 3 14 25 36 47 58

Determine:
(i) The statistic sensitivity at 20 0C and 40 0C.
(ii) The zero drift and sensitivity drift at 40 °C.
 Classroom activities III
Indicate if the following statements are true or false:
i). Reproducibility and consistency are expressions that best
describe precision in measurements.
ii). It is not possible to have precise measurements which are not
accurate.
iii). Error and uncertainty are synonymous terms.
Choose the correct statement from the following:
i). The smallest change in the value of input variable being
measured, that will cause a change in the output signal of the
instrument is termed as
(a). Hysteresis (b). Drift
(c). Resolution (d). threshold
B) Error and uncertainties

❑ The degree of perfection of a measurement can only be determined if the

goal of the measurement can be defined without error.

Practically,
• Measuring instrumentation cannot give ideal sensing performance
• Select the allowable error based on a given situation.

** Defined as the difference between the measured

Error
and the true value (as per standard).

** Characterizes the range of values within which the

Uncertainties
true value is asserted to lie with some level of
confidence. (eg. 60 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ± 1 𝑘𝑃𝑎; 75𝑜 𝐶 ± 0.6𝑜 𝐶)
 ** Defined as the difference between the measured
Error
and the true value (as per standard).

Systematic/
Cumulative
√

Accidental /
Error
Randomly

Miscellaneous
 Systematic or Cumulative Errors

❑ Errors that tend to have the same magnitude and sign for a given set of
condition.

❑ Because the sign is the same, the tend to accumulate and hence are known
as cumulative errors.

40 𝑜 𝐶 43 𝑜 𝐶 e = +3 𝑜 𝐶

65 𝑜 𝐶 68 𝑜 𝐶 e = +3 𝑜 𝐶

81 𝑜 𝐶 84 𝑜 𝐶 e = +3 𝑜 𝐶

❑ Since such errors alter the instrument reading by a fixed magnitude and
same sign from one reading to another, this error also known as
instrument bias.

❑ Systematic errors may caused by (i) Instrument errors, (ii) Environmental

errors, (iii) Loading errors.
Instrument errors
• Inherent in the instruments systems
• Caused by poor design / construction of the instrument
• Example:
• Divisions of graduated scales
• Inequality of the balance arm
• irregular spring tension
• Can be avoided if select the suitable instrument, apply suitable correction and calibrate the
instrument
Environment errors
• Caused due to variation of conditions external to the measuring device, including the condition in
the area surrounding the instrument
• Commonly occurring change on environment conditions
• Effect the instrument characteristics – T, barometric P, humidity, wind forces, magnetic &
electrostatic field
• Example:
• Change in ambient T causes errors due to expansion of the measuring tape
• Buoyant effect of the wind causes errors on weight of the chemical balance
Loading errors
• Caused by the act of measurement on the physical system being test
• Example
• Introduction of additional resistance in the circuit by measuring milliammeter which may
alter the circuit current by significant amount
• Obstruction type flow meter may partially block/disturb the flow conditions, consequently
flowrate shown by the meter may not be same as before the meter installation
 ** Defined as the difference between the measured
Error
and the true value (as per standard).

Systematic/
Cumulative

Accidental /
Error
Randomly √

Miscellaneous
 Accidental / Random error

❑ Caused due to random variations in the parameter or system of

measurement

❑ Vary in magnitude & may be either +/- on the basis chance alone

❑ Tend to compensate one another- also known as change/compensate error

❑ Detected by a lack of consistency in measured value when the same input is

imposed repeatedly

❑ Main contributing factors:

• Inconsistencies associated with accurate measurement of small quantities
• Presence of certain system defects
• Effect of unrestrained and randomly varying parameters
Inconsistencies associated with accurate measurement of small quantities
• If you are to measure the weight for a bucket of water to the nearest Kg, there
would be no excuse of one observation differing from another measurement.
• However, if you are to measure the weight of the same water to the nearest mg,
each measurements may varies.

1st Meas
15.7345 kg

2nd Meas
15.7267 kg

3rd Meas
15.7451 kg

Presence of certain system defects

• Eg. Friction causes to errors in the direction of motion.

Effect of unrestrained and randomly varying parameters

• Due to uncontrolled disturbance. Eg. Voltage fluctuations, vibrations of the
instrument supports.
 ** Defined as the difference between the measured
Error
and the true value (as per standard).

Systematic/
Cumulative

Accidental /
Error
Randomly

Miscellaneous √
 Miscellaneous
• Mainly cause by:
A. Human error
• Due to limitations in the human senses
• Necessary to exercise extreme care with mature & considered
judgement in recording the observations

B. Error due to faulty component/adjustments

• Misalignment of moving parts, electrical leakage, poor optics etc. in
measurement systems

C. Improper application of the instrument

• caused due to the use of the instrument in conditions which do not
conform to the desired design/operating conditions

These types of errors cannot be strictly classified as either systematic

or random types: They may partly systematic and partly random
 ** Characterizes the range of values within which the
Uncertainties true value is asserted to lie with some level of
confidence. (eg. 60 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ± 1 𝑘𝑃𝑎; 75𝑜 𝐶 ± 0.6𝑜 𝐶)

Example 2.

It is required to determine the mass of the body (cylinder + hemisphere)

as shown in Figure below. L

2R R
𝜌1 𝜌2

The various dimensions and densities are estimated as follows:

𝐿 = 10.0 ± 0.1 𝑐𝑚
𝑅 = 4.00 ± 0.05 𝑐𝑚
𝑔
𝜌1 = 3.50 ± 0.10
𝑐𝑚3
𝑔
𝜌2 = 2.50 ± 0.05
𝑐𝑚3
Calculate the total mass of the body and its overall uncertainties.
Answer:
Example 3
Answer:
Example 4.
A capillary tube viscometer is employed to measure viscosity of a solution.

This type of viscometer strictly follows the

Hagen-Poiseuelle equation:
𝜋𝐷4
𝑄= ∆𝑃
128𝜇𝐿

where
Q is the volume flow rate of fluid in the capillary;
D is the capillary diameter;
𝜇 is the viscosity,
L is the capillary length, and
∆𝑃 is the pressure difference across the two ends
of the tubes.

Determine the overall uncertainties of the viscosity if Q, L, D, and ∆𝑃 are

measured with 0.00050 ± 0.00001 𝑚3 /𝑠 , 0.100 ± 0.005 𝑚 , 0.020 ±
0.005 𝑚, and 1300 ± 5 𝑃𝑎, respectively.
Answer:
 Watch this VIDEO!

liquid is drawn into the upper bulb by suction, then allowed to flow down through the capillary into
the lower bulb. Two marks (one above and one below the upper bulb) indicate a known volume. The
time taken for the level of the liquid to pass between these marks is proportional to the kinematic
viscosity.