UGCM1653 - Chapter 2 Calculus - 202001 PDF

UGCM1653/UCCM1653 Mathematics for Engineering I
CHAPTER 2: CALCULUS
Function and Limits
Calculus is fundamentally different from the mathematics that you have studied
previously. Calculus is less static and more dynamic. It is concerned with change and
motion; it deals with quantities that approach other quantities. So in this chapter we
begin our study of calculus by investigating how the values of function change and
approach limits.
2.1 Function and their representations
Functions arise whenever one quantity depends on another. Consider the following
situations.
Example:
Area of a circle, A = πr 2
The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the circle. The rule that connects r and
A is given by the equation A = πr 2 . With each positive number r there is associated one
value of A, and we say that A is a function of r.
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set A exactly one element,
called f (x), in a set B.
x
f (x)
a
f (a)
f
A 
→ B
Consider functions for which the sets A and B are sets of real numbers. The set A is
called the domain of the function. The number f ( x) is the value of f at x and is read
“ f of x ”. The range of f is the set of all possible values of f ( x) as x varies
throughout the domain. A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a
function f is called an independent variable. A symbol that represents a number in the
range of f is called a dependent variable. In example above, for instance, r (radius) is
the independent variable and A (area) is the dependent variable.
1
2.2 Piecewise Function
Example 1a:
1 − x if x ≤ 1
A function f is defined by f ( x) =  2 . Evaluate f (0) and f (1) . Sketch the
 x if x > 1
graph.
f(0) = 1, f (1) = 0
Example 1b:
Sketch the graph of the absolute value function f ( x) = | x | .
Example 1c:
0.39 if 0 < w ≤ 1
0.63 if 1 < w ≤ w

Sketch the graph of the function C ( w) =  .
0.87 if 2 < w ≤ 3
1.11 if 3 < w ≤ 4
Step function
2
2.3 Symmetry
i. If a function f satisfies f (− x) = f ( x) for every number x in its domain, then f is

called an even function.
ii. If a function f satisfies f (− x) = − f ( x) for every number x in its domain, then f is
called an odd function.
iii. If a function f, f ( − x) ≠ f ( x ) and f ( − x) ≠ − f ( x) for every number x in its
domain, then f is not an even nor odd function.
Example 2:
Determine whether f ( x ) = x is an even or odd function.
2
Solution:
f ( − x) = ( − x ) 2 = x 2
We notice that f ( x ) = f ( − x) = x . Therefore, f is an even function.
2
Example 3:
Determine whether f ( x ) = x + x is an even or odd function.
5
Solution:
f ( − x) = ( − x ) 5 + ( − x ) = − x 5 − x = −( x 5 + x ) = − f ( x )
Since f (− x) = − f ( x) , therefore f is an odd function.
2.4 The limit of a function
Our aim in this section is to explore the meaning of the limit of a function.
Example 3:
Let investigate the behavior of the function f defined by f ( x) = x 2 − x + 2 for values of
x near 2. The following tables give values of f (x) for values of x close to 2, but not
equal to 2.
3
From the table and the graph of f shown, we can see that when x close to 2 (on either
side of 2), f (x) is close to 4. In fact, it appears that we can make the values of f (x) as
close as we like to 4 by taking x sufficiently close to 2. We express this by saying “the
limit of the function f (x) = x2 – x + 2 as x approaches 2 is equal to 4”. The notation for
this is
lim( x 2 − x + 2) = 4
x →2
Definition 1:
We write
lim f ( x) = L
x→a
and say “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L” . If we can make the values of
f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to be sufficiently close a
(on either side of a) but not equal to a.
Another way of expressing lim f ( x) = L is

x→a
f ( x) → L when x → a
Example 4:
x −1
Find the value of lim .
x→ 1 x2 −1
Solution:
Method 1: Graph
4
Method 2:
x −1 x −1 1
lim = lim = lim = 0 .5
x →1 x −1
2 x →1 ( x − 1)( x + 1) x →1 ( x + 1)
Note:
x −1
The method below is WRONG. This is because lim is NOT defined at x=1.
x→ 1 x 2 − 1
x −1 1−1 0
lim = 2 = (NOT defined)
x →1 x −1 1 −1 0
2
Definition (One sided limits) – from left: (Left Limit)

We write
lim− f ( x) = L
x→ a
and say the left hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a [ or the limit of f (x) as x approaches
a from the left] is equal to L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by
taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x less than a.
Definition (One sided limits) – from right: (Right Limit)

