MECH4428 Degradation of Materials

Chapter 2. Corrosion of Metals

Practice Question Sheet 1

1. Group Discussion: It is said that corrosion is a natural phenomenon. Explain the context
and implications of this statement. Can corrosion be used to our benefit? Give an example
if you think so.

2. For design engineers and corrosion engineers it is important to determine the corrosion rate.
One way of determining corrosion rate is to measure the weight loss of a sample coupon
over a period of time submerged in a corroding medium.
(a) Group Discussion: Design an immersion test for a carbon steel in seawater:
describe sample specification and preparation; describe test procedure and
conditions, describe what to measure and how to obtain the data.
(b) Individual Work: Derive an expression of the rate of corrosion in mmpy using data
from such a measurement. (Identify every variable in your equations).
(c) Individual Work: A piece of uncoated low carbon steel plate coupon of 40 10 2
mm was measured to have lost 5.4 g after exposure in a production pipeline for 3
months. Determine the rate of corrosion in mmpy.

3. Group Discussion: It is important to recognise galvanic corrosion when it happens.

Consider the following cases:
(a) It is noticed that a magnesium drain plug in the steel oil pan of an automobile is
visibly corroded on the inside (oil
side). Is this a case of galvanic
corrosion?
(b) Equal areas of copper and Monel
sheet bolted together (Monel nuts
and bolts) are immersed in seawater
for one year. Inspection shows some
general corrosion of the copper and
no visible attack of the Monel. Is this
a typical case of galvanic corrosion?
(c) A 10 m2 carbon steel plate contaminated by a small drop (10 mm2) tin on its surface
is immersed in seawater. Will this produce galvanic corrosion? What about if it is
a lead plate?
(d) A graphite fibre reinforced aluminium composite shows delamination of the fibre
from the matrix after exposure to a salt spray.

MECH4428 1 Practice Question Sheet-1

4. Group Discussion: During animal testing of alloys for surgical implants, most procedures
recommend that only one type of metal be tested in each animal to avoid galvanic corrosion,
even though the specimens are physically separated. Is this a reasonable criterion?

Additional Question
5. The company plans to produce a new printed circuit heat exchanger using SS3016L, and
needs to determine the time required for chemical etching. The heat exchange passage are
designed to have 3 x 1 mm cross section. The task is given to you. How would you do it?

http://www.heatric.com/typical_characteristics_of_PCHEs.html

MECH4428 2 Practice Question Sheet-1

 MECH4428 Degradation of Materials
Chapter 2. Corrosion of Metals
Practice Question Sheet 2

1. Individual Work: Another way to determine corrosion rate is to measure the current
discharged from a corroding metal. A metal, M, of valence z, atomic mass W and density
D (kgm-3) is corroding uniformly over its exposed surface by an electrochemical process
with a current density of icorr (Am-2).
(a) Derive an expression of corrosion rate in mmpy of the metal, assuming that the build-
up of corrosion product does not affect the corrosion reaction.
(b) If the metal is Cu and the corrosion current density is 0.01 Am-2, calculate the
corrosion rate. (0.0116 mmpy)
(c) Group Discussion: Discuss the similarities and differences between this method and
the coupon weight loss method.
2. Group Discussion: Explain why crevice corrosion is considered autocatalytic. Explain
why it is accelerated by the migration of Cl- into the crevice. Explain why it is said to be
particularly difficult to detect. Does the above also apply to pitting corrosion?
3. Group Discussion: Two plates of mild steel are bolted together by a plastic bolt, forming
a small gap between them. Explain what is likely to happen within the gap if the pair is
placed in
(a) neutral water
(b) seawater
(c) If the plates are austenitic stainless steel, what is likely to happen?
4. Group Discussion: What is the sensitisation of austenitic stainless steels? What are the
typical conditions that cause sensitisation? Can it be avoided? Once happened, can it be
eliminated?
5. Individual Work: You are required to
design a small stainless steel pipe flange
fitting that requires welding. The pipe and
flange are made of type 304 steel. What
should you consider in terms of corrosion?
Would using type 347 welding rod resolve
the issue? If not, make your
recommendation.

