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METHODS OF RESEARCH
Ola Karel N. Dizon
Francis Jay C. Baysa
Shaira Ritz T. Asuncion
Loyd Angelo Diana
Sharleen Mae V. Paloay
Brylle Castro
Julie Ann R. Azur
Michelle Salvador
Eugenio L. Gom-o, Jr.
Richard Bong B. Gambol
Philip Balala
Jaymar L. Macusi
Amy F. Labador
Monalisa D. Wagennan
Angeline F. Leal

Introduction
Research is simply defined as…
- -searching for a theory
- -testing the theory
- -solving a problem

If a problem exists, has been identified and needs to be solved, said solution of the
problem should entail scientific and systematic inquiry.

Simple illustration:
Knowing the percentage of LET passers in the ISPSC System can simply be
answered by consulting the PRC website. This is not an elaborative inquiry. But when you
investigate some factors of the low percentage of LET passers in the Region, it is already
researchable.
Simple Problem: Several uniting students enter in the College of Teacher Education to
obtain units and qualify them to take the LET.

Sample of Research Problem: “LET Performance of Uniting Students and Regular CTE
Graduates in ISPSC”.

Definition of Research (Kerlinger, 1973)

- Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, and critical investigation about
presumed relations among natural phenomena.
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By Sevilla, Consuelo et. al. 1992.

Expounded the definition of Kerlinger with this definition:

- Research is systematic when it follows steps/stages that start with; identification of
the problem, relating this problem with existing theories, collection of data, analysis
and interpretation of data, coming up with conclusions and integration of these
conclusions into the ocean of knowledge.
In this, the problem is defined thoroughly, variables are identified and selected,
instruments are selected or prepared, and data are quantified for interpretation, discussions
and drawing conclusions.

Research - is defined as a purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering,

analyzing, classifying, organizing, presenting, and interpreting data for the
solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the discovery of truth,
or for the expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the
preservation and improvement of the quality of human life.

Importance of Research
1. It satisfies the researcher’s intellectual curiosity and desire for better understanding.
2. It tests the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study.
3. It develops methods to be employed in any subsequent study.

Purposes of Research (Aims, Objectives, Goals)

 The main or principal purpose and goal of research is the preservation and
improvement of the quality of human life.
 “The purpose of research is to serve man,” and “The goal of research is the good
life.” (Good and Scates, p. 9, 14)

Specific Purposes and Goals of Research

1. To discover new facts about known phenomenon.
2. To find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods
and information.
3. Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products.
4. To discover previously unrecognized substances or elements.
5. Discover pathways of action of known substances and elements.
6. To order related, valid generalizations into systematized science.
7. To provide basis for decision-making in business, industry, education, government,
and in other undertakings.
8. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.
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9. To find answers to queries by means of scientific methods.

10. To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon that can be
known and understood better by research.
11. To expand or verify existing knowledge.

In relation to purposes numbers 2 and 3, the following may be added to the list of
purposes:

12. To improve educational practices for raising the quality of school products.
13. To promote health and prolong life.
14. To provide man with more of his basic needs.
15. To make work, travel, and communication faster, easier and more comfortable.

Characteristics of Research

1. Research is systematic.
It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the discovery of truth,
solution of a problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered.
2. Research is controlled.
All variables, except those that are tested or being experimented upon are kept constant
so that the changes made on the subjects of the study can be attributed only to the
experimental variable.
3. Research is empirical.
All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same manner
by all observers.
4. Research is analytical.
There is a critical analysis of all the data used so that there is no error in their
interpretation.
5. Research is objective, unbiased, and logical.
All the findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical data and no effort is
made to alter the results of the research.
6. Research employs hypothesis.
This is to guide the investigation process.
7. Research employs quantitative or statistical methods.
Data are transformed into numerical measures and are treated statistically to determine
their significance or usefulness.
8. Research is original work.
Except in historical research, data are gathered from primary sources or first-hand
sources and not from secondary sources.
9. Research is done by an expert.
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The researcher uses valid and carefully designed procedures, valid data gathering
instruments, and valid data. He subjects his data to expert scrutiny.
10. Research is patient and unhurried activity.
This is to ensure accuracy.
11. Research requires an effort-making capacity.
No research can be conducted without the exertion of much effort.
12. Research requires courage.
Research requires courage because the researcher often undergoes hazards,
discomforts and the likes.

Kinds and Classifications of Research

1. According to purpose
a. Predictive or prognostic research – has the purpose of determining the future
operation of the variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or
redirecting such for the better.
b. Directive research – determines what should be done based on the findings.
c. Illuminative research –concerned with the interaction of the components of the
variable being investigated.
2. According to goal
a. Basic or pure research – done for the development of theories or principles. It is
conducted for the intellectual pleasure of learning.
b. Applied research - testing the efficacy of theories and principles.
3. According to the levels of investigations
a. Exploratory research – the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific
situation.
b. Descriptive research – the researcher studies the relationships of the variables.
c. Experimental research – the experimenter studies the effects of the variables on
each other.
4. According to the type of analysis
a. Analytic approach – the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components
of the research situation.
b. Holistic approach – focusing attention on the system first and then on its internal
relationships.
5. According to scope
Action research – done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is
not so big.

B. The Research Problem *RACHELLE, JEFF

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The Research Title

Guidelines in Writing the Title

The thesis writer should be guided by the following in the formulation of his title.
These are also characteristics of the title.