We write
lim+ f ( x) = L
x→ a
and say the right hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a [or the limit of f (x) as x
approaches a from the right] is equal to L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily
close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x greater than a.
5
lim f ( x) = L lim f ( x) = L
x→ a − x→ a +
By comparing Definition 1 with the definitions of one sided limits, we see that the
following is true.
lim f ( x) = L if and only if lim f ( x) = L and lim+ f ( x) = L

x→a x→a − x→ a
Example 5:
1
Find lim 2 if it exists.
x→0 x
Solution:
1 1
lim 2 = = ∞
x →0 x 0
1 1
y = 2 tends to become infinity as x approaches 0. Therefore, lim 2 does not exist.
x x→ 0 x
Limit Laws :
Suppose that c is a constant and the limits
lim f ( x) and lim g ( x)

x→ a x→ a
exist. Then,
i. lim[ f ( x) + g ( x)] = lim f ( x) + lim g ( x)

x→a x→ a x→a
ii. lim[ f ( x) − g ( x)] = lim f ( x) − lim g ( x)

x→a x→a x→a
iii. lim[cf ( x)] = c lim f ( x)

x→a x→a
6
iv. lim[ f ( x) g ( x)] = lim f ( x) ⋅ lim g ( x)

x→a x→a x→a
f ( x) lim f ( x)
v. lim = x→a if lim g ( x) ≠ 0
x→a g ( x) lim g ( x) x→a
[ ]
x→a
vi. lim[ f ( x)] = lim f ( x)

n n
where n is a positive integer
x →a x →a
vii. lim c = c
x→ a
viii. lim x = a
x→ a
ix. lim x n = a n where n is a positive integer

x→a
x. lim n x = n a where n is a positive integer

x→a
xi. lim n f ( x) = n lim f ( x) where n is a positive integer

x→ a x →a
Example 6: Example 7:
x2 −1 (3 + h) 2 − 9
Find lim Evaluate lim
x →1 x − 1 h→0 h
Solution: Solution:
x2 −1 ( x − 1)( x + 1) (3 + h) 2 − 9 9 + 6h + h 2 − 9
lim = lim lim = lim
x →1 x − 1 x →1 x −1 h →0 h h→0 h
= lim( x + 1) = 1 + 1
x →1
6h + h 2 h (6 + h )
=2 = lim = lim = lim(6 + h)
h →0 h h→ 0 h h →0
=6
2.5 Derivatives
In this chapter we study a special type of limit, called a derivative that occurs when we
want to find the slope of a tangent line or a velocity, or any instantaneous rate of change.
Derivatives and rate of change

The problem of finding the tangent line to a curve and the problem of finding the
velocity of an object involve finding the same type of limit, which we call a derivative.
The tangent problem

i) tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve.
7
Example 8:
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2 at the point P(1,1).
Definition
The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P(a, f (a)) is the line through P with
slope
f ( x) − f (a)
m = lim
x→a x−a
Provided that this limit exists
Definition
The derivative of a function f at a, denoted by f ′(a ) is
f ( a + h) − f ( a )
f ′(a ) = lim
h →0 h
8
if this limit exists. This is called derivative by using first principle.
Example 8:
If f ( x) = x , find the derivative of f by using first principle.
Example 9:
1− x
Find the derivative of f ( x) = by using first principle.
2+ x
dy d
Remark: Other notation f ' ( x) = y ′ = = f ( x)
dx dx
9
Basic differentiation:
d
i. (c) = 0 , where c is constant
dx
d n
ii. ( x ) = nx n −1 , where n is positive integer
dx
iii.
d
[cf ( x)] = c d f ( x)
dx dx
iv.
d
[ f ( x ) + g ( x )] = d f ( x ) + d g ( x )
dx dx dx
v.
d
[ f ( x ) − g ( x )] = d f ( x ) − d g ( x )
dx dx dx
d d d
vi. [ f ( x) g ( x)] = f ( x) g ( x) + g ( x) f ( x) Product rule
dx dx dx
d d
g ( x) f ( x) − f ( x) g ( x)
d  f ( x)  dx dx
vii. = Quotient rule
dx  g ( x)  [g ( x ) ]2
d
viii. sin x = cos x
dx
d
ix. cos x = − sin x
dx
d
x. tan x = sec 2 x
dx
d
xi. csc x = − csc x cot x
dx
d
xii. sec x = sec x tan x
dx
d
xiii. cot x = − csc 2 x
dx
dy dy du
xiv. =
dx du dx
xv.
dy
[g ( x)]n = n[g ( x)]n−1 .g ′( x)
dx
xvi.
dy
[ln( g ( x))] = g ′( x) g ( x)
dx
xvii. e f ( x ) = e f ( x ) . f ' ( x )
dy
dx
10
Example 10:
Differentiate
Solution:
11
12
Example 11
Find
Solution:
2.6 Implicit Differentatition
Example 12:
dy
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 25, find
dx
(b) Find an equation of the tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 25, at the point (3, 4)
Solution:
a)
13
Example 13:
(a) Find y ' if x 3 + y 3 = 6 xy
(b) Find the tangent to the x 3 + y 3 = 6 xy at the point (3,3)
Solution:
a)
d 3
dx
(
x + y3 = )
d
dx
(6 xy )
At point (3, 3)
b) Tangent equation is
14
Example 14:
Find y ' if sin( x + y ) = y 2 cos x
d
[sin(x + y )] = d (y 2 cos x )
dx dx
Collect the term involve y ' , we get
Example 15:
Find y ′′ if x 4 + y 4 = 16
Differentiating the equation implicitly with respect to x, we get
Differentiate the equation again using the Quotient Rule
15
2.7 Rate of Change
Example 16:
Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon so that its volume increases at a rate of
100cm3/s. How fast is the radius of the balloon increasing when the diameter is 50cm?
Solution:
Let V be the volume of the balloon and r be radius
4 3
Volume for sphere, V = πr
3
dV
Then, = 4πr 2
dr
Apply Chain rule :
Example 17:
A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides away
from the wall at a rate of 1ft/s , how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall
when the bottom of the ladder is 6ft from the wall?
16
Solution:
dy
Based on the question, when x = 6, =?
dt
dx
Given : = 1 ft/t
dt
Apply Pythagorean Theorem:
------------(1)
When x = 6 , then y = 8 (based on the equation 1),
2.8 Maximum and Minimum Values
Definition
A function f has an absolute maximum (or global maximum) at c if f (c) ≥ f ( x) for
all x in D, where D is the domain of f . The number f (c) is called the maximum value of
f on D. Similarly, f has an absolute minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in D and the
number f (c) is called the minimum value of f on D. The maximum and minimum values
of f are called extreme values of f.
Minimum value f (a) and Maximum value f (d)
17
Definition
A function f has a local maximum (or relative maximum) at c if f (c) ≥ f ( x) when x
near c. This means that f (c) ≥ f ( x) for all x in some open interval containing c.
Similarly, f has a local minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f ( x) when x is near c.
Example 18:
Obtain all extreme values of f ( x) = 3 x 4 − 16 x 3 + 18 x 2 − 1 ≤ x ≤ 4 .
Figure show :
f (1) = 5 Local maximum

f (−1) = 37 Absolute maximum (Global maximum)
f ( 0) = 0 Local minimum
f (3) = −27 Absolute minimum
Definition
A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that either
f ′(c) = 0 or f ′(c) does not exist.
Example 19:
Find the critical numbers of f ( x) = x 3 / 5 (4 − x)
Ans: 0, 3/2
Solution:
Let f ' ( x) = 0 , then x = 3/2. At x = 0, f ' ( x) does not exist because it is not defined.
Thus, the critical numbers are 3/2 and 0
18
Theorem
If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c is a critical number of f where
f ' ( x) = 0 .
Increasing and decreasing test

i. if f ′(x) > 0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval
ii. if f ′(x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval
The first derivative test

Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous function f.
i. If f ′ changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c.
(Graph a)
ii. If f ′ changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c.
(Graph b)
iii. If f ′ does not changes sign at c, that is f ′ is positive/negative on both side of c,
then f has no local maximum or minimum at c. (Graph c and d)
Definition:
If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents on an interval I, then it is called concave
upward on I. If the graph of f lies below all of its tangents on I, it is called concave
downward on I.
19
Definition:
A point P on a curve y = f (x) is called an inflection point if f is continuous there and the
curve changes from concave upward to concave downward or from concave downward
to concave upward at P.
Concavity test
i. If f ′′(x) > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.
ii. If f ′′(x) < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.
The second Derivative test

Suppose f ′′ is continuous near c.
i. If f ′(c) = 0 and f ′′(c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c.
ii. If f ′(c) = 0 and f ′′(c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.
iii. If f ′′(c) = 0, then f has an inflection point at c.
Example 20:
Obtain all extreme points of y = x4 – 4x3.
20
At critical point,
f ' ( x) = 0
4 x 2 ( x − 3) = 0
x = 0, x = 3
When x = 0, f '' (0) = 0