MECH4428 1 Practice Question Sheet-2

 MECH4428 Degradation of Materials
Chapter 2. Corrosion of Metals
Practice Question Sheet 3

1. Your Question: What is Pilling-Bedworth ratio? Is it adequate as a criterion for evaluating

oxidation resistance of metals? List desirable properties of a scale for good protection
against high temperature oxidation.
2. Group Discussion: Different from corrosion in solution, where the metal is often dissolved
in ionic form into the solution, dry oxidation forms a solid oxide layer product on the
surface. Once a dense and impermeable oxide layer is formed, the oxidising medium (air)
and the metal are isolated from one another. Discuss how oxidation may continue. High
temperature oxidation is also considered in analogy to aqueous electrochemical corrosion.
In what context is it considered so? Based on this understanding, what strategies can we
apply to improve oxidation resistance of metal alloys?
3. Group Discussion: The oxidation rate of Ni is observed to decrease after being alloyed
with Li and to increase after being alloyed with Cr. Please explain on the basis of ionic
conductivity of the oxide. (Ni oxide is Ni deficient, because of Ni3+)

Fig. 1. Schematic ionic structure of NiO

4. Individual Work: Calculate the Pilling Bedworth ratio of Al2O3 (you may request any
information you need)

MECH4428 1 Practice Question Sheet-3

5. Individual Work: Use the chart below to design the composition of a Fe-Ni-Cr alloy that
is to be used at 1700 F (927 C) and is expected to oxidize no more than 0.04 in/year or 1
mm/year.
If you have a type 304 stainless steel (also known as 18-8 steel), estimate the expected
oxidation rate if used at this temperature. (0.05 in/year)

MECH4428 2 Practice Question Sheet-3

 MECH4428 Degradation of Materials
Chapter 3: Electrochemical Fundamentals of Corrosion
Practice Question Sheet 4

1. Electrochemical corrosion occurs always with concurrent anodic and cathodic reactions.
Whereas there are many different anodic reactions depending on the corroding metal,
there are five generic cathodic reactions. Please write out the five common cathodic
reactions.
2. Write the possible oxidation and reduction half-cell reactions that occur when a piece of
Mg is immersed in each of the following media: (i) de-aerated HCl aqueous solution, (ii)
HCl aqueous solution containing dissolved oxygen, (iii) HCl aqueous solution containing
dissolved oxygen and Fe+2 ions. In which of these solutions would you expect the
magnesium to oxidize most rapidly? Why?
3. Assuming standard states for all reactants and products,
(a) Determine the spontaneous direction of the following reaction by calculating the cell
potential: Cu + 2HCl = CuCl2 + H2
(b) Define the standard state for each reactants and products
4. A galvanic cell at 25°C consists of an electrode of zinc in a 0.1M ZnSO4 solution and
another electrode of nickel in a 0.05M NiSO4 solution. The two electrodes are separated
by a porous membrane. What is the driving force (the potential) of the cell? [Ecell =
0.504 V]

5. Group Discussion:
(a) What is an E/pH diagram
(Pourbaix diagram)?
(b) What can Pourbaix diagrams
do and cannot do?
(c) What do the parallel lines
mean?
(d) Identify the regions where Fe
is not corroding.
(e) What will be the status of iron
if it is immersed in an aqueous
solution of 10-4 M [H+]
concentration or 10-13 M [H+]
concentration?
(f) What will happen if you put a
piece of 1020 steel in coca
cola?

MECH4428 1 Practice Question Sheet-4

 MECH4428 Degradation of Materials
Chapter 3: Electrochemical Fundamentals of Corrosion
Practice Question Sheet 5

1. Figure 1 is the Pourbaix diagram of aluminium in water.

(a) There are 4 regions labelled as “immunity”, “corrosion” and “passivation”. Please
explain the context of these labels (e.g., what does “immunity” imply?).
(b) Explain the meanings of line (a) and line (b). Write out the electrode reactions these
lines represent.
(c) The difference (in potential) between an anodic reaction and a cathodic reaction
indicates the thermodynamic driving force for the half-cell reaction pair. It is seen that
the driving force (indicated by the blue dashed line) for the cathodic reaction for
hydrogen evolution (line (a)) and the anodic reaction of aluminium is smaller than the
driving force (indicated by the green dashed line) for the cathodic reactions for
oxygen reduction (line (b)) and the anodic reaction of aluminium. Does that mean that
aluminium would corrode more rapidly when pairing up with reaction (b) than with
(a)?
(d) Determine the line (the red line) between Al and Al2O3 regions and explain why it is a
function of pH and a function of potential. Discuss the factors that affect the slope of
this line.