1. Generally, the title is formulated before the start of the research work. It may be
revised and refined later if there is a need.
2. The title must contain the subject matter of the study, the locale of the study, the
population involved, and the period when the data were gathered or will be
gathered.
3. It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter studied or to be
studied. Hence, the title indicates what is expected to be found inside the thesis
reports.
4. It must be as brief and concise as possible.
5. Avoid using the terms “An Analysis of”, “A Study of”, ”An Investigation of”, and
the like. All these things are understood to have been done or to be done when a
research is conducted.
6. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted pyramid,
all words in capital letters.

Example of a complete title:

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS OF ILOCOS SUR AS
PERCEIVED BY THE SCIENCE TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
DURING THE SCHOOL YEAR 2017-2018

Statement of the Problem

The following are suggested to guide the researcher in the formulation of his
general as well as his specific sub problems or questions. These are also the characteristics
of specific questions:
1. The general statement of the problem and the specific sub problems or questions
should be formulated first before conducting the research.
2. It is customary to state specific sub problems in the interrogative form. Hence, sub
problems are called specific questions.
3. Each specific question must be clear and unequivocal, that is, it has only one
meaning. It must not have dual meanings.
4. Each specific question is researchable apart from the other questions, that is,
answers to each specific question can be found even without considering the other
questions.
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5. Each specific question must be based upon known facts and phenomena. Besides,
data from such known facts and phenomena must be accessible to make the specific
question researchable.
6. Answers to each specific question can be interpreted apart from the answers to other
specific questions.
7. Answers to each specific question must contribute to the development of the whole
research problem or topic.
8. Summing up the answer to all the specific questions will give a complete
development of the entire study.
9. The number of specific questions should be enough to cover the development of
the whole research problem or study.

Before writing down the specific questions, determine first the difference
aspects of the research problem to be studied and then for each aspect make one
specific question which sub questions if there is a need. If the research topic is the
teaching of science, the different aspects may be the following:
a. Qualifications of the teachers, especially educational;
b. Methods and strategies of teaching used and their level of effectiveness;
c. Facilities available, instructional and non-instructional and their adequacy;
d. Adequacy of supervisory assistance extended to teachers;
e. Comparison between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the students
concerning the different aspects;
f. Problems encountered by the teachers in teaching science;
g. Proposals to solve or help solve the problems; and
h. Implications of the study to the teaching of science.
10. Generally, there should be a general statement of the problem and then this should
be broken up into as many sub problems or specific questions as necessary.
Example: This study was conducted to investigate all aspects of the teaching of
science in the high schools of the Province of Ilocos Sur during the school year
2017-2018 as perceived by the science teachers and students. Specifically, the study
attempted to answer the following questions:
a. How qualified are the teachers handling science in the high schools of the
Province of Ilocos Sur?
b. How effective are the methods and strategies used by the teachers in teaching
science?
c. How adequate are the instructional as well as the non-instructional facilities for
the teaching of science?
d. How adequate are the forms of supervisory assistance extended to the teachers
relative to the teaching of science?
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e. Is there any significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and
those of the students concerning different aspects in the teaching of science?
f. What problems are being encountered by the teachers of science?
g. What suggestions are offered by the teachers and students to improve the
teaching of science?
h. What are the implications of the findings to the teaching of science?

Definition of the Problem

The relatively brief introductory statement of the problem should be followed by a
more detailed definition and delimitation. Monroe and Engelhart list the following forms
of definition. A single study may not include all of these forms but they indicate the
possibilities from which to select:
1. Analysis of the major problem or problems in terms of subordinate problems
2. Statement of the limits or scope of the study
3. Orientation of the problem
a. A historical account, remote or recent
b. A survey of previous studies or related studies
c. An analysis of previous studies related studies
d. Preliminary survey
The eight possibilities above indicated how a research problem may be defined and
delimited. The importance of careful definition of the research problem is underscored in
the following statements:
The importance of an early, careful definition of the research problem cannot be
exaggerated. It determines the philosophical background of the entire research, because the
ultimate objective emerges from it. It concentrates and makes more certain on arrival at a
goal, an important generalization, which will contribute to the professionalization of the
educational activities of the situation studied.
It can even perhaps be said that the definition of the research problem is not only
an important step; it is a crucial one which will determine whether it will prove to be
nothing but wanted effort, time, and money. It behooves the research process the care and
attention it deserves.

D. The Research Objectives (FROILAN, JESSIE)

The Research Hypothesis

Hypothesis
-A hypothesis is considered the most specific statement of the problem or objective.
It is an educated or intelligent guess or prediction about existence, attribute or relationship
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between variables (characteristics or phenomena) covered by a study. It is described as

educated or intelligent since it has been formulated in the basis of well thought of
objectives and theoretical or conceptual framework the foundation s of which require
critical reviews of literature and studies related to the subject under study. The phenomena,
or the aspects of it, which are the focus of guess or prediction, may be prevailing at the
time the study is to be conducted, have occurred, or may still occur.
-Defined as a working assumption temporarily accepted to be true and serving as a
springboard for researchers in their quest for truth. To begin with, it is a guess or mere
tentative statement guiding the student with his investigations with the purpose of
narrowing down his objectives. (Adeva)
-A hypothesis serves the student as his beacon light in his efforts to gather all data
and facts which are material and pertinent to the solution of his problem.
Unlike the research problems which are presented in question form, the hypotheses
should be always stated in declarative sentence form. (Kerlinger, 1986)

Types of Hypothesis
A hypothesis may be classified in either of these two major types – null or the
alternative form.
The null hypothesis is denial of an existence, an attribute, a relationship, a
difference or an effect. As such, it is stated in the negative form of the statement.
In contrast, the alternative hypothesis states the very opposite of what the null
hypothesis predicts. Tentatively, it affirms the existence of a phenomenon, that this group
of people has such and such characteristics that there is a relationship between age and
level of knowledge, that there is a significant difference between the incomes of people
living in the urban and in the rural areas, and that the high level of awareness of pregnancy
contraceptives was brought about by intensive promotional campaign launched by agencies
in charge of family planning.
In practice, the null hypothesis is popular since with its use, errors in accepting or
rejecting the hypothesis cn be easily voided. Moreover, the null hypothesis is easier to
reject than the alternative hypothesis when the statistical measure in testing the existence
of difference or relationship. However, the recent trend is towards the use of alternative
hypothesis. The basic argument for it is that stated in the positive form of a statement, it
provides more impetus or motivation to carry out the study.

