CHAPTER I

THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF HUMAN EXISTENCE

KEYWORDS
1. Ethics
Ethics is based on well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans
ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific
virtues. Santa Clara University(2010)
retrieved from: https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decision-
making/what-is-ethics/

2. Morality
Morality speaks of a system of behavior in regards to standards of right or wrong
behavior. The word carries the concepts of moral standards, with regard to behavior;
moral responsibility, referring to our conscience; and a moral identity, or one who is
capable of right or wrong action.
retrieved from: https://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/morality.htm

3. Aesthetics
According to Bulaong Jr. et al.,(2018) The Ethical Dimension Of Human Existence,
Ethics Foundations Of Moral Valuation(pp. 2) 'Aesthetics" is derived from the Greek word
aisthesis ('sense or "feeling) and refers to the judgments of personal approval or disapproval
that we make about what we see, hear, smell, or taste. For example in clothes a man wear a
dirty clothes, clothes are the matter of aesthetics treats you cannot be called immoral because
the judgment of others based on the personality.

4. Etiquette
According to Bulaong Jr. et al.,(2018) The Ethical Dimension Of Human Existence, Ethics
Foundations Of Moral Valuation(pp. 2) Etiquette, which is concerned with right and wrong
actions, but those which might be considered not quite grave enough to belong to a
discussion on ethics. For example a couple was walking the man is in the left side of the
woman instead the man is always in the right side because it danger but the man doesn’t
know about it we considered it as etiquette.

5. Technique
According to Bulaong Jr. et al.,(2018) The Ethical Dimension Of Human Existence, Ethics
Foundations Of Moral Valuation(pp. 3) "technique" which often used to refer to a proper
way (or right way) of doing things, but a technical valuation (right and wrong technique of
doing things) may not necessarily be an ethical one. For example in pronouncing of a word
you practice the wrong pronunciation but later on someone corrected you. Practice
correctly makes perfect.

6. Descriptive
According to Bulaong Jr. et al.,(2018) The Ethical Dimension Of Human Existence,
Ethics Foundations Of Moral Valuation(pp. 5) A descriptive study of ethics reports
how people, particularly groups, make their moral valuations without making any
judgment either for or against these valuations. It is a not bias study because they
have no standards.
 7. Normative
According to Bulaong Jr. et al.,(2018) The Ethical Dimension Of Human Existence, Ethics
Foundations Of Moral Valuation(pp. 5) A normative study of ethics, a normative discussion
prescribes what we ought to maintain as our standards or bases for moral valuation. It is
bias because they have standards to their study if you do not meet the standards your
survey questionnaire may not able be accepted.
8. Positive Law
According to L Green ( 2003) positive law refers to a matter of what has been
posited (ordered, decided, practiced, tolerated, etc.); as we might say we just
follow the law. Law is made up of right way to do if you didn’t follow the rules it
just simple you will consider immoral.

9. Divine Command Theory

According to Pollock (2007) Divine command theory is to use God as the
source for all principles. In this way, to rely upon divine command theory, a
person must believe that there is a willful and rational god that has
provided the direction toward an ethical outcome. Religious scriptures are
generally ancient and are hard to interpret against the complexities of
today’s society. As a result, religion as an ethical system does not provide
specific ethical guidance to specific ethical dilemmas. Scriptures are
ambiguous and are generally broad in nature.
Retrieve from: https://opentextbc.ca/ethicsinlawenforcement/chapter/2-7-
religion-or-divine-command-theory/
10. Cultural Relativism

11. Subjectivism
subjectivism moral values are dependent on a will, human or divine, a willing subject.
If the will is human, then one has the basis for modern moral relativism, in which
humans together (e.g., a legislature) decide what is right and wrong. If the will is
divine, then one has a divine command theory of ethics.
Retrieved from:https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/ngier/103/eoes.html