Figure 1. E vs pH diagram (Pourbaix diagram) of aluminium in water. All dissolved species

are at activities 10-6 g-equiv/L.
(http://www.intechopen.com/source/html/41099/media/image4.jpeg).

MECH4428 1 Practice Question Sheet-5

2. Figure 2 below shows the effect of pH on corrosion rate of Aluminium is aqueous
solutions. Discuss the observed phenomenon with respect to the Pourbaix diagram of
aluminium in water shown above. (What will happen if you put a piece of Al in Coca
Cola? Why can we use Al beverage cans for Coca Cola?)

Figure 2. Effect of pH on corrosion rate of aluminium in aqueous solution

(http://aluminumsurface.blogspot.com.au/2010/11/question-about-corrosion-of-
aluminum-in.html)

3. Explain the concept of exchange current density. Figure 3 shows exchange current
densities of the same hydrogen electrode on different metal substrates. Explain the
information presented in the figure (e.g., what does 𝑖𝑜 (Fe) mean relative to 𝑖𝑜 (Pt)).

Figure 3. Exchange current density of H+/H2 electrode.

MECH4428 2 Practice Question Sheet-5

4. Below is the activation polarization behaviour of hydrogen electrode. Determine the Tafel
slop of the electrode.

Can you prove the linear relationship between overpotential and current density? (hint:
this is activation polarization, and the law of activation is expressed by Arrhenius
equation) (Solution is given in lecture ppt)

Figure 4. Polarization behaviour of hydrogen electrode.

MECH4428 3 Practice Question Sheet-5

 MECH4428 Degradation of Materials
Chapter 3: Electrochemical Fundamentals of Corrosion
Practice Question Sheet 6

1. The equation below expresses the phenomenon of activation polarisation of Fe/Fe+2

electrode:
2.3𝑅𝑇 𝑖
∆𝐸 = ± log
2𝐹 𝑖𝑜
(a) Plot the polarisation curve according to the equation, and label it clearly
(b) Identify the Tafel slope and determine its value for the electrode

2. Lead (Pb) experiences corrosion in an acid solution according to reaction

𝑃𝑏 + 2𝐻 + → 𝑃𝑏 2+ + 𝐻2
The rates of both oxidation and reduction half-reactions are controlled by activation
polarization. Calculate the rate of corrosion of Pb in terms of corrosion current density icorr
and corrosion potential Ecorr based on the following activation polarization data:
Lead Hydrogen
𝐸𝑃𝑏/𝑃𝑏2+ = − 0.126 𝑉 𝐸𝐻 + /𝐻2 = 0 𝑉
𝑖𝑜 = 2 × 10−9 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 𝑖𝑜 = 1 × 10−8 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2
𝛽𝑎 = 0.12 𝛽𝑐 = −0.10

(1.44 × 10−8 A/cm2 , −0.019𝑉)

MECH4428 1 Practice Question Sheet-6

3. The figures below show the E vs log i diagrams for zinc and iron in identical acidic
solutions (e.g., HCl of the same concentration). All reactions are activation polarized.
Since the emf series indicates that zinc is more active than iron, we may expect that zinc
would corrode more rapidly than iron.
(a) From the diagrams, determine for the two electrodes: corrosion rates. Open circuit
potential, and corrosion potential.
(b) Discuss the findings with respect to the information in emf series, and try to explain
the reason for the difference in corrosion rate between the two metals.

Activation polarization behaviour of Zn and Fe.

4. What would happen to the corrosion rates in the question above if:
(a) the acid solution was stirred?
(b) the temperature of the solution was increased?
(c) the concentration of the acid was increased?

5. Calculate the free energy change ∆𝐺𝑜 for iron oxidation to Fe2+ under standard conditions.
(-84.9 kJ mol-1)

6. A common impurity in commercial hydrochloric acid (HCl) is ferric ion Fe+3, present as
ferric chloride, FeCl3. Using a schematic E vs log i diagram to illustrate the corrosion of an
active metal (e.g., mild steel coupon) immersed in a dilute HCl solution contaminated by
ferric chloride. On the diagram, find the corrosion rate icorr and corrosion potential Ecorr.
Compare the corrosion rate of this metal when the ferric ions are absent in the solution to
that when the ferric ions are present. Can you explain the main cause of the decreased
hydrogen evolution when the ferric ions are present?