Good Hypotheses
For hypotheses to be considered sound and good, they must possess three major
characteristics.
First, it should be reasonable in that they are offshoots or results of critical though
tentative judgment or explanation or a phenomenon. They have been formulated with valid
basis.
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Second, it should be testable in that with the use of statistical tools, it would be
known whether there is a relationship or difference between two or more variables, or
whether variable has an influence or effect on another.
Third, it should be conform to the findings of previous studies. If a related study
disclosed that Filipinos in general favor democracy over communism, it would be without
any basis to predict that Ilongos or Cebuanos have a favorable attitude towards
communism.

Uses/Functions of Hypotheses
Aside from making research problem or objectives explicit or more specific,
hypotheses serve the following functions:
1. They provide guide and direction to the research.
2. They indicate the major independent and dependent variables being considered,
3. They suggest the type of data that must be collected,
4. They also suggest the type of analyses that must be made, and
5. They indicate the type of statistical measures appropriate to various tests to be
conducted.

Assumptions
Assumptions are statements of facts related to the research problem which are
presumed to be true on the basis of observations and experience although not actually
verified. They are stated so as to provide foundation from which the study will proceed,
and an additional basis for suggests, assumptions do not require testing nor confirmation.
Not all investigations, however have a section on assumptions. This is because, in
some studies, assumptions are integrated in the introductory portion of the report where the
researcher discusses the background of the problem being investigated.

Examples
1. People have certain attitudes toward anything.
2. The subjects under the study belong to a certain socio-economic stratification.
3. Administrators or managers experience job-related tension.
4. Any individual wishes/desires acceptance by and belonging to a social group.
5. Rural families have much smaller income than their counterparts in urban areas

Guidelines in the use of basic assumptions

1. You cannot assume the value of your study. Such an argument should have been
made under the section, significance of the study.
2. You cannot assume the reliability of the instruments you propose to use in your
research. Such a rationale and defense should be made under methodology.
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3. You cannot assume the validity of basic data. Validity is established under
methodology.
4. You cannot assume that your population is typical. This point is to be made under
methodology.
5. An assumption is not tested, neither it is defended nor argued.

Scope and Limitations

Scope and limitations comprise one important section research report. The scope
defines the coverage or boundaries of the study in terms of the area or locality and subjects
or population covered, the duration or period of the study and the research issues or
concerns to which the investigation is focused.
Limitations are the statement which alert the reader of the research report to certain
constraints over which researcher has no control. Such factors or constraints have direct
bearings on the result of the study such that, without them, the study would be more
encompassing, definitive or conclusive. Stating the study limitations not only provides
extra credence to the study but provides the reader caution not to expect beyond what the
study can and promises to deliver , notwithstanding certain constraints.

The Variable
The term ‘variable’ refers to a ‘characteristic that has two or more mutually
exclusive values or properties. (Sevilla and others, 1988).
Sex, for instance, has two properties which are maleness and femaleness. The ages
of different persons have different values; so with their size, height, weight and income.
The phenomenon of variety is what makes life interesting; it is one of the
motivating factors of research undertaking.
Types
There are three major types of variables – the independent, the dependent and the
intervening.
The independent variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable, which
is the presumed effect in a relational study.
The dependent variable is the focus of the investigation which behavior or status is
influenced by the independent variable.
Learning, for instance, is a dependent variable the status of which – either
satisfactory or unsatisfactory – could be influenced by sex age and educational attainment.
The intervening variable, as the term suggests, comes between the independent and
dependent variables. In a way, it is the immediate independent variable of the dependent
variable, and also the immediate dependent variable of the independent variable.
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Example: Even is a farm production is good, if the attitude towards repayment

is negative, loan repayment would be low; whereas, if the attitude towards repayment is
positive or favorable, the loan repayment would be high.

Example 1
Independent Intervening Dependent
Variable Variable Variable
Attitude towards
Farm Production Loan repayment
Repayment
Example 2
Mass Media Political
Age, Sex, Education
Exposure Knowledge

Variables which are not considered in the study but which affect in any way the
study variables are called extraneous or exogenous variables. As much as possible the
researcher has to have control over them; if beyond control, they should be taken into
account in the analysis and interpretation of the study results.
In some studies, variables are presented with their respective indicators on which
basis they are measured. At the very early life of the research project, the indicators of
study variables should be determined and defined clearly. Failure to do so will create
problems in data processing and analysis stage.
Below are the variables and indicators of the study by Ardales (1990) on the
community and household profile of selected Comprehensive Agrarian Reform (CARP)
areas in Negros Occidental and process documentation of the community organizing
activities.

Variables Indicators
Household type Nuclear, extended
Household size Absolute number
Number of children Absolute number
Dependency burden Ratio of non-working to working members
Sources of income Employment categories
Income Total monthly earning, in cash and kind
Education Highest level completed
Possessed and aspired proficiency or
Skill
ability
Type of dwelling Housing type on the basis of materials
Homelot ownership Owned, not owned
House ownership Owned, not owned
Distance from town/city Absolute (in km.)
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Means of transportation Jeepney, bus, tricycle, etc.

