What is Philosophy?

Philosophy can be described as the rational, abstract, and methodical consideration of reality. Philosophy has been a
central fixture in the history of civilization, from ancient Greece to modern day. In the centuries that have passed,
notable philosophers both young and old have produced original thoughts and made contributions to all industries
and disciplines including politics, mathematics, literature, art, and science. Below are some of the most influential
philosophers, their schools of thought, and what we can learn from their forward-thinking approach.
>Confucius (551–479 B.C.)
Confucius, also referred to as Kong Qui or K’ung Fu-tzu, was a Chinese philosopher, teacher, and political figure
largely considered the father of the Eastern style of thought. His teachings focused on creating ethical social
relationships, setting educational standards, and promoting justice and honesty.
Guiding Principle
His social philosophy was based on the principle of ren—loving others—and he believed this could be achieved using
the Golden Rule: “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others.”

>Socrates (c. 469–399 B.C.)

Socrates was a Greek philosopher and is considered the primary source of Western thought. Because he could
neither read nor write, much of what we know of his life was recorded by his students Plato and Xenophon. His
“Socratic method” laid the groundwork for Western systems of logic and philosophy, delivering a belief that through
the act of questioning, the mind can manage to find truth.
Guiding Principle
Socrates believed that philosophy should achieve practical results for the greater well-being of society. He
emphasized the idea that the more a person knows, the greater his or her ability to reason and make choices that
will bring true happiness.

>Plato (c. 428–348 B.C.)

Greek philosopher Plato was a student of Socrates and later became a teacher of Aristotle. He was a priori, a rational
philosopher who sought knowledge logically rather than from the senses. He went on to establish the Academy in
Athens, one of the first institutions of higher learning in the Western world.
Guiding Principle
Plato’s logic explored justice, beauty, and equality, and contained discussions in aesthetics, politics, language, and
cosmology—the science of the origin and development of the universe.

>Aristotle (384–322 B.C.)

Considered one of the greatest thinkers in politics, psychology, and ethics, Aristotle learned from Plato after
enrolling in his Academy at age seventeen. Later, he went on to tutor Alexander the Great. Aristotle focused on a
posteriori routes of knowledge, a term popularized by Immanuel Kant where conclusions are formed based on actual
observation and data.
Guiding Principle
Aristotle’s intellectual knowledge spanned every known field of science and arts, prompting him to idealize the
Aristotelian syllogistic, a belief that logical argument applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on
two or more propositions assumed to be true.
>Dante (1265–1321)
Dante was a Medieval Italian poet and moral philosopher regarded as the father of the modern Italian language. He
is best remembered for his poetic trilogy, The Divine Comedy, which comprised of sections that represented three
tiers of the Christian afterlife: purgatory, heaven, and hell. The poem features an array of learning, an analysis of
contemporary problems, and creativity in language and imagery.
Guiding Principle
Dante’s important theoretical works included discussions of rhetoric surrounding moral philosophy and political
thought.
>Pascal (1623–1662)
Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, and religious philosopher who laid the fountain for the modern
theory of probabilities, a branch of mathematics concerned with the analysis of random phenomena.
Guiding Principle
In 1657, Pascal published Les Provinciales under the pseudonym Louis de Montalte, a series of eighteen letters that
defended Jansenist over Jesuit theologies. He also propagated a religious doctrine that taught the experience of God
through the heart rather than through reason, contrary to the beliefs of French philosopher René Descartes.
>John Locke (1632–1704)
John Locke was an English philosopher and Enlightenment thinker who came to be known as the Father of Classical
Liberalism. Throughout his studies, he made valuable contributions to modern theories of a limited, liberal
government. His most notable work, Essay Concerning a Human Understanding, offers an analysis of the human
mind and its acquisition of knowledge.
Guiding Principle
Locke’s thinking emphasized the notion that we should acquire ideas through our experience of the world. His logic
later influenced philosophers like Voltaire and Rousseau.

>Voltaire (1694–1778)
Francois Arouet, better known for his pen name “Voltaire,” is largely considered one of the greatest French
Enlightenment writers. He produced thousands of letters, books, pamphlets, essays, plays, among other forms of
writing, most of which were centered on religion and politics. One of his most famous works was Candide, a satirical
novella that pokes fun at the philosophical optimism proclaiming that all disaster and human suffering is part of a
benevolent cosmic plan.
Guiding Principle
Though Voltaire’s outright skepticism of the government and church caused great controversy during his time, he
remained a progressive thinker regarding issues of civil rights and advocated for the importance of freedom of
religion, speech, and the right to a fair trial.

>Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)

Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher whose thinking revolved around metaphysics, a philosophical study that
examines the fundamental nature of reality. His best-known work, Critique of Pure Reason, determines the limits
and scope of metaphysics, combining reason with experience that moves beyond that of traditional philosophy.
Guiding Principle
Kant was one of the foremost thinkers of the Enlightenment, and a large part of his work addresses the question,
“What can we know?” Kant argued that we can only have knowledge of things that are possible to experience.
Further, he believes that we can know the natural, observable world, but we cannot have answers to many of the
deepest questions of metaphysics.
>Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797)
Mary Wollstonecraft was an English writer and intellect who advocated for women’s equality within society. As an
ardent feminist, she believed both men and women should be treated as equal beings with a social mandate. Her
best-known publication, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, is considered the first great feminist treatise. In it,
she argued that women deserve the same fundamental rights as men and should have an education commensurate
with their position in society.
Guiding Principle
Wollstonecraft was an fierce advocate for women’s rights, arguing that women deserve the same fundamental rights
as men and should have an education commensurate with their position in society.
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>Ayn Rand (1905–1982)
Russian-American author and philosopher Ayn Rand rejected collectivist values in favor of individual self-interest, an
ideal evident in her first novel We the Living. She promoted the philosophy of Objectivism, which she describes as
“the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive
achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute.” This belief was realized in her successful novel
Atlas Shrugged, as well as in courses, lectures, and other literary works.
Guiding principle
While Rand was a passionate advocate of the philosophy of objectivism, her political philosophy placed emphasis on
individualism, the constitutional protection of individual rights to life, liberty, and property, and limited government.

>Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986)

Simone de Beauvoir is a French writer, existentialist philosopher, and social theorist who paved the way for the
modern feminist movement. She published countless works, both fiction and nonfiction, often having existentialist
themes. Her most notable book, The Second Sex, discusses the treatment of women throughout history and the
oppression they endured.

Guiding principle
While her novels focused on existential themes, de Beauvoir’s philosophies were heavily influenced by the historical
materialism of Karl Marx and the idealism of Immanuel Kant.