MECH4428 2 Practice Question Sheet-6

 MECH4428 Degradation of Materials
Chapter 4: Corrosion Testing and Monitoring
Practice Question Sheet 7

Most questions of this tutorial requires no further explanation beyond the lectures, except
question 6. They are offered to help with your study and revision of chapter 4.

1. Discuss the following:

(a) What is the planned interval test? What information can you get from such a test?
(b) Explain what 𝐴1 , 𝐴𝑡 , 𝐴𝑡+1, B and 𝐴2 stand for.
(c) Corrosion rate measurements show that 𝐴2 < 𝐴1 = 𝐵. What conclusion can you
draw?
(d) How would you know if the environment has become more corroding or not over
time?

2. How is crevice corrosion tested and how is crevice corrosion tendency of a material
evaluated?
3. Comment on the methods used to evaluate the tendency of pitting corrosion.
4. What are the main techniques for stress corrosion cracking testing? Comment briefly on
their main differences.
5. How is sensitization of stainless steels tested?
6. In an electrochemical testing of lead (Pb) in a dilute acid solution, it is found that the
potential applied to it and the current density generated by its corrosion follow a linear
∆𝐸 𝑚𝑉
relationship with a slope of ∆𝑖 = 0.72 (𝑚𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 ). The Tafel constants of the Pb/Pb+2
electrode and the H/H+ electrode in the solution are determined to be Pb/Pb+2 = 0.12 and
+
H/H = - 0.10. Estimate the self-corrosion rate of Pb under this condition.

MECH4428 1 Practice Question Sheet-7

 MECH4428 Degradation of Materials
Chapter 4: Corrosion Testing and Monitoring
Practice Question Sheet 8

Most questions of this tutorial requires no further explanation beyond the lectures, except
question 6. They are offered to help with your study and revision of chapter 4.

1. Explain how hydrogen probe works.

2. Explain how electrical resistance probe works.
3. Explain how linear polarization resistance probe works.
4. Briefly explain the principle of ultrasonic pulse-and-echo technique for measuring pipeline
wall thickness.
5. Briefly explain the principle of radiographic technique for measuring pipeline wall
thickness, and the sources of radiographic radiation used.

6. Corrosion conditions of structures may be monitored by measuring its potential using

reference electrodes. Identify the corrosion conditions of the following structures:
(a) A mild steel water storage tank is measured to be at -0.7 V against a saturated calomel
electrode. Is the tank corroding?
(b) A medium carbon steel railway track is measured to be at -1.0V against a Cu-CuSO4
electrode. Is the railway track corroding?
(c) A copper alloy in a 0.5 M CuSO4 aqueous solution is measured to be at +0.3 V against
a saturated Ag-AgCl reference electrode. Is the copper alloy corroding?

--------------
Saturated calomel electrode (Hg-Hg2Cl2, SCE): E = +0.244 V
Cu-CuSO4 electrode: E = +0.314 V
Saturated Ag-AgCl electrode: E = +0.197 V

MECH4428 1 Practice Question Sheet-8

 MECH4428 Degradation of Materials
Chapter 5: Corrosion Prevention
Practice Question Sheet 9

1. Calculate the theoretical capacity of zinc sacrificial anode material. The measured capacity
of a zinc anode is 780 Ahkg-1. Calculate the efficiency of the metal as a sacrificial anode.
Calculate the consumption rate of the zinc anode. (819 Ahkg-1)

2. Homework: Comment on the functions of backfill for anodes.

3. Self-investigation: There are three common sacrificial anode materials: Zn, Al and Mg.
Comment on which, or if all, is suitable for use in seawater.