Road condition Dirt, asphalt, cemented
Land classification Mountainous, hiily, plain, sloping, etc.
Crops grown Specific crops
Production Absolute production and storage facilities
Farm facilities Specific production and storage facilities
Rainfall pattern Rainy, dry months
Soil condition Productive, unproductive
Welfare facilities Specific community infrastructures

Significance of the Study

A section on the significance of the study is required not only in theses or
dissertations but even in research proposals which seek financial assistance. It is in this
section where the researcher expresses his persuasions about the value of study so as to get
the approval of the screening and approving committee and the support of the funding
institutions.
It is to the advantage of the researcher to state all the significant contributions that
his study will make, as follows:
1. Contribution to the accumulation of knowledge, or filling up a knowledge gap;
2. Contribution to building, validating or refining prevailing theories;
3. Contribution to meeting a pressing need of a specific group like solving a
problem or improving certain conditions;
4. Contribution to meeting the concerns or priorities of funding institution like
improved income, health, inter-relations, and the like.
The significance of the study may be presented from different perspectives. For
example, if the study is on social concerns, its contributions may be viewed from the point
of view of the planners and decision-makers, the implementors, the funding institutions
and the target beneficiaries.

The Review of Literature

RELATED LITERATURE DEFINED

The Webster Dictionary defines literature as “all the writings of a particular time,
country, etc., esp. those of an imaginative or critical character valued for excellence of form
and expression.” Any written material then, may it be poetry, a novel, a book or an article,
which meets the required character, form and expression, qualifies to be called literature.
The adjective related implies that the literature reviewed are connected to or have
relation to the subject or problem under investigation. In effect it narrows down the
materials to be reviewed.
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SOME REQUIREMENTS FOR THE REVIEW

 Involves systematic identification, location, and critical analysis of documents which
contain information related to the research problem.
 Library Resources. Public or private libraries have in their collections written
materials which would be invaluable to a particular study. These include books,
newspapers and magazines, journals, theses and dissertations, abstracts, and speeches
which may have direct or indirect connection to the problem.
 There is the need for the researcher to constantly carry 3 x 5-inch index cards and a
pen, which are useful every likely item that he thinks will have any bearing on his
particular study.

GUIDES IN DOING THE REVIEW

 To decide what information is useful &what is not useful.
The researcher should draw up a preliminary outline of the topic with reference to
objectives of study. It serve as a guide to take above decision.
 To determine how to record what is gathered from a published material.
Should be noted down as verbatim or paraphrased. As he does this, he makes notes
all along so as to accumulate those ideas pertinent to his research topic.
 To set up as orderly recording or note taking system
In this decision the researcher must be guided by the requirement of a good recording
system. These requirements are:
(a) The recording system should facilitate ready location of the recorded information
when required;
(b) It should allow for more flexible handling & organising information; and
(c) All notes relating to a particular concept of a topic should available together.

All these requirements are meet with card system.

Card System or Recording system involves uses of 2 sets of cards.
1. Source cards (3” * 5”)
2. Note cards (5” * 8”)

1. Source card or system card consists of heavy paper stock cut to a standard size, used
for recording and storing bibliographic information.
Source card serves 2 purposes.
(a) Provide documentary information for foot notes to be given in report
(b) Used for compiling bibliography to be furnished at the end of report.

Sample SOURCE CARD

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On the left hand-top corner the letter ‘B’ OR ‘J’ OR ‘R’ may be marker according to
the type of reference which a card represents.
B-book J-journal R=report

On the right hand top corner another code is to be marked. It’s a combination of letter
& number begins with “c”. The same code has to be marked on the corresponding notes
card for ready reference of each note.

Format for Book

Author’s name (starting with last name), the title of book, place of
publication: the publisher's name, year.

E.g.:
Krishnaswami, or, methodology of research in social science, Mumbai: Himalaya
publishing house, 1993
Format for Articles
2. Note Authors name, “the title
Card. Information of article",
extracted from athe journal
printed name,isand
source place. on
recorded Publishers
the note cards.
name, vol, issue no., date, pages
There should be a single fact or idea on each card. The structure of note card is as below:
(a) On the left hand top-corner the source reference code is marked.
(b) On the right hand top-corner the number of researcher’s proposed chapter to which the
information is related is entered.
(c) On the space between top edge and first horizontal line, the title of broad theme is
written & in the next space the title of the specific idea is marked.
(d) The idea or fact extracted from concerned reference is recorded after above step.

Sample NOTE CARD

IMPORTANCE, PURPOSES, and FUNCTIONS OF THE ROL

A survey or review of related literature and studies is very important because such
reviewed literature and studies serve as a foundation of the proposed study. This is because
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related literature and studies guide the researcher is pursuing his research venture.
Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the researcher in the following ways:
 They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research
problem or topic.
 They help the investigator understand his topic for research better.
 They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies
 They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information
 They help and guide the researcher in making his research design esp. in
a. the formulation of specific questions to be researched on;
b. the formulation of assumptions and hypotheses if there should be any;
c. the formulation of conceptual framework;
d. the selection and application of the methods of research;
e. the selection and application of sampling techniques;
f. the selection and/or preparation and validation of research instruments for
gathering data;
g. the selection and application of statistical procedures;
h. the analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data;
i. the making of summary of implications for the whole study;
j. the formulation of the summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

 They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his findings with
the findings of other researchers on similar studies with the end in view of
formulating generalizations or principles which are the contributions of the study to
the fund of knowledge.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

 The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible. There are exceptions however.
Treatises that deal with universals or things of more or less permanent may still be
good today. Like books on natural and physical laws, though written a long time ago,
are still being cited today.
 Materials surveyed must be objective and unbiased.
 Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study.
 Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or
data to make them valid and reliable.
 Reviewed materials must not be too few or too many. Ordinarily, from ten to fifteen
related materials are needed for master’s thesis. The numbers however, are only the
average numbers observed.

