Human Physiology

VISION IAS
NEERAJ NACHIKETA
(Faculty of Basic Science And S&T)
The Nervous System

• A network of billions of nerve cells linked m)

. co
ail
together in a highly organized fashion to form alla
@
gm

ja lim
the rapid control center of the body. lla(
de
ep
an

li Ma
• Functions include: o rD
eep
anja

edf
– Integrating center for alis
p e rso homeostasis, movement, and
n

n t is
almost all other o cu body functions.
me
is d
Th
– The mysterious source of those traits that we think
of as setting humans apart from animals
Basic Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensation . co m)
ail
• Monitors changes/events occurring in and outside a @
gm the body.
m all
Such changes are known as stimuli and the i
nja cells that monitor
l
e pa
them are receptors. ll a (de
a
jali M
an
2. Integration for
D ee
p

d e
• The parallel processing o n alisand interpretation of sensory
p ers
information to edetermine
nt
is the appropriate response
m
ocu
3. Reaction is d
Th

• Motor output.
– The activation of muscles or glands (typically via the release of
neurotransmitters (NTs))
• The functional and structural unit of Neurons
the nervous system
• Specialized to conduct information from one part of the body to
another
• There are many, many different types of neurons but most) have
m
co
certain structural and functional characteristics in common:
gm
a i l.

lla@
lima
ja
an
ep
de
a lla(
- Cell body (soma) j a li M
n
pa
- One or more or
D e e
f
specialized, slender a lise
d
n
processes e rso
p
t is
(axons/dendrites) cu
me
n
o
- An input region is d
Th
(dendrites/soma)
- A conducting
component (axon)
- A secretory (output)
region (axon terminal)
Organization of the
Nervous System

• 2 big initial divisions:

1. Central Nervous System co m)
ail.
• The brain + the spinal cord @
gm
alla
– The center of integration and control ja lim
an
ep
de
2. Peripheral Nervous System Ma
lla(
li
• The nervous system outside of the nja
pa brain
D ee
and spinal cord d for
e
alis
• Consists of: pe
rso
n
is
– 31 Spinal nerves m en
t
u
d oc
» Carry
Th
i s info to and from the spinal
cord
– 12 Cranial nerves
» Carry info to and from the brain
 Peripheral Nervous System

• Responsible for communication btwn the CNS m)

and
o
the rest of the body. @
gm
a il.c
a
• Can be divided into: pa
nja
li m all

ee
– Sensory Division li M
a lla(
d

• Afferent division anja

ep
De
– Conducts impulses fromereceptors df
o r to the CNS
l is
– Informs the CNS ofrsthe a
on state of the body interior and exterior
pe
– Sensory nerveenfibers
t is can be somatic (from skin, skeletal muscles
or joints) dor m
oc visceral (from organs w/i the ventral body cavity)
u
i s
– Motor Division Th

• Efferent division
– Conducts impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles/glands)
– Motor nerve fibers
 Motor Efferent Division

• Can be divided further: ail. co m)

gm
– Somatic nervous system ja lim
alla
@

an
ep
• VOLUNTARY (generally) Ma lla(
de
li
nja
• Somatic nerve fibers thatr Dconductee
p a
impulses from the
f o
CNS to skeletal musclesl is ed
a
on rs
e
is p
– Autonomic nervous
oc
u m en
t
system
is d
• INVOLUNTARY (generally)
Th

• Conducts impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle,

cardiac muscle, and glands.
 Peripheral Nervous System
• 3 kinds of neurons connect CNS Brain
Spinal
to the body o m)
Cord ail. c
gm
– sensory m a lla@
jali
– motor d ee
pa
n
(
alla
– interneurons n jali
M Nerves
pa
ee
• Motor - CNS to muscles and for
D
e d
organs n alis
o
p ers
• Sensory - sensory receptors e
is
ntto
um
CNS d oc
is
Th
• Interneurons: Connections
Within CNS
Peripheral Nervous System

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
P e riphe ra l Ne rvous S ys tejam
lim
alla
n
epa
(de
Malla
li
anja
ep
De
S ke le ta l lise
d for
Autonomic
na
(S oma tic) is p
ers
o
t
m en
ocu
is d
Th

S ympa the tic P a ra s ympa the tic

 Somatic System
• Nerves to/from spinal cord . co m) Brain
ail
– control muscle @
gm
alla
movements ja lim
pan
Sensory ee
– somatosensory inputs alla
( d
Neuronjali M
• Both Voluntary and reflex epa
n
De
movements for
lised
a
• Skeletal Reflexes e r son
t is p Motor
en
– simplest is spinal reflexcum Skin receptors
o Neuron
arc h is d
T Interneuron

Muscle
 Autonomic Nervous System
• Can be divided into:
– Sympathetic Nervous
System m)
. co
• “Fight or Flight” ail
gm
@
alla
– Parasympathetic ja lim
an
ep
Nervous System lla(
de
Ma
• “Rest and Digest” anja
li
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
These
T 2 systems are antagonistic.
his

Typically, we balance these 2 to keep ourselves in a

state of dynamic balance.
We’ll go further into the difference btwn these 2
later!
 Autonomic System
• Two divisions: . co m)
ail
– sympathetic @
gm
alla
lim
– Parasympatheitic ep
an
ja
de
lla(
• Control involuntary functions eep
anja
li Ma

rD
– heartbeat s e df
o
li
na
– blood pressure i s pe
r so
t
en
– respiration d oc
u m
hi s
– perspiration T
– digestion

• Can be influenced by thought and emotion

 Sympathetic
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM SYMPATHETIC
Brain
• “ Fight or flight” response Dilates pupil com)
ail.
• Release adrenaline and Stimulates salivation
a @
g m
Salivary
a ll
noradrenaline Relaxes lim bronchi glands
ja
an
Spinal ep
• Increases heart rate and blood cord a lla(
d e
Lungs
M
pressure n jali
pa
D ee Accelerates heartbeat
• Increases blood flow to skeletal d f or Heart
a lise
n
muscles p e rso Inhibits activity Stomach
t i s
• Inhibits digestive functionscumen
do Pancreas
is
Th
Stimulates glucose Liver

Secretion of adrenaline, Adrenal

nonadrenaline gland
Kidney
Relaxes bladder

Sympathetic Stimulates ejaculation

ganglia in male
 Parasympathetic
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PARASYMPATHETIC
Brain
Contracts pupilom)
• “ Rest and digest ” Stimulates
la@
gm
ail.c
salivation
m al
system Spinal
dee
pa
nja
li
Constricts bronchi
cord a lla(

• Calms body to De
ep
anja
li M

Slows heartbeat
for
conserve and e r son
alised

p Stimulates activity
is
maintain energy do
cum
e nt

is
Th
• Lowers heartbeat, Stimulates gallbladder
breathing rate, Gallbladder

blood pressure Contracts bladder

Stimulates erection
of sex organs
 Summary of autonomic
differences
Autonomic nervous system controls physiological arousal
o m)
Sympathetic Parasympathetic ail. c
gm
division (arousing) division (calming) a lla@
m
n jali
a
Pupils dilate EYES ep
Pupils(decontract
Malla
li
anja
Decreases SALVATION eep Increases
o rD
edf
Perspires SKINn alis Dries
o
ers
t is p
Increases m enRESPERATION Decreases
ocu
is d
Th
Accelerates HEART Slows

Inhibits DIGESTION Activates

Secrete stress ADRENAL Decrease secretion

hormones GLANDS of stress hormones
 Central Nervous System
Brain
Spinal o m)
Cord . c
ail
gm
• Brain and Spinal Cord an
ja lim
alla
@

ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 Brain has 2 Hemispheres

• Left & Right sides are separate

Corpus Callosum o m)
c
• Corpus Callosum : major Right gm
ail.

Hemisphere lla@
pathway between hemispheres jali
m a
n
pa
• Some functions are ‘lateralized’ ( d ee
Malla
– language on left a nja
li
ep
De
– math, music on right s e df
o r
li
na
• Lateralization is never 100%s per so

n ti
u me
d oc
This

Left
Hemisphere
 Each hemisphere is
divided into 4 lobes
Frontal o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
de
ep Parietal
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso Occipital
is p
e nt
cum
is do
Th
Temporal
 Occipital Lobe
• Input from Optic nerve m)
. co
il
• Contains primary visual a lla@
g ma Occipital
Lobe
m
jali
cortex ( d ee
pa
n

alla
– most is on surface li M
a nja
ep
r De
inside central fissure onalised fo
ers Visual
• Outputs to parietalcumand
p
t is
en Lobe
o
is d
temporal lobes T h
 Temporal Lobe
Contains primary
auditory cortex . co m)
ail
gm
@ Auditory
• Inputs are auditory, visual malla
n jali Cortex
patterns pa
( d ee
alla
– speech recognition a nja
li M
ep
De
– face recognition df
o r
lis e
na
– word recognition pe
r so
t i s
– memory formation cumen Temporal
o
is d Lobe
• Outputs to limbic System,
T h basal
Ganglia, and brainstem
 Parietal Lobe