12. Psychological Egoism

According to Bulaong Jr. et al.,(2018) The Ethical Dimension Of Human Existence,

Ethics Foundations Of Moral Valuation(pp. 16) Psychological egoism describes the
underlying dunamic behind all human actions. It doesn't direct to act in any particular
way. For example I buy a food for my self and someone buy a food to give to the poor
but in terms to psychological egoism they equal because they serve their own
fulfillment. For one thing it is probably unprovable because it is a theory about our
deepest motivation. How could anyone prove whether you help the poor kid or
because irlt makes you feel good about yourself?
13. Ethical Egoism
According to Bulaong Jr. et al.,(2018) The Ethical Dimension Of Human Existence,
Ethics Foundations Of Moral Valuation(pp. 17) Ethical egoism prescribes that we
should make our own ends, our own interests asthe as the single over riding
conncern.If you try to act in reference to other peoples interest rather than your own
you can easily do thing those people wouldn't want and if you violate their right it
 would be immoral human being are deendent on one another for survival therefore it
is your moral obligation to take yourself first so that you have ability to take care
them.

STUDY QUESTIONS:
1. Identify a list of: (a) obligations we are expected to fulfil, (b) prohibitions we are
required to respect, and (c) ideals we are encouraged to meet. Discuss whether these
are ethical in nature or not.
2. Are clothes a matter of pure aesthetics taste, or does it make sense for clothes to
become a subject in a discussion of ethics? Why? How about other forms of
adornment, such as tattoos and piercings?
3. Look for a newspaper article that tackles and ethical issue. Consider the following
questions:
a. What makes this matter of ethics?
b. What is your own ethical judgement on this case?
c. What are your reasons for this judgement?
4. Brainstorm and come up with a list of common Filipinos values. Consider the
strengths and weaknesses of these.
5. Imagine that you are legislator. What rule or laws that currently prohibit certain acts
or practices would you want to amend or repeal? Also, are there certain acts or
practices currently permitted by the law that you would want to prohibit? Think of
this on the level of your school, your city, and the nation.
6. Comment on this statement: “What I believe must be true if I feel very strongly about
it.”
7. Is looking after the benefit of your own family overall other aspects considered as
another form of egoism? Discuss.

CHAPTER II
UTILITARIANISM

KEYWORDS
1. Greatest Happiness
The Greatest Happiness principle in general is good, but it has many flaws as any
ethical systems does. Due to our inability to perfectly predict the future according to
our actions (assuming he future is capable of being altered with our actions), the
results we desire are capable of, and often do, fall short of what was intended. If
unforeseen parameters caused all of our actions to backfire, even though we were
attempting to act in accordance with Utilitarianism, we would all be considered
immoral as our results only caused pain. Nubcaek(2011)
http://parenethical.com/phil140win11/tag/greatest-happiness-principle/

2. Moral Right
 Human rights are those moral rights of humans as such, rights that humans have in
virtue of being human. “Human” here is used in the moral sense and does not mean a
biological human, a member of the species Homo sapiens."
https://www.smu.edu/Provost/Ethics/Resources/EthicsToolBox/UnderstandingtheToo
ls/MoralRightsTheoreticalBackground
3. Intent
intent is the desire to act ethically when facing a decision and overcome the
rationalization to not be ethical “this time.” Even if a person sees the ethical aspects
of a decision and has the philosophical tools to make the right choice, he or she still
needs to want to do the right thing.
https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/video/best-self-part-3-moral-intent
4. Justice
The idea of justice occupies centre stage both in ethics, and in legal and political
philosophy. We apply it to individual actions, to laws, and to public policies, and we
think in each case that if they are unjust this is a strong, maybe even conclusive,
reason to reject them.
2017https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice/
5. Utility
The principle of utility states that actions or behaviors are right in so far as they
promote happiness or pleasure, wrong as they tend to produce unhappiness or pain.
Hence, utility is a teleological principle. White
(nd)http://faculty.msj.edu/whiter/UTILITY.htm
6. Higher pleasure
higher pleasures are subjective pleasures or objective pleasures. His discussion
concerns activities that employ our higher faculties. What’s unclear is whether higher
pleasures refer to mental states or sensations caused by higher activities or the
activities themselves.
2007 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill-moral-political/
7. Rights

8. Pleasure

9. Base pleasure

10. Legal Rights

STUDY QUESTIONS:
1. Are all pleasures commensurable? Can they be evaluated on a single scale? Can some
goods, like friendship, be balance against other goods, like money?