SOURCES OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

 Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other similar references.
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 Articles, published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and

other publications.
 Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters, and diaries.
 Unpublished theses and dissertations.
 The Constitution, and laws and statutes of the land.
 Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating from government offices and departments,
esp. from the Office of the President of the Philippines, and the Department of
Education.
 Records of schools, public and private, esp. reports of their activities.
 Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise.
 Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological,
political, etc., from the government and other entities.

Where to locate the Sources of Related Literature and Studies

Generally, the sources of related literature and studies are located in the following places:
1. Libraries, either government, school, or private libraries.
2. Government and private offices.
2. The National Library.
3. The Library of the Department of Education.

FUNCTIONS OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

 Bring clarity and focus to your research problem
It helps you define the relationship between your research problem and the body of
knowledge in the area.
 Improve your methodology.
Acquaints you with the methodologies that have been used by others to find
answers to questions similar to the one you are investigating.
 Broaden your knowledge base in your research area
Literature review ensures you read widely around the subject area in which you are
intend to conduct your research study.
 Contextualise your findings
Literature review helps identifying how your findings compare with the existing
body of knowledge.

THEORETICAL / CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical and the conceptual frameworks provide explicit explanations why
the problems under study exist by showing how the variables involved in the problem are
related to each other.
The theoretical framework makes use of a theory or theories in explaining why a
certain phenomenon, the subject of the study, occurred. Basically, a theory is a set of
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concepts and their relations which explains, predicts, and interprets how a particular
phenomenon exists and operates. This framework uses abstract concepts, although, in
some instance, it is a combination of abstract and well-defined concepts, but more of the
former. A researcher may adapt existing theories on which to anchor or link his particular
study. In cases where no applicable theory exists, researcher is compelled to formulate one.
The conceptual framework has the same function as the theoretical framework.
The difference lies in the types of concepts which they use. While the theoretical
framework makes use of abstract concepts, the conceptual framework utilizes specific or
well-defined ones which are called constructs. If the researcher has in his study theoretical
as well as conceptual frameworks he should see to it that the constructs used in conceptual
level should have been derived from abstract concepts given in the theoretical level.
The following illustration adapted from Mercado’s book (n.d.) will help in
distinguishing a conceptual from a theoretical framework.

Level Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Theoretical Communication Characteristics Learning

Age, Sex,
Mass media
Conceptual Education, Religion Political Knowledge
Exposure
Etc.
Numbers of hours spent Age, Sex, Education, Religion
Score in a test
Operational in listening Etc. political knowledge
to political radio prog.

G. Research Designs MARIA TESSA

RESEARCH DESIGNS

INTRODUCTION
The choice of a research design or method is one important decision that
has to be made in any research undertaking. Failure to select the most appropriate design
for a particular study will bring to nothing all the preparation and other efforts for a quality
research output.

Appropriateness of the Research Design

Research Design refers to the scheme or plan of action for meeting the objectives
of the study. The researcher is to select that which is appropriate and effective in attaining
his study goals. This implies that there is no best research design in the sense that it is
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applicable to any investigative study. The appropriateness of a research design then

depends largely on which method help the investigator attain his research objectives.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability refers to the consistency, stability or dependability of the data. A
research method that will give the same results, even if conducted twice, is reliable; it is
unreliable when, used the second time, the research yields results different from those of
the first time.
Validity refers to data that are not only reliable but also true and accurate. In
another sense, it refers to the extent to which an instrument is able to actually assess what
it is supposed to measure. Thus, in research one hears about valid instrument and valid
results.

Threats to Validity
1. History
This factor refers to events which happen during the life of a project or study. These
events are not part of the study nor those anticipated by the researcher. They
produce effects that influence the outcomes of the study, either increasing or
decreasing expected results.
2. Selection
This factor occurs when subjects of the study are chosen not only by individuals
but by groups. If two groups are selected for comparison purposes, it could be that
the difference between the groups, after one group has been proposed to an
intervention, is not due to the intervention but to the difference in their
characteristics such as sex, age and education, which were not considered during
the selection process.
3. Testing
This factor refers to the pretest given which results in improved performance in a
posttest. People who were given a pretest are likely to remember some of the
questions and some of the errors they made when they took the posttest.
4. Instrumentation
This factor refers to unreliability or lack of consistency in measuring instruments
which may result in an invalid assessment of performance. The change in the
instrument between the pretest and the posttest is likely to result in an effect not
caused by an intervention introduced.
5. Maturation
This factor refers to the changes- physiological or psychological, which may
happen to the subjects involved in a study conducted over a period of time. In a
training program which lasts for a long period of time, it is likely that participants
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will experience tiredness, hunger, or boredom. Any or all these will affect the
performance of the trainees when measured at the end of the training.
6. Mortality
This factor refers to loss of cases or subjects during the posttest stage of the study.
This is often true when the same group of people are studied over a period of time.
By the time a follow-up study is made on the group, some members may have
dropped out, are nowhere to be found, or refuse to cooperate further in the study.

Threats to validity must be considered carefully when selecting a research design

or method. If any of the threats is not controlled, it could be a possible explanation for
whatever result of the study, not the intervention to which the subjects have been exposed
to. It is therefore important to distinguish an effect caused by an intervention from an effect
caused by a validity threat.