• Inputs from multiple senses

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
contains primary
Somatosensory
Parietal
lim
a nja Cortex
somatosensory cortex ep Lobe
de
lla(
li Ma
nja
borders visual &
a
eep
o rD
auditory cortex nalis
edf

e rso
Outputs to Frontal lobe is p
e nt
m u
d oc
hand-eye coordination
T his

eye movements
attention
 Frontal Lobe
Frontal
WorkingLobe m)
Motor
Broca’s . co
Cortex
• Contains primary motor cortex Memory
gm
a il
Area lla@
a
lim
a nja
ep
de
No direct sensory input li M
a lla(
j a
Important planning and D e ep
an
or
sequencing areas d f
a lise
n
rso
Broca’s area for speech
nt
is p
e
e
cum
is do
Th
Prefrontal area for
working memory
 Frontal Lobe Disorders
• Broca’s area . co m)
ail
– productive aphasia lim
alla
@
gm

ja
an
• Prefrontal area
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
– lose track of ongoing context rD
eep

e df
o
lis
na
– fail to inhibit inappropriate
nt
i s pe
r so
responses
e
um
• Often measured with the Wisconsin Card
c
is do
Th

Sorting Task
 o m)
. c
ail
gm

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM de
ep
an
ja lim
alla
@

lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf

p
Blood
e rso
nalis

n t is
u me
d oc
This
 The CAPILLARY
A collection of capillaries is known as a capillary bed.

artery vein
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This capillaries
body cell
 what’s in
digested food
red blood cells white blood cells
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
oxygen nja
li Ma waste (urea)
a
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
his platelets
carbon dioxide T

plasma hormones
 The Blood

red blood cell white blood cell

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
platelets This plasma
 Red Blood Cells
contain haemoglobin, a
molecule specially designed to
a biconcave disc that is round hold oxygen and carry it to cells
and flat without a nucleus
that need it. .co
m)
ail
gm
lla@
lima
ja
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
Thiscan change shape to an amazing
extent, without breaking, as it
squeezes single file through the
capillaries.
 White Blood Cells

there are many different types and all

contain a big nucleus.

o m)
. c
ail
gm
the two main ones are the lllymphocytes
a @
a
lim
and the macrophages.
pa
n ja
dee
a lla(
li M
anja
ep
De
for
macrophagess ed
‘eat’ and digest micro-
a l i
r son
organisms .
pe
n t is
u me
d oc
This

some lymphocytes fight disease by making antibodies to destroy invaders by

dissolving them.
other lymphocytes make antitoxins to break down poisons.
 Platelets
Platelets are bits of cell
broken off larger cells.

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
e ep
orD
Platelets df
eproduce tiny
a l is
o n
p ers
fibrinogen fibres to
t is
en
c um form a net. This net
o
h is d traps other blood cells
T
to form a blood clot.
 Plasma
It also contains useful
things like;

• carbon dioxide
m)
A straw- • glucose ail. co
gm
@
coloured liquid alla
• amino
n jali
m acids
that carries the a
ep
de
cells and the lla(• proteins
li Ma
nja
platelets which ep
a
fo rD
e
• minerals
help blood clot. lised
a
on
pe r s • vitamins
n t is
me
is d oc
u
• hormones
Th
• waste materials
like urea.
 Components
• Formed elements • Plasma . co m)
ail
– Living blood cells – Non-living
ma
ll a @
gm
fluid matrix
ja li
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
While blood is a connectivesontissue, collagen & elastic fibers
alis
r
pe
nt are absent.
i s
me u
d oc
This
 Physical characteristics
& volume
• pH = 7.35-7.45 with high viscosity ail. co m)
gm
• T = 100.4 (slightly higher than body T)
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
• Approx. 7% of total body weight anja
li Ma
lla(

eep
– 5-6-L volume in adult n a
rD
lis e dmale
fo
(1.5 Gal)
rso
– 4-5 L in adultumfemale p e
n t is
e
d oc
This
 Functions
• Distribution ail. co m)
gm
– Oxygen/nutrients, waste, hormones ja lim
alla
@

an
ep
• Regulation nja
li Ma
lla(
de

a
ep
– T, pH (protein buffers),lisefluid
e
df
o volume (electrolytes)
rD

o na
ers
• Protection cu
m en
t is p

o
is d
– Clotting (prevent
Th blood loss), preventing infection
(WBCs, antibodies)
 Blood Plasma
• Blood plasma contains 90% water & over 100 solutes,
including:
– Proteins – albumin, globulins, clotting proteins, and om)
c
ail.
others..plasma proteins ~8% plasma volume la@g m
al
• Albumin is 60% of plasma protein a nja
lim
ep
de
• Transport, buffer, osmotic pressure Ma
lla(
li
nja
– Nonprotein nitrogenous substances for
D ee – lactic acid, urea,
pa

e d
creatinine o n alis
p ers
– Organic nutrients –cuglucose,
m e nt
is
carbohydrates, amino acids
d o
– Electrolytes – sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride,
T his

bicarbonate
– Respiratory gases – oxygen and carbon dioxide
Fluid compartments
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 Plasma

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 Formed elements

• Erythrocytes – . co m)
ail
anucleate m a lla@
gm

jali
• Leukocytes –
n
pa
( d ee
Malla
li
only complete De
ep
a nja

o r
df
cells o na
lis e
r s
pe
• Platelets – cell cument i s

o
is d
fragments T h
 Hematocrit-packed cell volume (PCV)
• Percentage of RBC’s in a sample of blood
– Males – 47% +/-5
– Females – 42% +/-5
o m)
. c
ail
• Fractionation= the process of separating whole a ll a @
gm blood
m
jali
for clinical anaylsis (de
ep
a n

Malla
li
anja
ep
De
d for
lise
na
e rso
is p
ent
um
d oc
This
 Erythrocytes
• Biconcave discs (doughnuts)
– High surface-to-volume ratio
– Predominately hemoglobin . co m)
ail
(transport of gases) gm
@
alla
lim
• Lack nuclei (anucleate), d ee
pan
ja
(
alla
mitochondria and ribosomes nja
li M
a
ep
• 2.5 trillion in average adult e df
o r De
lis
na
• 4-6 million/mm3 i s pe
r so
t
en
• Too little = anemiahis docu m

T
• Too much = polycythemia

Figure 19–2d
 RBC function
• Dedicated solely to respiratory gas transport
– Hemoglobin binds easily and reversibly w/ O2 m)
. co
• Expressed as grams/100ml of whole blood (normal is@12-18g/dl)ail
gm
ll a
• HEME is a red pigment/GLOBIN is a protein anjalima
ep
de
– Each hemoglobin can bind to 4 molecules lla(
li M
a of O2
j a
an
– A single RBC contains ~250 million f or
D e ep
hemoglobin
d
molecules…each RBC carries rso
n a lise ~1 billion molecules of O2
p e
t is
– ~20% CO2 transported
cu
me
n in the blood combines w/hemoglobin
do
• 10% dissolves in plasma/70% converts to bicarbonate ions and is
Th
is

transported in plasma
 Structure of Hemoglobin
• Oxyhemoglobin – Hb bound to oxygen
– Oxygen loading takes place in the lungs
• Deoxyhemoglobin – Hb after oxygen diffuses into m)
. co
tissues (reduced Hb) gm
ail
a lla@
• Carbaminohemoglobin – Hb bound toeepcarbon
a n jali
m
dioxide
(d
alla
– Carbon dioxide loading takes placenjain the tissues li M
a
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

Figure 19–3
 Hemopoiesis
• Occurs in red bone marrow (myeloid tissue)
– Adults- axial skeleton (ilium/sternum), proximal
humerus/femur il. co m)
a

• Marrow turns out ~1 ounce of blood every day

gm
a lla@
lim
nja
(100 billion cells…> 2-3 million/second)
a
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
nja
• All formed elements arise from the same cell df
o rD
eep
a

e
alis
(hemocytoblast) before differentiating
p e rso
n

t is
– Myeloid stem iscells→become RBC’s & some WBC’s
n
me
cu
do
Th
– Lymphoid stem cells→become lymphocytes
Production/maturation ail. co m)
gm
of Erythrocytes: an
ja lim
alla
@

ep
de
Erythropoiesis ep
anja
li Ma
lla(

e
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

Figure 19–5
 Regulation and Requirements for
Erythropoiesis
• Circulating erythrocytes – the number remains constant o m)
. c
ail
and reflects a balance between RBC production ll a @
gm and
a
destruction ep
an
ja lim

de
lla(
– Too few red blood cells leads to tissue li M
a
ja
hypoxia
a n
– Too many red blood cells causes for
D e ep
undesirable blood viscosity
e d
– Immature RBC’s are called ers
o n alis
reticulocytes
is p
• Reticulocyte counts
o cu
m e nt
are used to assess RBC rates of
production This d
• Erythropoiesis is hormonally controlled and depends on
adequate supplies of iron, amino acids, and B vitamins
(especially B12, B6, and folic acid)
 Hormonal control
• Erythropoietin (EPO) is the primary stimulus for ail. co m)
gm
@
RBC production an
ja lim
alla

ep
de
– Liver produces minimal amount j
lla(
a li M
a
an
ep
– Some circulates in blood lise
d at
f
D e
or all times
n a
rso
– Primary production
e n t is in kidneys
p e

m
cu
• Hypoxic kidney
Th
o
cells release EPO
is d
 Key point to remember…

• Erythropoiesis is not controlled by the ail. co m)

gm
amount of erythrocytes but by their oxygen ja lim
alla
@

an
ep
carrying ability! li Ma
lla(
de

nja
– Decrease # of RBC’s d fo
a
eep
rD
e
alis
– Reduced availabilty is p
o n
ers of O2 (altitude/disease)
e nt