2. Mill revises utilitarianism by arguing for “higher” pleasure. Which pleasure are
higher?

3. Mill propose that “higher” pleasures are those preferred by the majority of people. Do
you agree that this is a good way of distinguishing between higher and lower
pleasures? Can a well-informed majority prefer higher pleasures?

4. Does utilitarianism questions individual rights? What if violating the civil rights of a
minority increases the sum total of pleasure of the majority?
 5. Do you agree that the happiness is the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain,
and that all actions are directed toward pleasure?

6. Are all pleasure comparable, even objectionable pleasure? What if the majority
derives pleasure from being sexist?

7. Is it justifiable to build a basketball court because there are basketball fans, that to
build a hospital because there are fewer sick people?

8. When is it justifiable to torture suspected criminals?

CHAPTER III
NATURAL LAW

KEYWORDS:
1. Idea of the Good
Idea of Good - “Virtue ethics is particularly concerned with the way individuals live their
lives, and less concerned in assessing particular actions. It develops the idea of good actions
by looking at the way virtuous people express their inner goodness in the things that they
do.”

Ethics - Introduction to ethics: Ethics: a general introduction. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/intro_1.shtml.

2. Material Cause
Material Cause – Material cause is the physical being of an object. It is a cause which can be
inferred from the five senses (see, smell, taste, touch and hear). An example of this is a
marble countertop, marble is the material cause of the countertop. Another example is a
wooden statue, wood is the material cause of the statue.

Whittemore, J. (n.d.). Aristotle's Metaphysics: The Four Causes. Retrieved from

https://study.com/academy/lesson/aristotles-metaphysics-the-four-causes.html.

3. Final cause
Final Cause - “This cause is the reason why something is the way it is. The Final Cause is the
reason why a thing exists in the first place, what is its function.” Final cause answers the
question why. For example, a bed's final cause is it is where we can sleep and rest. Another
example, a school's final cause is it is where children can study and gain/share more
knowledge.

Philosophyzer. (2012, October 31). Aristotle's Four Causes. Retrieved from

https://www.philosophyzer.com/aristotles-four-causes/.
4. Potency
Potency – Potency is something that needs to be perfected. “Ethics in St. Thomas and
Aristotle is founded on the realization that all goodness is what perfects in the mode of an
end, and so goodness must correspond to something that needs to be or ought to be
perfected (a potency).”

Potency and Ethics. (2008, May 29). Retrieved from

https://thomism.wordpress.com/2008/05/29/potency-and-ethics/.

5. Human Law
Human Law - “Human Law is the interpretation of natural law in different contexts”

Lee, T. (2018, June 20). What is the eternal law, divine law, natural law, and human law?
Retrieved from https://medium.com/@teresalee_94155/what-is-the-eternal-law-divine-
law-natural-law-and-human-law-d04313acf742.

6. Natural Law
Natural Law - “Natural law is a foundation for moral and civil law. Government laws are
dictates of practical reason from the precepts of Natural Law”

Lee, T. (2018, June 20). What is the eternal law, divine law, natural law, and human law?
Retrieved from https://medium.com/@teresalee_94155/what-is-the-eternal-law-divine-
law-natural-law-and-human-law-d04313acf742.

7. Formal Cause
8. Efficient Cause
9. Act
10. Eternal Law
11. Divine Law
STUDY QUESTION:
1. Are there other ways that the word “natural” is used to justify a particular way of
behaving? How these approaches compare to the theory of Aquinas?
2. Can you think of human laws, that are proper existensions of the natural law? Explain
how this is so. Can you think of other human laws that violate the natural law?
Explain how this is so.
3. Are there other forms of harm-short of killing another person-that may be taken as a
violation of the natural inclination to preserve one’s being? Justify your answer.
4. Are there current scientific developments-for example, in biology-that challenge the
understanding of nature by Aquinas?
5. Is it possible to maintain a natural law theory without believing in the divine source?
Why or why not?
 CHAPTER IV
DEONTOLOGY