Types of Research Designs

Historical Designs

Coverage and Goal of Historical Designs:

Historical research is the “critical investigation of events, developments, and
experiences of the past, the careful weighing of evidence of the validity of sources of
information on the past, and the interpretation of the weighted evidence.” (Kerlinger,
1986).
The goal of this historical research is to know the whole truth of what happened in
the past so that we will not only understand the present but will be helped in knowing what
to do in the present future. (Fox, 1969) By delving into the past, we can come to a better
understanding of who we are as a people and as a human beings; we will appreciate what
we enjoy or suffer in the present; and we will learn the mistakes of past generations which
will help us avoid those mistakes not only in the present but in the future as well.

Motivations for Historical research

A researcher may be motivated to go into historical research by following the
following reasons:
1. He may have some doubts about some reported events, the development of an
organization or institution or the experience of a person or group materials
which had never been discovered before but which may shed light to
unanswered questions about past events
2. Certain interpretation of historical data may not be satisfactory, disputable or
unbelievable so that a researcher will go into a historical study so as to
accumulate evidences to prove his point.
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3. Gaps in historical exposition must motivate a researcher to do historical

investigation to fill those gaps so as to make the historical account complete
more meaning and more definitive.

Basic Rules in Historical Research

1. The researcher always to use primary sources.
A primary source is the original repository of historical information such as an
official record of important event, pictures, accounts both eye or ear witnesses, relics
and minutes of meetings. The secondary source refers to information supplied by a
person who was not a direct observer of participant of an event.
2. The researcher to subject the source of historical data to external as well as to internal
criticisms.
External criticism involved critical examination of the genuineness and validity of
the documents or source materials.
Internal criticism, also known as textual criticism, is focused on checking the
meaning and accuracy of content of the document in representing historical facts.
(Kerlinger, 1986)

Location of Source Materials

1. national Libraries
2. local libraries
3. public and private museums
4. collections of private individuals, and
5. records of private and government agencies

Problems in Historical Research

Historical research does not provide a holistic view of the past. What it offers is
only a fragment of what happened in the past the accounting of which is restricted to data
in available records the authenticity of which has to be examined before their use.
Another problem in historical research is the absence of technical terminology
which either blocks or causes confusion in the communication of ideas or information. This
results in misunderstanding or misinterpretation. Words and statements may mean
differently to different people, cultures and times.
Finally, historical researchers cannot agree to what extent they can make
generalization on the basis of their historical information. While some of them can make
conclusive statements about past events, no one has the power nor is in a position to predict
future events on the basis of historical data. (Sevilla and Others, 1988)
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IMPROVING THE READING COMPREHENSION SKILLS OF THE GRADE

SEVEN 10 AGOHO OF NARVACAN NATIONAL CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL
THROUGH THINK ALOUDS

This research aims to determine the effectiveness of Think Alouds in improving the
reading comprehension skills of the Grade seven 10 Agoho of Narvacan National Central
High School, Narvacan, Ilocos Sur during the school year 2003-2004.
The respondents of this research are the 29 male and 20 female Grade VII 10-
Agoho students of Narvacan National Central High School.
The researcher will make use of Think Alouds as a tool in improving the reading
comprehension skills of the students. This includes vocabulary words, identification,
multiple choice, alternate response and sequencing of events.
Think Alouds involves the verbalization of thoughts as one reads. Students give
predictions about reading text, ask questions about the events read.

DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
- A design which aims to “describe the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of the
study and to explore the causes of particular phenomena”; and “provides the necessary
background for the formulation of a more precise problem for subsequent more
specific study and for the development of hypotheses”.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH FORMS

1. Survey
- Useful when the objective of the study is to see a general picture of the
population under investigation.
- Used when the investigator wishes to cover a relatively large population.
- Uses either the questionnaire or the interview schedule.
Questionnaire – set of questions which the subject of the study answers by
himself
Interview Schedule – set of questions which the interviewer uses in personally
interviewing the subject of the study
Two Forms of Survey
a. Census – (complete enumeration) covers the entire population under
investigation
b. Sample Survey – limited scope; covers only a portion of the study population
2. The Case Study
- Appropriate design to use when the aim of the study is to have a deeper, more
thorough and more comprehensive understanding of an individual or group.
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- Also when the investigator wishes to know/ capture the process which explain
the characteristics and behavior of a person, group or institution under
investigation.
3. Content Analysis
- Used when the objective of the study is to find out the type and/or the quality
of messages found in the document.
- The type of message refers to the subject matter one is interested in.
- The quality of messages refers to the consistency of the position the writers
have on the issue and on the degree of assertion or emphasis accorder to the
said issue.
4. Trend Analysis
- Some persons may want to foretell, on the basis of available data, the direction
of the future status of certain phenomenon.
5. Feasibility Study
- Used when the objective is to find out the viability of starting a business
venture, or establishing certain institutions, or constructing infrastructures.
- The market study deals with the unsatisfied demand which the undertaking
seeks to meet, its growth, and the manner in which it is to be met.
- The technical study has to do with the output or goal
- The financial study presents the overall financial aspect in terms of operating
cash requirements, profitability, and cash flow
- The socio – economic study deals with the effects of the undertaking on society
and the economy as a whole
6. Correlational Study
- Used when the aim of the researcher is to find out the direction and extent of
relationship between different variables of population under study.
- Also useful in generating and testing hypotheses about relationships between
two or more variables.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
- Experimental research is a design in which “an investigator manipulates and controls
one or more independent variables and observes the dependent variable/s for variation
concomitant to the manipulation of the independent variable”.