– Increase tissue
Th
is d oc
um
demand for O2 (exercise)
Life Cycle of Red Blood Cells

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

Figure 19–4
 RBC fate & destruction
• Life span of 100-120 days
– Anucleate…cannot grow, divide, or synthesize proteins
ail. co m)
gm
• Lose flexibility and become trapped in small
@
alla m circulatory
n jali
channels…often the spleen (~1% RBC’s Malla
( d ee
pa
wear out/day)
li
• Heme splits from globin→forms o r De
a nja
ep biliverdin (Fe stored for
df
re-use) so
na
lis e

er
– Biliverdin (green pigment) t is
en
p
degrades to bilirubin (yellow )
c um
do
– Bilirubin binds to
T h isalbumin for transport to liver
– Liver cells pick up and secrete it (in bile) into intestines→feces
– Globin broken down into AA’s & released into circulation
 RBC disorders
• Anemias
– Low #
m)
• Hemorrhagic/hemolytic/aplastic gm
ail. co

lla@
– Low hemoglobin content n jali
m a
pa
ee
• Iron deficiency/pernicious (B12)li Malla ( d

ja
an
– Abnormal hemoglobin f o r De
e p

is ed
• Thalassemia (mediterranean p e r son
a l
descent)
is
nt
• sickle cell (blackd oc
um population…1/400 U.S. newborns)
e

is
Th
• Polycythemia (primary/secondary)
– Blood doping
 RBC Tests

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 Human Blood Groups
• RBC membranes have glycoprotein antigens on
their external surfaces m)
. co
ail
• These antigens are: lim
alla
@
gm

ja
– Unique to the individual an

alla
( d ee
p

li M
– Recognized as foreign if transfused r De
ep
a nja
into another
o
df
individual so na
lis e
r
pe
– Promoters of agglutination
o cu
m en
t i s
and are referred to as
d
his
agglutinogens
T

• Presence or absence of these antigens is used to

classify blood groups
 ABO Blood Groups
• The ABO blood groups consists of:
– Two antigens (A and B) on the surface of the ail. co m)RBCs
gm
lla@
– Two antibodies in the plasma (anti-Aanjaand
lim
a
anti-B)
ep
de
• An individual with ABO blood may have anja
li Ma
lla(

eep
various types of antigens and spontaneously alis
edf
o rD

n
rso
preformed antibodies me
n t is
p e

u
oc
• Agglutinogens and their corresponding
d
This

antibodies cannot be mixed without serious

hemolytic reactions
ABO Blood Groups

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

Figure 19–6a
 Rh Blood Groups
• Presence of the Rh agglutinogens on RBCs is indicated
as Rh+ il. co m)
a
– Also called D antigen a lla@
gm
lim
nja –
• Anti-Rh antibodies are not spontaneously ( d ee
pa
formed in Rh
Malla
individuals ep
a nja
li

De
• However, if an Rh– individual a l is e df
o r
receives Rh + blood, anti-
son
Rh antibodies form ent is pe r

um
• A second exposure
Th
is d oc
to Rh+ blood will result in a typical
transfusion reaction
 Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
• Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Rh+ antibodies of a
sensitized Rh– mother cross the placenta and attack o m)
and
c
+ ail.
destroy the RBCs of an Rh baby ll a @
g m
a
im
–
• Rh mother becomes sensitized when(deRh an
ja l+
blood (from a
ep
+ alla +
previous pregnancy of an Rh baby an
j a li M or a Rh
ep
transfusion) causes her body to
r D synthesis Rh + antibodies
e
f o
l is ed
• The drug RhoGAM can e r son
a
prevent the Rh – mother from
p
n t is
becoming sensitizedis d
o cu
me

Th
• Treatment of hemolytic disease of the newborn involves
pre-birth transfusions and exchange transfusions after
birth
 Transfusion Reactions
• Transfusion reactions occur when mismatched blood is
infused
• Donor’s cells are attacked by the recipient’s plasma
agglutinins causing: .co
m)
il
– Diminished oxygen-carrying capacity @
gm
a
alla
– Clumped cells that impede blood flow p an
jali m
e
– Ruptured RBCs that release free hemoglobin Mall a ( de
into the
li
bloodstream p a nja
e
De
• Circulating hemoglobin precipitatesl is ed in the kidneys and
for
a
causes renal failure sp
e r son

n ti
u me
d oc
This
 Blood Typing
• When serum containing anti-A or anti-B agglutinins is
added to blood, agglutination will occur between the
agglutinin and the corresponding agglutinogens . co m)
ail
gm
• Positive reactions indicate agglutinationjalimalla@
n
epa
(de
Malla
li
anja
ep
De
Blood type being for
ed
RBC agglutinogens Serum Reaction
tested alis
on
ers
t is p
m en Anti-A Anti-B
u
oc
AB is d A and B + +
Th
B B – +
A A + –
O None – –
 Blood Typing Test

• Determines blood type and compatibility

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

Figure 19–7
 Leukocytes

• 6,000-9,000/mm3 blood
m)
• <1% of total blood volume gm
ail. co

@
alla
• Not confined to blood stream ep
an
ja lim

de
lla(
– Diapedesis = slip out of capillariesnjali&
Ma move by amoeboid
pa
motion thru tissue spaces (loose
for
D eeCT/ lymphoid tissue)
d
lise
na
e rso
is p
ent
um
d oc
This
 Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas

• Leukocytes m)
. co
ail
from greatest @
gm
alla
lim
[ ] to least de
ep
an
ja

lla(
– Neutrophils anja
li Ma

eep
– Lymphocytes edf
o rD

nalis
– Monocytes t is
p e rso
n
me
– Eosinophils his
d oc
u
T
– Basophils
 WBC disorders
• Leukopenias vs leukemias
o m)
. c
ail
• Leukemia or leukocytosis? lim
alla
@
gm

ja
an
– Good or bad? Ma
lla(
de
ep

li
nja
– Normal or abnormal? o rD
eep
a

edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 Platelets
• Cell fragments from large cells called megakaryocytes
– 1 megakarycyte ~ 4000 platelets
• Essential for clotting process
• Sometimes incorrectly called thrombocytes . co m)
ail
• Degenerate in ~9-12 days a lla@
gm
m
jali
• Formation regulated by hormone called(dethrombopoietin
ep
a n

(made in liver) Malla

li
nja
• 150,000-500,000/mm3 blood for Deep
a

d
lise
o na
Developmental pathway p ers
is
e nt
um
d oc
is
Th

Hemocytoblast Megakaryoblast Promegakaryocyte Megakaryocyte Platelets

 Coagulation

• Involves 3 steps:
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
Detailed Events of Coagulation

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 What is the circulatory system?

➢ The circulatory system carries blood and dissolved

substances to and from different places in the body.
o m)
. c
ail
➢ The Heart has the job of pumping these things around all a @
gm
li m
nja
the body. (de
e pa

Malla
li
anja
ep
➢ The Heart pumps blood and substances
ed
f o r De around the
alis
r son
body in tubes called blood
nt
is p vessels.
e
e
cum
is do
Th
➢ The Heart and blood vessels together make up the
Circulatory System.
 How does this system work?

pulmonary vein lungs pulmonary artery

head & arms

aorta
o m)
. c
main vein ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
Right Left de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
liver df
lise
o na
ers
t is p
en
cudigestive system
m
o
is d
Th

kidneys

legs

Circulatory System
 Our circulatory system is a double circulatory system.
This means it has two parts parts.

Lungs
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla( the left side of the
the right side of the li Ma
anja
eep system
system orD
df
alise
son
deals with is pe r deals with
e nt
cum oxygenated blood.
deoxygenated blood. is do
Th

Body cells
 The Heart

This is a vein. It brings These are arteries. They

blood from the body, carry blood away from
except the lungs. the heart. ) m
i l. co
a
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
2 atria eep
o rD
edf Coronary arteries,
alis
on
ers the hearts own blood
t is p
2 ventricles m en
supply
ocu
is d
Th

The heart has four chambers

now lets look inside the heart

 The Heart

Artery to Lungs Artery to Head and Body

Vein from Head and Body )

om Lungs
Vein afrom
il.c
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
Right Atrium anja
eep Left Atrium
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso valve
valve nt
is p
e
cum
is do
Th

Right Ventricle Left Ventricle

 How does the Heart work?

STEP ONE

blood from the blood from

body the lungs o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
The heart beat abegins
nja
lim when the
ep
de
heart muscles
ali
Ma relax and blood
lla(

anj
ep
flows
df
o r De into the atria.

alise
r son
e
t is p
m en
ocu
is d
Th
 How does the Heart work?

STEP TWO

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
The atria then contract and de
ep
an
lla(
Ma
the valves open to allow blood anja
li
eep
rD
into the ventricles.
o
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 How does the Heart work?