KEYWORDS:
1. Rational Will
Rational will , according to Hardison (2010), inferred that “a rational being is one
who is capable of logical thought with the ability to reason toward sound conclusions
based on facts and evidence, draw inferences from situations and circumstances, make
sound well-reasoned judgements based on factual information.” Kant claims that the
property of the rational will is autonomy (Ak 4:440), which is the opposite of
heteronomy. These three Greek words are instructive: autos, heteros, and nomos,
which mean "self, "other," and "law," respectively.

https://www.csus.edu › indiv

2. Agency
3. Duty
4. Maxim
5. Universalizability
6. Universalizability is described as “Judgments or principles of which it can
be said that everyone should judge or act in the same way, are
universalizable judgments or principles. In other words, they are
independent of any particular point of view.” (Seven Pillars Institute, 2017).
Likewise, APA Dictionary of Psychology also defined universalizability as
“the principle that particular moral judgments always carry an implied
universal judgment.” Some example of this would be “thou shall not steal,”
“thou shall not kill.”
retrieved from: https://sevenpillarsinstitute.org/glossary/universalizability/

7. Autonomy versus Heteronomy

8. Arbitrium Brutum versus Free Choice
 9. Substantive versus Formal Moral Theory
10. Rational Permissibility
11. Enlightenment Morality versus Paternalism
STUDY QUESTION:
1. In what way does a rational will distinguish a human being from an animal insofar as
the animal is only sentient?
2. What is the difference between autonomy and heteronomy? What does autonomy
have to do with free will in contrast to animal impulse?
3. How does the method called universalizability work? What are the steps to test if an
action is rationally permissible?
4. What is meant by enlightenment morality as opposed to paternalism? Why is
deontology a kind of enlightenment morality?

CHAPTER V
VIRTUE ETHICS

KEYWORDS:
1. Character - Character is an assessment of a person's steady good characteristics. The
idea of character can suggest an assortment of traits including the presence or absence
of ideals, for example, compassion, mental fortitude, honesty, trustworthiness, and
steadfastness, or of good practices or propensities. For example, If you borrowed a
money from your friend for your own goods and you promise that you will pay him
after the day. After that day you didn’t pay him because you haven’t enough money to
repay him yet you said you will repay him next week until the time you didn’t pay
him because you know that you are close each other and didn’t pay him back. It
violates the character in virtue ethics because that person that you have borrowed will
not be loyal anymore and will not be trusted to you anymore.
Standford University (2016) / Why Moral Character Matters? / retrieved from:
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/

2. Virtue - Virtues are attitudes, dispositions, or character traits that enable us to be and
to act in ways that develop this potential. They enable us to pursue the ideals we have
adopted. Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-
control, and prudence are all examples of virtues. For example, If there is an
examination tomorrow and you don’t want to fail that exam you must review instead
of doing a way to cheat for you to pass that examination. If you don’t want you
violate the honesty in Virtue you must find a way to pass that examination without
doing an action towards cheating yet you must find a way to pass that fair and square.
Manuel Velasquez, Santa Clara University (2019) / Ethics and Virtues / retrieved from:
https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decision-making/ethics-and-virtue/

3. Vices – Vices is a moral failing or a bad habit. It is the opposite traits of the Virtue
including cowardice, insensibility, injustice, and vanity. Otherwise, Vice is a simply
the absence of virtue, that which does not lead to happiness that which we generally
consider bad qualities. For example, if you want to earn money for you to have food
to eat yet you are stubborn you chose to steal money to have a food to eat. It can
simply justify that if you do wrong or bad you can treat yourself satisfaction for the
meantime yet there is always a consequence if you do wrong or bad. If you steal
something and you were caught by others you can easily end up in the jail. If you
want to earn money try to be responsible and find a job for you to have a food to eat.
James Fieser (September 1, 2017)/ Vices and Virtues Explained / retrieved from:
https://www.utm.edu/staff/jfieser/class/300/virtues.htm