CATEGORIES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

1. Non – Experimental Designs
a. Post – test – only Design
b. Pretest – posttest Design
c. Static – group Comparison
2. True Experimental Designs
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a. Pretest – posttest Control Group Design

b. Posttest – only Control Group Design
c. Solomon four – group design
3. Quasi – Experimental Designs
a. Time Series Design
b. Non – equivalent Control Group Design
c. Separate Sample Pretest – posttest Design

GUIDELINES IN DESIGN SELECTION

1. Whenever possible, try to create experimental and control groups by assigning
cases randomly from a single population study group.
2. When random assignment is not possible, try to find a comparison group that is as
nearly equivalent as possible to the experimental group.
3. When neither a randomly assigned control group nor a similar comparison group is
available, try to use a time series design that can provide information on trends
before and after a program intervention.
4. If a time series design cannot be used as a minimum and before a program starts,
try to obtain baseline (pretest) information that can be compared against post
program information (a pretest – posttest design)
5. If baseline (pretest) information is unavailable, be aware that you will be limited in
the type of analysis you can conduct. You should consider using multivariate
analytic techniques.
6. Always keep in mind the issue of validity.

The Collection of Data –RAFFY

TYPES OF DATA:
1. PRIMARY DATA: Are those which are collected afresh and for the first time and
thus happen to be original in character and known as Primary data.
2. SECONDARY DATA: Are those which have been collected by someone else and
which have already been passed through the statistical process are known as
Secondary data.

COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA:

There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and
descriptive researches. In descriptive research, we obtain primary data either through
observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form or another or
through personal interviews.
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COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA:

These are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have already been
collected and analyzed by someone else. Secondary data may either be published or
unpublished data. Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data, because the
data available may be sometimes unsuitable.

Methods of data Collection: Primary Data:

1. OBSERVATION METHOD: Observation method is a method under which

data from the field is collected with the help of observation by the observer or
by personally going to the field.
2. INTERVIEW METHOD: This method of collecting data involves presentation
or oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. There are
different type of interviews as follows;
A. Personal interviews: the interviewer asks questions generally in a face to
face contact to the other person or persons.
B. Telephonic interviews: when it is not possible to contact the respondent
directly, then interview is conducted through – telephone.
C. Structured interviews: in this case, a set of pre-decided questions are there.
D. Unstructured interviews: in this case, we don’t follow a system of pre-
determined questions.
E. Focused interviews: attention is focused on the given experience of the
respondent and its possible effects.
F. Clinical interviews: concerned with broad underlying feelings or
motivations or with the course of individual’s life experience, rather than
with the effects of the specific experience, as in the case of focused
interview.
G. Group interviews: a group of 6 to 8 individuals is interviewed.

3. QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD: This method of data collection is quite

popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. The questionnaire is mailed to
respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write
down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The
respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
4. SCHEDULE METHOD: It is one of the important methods for the study of
social problems. In the words of Thomas Carson Macormic, “The schedule is
nothing more than a list of questions which it seems necessary to test the
hypothesis.”
5. CASE STUDY METHOD: It is essentially an intensive investigation of the
particular unit under consideration. Its important characteristics are as follows:
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a) the researcher can take one single social unit or more of such units for his
study purpose. b) the selected unit is studied intensively i.e. it is studied in
minute details.
6. SURVEY METHOD: One of the common methods of diagnosing and solving
of social problems is that of undertaking surveys. Festinger and Kat of the
opinion that, “Many research problems require systematic collection of data
from population through the use of personal interviews or other data gathering
devices.”
7. PANEL METHOD: In this method, data is collected from the same sample
respondents at the some interval either by mail or by personal interview. This is
used for studies on: 1) Expenditure Pattern 2) Consumer Behavior 3)
Effectiveness of Advertising 4) Voting Behavior and so on.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA ACCORDING TO SOURCE

Data sources are broadly classified into primary and secondary data.
1. Primary Data
- Data gathered from primary sources.
- Data collected from the original source first hand.
Primary Sources:
a. Individual persons
b. Organized groups or organizations – schools, business firms, church, tribe,
family etc.
c. Established practices – marriage, religious rites, etc.
d. Documents in their original forms – constitutions, laws, contracts,
proclamations, etc.
e. Living organisms
f. Man-made material things – buildings, machines, weapons, etc.
g. Natural objects and phenomena – rain, typhoon, earthquake, etc.

2. Secondary Data
- Data gathered from secondary sources
Secondary Sources:
a. Books including dictionaries, encyclopedias, almanacs, etc.
b. Articles published in professional journals, magazines, newspapers and other
publications.
c. Unpublished master’s theses and dissertations
d. Monographs, manuscripts, etc.
e. All other second-hand sources (published electronic sources)

Advantages of Primary Data over Secondary Data

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a. The primary data frequently give detailed definitions of terms and statistical units used
in the survey.
b. The secondary data have usually little or no explanatory notes and may contain clerical
and typographical mistakes.
c. The primary data usually includes a copy of the schedule and a description of the
procedure used in the selection of the type of sample and in collecting the data.
d. The primary data are usually broken down into finer classifications.

Advantages of Secondary Data

a. Secondary data are more convenient to use because they are already condensed and
organized.
b. Analysis and interpretation are done more easily.
c. Libraries make secondary data more easily accessible.

Categories of Data Gathered from Respondents

1. Facts – recollections, observations, and perceptions of the respondent about
themselves and of other people.
Examples: Personal circumstances: age, sex, height, weight, date of birth, etc.
Habits and hobbies: profession or occupation, life style, plans and
aspirations, etc.

2. Attitudes and Feelings – The respondent’s ideas and thoughts about the research
topic, and his personal feelings about the worth of the item being investigated.