STEP THREE

The valves close to stop bloodil.com)

a
gm
flowing backwards. lim
a lla@
a nja
ep
de
lla(
The ventriclesjalicontract
Ma forcing
n
pa
the blood or to leave the heart.
e
De
df
alise
r son
e
At the same time, the atria are
is p
t
m en
ocu
Th
is d
relaxing and once again filling with
blood.

The cycle then repeats itself.

 blood from the heart gets around
the body through blood vessels

m)
There are 3 types of blood vessels ail. co
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
a. ARTERY
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
alis
b. VEINperson
n t is
u me
d oc
This
c. CAPILLARY
 The ARTERY
Arteries carry blood away from the heart.

o m)
. c
the elastic fibres allow the ail
gm
@
alla
lim
artery to stretch under ep
an
ja
de
lla(
pressure li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
thick muscle and oc
u me

This
d the thick muscle can
elastic fibres
contract to push the
blood along.
 The VEIN
Veins carry blood towards from the heart.

veins have valves which . co m)

ail
act to stop the blood from alla
@
gm
lim
going in the wrong ep
an
ja
de
lla(
direction. li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
thin muscle and p e rso
n t is
elastic fibres me
d oc
u body muscles surround the veins so
This
that when they contract to move the
body, they also squeeze the veins and
push the blood along the vessel.
 The CAPILLARY
Capillaries link Arteries with Veins

they exchange materials o m)

. c
ail
between the blood and other @
gm
alla
body cells. an
ja lim
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
the wall of a capillary nalis
e rso
p
is only one cell thick t is
cu me
n The exchange of materials
is do
Th between the blood and the body
can only occur through
capillaries.
Anatomy and Physiology of the
Lymphatic System
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
The lymphatic system is part of the immune system ja lim and acts as alla
n
a secondary (accessory) circulatory system.lla(deepa
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
Functions of the lymphatic system:

• remove excess fluids from body tissues,

• absorb fatty acid and transport fat to circulatory
system, and . co m)
ail
gm
• produce immune cells
@
(lymphocytes, monocytes,
m alla
jali n
pa
and plasma cells). alla
(de
e

li M
anja
ep
De
d for
lise
na
e rso
is p
ent
um
d oc
This
Blood fluid escapes through the thin-walled capillaries into
spaces between body tissue cells.
Lymph vessels, which have very thin walls, pick up these fluids
called lymph.
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
Flow of Blood & Lymph Within Tissue

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
The lymph vessels join to form larger ducts that pass
through lymph nodes (or glands).
Each lymph node has a fibrous outer covering (capsule), a
cortex, and a medulla.
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
Lymph nodes filter foreign substances, such as bacteria and
cancer cells, from the lymph before it is re-entered into the blood
system through the larger veins.
Lymph nodes, which are scattered among the lymph vessels, act
as the body’s first defense against infection. co
m)
ail.
gm
lla@
lima
ja
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
Lymph nodes produce the following cells:
• Lymphocytes – a type of white blood cell,
• Monocytes – a leukocyte that protects against blood-borne
pathogens, and
o m)
. c
ail
• Plasma cells – produce antibodies. @
gm
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
Each lymph node has its own blood supply and venous drainage.
The lymph nodes usually have names that are related to their
location in the body.

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
When a specific location gets infected, the lymph nodes in
that area will enlarge to fight the infection.
If the lymph node closest to an infected area is unable to
eliminate the infection, other lymph nodes in the system
will attempt to fight the infection. m) o
a il.c
g m
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
This is particularly critical in the case of cancer, which can be
spread from its point of origin to all parts of the body through
the lymphatic system.

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 The Endocrine System

• Controls many body • Derives its name from o m)

. c
ail
functions the fact that various gm
a lla@
– exerts control by glands release pa
n jali
m

ee
releasing special hormones alla
( d
directly into
l i M
chemical substances into the p
ja
an blood, which in turn
e
the blood called r De
f o
hormones n a l is ed transports the
o
ers
– Hormones affect mother n t is
p hormones to target
e
endocrine glands
his
o cu
d or body tissues via ducts.
T
systems
 The Endocrine System

• Exocrine glands - • Endocrine . co m)

ail
transport their Emergencies:
m a lla@
gm

ja li
hormones to target – from
a ( d eecommon:
p an
ll
Ma
tissues via ducts. an ja l i• Diabetes
ep
De
d for • to the unusual:
lise
na
is p
e rso – Thyrotoxicosis
ent
um
d oc
This
 The Endocrine System
• Pituitary gland: a small
gland located on a stalk
• Consists of several hanging from the obase
. c
m)
of the
brain - AKA gmail
glands located in lima
lla@
ja
an
various parts of the • “The Master Gland”
lla(
de
ep
a
li M
body. ee
p an
ja
D
ed for – Primary function is to
nalis
p e rso control other glands.
t is
u me
n
– Produces many
d oc
This hormones.
– Secretion is controlled by
the hypothalamus in the
base of the brain.
 The Endocrine System
• The two segments are:
– Posterior Pituitary:
• The Pituitary Gland is • producesil.oxytocin m)
co
divided into 2 areas, and antidiuretic@
gm
a
alla
which differ p
jal
hormone
an
i m
(ADH)
e
(de
– structurally and –
i Ma
llAnterior
a Pituitary:
ja l
an
functionally De
e p • produces thyroid-
f o r
ed stimulating hormone
– each area has ers
o n a l is
(TSH)
is p
separate typesumof en
t
• growth hormone (GH)
o c
d
hormone production.
Th
i s
• adrenocorticotropin
(ACTH)
• follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)
 The Endocrine System

• And even more… • Posterior Pituitaryom)

c
ail.
– luteinizing hormone – Oxytocinalla(the @
g m

lim
(LH) natural e ep
a n jaform of
d
lla(
pitocin)
a
M
jali
– prolactin epa
n
• stimulates gravid
De
or
df
alise uterus
r son
t is p
e
• causes “let down” of
• Let’s go overis dthese
en
oc
um milk from the breast.
Th
one at a time... – ADH (vasopressin)
causes the kidney to
retain water.
 The Endocrine System
• Anterior Pituitary • Anterior Pituitary…
– Primarily regulates – Growth hormone
other endocrine (GH) . co m)
ail
gm
glands •  glucose a lla@ usage
ja lim
– rarely a factor in d•e
an
ep consumption of fats
a lla(
endocrinological n jali
M as an energy source
p a
ee
emergencies e df
o r D
– ACTH stimulates the
lis
na
– TSH stimulatesis pthe er so adrenal cortex to
t
thyroid gland oc
en
u to
m release its hormones
is d
Th
release its – FSH & LH stimulates
hormones, thus  maturation & release
metabolic rate of eggs from ovary.
 The Endocrine System
• The Thyroid Gland • Within the colloid are
the thyroid hormones:
– lies in the anterior
neck just below the – thyroxine (T4) . co m)
ail
gm
larynyx. – triiodothyronine
lim
a lla@ (T3)
ja
an
– Two lobes, located • When stimulated (by
(de
e p
a ll a
a li M TSH or by cold),
on either side of the ep
a n j
these are released
r De
o
trachea, connectedalised f
into the circulatory
o n
by a narrow band t i s
r s
pe of system and  the
n
me metabolic rate.
tissue calledi s d o cu the
Th
isthmus. – “C” cells within the
– Sacs inside the thyroid produce the
gland contain colloid hormone calcitonin.
 The Endocrine System

• Calcitonin, when • Myxedema symptoms: o m)

il. c
released, lowers the – Facial bloating a lla@
g ma
m
jali
amount of calcium in – weakness ( d ee
pa
n

alla
the blood. – a
M
njacold intolerance
li
ep
De
• Inadequate levels ofonali s e df
o r
– lethargy
thyroid hormones n t is =
p ers
– altered mental
me
hypothyroidism,is d
o cu
or status
Th

Myxedema. – oily skin and hair

– TX: replacement of
thyroid hormone.
 The Endocrine System
• Increased thyroid – Long term
hormone release hyperthyroidism:
m)
causes • Exopthalmos ail. co
gm
hyperthyroidism, – bulging m a lla@
of the
n jali
commonly called ( d
pa
ee eyeballs (picture
alla
Graves’ disease. a nja
li M
Barbara Bush)
e ep
– Signs and lise
d f or
D
• In severe cases - a
n a
symptoms: e rso medical emergency
is p
ent called thyrotoxicosis can
• insomnia, d ocfatigue
um
Th
i s result.
• tachycardia
• hypertension
• heat intolerance
• weight loss
 The Endocrine System

• Parathyroid Glands – produce parathyroid o m)

hormone - a@gmlevel
. c
ail
– small, pea-shaped of
all
glands, located in the calcium
pa
njain blood
li m
e
a ( de
ll
neck near the thyroid ja l i Ma
an
– usually 4 - number can ed for De – Hypocalcemia can
e p

alis result if parathyroids

vary p e rso
n

n t is are removed or
– regulate the level o c
e
um of
h is d destroyed.
calcium in the
T
body
 The Endocrine System
• Islets of Langerhans
• Pancreas m)
– specialized ail. co
tissues in
– a key gland located in which m
@
gm
alla endocrine
the
jali
the folds of the functions
de
e p an
of the
ll a (
duodenum n jali
Ma
pancreas occurs
a
ep
– has both endocrine and ed for D e
– include 3 types of
alis
exocrine functions perso n
cells:
n t is
– secretes several o
me
cukey • alpha ( )
h is d
digestive enzymes
T
• beta ()
• delta ()
– each secretes an
important hormone.
 The Endocrine System