When x = 3, f '' (3) = 36 > 0
At x = 3, f (3) = −27
Since f '' (3) > 0 , this shows that there is minimum point at x = 3. The extreme
minimum point is (3,-27).
To find all the inflection points, f '' ( x ) = 0

f '' ( x ) = 12 x( x − 2 ) = 0
Then, x = 0 or x = 2
At x = 0, f (0) = 0
At x = 2, f (2) = −16
Therefore, point (0,0) and (2, -16) are inflection points.
Concavity Test:
2.9 Optimization problems
Example 21:
A farmer has 2400 ft of fencing and wants to fence off a rectangular field that borders a
straight river. He needs no fence along the river. What are the dimensions of the field
that has the largest area?
21
Solution:
Differential the area
(maximum)
x = 600 and y = 1200
Since A" ( x ) < 0 , then A is maximum.
22
2.10 Integrals
Properties of the Definite integral
b b b
i)  [ f ( x) + g ( x)]dx =  f ( x)dx +  g ( x)dx
a a a
b b
ii)  cf ( x)dx = c  f ( x)dx ,
a a
where c is a constant value
b b b
iii)  [ f ( x) − g ( x)]dx =  f ( x)dx −  g ( x)dx
a a a
Other common form of integrals:
Note:
Based on formula 2 (a) and 2(c), they can be written in these simple forms.
23
[ f ( x )]
n +1
 [ f (x )] dx = f (x )
n 1
. +c
'
n +1
f (x) 1
e dx = .e f ( x ) + c
f (x )
'
Example 22:
(a)
(b)
 sinh( 3 − 4 x ) dx =
 (2 x − 7) dx =
3
(c)
(d)
3 dx =
5x
2x + 3 d ( x 2 + 3 x − 5)
  x 2 + 3 x − 5 dx = ln ( x + 3 x − 5 ) + C
(e)
dx = 2
x2 + 3x − 5
(f) ta n 2 x
 ta n x s e c xdx =  ta n x d ( ta n x ) d x = +C
2
2
2.11 Methods of Integration
Technique 1: Integration by parts
Let f (x) and g (x) be differentiable functions. Let G (x) be an antiderivative of

g (x) that is, G ( x) =  g ( x)dx . Then f (x) g (x) is integrable and
 f ( x) g ( x)dx = f ( x)G ( x) −  G ( x) f ' ( x)dx
Furthermore, if we let u= f ( x) and v = G ( x) , then
 udv = uv −  vdu
Notes: Choose u for the function which is easy to be differentiated.
Choose dv for the function which is easy to be integrated.
Example 23:
Solution:
We let u = x and dv = e x dx
24
Example 24:
Evaluate
Method 1:
Method 2:
25
Technique 2: Integration by substitution
Example 25:
Technique 3: Integrating Rational Function by Partial Fraction
For a rational function, which is ratio of two polynomials, we can decompose the
proper function into a sum of a simple rational function.
f ( x)
If the degree of f(x) is less than the degree of g(x), then is a proper fraction.
g ( x)
26
f ( x)
If the degree of f(x) is greater than or equal to the degree of g(x), then is
g ( x)
5 x − 10 2 3
improper fraction. For example can be decomposed into + .
x − 3x − 4
2
x − 4 x +1
Hence to integrate the function, we just simply integrate the decomposed function.
5 x − 10 2 3
 x 2 − 3x − 4 dx =  x − 4 dx +  x + 1 dx
= 2 ln x − 4 + 3 ln x + 1 + c
Note: Given any proper rational function p ( x) / Q ( x) , to decompose it into partial

fraction, the denominator need to be completely factor into linear and irreducible
quadratic factor.
Case 1:
If the factors for denominator Q(x) are all linear, then the proper fraction p ( x) / Q ( x) can
be decomposed using the following rule:
Linear Factor Rule:

For each factor of the form (ax+b)m, the partial fraction decomposed contains the
following sum of m partial fractions:
A B M
+ +K+ where A,… M are constant
ax + b (ax + b) 2
(ax + b) m
Example 26:
1
 x 2 − 4 dx
Solution:
27
Case 2:
If some of the factor Q(x) are irreducible quadratics, then the contribution of those
factors to the partial fraction decomposition contains:
A1 x + B Am x + B
+K+ where A1… Am are constant
ax + bx + c
2
(ax + bx + c) m
2
Example 27:
Solve
Solution:
28
Case 3: Improper fraction
Example 28:
x2 + x −1
Evaluate  dx (Improper fraction)
x
x2 + x −1  1
 x dx =   x + 1 − x dx
x2
= + x − ln x + c
2
2.12 Taylor and Maclaurin series
∞
f ( n ) (a)
f ( x) =  ( x − a) n
n =0 n!
f ′(a ) f ′′(a ) f ′′′(a )
f ( x) = f ( a ) + ( x − a) + ( x − a) 2 + ( x − a ) 3 + .......
1 2! 3!
Above equation called the Taylor series of the function f at a.
Maclaurin series (Special case, a = 0)