3. Judgments – Includes the respondent’s ideas or opinion about, or his actual

behavior, in a given situation. This is what the respondents think a thing or situation
should be or what is.

4. Psychomotor Skills – Refers to the manipulative skills of the individual and his
activities that involve his five senses: sight, smell, touch, hearing, and taste.

Results of Tests and Experiments – The results of tests and experiments are very important
data especially in psychology and in the physical, chemical and biological sciences.

Measuring Instruments

Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a measurement device
(survey, test, questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish between instrument and
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instrumentation, consider that the instrument is the device and instrumentation is the
course of action (the process of developing, testing, and using the device).
Evaluating the research instrument places confidence on the results obtained and
draws correct conclusions. Research instruments must be reliable and valid.
Reliability refers to the repeatability of findings. If the study were to be done a
second time, would it yield the same results? If so, the data are reliable. If more than one
person is observing behavior or some event, all observers should agree on what is being
recorded in order to claim that the data are reliable.
Reliability also applies to individual measures. When people take a vocabulary test
two times, their scores on the two occasions should be very similar. If so, the test can then
be described as reliable. To be reliable, an inventory measuring self-esteem should give the
same result if given twice to the same person within a short period of time.
Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure and performs as it is designed to perform. It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an
instrument be 100% valid, so validity is generally measured in degrees. As a process,
validation involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument.

There are two aspects of validity:

External validity is the extent to which the results of a study can
be generalized from a sample to a population. Establishing eternal validity for an
instrument, then, follows directly from sampling. Recall that a sample should be an
accurate representation of a population, because the total population may not be available.
An instrument that is externally valid helps obtain population generalizability, or the degree
to which a sample represents the population.
Content validity refers to the appropriateness of the content of an instrument. In
other words, do the measures (questions, observation logs, etc.) accurately assess what you
want to know? This is particularly important with achievement tests.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

If data are valid, they must be reliable. If people receive very different scores on a
test every time they take it, the test is not likely to predict anything. However, if a test is
reliable, that does not mean that it is valid.
If an instrument or experiment is valid, it will usually also be reliable as long as it
is carefully constructed to control all variables except the one being studied.
“for a test to be valid or truthful, it must first be reliable”.

Test Construction
Most tests are a form of summative assessment; that is, they measure students’
performance on a given task. (For more information on summative assessment, see the
CITL resource on formative and summative assessment.) McKeachie (2010) only half-
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jokes that “Unfortunately, it appears to be generally true that the examinations that are the
easiest to construct are the most difficult to grade.” The inverse is also true: time spent
constructing a clear exam will save time in the grading of it.

Closed-answer or “objective” tests

By “objective” this handbook refers to tests made up of multiple choice (or “multi-
op”), matching, fill-in, true/false, fill-in-the-blank, or short-answer items as objective tests.
Objective tests have the advantages of allowing an instructor to assess a large and
potentially representative sample of course material and allow for reliable and efficient
scoring. The disadvantages of objective tests include a tendency to emphasize only
“recognition” skills, the ease with which correct answers can be guessed on many item
types, and the inability to measure students’ organization and synthesis of material
Objective-answer tests can be constructed to require students to apply concepts, or
synthesize and analyze data and text. Consider using small “cases studies,” problems or
situations. Provide a small collection of data, such as a description of a situation, a series
of graphs, quotes, a paragraph, or any cluster of the kinds of raw information that might be
appropriate material for the activities of your discipline. Then develop a series of questions
based on that material, the answers to which require students to process and think through
the material and question significantly before answering.

Here are a few additional guidelines to keep in mind when writing multiple-choice tests:
As much of the question as possible should be included in the stem.
Make sure there is only one clearly correct answer (unless you are instructing
students to select more than one).
Make sure the correct answer is not given away by its being noticeably shorter,
longer, or more complex than the distractors.
Make the wording in the response choices consistent with the item stem.
Beware of using answers such as “none of these” or “all of the above.”
Use negatives sparingly in the question or stem; do not use double negatives.
Beware of using sets of opposite answers unless more than one pair is presented
(e.g., go to work, not go to work).

Essay exams
Conventional wisdom accurately portrays short-answer and essay examinations as
the easiest to write and the most difficult to grade, particularly if they are graded well. You
should give students an exam question for each crucial concept that they must understand.
If you want students to study in both depth and breadth, don't give them a choice
among topics. This allows them to choose not to answer questions about those things they
didn’t study. Instructors generally expect a great deal from students, but remember that
their mastery of a subject depends as much on prior preparation and experience as it does
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on diligence and intelligence; even at the end of the semester some students will be
struggling to understand the material. Design your questions so that all students can answer
at their own levels.
The following are some suggestions that may enhance the quality of the essay tests
that you produce
Have in mind the processes that you want measured (e.g., analysis, synthesis).
Start questions with words such as “compare,” “contrast,” “explain why.” Don’t
use “what,” “when,” or “list.” (These latter types are better measured with objective-type
items).
Write items that define the parameters of expected answers as clearly as possible.
Make sure that the essay question is specific enough to invite the level of detail you
expect in the answer. A question such as “Discuss the causes of the American Civil War,”
might get a wide range of answers, and therefore be impossible to grade reliably. A more
controlled question would be, “Explain how the differing economic systems of the North
and South contributed to the conflicts that led to the Civil War.
Design the question to prompt students’ organization of the answer. For example,
a question like “Which three economic factors were most influential in the formation of
the League of Nations?”
Don’t have too many questions for the time available.
For take-home exams, indicate whether or not students may collaborate and
whether the help of a Writing Tutorial Services tutor is permissible.