• Alpha () cells • The surge of glucagon . co m)

ail
release glucagon, stimulates mthe alla
@ liver to
gm

jali
essential for release ( d eeglucose stores
pa
n

alla
controlling blood (from
e p a nja
li M
glycogen and
De
glucose levels. a l is ed
f o r
additional storage
n
rso
• When blood glucose n t is
p e sites).
me
levels fall,  Tcells 
cu
his
d o
• Also, glucagon
the amount of stimulates the liver to
glucagon in the blood . manufacture glucose -
• gluconeogenesis.
 The Endocrine System
• Beta Cells () release • Insulin is rapidly.com)
ail
insulin (antagonistic to broken down m a lla@by the
gm

jali
glucagon). liver and ( d ee must be
pa
n

alla
• Insulin  the rate at secreted constantly.
li M
a nja
e p
r De
which various body onalised•f Delta Cells ()
o

ers
cells take up glucose. m e nt
is p
produce somatostatin,
u
oc
Thus, insulinThlowers
i s d
which inhibits both
the blood glucose glucagon and insulin.
level.
 The Endocrine System

• Adrenal Glands • the Adrenal Medulla . co m)

ail
– 2 small glands that sit secretes themalla@ gm

jali
atop both kidneys. catecholamine d ee
pa
n
(
alla
hormones
ep
a nja
li M

De
– Each has 2 divisions, lised fo norepinephrine and
r
a
on
each with different is pe r s
epinephrine (closely
n t
functions. me
cu
Th
is d
o related to the
sympathetic
component of the
autonomic nervous
system).
 The Endocrine System
• One at a time…
– gluticocorticoids:
• The Adrenal Cortex o m)

secretes 3 classes of – accounts@for ail. c

gm 95% of
alla
adrenal jali m cortex
hormones, all steroid a ( de
hormone e p an
production
all
hormones: ep
a nja
li M
–  the level of glucose
De
– gluticocorticoids l is ed
f o r
in the blood
o na
s
mineralocorticoidst is per
en – Released in response to
um
– androgenic hormones
h is d
o c
stress, injury, or
T
serious infection - like
the hormones from the
adrenal medulla.
 The Endocrine System

• Mineralocorticoids: • Signs & Symptoms . co m) of

ail
– work to regulate the Cushing’s mDisease:
alla
@
gm

ja li
concentration of –  in an
a ( d eblood
ep sugar levels
ll
potassium and sodium – l i Ma
an unusual body fat
ja
e p
in the body. f o r De
distribution
s ed
• Prolonged  in t is pe
a l i
on

n
r s
– rapid mood swings
adrenal cortexhis docume
T
hormone results in
Cushing’s Disease.
 The Endocrine System
• Sodium can also be
• And - if there is an  retained by the . co m)kidney,
ail
in mineralocorticoids resultinglimalin la@
gm

nja
as well hyponatremia.
de
e pa
lla(
Ma
– A serious electolyte nja
li
pa – Causes:
D ee
imbalance will occur ised for • dysrhythmias
l
due to the  potassium n a
rso
t is p
e • coma
en
excretion by the o c um • death
h is d
kidney, which
T results – usually results from a
in hypokalemia. tumor - TX? Removal
of tumor.
 The Endocrine System

• Gonads and Ovaries: • Ovaries: . co m)

ail
– the endocrine glands – located inmathe ll a @
gm
li
nja
associated with human abdominal d e e pa cavity
(
alla
reproduction. n
adjacent
jali
M to the uterus.
pa
ee
– Female ovaries e d for
D
– Under the control of
lis
na
produce eggs p er so LH and FSH from the
is
nt
– Male gonads produce o cu
m e anterior pituitary they
is d
sperm Th manufacture
• estrogen
• both have endocrine • protesterone
functions.
 The Endocrine System

• Estrogen and • Testes: . co m)

ail
Progesterone have – located inmathe gm
lla@ scrotum
jali
several functions, – produce ( d ee
n
pa sperm for
alla
including sexual ep
a
li M
njareproduction
De
development and lis e df
o r
– manufacture
n a
rso testosterone -
preparation of theent is p e

uterus for implantation

d o cu
m • promotes male growth
i s
Th and masculinization
of the egg.
– Controlled by anterior
pituitary hormones
FSH and LH.
 The Endocrine System

• Endocrine • Complications of . co m)
ail
Emergencies: Diabetes: malla@ gm

ja li
• Diabetes Mellitus – contributes an
a ( d ee
p to heart
ll
Ma
jadisease
l i
– one of the most De
e p an

common diseases in alised f – stroke o r

n
rso
North America. nt is p e – kidney disease
me
–  insulin secretion
Th
is d
o cu
by – blindness
the Beta () cells of
the islets of
Langerhans in the
pancreas.
 The Endocrine System

• Pathophysiology of • The other 2 major . co m)

ail
Diabetes: food sources
m a lla@are
gm

ja li
• Glucose Metabolism – proteins ( d
an
ee
p
alla
– li M
njafats
– Glucose (dextrose) is a ep
a
De
r
simple sugar required alised•f Most sugars in the
o
n
rso
by the body to produce n t is
p e
human diet are
m e
energy. d oc
u
Th
i s
complex and must be
– Sugars, or
broken down into
carbohydrates, are 1 of
3 major food sources simple sugars:
used by the body. glucose, galactose and
fructose - before use.
 The Endocrine System

• Breakdown of sugars • To be converted.cointo m)

ail
is carried out by energy, glucose m a lla@
gm
must
li
nja
enzymes in the gastro first be a ( de
etransmitted
p a
ll
Ma
intestinal system. through
e p an
ja l i
the cell
De
– As simple sugars, these alised f membrane. BUT - the
o r

n
rso
are absorbed from tthe is p
e glucose molecule is
n
me
GE system into
Th
is d
o cuthe
large and doesn’t
body.
readily diffuse through
– More than 95% enter the cell membrane.
the body as glucose.
 The Endocrine System

• Glucose must pass • The rate at which . co m)

ail
into the cell by glucose canmallaenter @
gm
the
li
nja
binding to a special cell isa(ddependent ee
p a upon
ll
Ma
carrier protein on the insulin
e p an
ja l i
levels.
De
cell’s surface. lise
d for
– Insulin serves as the
na
rso
– Facilitated diffusion e
is p
nt
-e messenger - travels via
doesn’t use energy.
is d oc
um blood to target tissues.
Th
The carrier protein – Combines with specific
binds with the glucose insulin receptors on the
and carries it into the surface of the cell
cell. membrane.
The Digestive System
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

111
 Digestion
• Processing of food
• Types ail. co m)
gm
– Mechanical (physical) lim
alla
@
ja
an
• Chew de
ep
lla(
• Tear li Ma
anja
ep
• Grind o rD
e
edf
• Mash rso
nalis
p e
• Mix n t is
u me
oc
– Chemical This
d

• Catabolic reactions
• Enzymatic hydrolysis
– Carbohydrate
– Protein
112
– Lipid
 Digestion
• Phases ail. co m)
gm
– Ingestion n jali
malla
@

pa
ee
– Movement li Malla
( d

a nja
–
p
ee
Digestion e df
o r D
lis
na
– Absorption t i s pe
r so

m en
u
– Further digestion
Th
i s d oc

113
Digestive System Organization

• Gastrointestinal (Gl) tract (Alimentary canal)

m) o
il.c
– Tube within a tube @
g m a
a ll a
– Direct link/path between organs an
ja lim
e ep
d
– Structures ali
Ma lla(
j
• Mouth an
e ep
D
• Oral Cavity f or
d
a lise
• Pharynx rso
n
p e
• Esophagus n t is
me
• Stomach d o cu
his
• DuedenumT

• Jejenum
• kIleum
• Cecum
• Ascending colon
• Transverse colon 114
 Digestive System Organization
• Descending colon
m)
• Sigmoid colon ail. co
gm
• Rectum alla
@
lim
• Anus ep
an
ja
de
lla(
• Accessory structures li Ma
anja
– Not in tube path rD
eep
o
df
– Organs nalis
e
rso
• Teeth is p e
e nt
• Tongue d oc
um
is
• Th
Salivary glands
• Liver
• Gall bladder
• Pancreas

115
Anatomy of the Mouth and
Throat
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

116
Human Deciduous and
Permanent Teeth
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

117
Dorsal Surface of the Tongue
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

118
The Major Salivary Glands
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

119
 Deglutition (swallowing)
• Sequence m)
co
– Voluntary stage gm
ail.
@
• Push food to back of alla
ja lim
mouth an
ep
de
lla(
– Pharyngeal stage li Ma
anja
• Raise eep
orD
– Soft palate e df
lis
na
– Larynx + hyoid r so
i s pe
– Tongue to soft palate
en
t
m
cu
– Esophageal stage
Th
is d
o