then
f ′(0) f ′′(0) 2 f ′′′(0) 3

f ( x ) = f ( 0) + x+ x + x + .......
1 2! 3!
Example 29:
Find the Maclaurin series of the function f (x) = e x .
f ′( x) = e x f ′(0) = 1
f ′′( x) = e x f ′′(0) = 1
f ′′′( x) = e x f ′′′( x) = 1
f ′′′′( x) = e x f ′′′′( x) = 1
f ′(0) f ′′(0) 2 f ′′′(0) 3

f ( x ) = e x ≈ f ( 0) + x+ x + x + .......
1 2! 3!
1 1
= 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + .......
2 6
29
Example 30:
Find the Taylor series for f (x) = ex at a = 2.
f ′( x) = e x f ′(2) = e 2
f ′′( x) = e x f ′′(2) = e 2
f ′′′( x) = e x f ′′′(2) = e 2
f ′′′′( x) = e x f ′′′′(2) = e 2
f ′(2) ′′ ′′′
f ( x ) = e x ≈ f ( 2) + (x − 2) + f (2) (x − 2)2 + f (2) (x − 2 )3 + .......
1 2! 3!
2 2
= e 2 + e 2 ( x − 2 ) + ( x − 2 ) + ( x − 2 ) + .......
e 2 e 3
2 6
30

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UGCM1653/UCCM1653 Mathematics for Engineering I

Function and Limits

2.1 Function and their representations

2.2 Piecewise Function

i. If a function f satisfies f (− x) = f ( x) for every number x in its domain, then f is

2.4 The limit of a function

Another way of expressing lim f ( x) = L is

Definition (One sided limits) – from left: (Left Limit)

Definition (One sided limits) – from right: (Right Limit)

lim f ( x) = L if and only if lim f ( x) = L and lim+ f ( x) = L

Suppose that c is a constant and the limits

lim f ( x) and lim g ( x)

i. lim[ f ( x) + g ( x)] = lim f ( x) + lim g ( x)

ii. lim[ f ( x) − g ( x)] = lim f ( x) − lim g ( x)

iii. lim[cf ( x)] = c lim f ( x)

iv. lim[ f ( x) g ( x)] = lim f ( x) ⋅ lim g ( x)

vi. lim[ f ( x)] = lim f ( x)

ix. lim x n = a n where n is a positive integer

x. lim n x = n a where n is a positive integer

xi. lim n f ( x) = n lim f ( x) where n is a positive integer

Derivatives and rate of change

The tangent problem

if this limit exists. This is called derivative by using first principle.

2.6 Implicit Differentatition

Collect the term involve y ' , we get

Differentiating the equation implicitly with respect to x, we get

Differentiate the equation again using the Quotient Rule

2.7 Rate of Change

Apply Pythagorean Theorem:

When x = 6 , then y = 8 (based on the equation 1),

2.8 Maximum and Minimum Values

Minimum value f (a) and Maximum value f (d)

f (1) = 5 Local maximum

Increasing and decreasing test

The first derivative test

The second Derivative test

When x = 0, f '' (0) = 0

To find all the inflection points, f '' ( x ) = 0

2.9 Optimization problems

Differential the area

x = 600 and y = 1200

Since A" ( x ) < 0 , then A is maximum.

Properties of the Definite integral

Other common form of integrals:

Technique 1: Integration by parts

Let f (x) and g (x) be differentiable functions. Let G (x) be an antiderivative of

 f ( x) g ( x)dx = f ( x)G ( x) −  G ( x) f ' ( x)dx

Furthermore, if we let u= f ( x) and v = G ( x) , then

Technique 2: Integration by substitution

Technique 3: Integrating Rational Function by Partial Fraction

Note: Given any proper rational function p ( x) / Q ( x) , to decompose it into partial

Linear Factor Rule:

Case 3: Improper fraction

2.12 Taylor and Maclaurin series

Above equation called the Taylor series of the function f at a.

Maclaurin series (Special case, a = 0)

f ′(0) f ′′(0) 2 f ′′′(0) 3

f ′(0) f ′′(0) 2 f ′′′(0) 3

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