4. Virtue Ethics - Virtue ethics, there are certain ideals, such as excellence or dedication
to the common good, toward which we should strive and which allow the full
development of our humanity. These ideals are discovered through thoughtful
reflection on what we as human beings have the potential to become. Also it is the
one that emphasizes that if you do right and good it can eventually leads you to a
good consequences. For example, if there’s a major exam that will held this week the
action you must do to pass that exam is to review and study smart. If you do a good
action and do your responsibility as a student it can lead you or us to a good
consequence that results us to pass that problem.
Nafsika Athanassoulis (2019) / Principles of Virtue Ethics/ retrieved from:
iep.utm.edu/virtue/

5. Eudaimonia - is the classical definition of Virtue Ethics. It holds that the best possible
objective of human life is eudaimonia which can be differently interpreted as
satisfaction or happiness, prosperity, or good life, and that this objective can be
accomplished by a lifetime of practicing. For example, if you want to be a certified
licensed engineer you to need to have a good action or right mentality to achieve that
goal or happiness. In this topic it can relate to that specific example because if you
want to achieve something or to become successful you must do it smart and practice
it well for us to achieve what goal we need in our life.
Robert C. Bartlett (2008-2019) / The Basic of Philosophy/ retrieve from:
https://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_virtue_ethics.html
 6. Telos - is an ancient Greek term for an end, satisfaction, finish, objective or aim.
Telos means purpose or anything in this world or your daily actions have a different
purpose and goals. Also in everyone’s perception or thinking if you do a thing even if
it is for short or long term if you do an action towards goodness it has a purpose that
results a satisfaction yet if you do a bad thing also it has a purpose that results a
consequence or a punishment if your action to wrong. For example, Why did I study?
To become an engineer the purpose here is that if you study smart your goal and aim
to become an engineer is not a difficult to achieve if you know your purpose right
before it begins.
Brennan, Tad (2002) / Concept and Principle of Telos / retrieved from:
https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/telos/v-1

7. Mesotes –

8. Arête – Arête means Excellence In any kind. The term may also mean moral virtue"
In its earliest appearance in Greek, this notion of excellence was ultimately bound up
with the notion of the fulfillment of purpose or function, the act of living up to one's
full potential. Also it means that if you are good in one thing or one profession it
means you are Arête. For example if you are good and excellence in math you can
easily solve whatever your professor will ask you. That means that if you are good in
one or more things you can easily produce a good and right results that leads you to
have a satisfaction but before you become excellent to that particular thing you must
know and practice that specific thing you want to be.
Christopher Rowe (2002) / Aristotle’s Ethics / retrieved from:
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/
9. Practical Wisdom

STUDY QUESTION:
1. What is moral virtue? What is intellectual virtue?
2. What is the difference between moral and intellectual virtue? Explain
3. Identify some Filipino traits and categorize each as virtue (middle) or vices (excess or
deficiency). Place them in a table.
4. How is a person’s character formed according to Aristotle?
5. Who do you think possesses a moral character in your community? Explain your
answer.
 CHAPTER VI
SYNTHESIS: MAKING INFORMED DECISION

KEY WORDS:
1. Cross-Point
-
2. Culture and Cultural Relativism
-
3. Emotions and Feelings
-
4. Environment
-
5. Ethical Responsibilities
-
6. Global Community
-
7. Informed Decision-Making
-
8. Moral Agent
-
9. Moral Development and Maturity
-
10. Religion
-
11. Self
-
12. Society
-
Study Questions:
1. How can you be a genuine Filipino if you not follow Filipino customs?
2. What is the distinction between a religious notion of sin and the philosophical
understanding of immoral and unethical acts?
3. How realistic is Kohlberg’s ideal of the highest stage of post-conventional morality,
that universal ethical principles, given that feelings and emotions are inseparable from
human choice?
4. Given that the human condition is one of finitude, how will you know that you are
sufficient informed when you finally make your moral judgement?
5. If a global ethic is currently emerging, does this mean that the true meaning of
morality changes over time? Please explain your answer.
6. Is there a difference between one’s ethical responsibility toward fellow humans and
toward nonhuman nature? Please explain your answer.