• Contract pharyngeal
muscles
• Open esophagus
• Start peristalsis
120
 Deglutition (swallowing)
• Control
– Nerves co m)
ail.
• Glossopharyngeal @
gm
alla
• Vagus ja lim
an
ep
• Accessory lla(
de
Ma
– Brain stem anja
li
eep
• Deglutition center o rD
edf
– Medulla oblongataon alis
– Pons p ers
t is n
me
– Disorders d oc
u
his
• T
Dysphagia
• Aphagia

121
 Esophagus
• Usually collapsed (closed) o m)
. c
ail
• 3 constrictions alla
@
gm

ja lim
– Aortic arch de
ep
an
lla(
– Left primary bronchus anja
li Ma

eep
– Diaphragm edf
o rD
alis
• Surrounded by
n
e rso
p
n t is
me
– SNS plexus his docu
T
– Blood vessels
• Functions
– Secrete mucous
– Transport food 122
Peristalsis and Segmentation
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

123
 Esophagus
• Sphincters . co m)
ail
– Upper alla
@
gm

ja lim
– Lower de
ep
an
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

124
 Stomach
• Usually “J” shaped o m)
. c
ail
• Left side, anterior to the spleen alla
@
gm

ja lim
• Mucous membrane lla(
de
ep
an

Ma
– G cells – make gastrin nja
li
pa
D ee
– Goblet cells – make mucous e d for
n alis
so
– Gastric pit – Oxyntic n t is
p ergland – Parietal cells – Make HCl
e
– Chief cells –hiZymogenic
sd
o c um
cells
T
• Pepsin
• Gastric lipase

125
Anatomy of the Stomach
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

126
 Stomach
• 3 muscle layers m)
co
– Oblique gm
ail.
@
– Circular alla
ja lim
an
– Longitudinal lla(
de
ep
Ma
• Regions ep
anja
li
e
rD
– Cardiac sphincter s e df
o
li
na
– Fundus pe
r so
i s
– Antrum (pylorus) cument
o
sd
– Pyloric sphincter
T h i

• Vascular
• Inner surface thrown into
folds – Rugae
• Contains enzymes that work 127
best at pH 1-2
 Stomach
• Functions – Absorbs m)
co
– Mix food • Alcohol @gm ail.

– Reservoir alla
• Water an
jali m

– Start digestion of de
e p
• ll Lipophilic acid
Ma
a (
• Protein ja l i
p an • B 12
e
• Nucleic acids for
De
ed
• Fats on
alis
r s
– Activates some enzymes n t is
ep
e
um
– Destroy some bacteria
is d
o c
Th
– Makes intrinsic factor – B
12 absorption
– Destroys some bacteria

128
 Small Intestine
• Extends from pyloric
sphincter → ileocecal ail. co m)
gm
valve alla
@
ja lim
• Regions de
ep
an
lla(
Ma
– Duodenum anja
li
eep
– Jejenum edf
o rD
alis
– Ileum p e rso
n

n t is
• Movements d oc
u me
his
– SegmentationT

– Peristalsis

129
 Small Intestine
• Absorbs – Lipids m)
co
– 80% ingested water • Monoglycerides ail.
gm
a @
– Electrolytes • Fattyanjaacids
li m all

– Vitamins ee
p
•allaMicelles
( d

– Minerals nja
li M

De
ep
a • Chylomicrons
– Carbonates for
s
li ed
• Active/facilitated transport r so na
pe
• Monosaccharides ent i s
m
cu
– Proteins is d
o
Th
• Di-/tripeptides
• Amino acids

130
Structure of the Villi in the Small
Intestine
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

131
 Small Intestine
• Secretes digestive m)
co
enzymes gm
ail.
@
– Peptidases alla
ja lim
an
• Amino- de
ep
lla(
• Di- li Ma
anja
• Tri- eep
o rD
df
– Sucrases nalis
e
rso
– Maltase n t is
p e

me
– Lactase is d
o cu
Th
– Saccharidases
• Di-
• Tri-
– Lipase
– Nucleases 132
 Small Intestine
• Control
m)
• Requires pancreatic . co
ail
gm
@
alla
enzymes & bile to ep
an
ja lim

de
lla(
complete digestion nja
li Ma
a
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

133
 Large Intestine
• Extends from ileocecal valve to anus . co m)
ail
gm
• Regions alim
a lla@
j
an
– Cecum – Appendix alla
(d ee
p

li M
– Colon De
ep
anja

for
• Ascending a lise
d
n
rso
• Transverse n t is
p e
e
um
• Descendingis d o c
Th
– Rectum
– Anal canal

134
Anatomy of the Large Intestine
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

135
 Large Intestine
• Functions
– Mechanical digestion – Absorbs . co m)
ail
• Haustral churning •More water all a @
gm
i m
• Peristalsis •Vitamins
ep
an
ja l

de
lla( –B
• Reflexes li M
a
anja –K
– Gastroileal ep
De

– Gastrocolic lise
d for
– Concentrate/eliminate
na
e rso wastes
is p
– Chemical digestion u m en
t –
o c
Bacterial digestion
T h is d

• Ferment carbohydrates
• Protein/amino acid
breakdown
136
 Feces Formation and Defecation
• Chyme dehydrated to • Control m)
co
form feces ail.
– Parasympathetic all a @
gm
• Feces composition ja li m

– Water – Voluntary
la(
de
e p an
l
i Ma
– Inorganic salts e p an
ja l

De
– Epithelial cells ed
f o r
a l is
– Bacteria e r son
is p
– Byproducts of digestion
cu
me
n t

do
• Defecation Th
is

– Peristalsis pushes feces into

rectum
– Rectal walls stretch
137
 Liver
• Functions m)
co
– Makes bile gm
ail.
@
• Detergent – emulsifies fats alla
ja lim
an
• Contains de
ep
lla(
– Water li M
a
j a
– Bile salts an
e ep
D
– Bile pigments f or
d
a lise
– Electrolytes rso
n
p e
– Cholesterol n t is
me
– Lecithin docu
is
Th

138
 Liver
– Detoxifies/removes
• Drugs
• Alcohol o m)
. c
ail
gm
– Stores alla
@
lim
• Gycolgen an
ja
ep
de
• Vitamins (A, D, E, K) lla(
li Ma
• Fe and other minerals ep
anja
e
• Cholesterol o rD
edf
alis
– Activates vitamin D e rso
n
p
t is
– Fetal RBC production me
n
o cu
– Phagocytosis This d
– Metabolizes absorbed food
molecules
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids 139
 Liver
• Dual blood supply
m)
– Hepatic portal vein gm
ail. co

@
• Direct input from small alla
ja lim
an
intestine ep
de
lla(
Ma
– Hepatic artery/vein eep
anja
li

rD
• Direct links to heart edf
o
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This

140
 Respiratory System
• Gas exchange ail. co m)
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 W
O
R
K
• Why do we breathe? Think of all the ail. co m)
gm
reasons why we need a respiratory system. ja lim
alla
@
T
an
ep

li M
a lla(
de
O
nja

for
De
ep
a
G
E
d
lise
na
e rso

um
ent
is p
T
oc
H
d
This

E
R
 Terminology
• “Respiration” is used several different ways:
m)
– Cellular respiration is the aerobic breakdown ail. co
gm
of
lla@
glucose in the mitochondria to make n jali ATP.
m a
pa
ee
– Respiratory systems are the organs ( d

n jali
Malla in animals that
pa
exchange gases with thed forenvironment. D ee
e
alis
– “Respiration” is an t is p ereveryday
so
n
term that is often
en
used to meanhis
do“breathing.”
c um
T
 Respiratory system function
• Respiratory systems allow animals to ail. co m)
gm
move oxygen (needed for cellular ja lim
alla
@

an
ep
respiration) into body tissues and remove li Ma
lla(
de

nja
carbon dioxide (waste product of cellular df
o rD
eep
a

e
alis
respiration) from cells. p e rso
n

n t is
u me
d oc
This
 Gas exchange by Diffusion
• Some animals
simply allow gases ail. co m)
gm
to diffuse through ja lim
alla
@

an
their skins. lla(
de
ep

li Ma

• These animals have o rD

eep
anja

edf
a low metabolic rate. p e rso
nalis

t is
Why? d oc
u me
n

his
• All of these are
T

aquatic animals.
Why?
 Specialized structures
• Structures
m)
specialized for gm
ail. co

@
alla
gas exchange ep
an
ja lim

de
lla(
include: anja
li Ma
ep
– gills (aquatic e df
orD
e

lis
animals) o na
r s
i s pe
t
– spiracles (terrestriald oc
u m en

i s
Th
insects)
– lungs (most
terrestrial
vertebrates)
 Human respiratory system
• Parts of the respiratory system include: ail. co m)
gm
– Trachea ja lim
alla
@

an
ep
– Bronchi li Ma
lla(
de

anja
– Bronchioles edf
o rD
eep

alis
–
n
rso
Alveoli n t is
p e

u me
d oc
This
 Moving air in and out
• During inspiration
m)
(inhalation), the gm
ail. co