4. It is planned to place an uncoated steel drilling

http://www.csulb.edu/sites/beachreview/files/
platform in the sea. The immersed parts of the 2013/05/Typical-Rig_mussels-11.jpg
structure will be protected with an aluminium alloy
(Galvalum I) sacrificial anode for cathodic protection
for a lifetime of 10 years. The anodes are to be semi-
cylindrical with a diameter of 100 mm, a length of
400 mm and a steel core for welding the plane side to
the structure. Calculate the following parameters (in
your calculation the ends, the back and the steel core
may be ignored):
(i) minimum number of anodes required.
(ii) number of years these anodes may provide
sufficient protection.
(iii) minimum number of anodes required to provide
sufficient protection throughout the designed life
time of 10 years.
Data:
wetted surface area of legs:2000 m2
wetted surface area of cross members: 500 m2
seawater electrical resistivity: 0.2 m
current required for protection: 50-150 mA m-2
maximum current output of Galvalum I: 6.5 A m-2
volume consumption rate of Galvalum I: 1180 ml A-1y-1
anodic efficiency of Galvalum I: 60 %

MECH4428 1 Practice Question Sheet-9

5. If a metal is corroding in an acidic solution at a rate corresponding to a current density i,
by the application of a cathodic current of the same density magnitude will
(1) the corrosion of the metal be suppressed
(2) the rate of the corrosion be reduced
(3) the rate of the corrosion be increased?
(4) Explain your answer using a diagram.

6. You are asked to design a sacrificial anode cathodic protection system for a subsea
structure. What information would you need?

http://dynamicdivers.gr/wpcontent/gallery/anodeswelding/dynamic_divers00003.jpg

MECH4428 2 Practice Question Sheet-9

 MECH4428 Degradation of Materials
Chapter 5: Corrosion Prevention
Practice Question Sheet 10

1. The figure below shows a schematic of an impressed current cathodic protection system
using an overhead power line.
(1) Explain the function of the rectifier.
(2) Determine the connection polarity to the pipeline and the anode.
(3) Explain what the anode is made off.

MECH4428 1 Practice Question Sheet-10

2. To design the impressed current cathodic protection system for the pipeline above (5 km
in length):
(1) What technical data/information do you need?
(2) Determine the anode-pipe distance (d).
(3) Determine the inter-anode distance (D).
(4) Schematically illustrate the expected current density distribution along the length of
the pipeline.

pipe

d
anode
D

3. The figure below shows corrosion protection monitoring using a saturated Ag/AgCl
reference electrode of an underwater carbon steel structure protected by sacrificial anode.
The case with a reading of -0.6 V is considered under-protected (not properly protected)
and the case with reading of -0.95 V is considered fully protected. Explain why.

MECH4428 2 Practice Question Sheet-10

4. Below is a schematic illustration of stray current corrosion to an underground pipeline
caused by a tramway above.
(1) What is stray current corrosion?
(2) Explain how stray current corrosion occurs at the location illustrated and not
anywhere else.
(3) Can the stray current corrosion in this case be prevented?

5. Discuss the electrical current consumptions of ICCP under three conditions: under-
protected; protected and over-protected (graphically).

MECH4428 3 Practice Question Sheet-10

 MECH4428 Degradation of Materials
Chapter 7: Wear
Practice Question Sheet 11

1. What are the main forms of wear?

2. Name and explain the four main mechanisms of abrasive wear.
3. What is the difference between 2-body and 3-body abrasive wear and why is the
difference important?
4. How is wear resistance of a material defined or described?
5. How do we differentiate between hard abrasives and soft abrasives (or what makes an
abrasive a hard abrasive)?
6. What properties of abrasive particles affect abrasive wear and erosive wear?
7. How can abrasive wear due to soil and plant silica be suppressed (in general terms)?
8. Explain why the most vulnerable impingement angle for erosion wear is different for
brittle and ductile materials, and why are the values for the two types of materials.
9. What is cavitation damage?
10. Cutting tools and slurry pumps are typical examples of applications where abrasive and
erosive wear is found. What materials are generally selected for these applications in
order to minimize wear damage?
11. Explain the basic concept of adhesive wear. How do metals in contact adhere?
12. Use the understanding above (question 11), explain the working principle of lubricant.
13. Why does significant adhesion not occur when two metal bodies are pressed together
under ambient conditions?
14. What is coefficient of adhesion? How is coefficient of friction due to adhesion defined?
15. What is the cause of adhesive film transfer between two contacting bodies of dissimilar
mechanical properties?
16. In dry sliding of metals, what can be done to minimize adhesive wear?
17. What materials properties promote adhesion in metals? Give examples of metals that
should be avoided when adhesion is a possible risk.

MECH4428 1 Practice Question Sheet-11