@
alla
diaphragm and ep
an
ja lim

de
lla(
intercostal anja
li Ma

eep
muscles contract. alis
edf
o rD

n
rso
• During u me
n t is
p e

d oc
exhalation, these
This

muscles relax.
The diaphragm
domes upwards.
 Alveoli
• The alveoli are moist, thin-walled pockets ail. co m)
gm
which are the site of gas exchange. ja lim
alla
@

an
ep
• A slightly oily surfactant prevents the nja
li Ma
lla(
de

a
ep
alveolar walls from collapsing and edf
o rD
e

nalis
sticking together. n t is
p e rso

u me
d oc
This
 Circulation and Gas Exchange
• Recall the
interconnection ail. co m)
gm
between circulation jali
m a lla@
n
pa
and the respiratory alla
( d ee
li M
system. De
ep
a nja

o r
df
• Gas exchange at the ersonali s e

p
t is
lungs and in the cume n
o
is d
body cells moves
T h

oxygen into cells

and carbon dioxide
out.
What happens when you breathe in?
1. The rib muscles relax.
2. The diaphragm . co m)
ail
contracts. m a lla@
gm

n jali
pa
3. Air leaves the alveoli. alla
( d ee
li M
nja
4. Air moves between o r De
ep
a

e df
the chest wall and the pe
r so na
lis

t i s
lung. do
cu
m en

is
Th
 In the alveolus
• The respiratory
m)
surface is made gm
ail. co

@
alla
up of the alveoli an
ja lim
ep
de
and capillary nja
li Ma
lla(

a
ep
walls. edf
o rD
e

nalis
rso
• The walls of the u me
n t is
p e

d oc
capillaries and the
This

alveoli may share

the same
membrane.
 Gas exchange
• Air entering the lungs
contains more oxygen . co m)
ail
gm
and less carbon m a lla@
jali
dioxide than the blood ( d ee
pa
n

Malla
that flows in the ep
a nja
li

De
pulmonary capillaries. lis e df
o r

o na
r s
• How do these m en
t i s pe

u
oc
differences in Thi s d

concentrations assist
gas exchange?
 Oxygen transport
• Hemoglobin binds
to oxygen that . co m)
ail
gm
diffuses into the m a lla@
n jali
blood stream. ( d ee
pa

Malla
li
• What are some r De
ep
a nja

o
df
advantages to r so na
lis e

pe
using hemoglobincument i s

o
is d
to transport T h

oxygen?
 Carbon dioxide transport
• Carbon dioxide
can dissolve in . co m)
ail
gm
plasma, and about m a lla@
n jali
70% forms ( d ee
pa

Malla
li
bicarbonate ions. ep
a nja
r De
o
• Some carbon r so na
lis e df

pe
dioxide can bind to u m en
t i s

d oc
hemoglobin for Th
i s

transport.
 At the cells
• Cells use up oxygen quickly for cellular ail. co m)
gm
respiration. What does this do to the ja lim
alla
@

an
ep
diffusion gradient? How does this help li Ma
lla(
de

nja
cells take up oxygen? df
o rD
eep
a

e
alis
• Cells create carbon dioxide during cellular
n t is
p e rso
n

u me
respiration, so CO2 levels in the cell are
This
d oc

higher than in the blood coming to them.

How does this help cells get rid of
oxygen?
Diffusion of O2 from lungs to blood is
rapid because:
1. Active transport
moves oxygen. . co m)
ail
gm
2. Hemoglobin takes an
ja lim
alla
@

ep
up oxygen, keeping li Ma
lla(
de

anja
plasma edf
o rD
eep

alis
concentration low. t is
p e rso
n

n
u me
oc
3. Blood plasma is
This
d

oxygen-rich.
Most of the oxygen in blood is:
1. In the white cells.
2. Bound to ail. co m)
gm
hemoglobin. an
ja lim
alla
@

ep
de
lla(
3. Combined with anja
li Ma

eep
carbon to make edf
o rD

nalis
rso
carbon dioxide. n t is
p e

u me
d oc
4. Dissolved in the
This

plasma.
 Cystic Fibrosis
• Cystic fibrosis is one of
the most common . co m)
ail
gm
inherited disorders in m a lla@
n jali
the Caucasian ( d ee
pa

Malla
li
population in the U.S. ep
a nja
r De
o
• CF is caused by r so na
lis e df

pe
mutation of a singlecument i s

o
is d
gene, the CFTR Tgene,
h

which controls salt

balance in the lungs.
“Two lies and a truth” – which one is
true?
1. Cigarette smoke cures
colds because it kills co m)
il.
ma
bacteria in the lungs. a lla@
g
m
n jali
pa
2. Nicotine is one of the alla
( d ee
li M
most potent De
ep
a nja

o r
df
neurotoxins on earth. sonali s e
r
pe
3. “Passive” smoking en is
t i s
u m
d oc
i s
less harmful than
Th

“regular” smoking.
 W
O
R
K
• When people quit smoking, if the lungs are ail. co m)
gm
not damaged they can often clean ja lim
alla
@
T
an
ep
themselves because the cilia are no longer li M
a lla(
de
O
nja
paralyzed. People with cystic fibrosis have for
De
ep
a
G
E
d
lise
trouble with lung infections because their
e rso
na

ent
is p
T
lung mucus is thick and sticky.
oc
um

H
d
This

E
R
Human Excretory System
o m)
. c
ail
gm

composed of
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de

kidney-functional unit of a
lla(
li Ma
anja
ep

kidney- nephron)
e
o rD
edf
nalis
rso

lungs (alveoli)
p e
n t is
u me
d oc
his

skin (sweat glands)

T

liver
 types of metabolic wastes
Waste Produced from
Carbon Dioxide Aerobic Respiration ail.com)
gm
Water Aerobic Respiration li m all a @

nja
pa
Salts Metabolic aactivities lla(
de
e
M
jali
Nitrogenous wastes Breakdown D ee
pa
n
of excess
o r
Amino e df Acids & Proteins
lis
na
e rso
is p
ent
um
d oc
types of nitrogenous
his
T wastes toxicity
Ammonia (NH3) Highly Toxic
Urea Moderately Toxic
Uric Acid Crystals Minimally Toxic
human excretory system
waste and what its removed by ail. co m)
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
– carbon dioxide- lungs njali Ma
de
lla(

pa
– water - skin, kidney, for lungs
D ee
e d
alis

– salts - skin, kidney

o n
p ers
is
e nt
um
– ammonia T-his liver
d oc

– urea - kidney
 human excretory system
• consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
urethra and renal circuit (renal arteries and.corenal m)
veins) gm
ail
lla@
• kidney includes an outer cortex, middle jali medulla
m a
n
pa
and the nephrons ( d ee
Malla
li
• nephrons include a capsule r and a looping tubule
a nja
ep
De
that joins others to form ed the collecting ducts,
f o
a l is

making up the pyramids which empty into the

r son
e
t is p
calyces - lead iinto the renal pelvis
n
me
o cu
sd
• nephrons form urine, which passes from the
T h

collecting ducts to the renal pelvis. The renal

pelvis empties into the ureters, which conduct
urine to the urinary bladder, and the urethra voids
the urine from the body.
primary organs of excretion
o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 blood and
urine flow
blood enters the.com)
kidneys via lla@renal
ail
gm
a

arteries, and leaves

m
n jali
pa
( d ee

the ja kidneys via the

ll a
l i Ma
p an

renal veins
e
r De
f o
l is ed
n a

wastes removed from

e rso
p
n t is
e

the blood leave the

u m
d oc
i s
Th

kidneys by the
ureter
 kidney
Learn the parts m)
. co
ail
gm
@
alla
Functions pa
n jaliof the kidneys
m

ee
1. ali Mexcrete toxins and
( d
alla

nitrogenous wastes
j
an
e ep
r D

2. regulate chemical
f o
l is ed
a
on
levels in blood
e r s
t is p
e n

3. maintain water
um
d oc
is
Th
balance
4. helps regulate blood
pressure (renin)
 other organs
• ureters - long narrow tubes with expanded m)
upper end (renal pelvis) located inside each
. co
ail
gm
@
kidney. Function is to drain the renal pelvis
a ll a
ja lim
n
pa
to urinary bladder
e
ll a (de
a
j a li M

• urinary bladder- elastic or muscular organ

an
e ep
D
f

capable of great expansion. Function si

d
a lise
n
e rso

storage of urine and voiding

is p
e nt
m
o cu

• urethra – passage of urine from bladder to

is d
Th

outside of body. Passage of semen from

male body
 formation of urine
occurs by a series of three processes ail. co m)

that take place in successive parts of the ja lim

alla
@
gm

nephron
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
nja
• filtration
a
eep
orD
e df

• reabsorption t is per
lis
o na
s

en
• secretionThis do c um
 the nephron
The nephron begins with Bowman's capsules, o m)

which surrounds the glomerulus, a allaball of

. c
ail
gm
@

capillaries arising from an afferent arteriole

m
n jali
pa
( d ee

of the renal artery. Leaving the glomerulus

ll a
l i Ma
ja
p an

is an efferent arteriole, which forms the

e
r De
f o
l is ed

peritubular capillaries, where reabsorption

n a
e rso
p
n t is

takes place. This These spread over the nephron

me
o cu
d

to later form a venule that joins others to

make up the renal vein.
nephron in detail

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 the nephron
Bowman's capsule leads to the proximal ail. co m)

convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, ja lim

alla
@
gm

and the distal convoluted tubule, which

an
ep
de
lla(
Ma

joins a collecting duct. The afferent

li
anja
eep
o rD
df
arteriole also connects with the distal
e
nalis
e rso
p

convoluted tubule, forming the

n t is
u me
d oc
his

juxtaglomerular complex.
T
 Bowman’s capsule
Items filtered out of the Items that remain min ) the
blood into the blood are a@gmail.
co

Bowman's capsule a nja

lim
all

ep
– Glucose (but must be
de
lla(
– njaRBCs
li M
a

returned to the blood by pa

active transport at the e d for

D ee
– WBCs
lis
– platelets
na
loop of Henle) s pe
r so
t i
– urea
n

is d
o c u me
– large chemicals like
hormones
h
– salts
T

– water
 parts of the nephron &
functions 1
• Bowman's capsule. Force filtration in
Bowman's capsule causes much of the water m)
and ions and smaller molecules to leave the
. co
ail
gm
@
blood and enter the proximal convoluted
a ll a
ja lim
an
ep
tubule. d e
a lla(
M
jali
• The proximal tubule. the for peritubular
n
pa
D ee

capillaries contain blood in a hyperosmotic

e d
n alis
o
ers
state, so much oof the water filtrate reenters
is p
e nt
m
cu

(reabsorption) the blood by osmosis. Active

d
T his

transport also returns sodium (chloride

following passively), glucose, and amino acids
to the blood.
 parts of the nephron &
functions 2
• The loop of Henle. The ascending loop actively m)
transports chloride ions (sodium ions llafollow . co
ail
gm
@
passively) into the surrounding area, recycling
m a
n jali
pa
salt and creating a hyperosmotic state in the
e
ll a (de
a
li M
kidney medulla. The hypertonic state is
j a
an
e ep
r D

further increased by rsurea, which diffuses out

f o
l is ed
a
on
of the collecting ducts.
e
t is p
en
um

• The distal tubule. The active secretion of

o c
h is d
T

sodium ions occurs with chloride ions and water

passively following. Potassium ions enter the
tubule.
 parts of the nephron &
functions 3
• Collecting ducts. Water leaves the ail. co m)

collecting ducts in response to ja lim

alla
@
gm

antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which is

an
ep
de
lla(
Ma

secreted by the posterior pituitary in

li
anja
eep
o rD
df
response to osmotic conditions in the
e
nalis
e rso
p

blood (actually detected by the

n t is
u me
d oc
his

hypothalamus).
T
formation of urine

o m)
. c
ail
gm
@
alla
ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
 wastes - urine
m)

The remaining wastes, now called

. co
ail
gm
@
alla

urine are transported out through

ja lim
an
ep
de
lla(

the collecting tubule to an area li Ma

anja
eep
rD
known as the renal pelvis (a
o
edf
nalis
rso

collecting area) where the urine

p e
n t is
u me
oc

then passes into the ureter

d
This
 control of nephron
Nephron control is hormonal, with water
reabsorption controlled by ADH from the
posterior pituitary and sodium chloride o m)
. c
ail
gm
reabsorption controlled by aldosterone n jali
m a lla@
from
the adrenal medulla. Sodium chloride
p a
e
a ( de
ll
Ma
transport is monitored by athe juxtaglomerular
l i
nja
e p
De
complex. The arteriolar cells secrete renin,
o r
e df
lis
na
which stimulates enthe adrenal cortex to secret
r so
i s pe
t

aldosterone. This
m
o cu
d

Aldosterone increases the absorption of

sodium chloride and the excretion of
potassium.
 a few disorders of the
excretory system
Obstructive disorders
kidney stones ail. co m)
gm
kidney cancer n jali
m a lla@

Renal failure - (kidney failure)

pa
( d ee
Malla
li

UTIs - urinary tract infections, often caused

a nja
ep
r De

by gram-negative bacteria
f o
d
a lise
n
e rso

cystitis-bladder infections
p
n t is
me
o cu
d

urethritis-inflammation of the urethra

is
Th

pyelonephritis- inflammation of the

kidneys
 kidney stones
• Cause - metabolic disorder involving calcium,
proteins and uric acid the build up of these
substances into a large deposit (stone) o m)
. c
ail
gm
lla@
• Symptoms - irritation of the urinary tract,
m a
n jali
a
ep

bleeding in the urinary tract, M in cases with

d e
a lla(
n jali

large stones there can edbe extreme pain as

pa
D ee
for
lis

the stone(s) try to ppass through the tract

o na
er s
t i s
n
me
• Treatments -Thisremoval by surgical means,
o cu
d

breakdown of stones by either physical

(ultrasound) or chemical means, dietary
changes to reduce chances of stones
 renal (kidney) failure
o m)
. c
ail
• Causes - infections, trauma, diabetes, lim
alla
@
gm

tumors
ja
an
ep
de
lla(
Ma

• Symptoms - build up of toxins in the

li
anja
eep
rD

blood stream (urea), jaundice, fatigue

o
edf
nalis
e rso
p

• Treatments - dialysis, drug therapy,

n t is
u me
d oc

transplants
This
 bladder infections

• Causes - infection of the urinary tract ail. co m)

• Symptoms - burning sensation in the

gm
@
alla
ja lim
an

flanks that can move down from the

ep
de
lla(
li Ma
nja
middle of the back towards the front of
a
eep
o rD
df

the groin, burning sensation while

e
nalis
e rso
p
t is

urinating
n
u me
d oc
This

• treatments - antibiotics
 Human Reproductive System
The reproductive system is the system ail. co m)

that allows for the continuation of the ja lim

alla
@
gm

human species
an
ep
de
lla(
li Ma
anja
eep
o rD
edf
alis

This system is different in males and

n
e rso
p
n t is
me

females
u
d oc
This
 Human Reproductive System
The role of the male’s reproductive ail. co m)

system is to manufacture sperm and ja lim

alla
@
gm

an

then to deliver them to the female’s

ep
de
lla(
li Ma
nja
reproductive tract where fertilization
a
eep
o rD
df

may occur
e
nalis
e rso
p
n t is
u me
d oc
This
Human Reproductive System
• The sperm is produced in the male testis m)
and then travels through a serieslla@gof . co
il
ma

ducts to reach the body exterior

a
ja lim
an
ep

• The eggs are produced in Mthe ovary of a

d e
a lla(
jali
female. When a eggd foris to be expelled or
n
pa
D ee

ovulated a “blister o forms on the exterior

e
n alis
ers
of the ovary.ocumenWhen the “blister” bursts
p
t is

the egg may be collected by the ends of

T h is d

the fallopian tubes and travels through

the fallopian tubes where it can be
fertilized by a single sperm
 Human Reproductive System
• If an egg is fertilized it travels down m)
into the uterus where it embeds llain gm the
. co
ail
@
wall of the uterus. m a
n jali
pa
ee
• There it divides rapidly aand the cells
( d
Malla
li
nja
begin to specialize into df
o r De the different
ep

organs of a pregnancy. Some of the

lis e
o na
er s

cells form the amniotic sac while some

is p
e nt
m
cu
form the placenta and the umbilical
o
h is d
T

cord.
• Only a small number of these cells will
eventually form the fetus
Human Reproductive System
The scrotum and penis are the
male genitalia. The male m)
gonads, called testis, gm are tightly
. co
ail
lla@
coiled tubes surrounded a n jali
m a
by
tissue. Sperms develop in these
e p
a ( de
all
tubes. eepaThe male gonads are
li M
nja

located outside of the body

D
d for
e
alis
esince sperm productions can only
n
rso
p
t is
occur at about two degrees
n
me
o cu
is d
Celsius lower than normal body
T h

temperature. After the sperm

are produced they mature and
are stored in the epididymis.
 seminal vesicles
Sixty percent of semen is secreted ail. co m)

by the seminal vesicles. They lie ja lim

alla
@
gm

behind and below the bladder and

an
ep
de
lla(
Ma

empty directly into the ejaculatory

li
anja
eep
o rD
df
duct. The fluid secreted is clear and
e
nalis
e rso
p

thick. It contains mucus, amino acids,

n t is
u me
d oc
his

and fructose. The fructose provides

T

energy for the sperm.

Human Reproductive System
Ovaries, the female mgonads, )
are located below gm
athe
il. co

digestive system jali

m a lla@ in the

abdominal eecavity. Inside

n
pa
( d
eachanjovary ali
Malla
are many follicles
which
fo r De
ep
consist of a single egg
alis cell and one or more layers
e d
o n
of follicle cells. Follicle cells
p ers
is
e nt
protect and nourish the egg
u m
d oc
i s
cells. A woman is born with
Th

about 400,000 follicles and

cannot produce more.
Human Reproductive System
Ovulation is the process )
in
which an egg is expelled from
o m
a il.c
gm
a follicle. The li m allegg
a @
is expelled
directly lainto the abdominal
ja
an
e ep
(d
cavity and is picked up by the
a l
j a li M
n
fallopian tubes. Inside the
a
ep
r De
fo
alis fallopian tubes are cilia which
e d
o n
sweep the egg toward the
p ers
is
e nt
uterus. At the neck of the
u m
d oc
i s
uterus is the cervix followed
Th

by the vagina which has very

thin walls, much thinner than
those of the uterus.