Thermal Engineering Lectures1

‫سم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬
HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Thermal Engineering, ME 231
Prof. Dr. Hesham Mostafa
1-Introduction
Course syllabus from internal regulation:
Application of thermodynamics and heat transfer to power stations,
combustion engines, industrial plants. Emphasis is given to energy planning
and economic utilization. Cogeneration of energy in industrial systems is
needed.
References:
1) P.K.Nag , “Power Plant Engineering”, McGraw Hill, 2008.
2) M.M.El-Wakil , “Power Plant Technology”, McGraw Hill, 2015.
3) R.S.Khurmi and J.K. Jupta, A Text book of “Thermal Engineering”,1998.
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Prof. Dr. Hesham Mostafa, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Thermal Engineering, ME231, Jan 2018. Page 1
Carnot cycle
2 3
T2
T1
1 4
Carnot efficiency:
ηc= 1- (T1 /T2 )
where : T1=Minimum temperature, K

T2=Maximum temperature, K
State parameters:
1. Pressure; Pa( N/m2 ).
2. Temperature; (K).
3. Specific volume; (m3/kg).
4. Internal energy; (J/kg).
5. Enthalpy; (J/kg).
6. Entropy; (J/kg.K).
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Entropy (s); It means transformation.

It measures the disorder of the molecules.
The entropy of a substance is zero at absolute zero temperature.
Change of entropy (ds);

Heat supplied or rejected (dQ)
ds =
Absolute temperature (T)
dQ
ds =
T
Simple Rankine cycle
Simple Rankine cycle Processes:
1→ 2 : isentropic expansion for steam in turbine.
2→ 3 : heat reject in condenser.
3→ 4 : isentropic compression for water in pump.
4→ 1 : heat added in boiler.
.
WT = m st (h1 –h2 ) , wT = (h1 –h2 )
. 1
Wp = m st (h4- h3 ) = , wp =(h4 –h3 ) = υ ΔP = 𝛥𝑃 ≅ 0.1 (ΔP in bar)
𝜌
.
Qadd = m st (h1- h4) , qadd= (h1 –h4 )
.
Qrej= m st (h2- h3) , q rej = (h2 –h3 )
Wnet
ηth = %
Q𝑎𝑑𝑑
Where;
.
m st = mass flow rate of steam, kg/s
h1 = Specific enthalpy of steam inlet to turbine, kJ/kg.
h2 = Specific enthalpy of steam inlet to condenser, kJ/kg.
h3 = Specific enthalpy of steam inlet to pump, kJ/kg.
h4 = Specific enthalpy of steam inlet to boiler, kJ/kg.
Qadd = Heat added, kW
Qrej = Heat reject, kW
WT = Turbine power, kW.
WP = Pump power, kW.
wT = Specific work for turbine , kJ/kg.
wP = Specific work for pump , kJ/kg.
ηth = Thermal efficiency, %.
Methods of feed water treatments
Water used in boiler must be free from various impurities. The different
treatments to remove the various impurities are as follow;
1. Mechanical treatment:
Rankine cycle with modifications

1) Superheat:
Superheat has an additional benefit; it results in drier steam at turbine exhaust.
This means that; turbine operation with less moisture leads to more efficient
and less prone to blade damage.
WT=𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ (h1-h2) = [KW] (work done by turbine)

Qadd=𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ (h1-h4) = [ KW] (heat added to feed water in boiler )
Wp= 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ (h4-h3) = [ KW] (pump work)
Wnet=WT - WP = [KW]
Qrej= 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h2- h3) = [KW]
Reheat :
Superheated steam expanded part of the way in a high pressure turbine,

after which it is returned back to the boiler to reheat at a constant
pressure to the same maximum temperature or near it. The reheated
steam expands in low pressure turbine to the condenser pressure.
Reheat results in drier steam at turbine exhaust, which is beneficial for
real cycle. It is found that, the efficiency is improved (by about 3%) if
the reheat pressure was about 20%- 25% of the maximum pressure.
wt= (h1 - h2)+ (h3 - h4) = [KJ/kg]

WT=𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ wt = 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (h1 - h2)+ 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h3 - h4) = [KW]
qadd= (h1-h6) + (h3 – h2 ) = [KJ/kg]

Qadd=𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (h3 – h2 ) = [KW]
̇ qadd = 𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑡 (h1-h6) + 𝑚𝑠𝑡
Wp= 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h6-h5) = [KW]
Wnet=WT-WP
̇ (h4 – h5 )
Qrej= 𝑚𝑠𝑡 = [KW]
2) Regeneration:
The irreversibility can be eliminated if the feed water to the boiler at saturation
temperature which corresponding to boiler pressure. Turbine work is decreases
and small increase in efficiency was obtained.
There are three types of feed water heaters;

1- Open or direct contact type.
2- Closed type with drains pumped forward.
3- Closed type with drains cascaded backward.
a-Rankine cycle with open or direct contact type (OFWH)
1-y
wt= (h1-h4) + (1-y) ( h4 - h2) = [KJ/kg]

WT= 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (h1 – h4)+ 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ wt = 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (1-y) (h4 – h2) = [KW]
qadd= (h1-h7) = [KJ/kg]

Qadd=𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ qadd = 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h1-h7) = [KW]
Wp= 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ wp = 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ [(1-y) (h6 - h3)+ (h7 - h5)] = [KW]

Wnet=WT-WP = [KW]
Qrej= 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y) (h2-h3) = [KW]
WHERE : y= Fraction of the steam extracted to OFWH
Heat balance for OFWH
h5 = h6 (1-y) + y h4
NOTE :
The open feed water heater can be added with the reheating cycle
h-s diagram for Rankine cycle

with
Reheat
+
OFWH
.
From h-s diagram
wt= (h1 – h2) + (h3 -h7) +(1-y) (h7 – h4)

WT=𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ wt = 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (h1 – h2)+ 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (1-y) (h7 – h4)
̇ (h3 -h7) + 𝑚𝑠𝑡
qadd= (h1-h9) + (h3 – h2) = [KJ/kg]

QAdd= 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (h3 – h2) = [KW]
̇ (h1-h9) + 𝑚𝑠𝑡
wp=(1-y) (h6-h5)+ (h9-h8) = [KJ/kg]

WP = 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ wp = 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ (1-y) (h6-h5)+ 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h9-h8) = [KW]
Qrej= 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y) (h4-h5) = [KW]
b-Closed type with drains pumped forward.
y
y
1-y 1-y
wt= (h1 – h2) +(1-y) (h2 – h3) = [KJ/kg]

WT= 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ 𝑤𝑡 = 𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑡 (h1 – h2)+ 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y) (h2 – h3) = [KW]

QAdd= 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ qadd = 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h1-h9) = [KW]
̇ (1-y) (h5 – h4) + 𝑚𝑠𝑡

WP= 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ y (h8 – h6) = [KW]
Qrej = (1-y) (h3-h4) = [ kJ/kg]

Qrej= 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ (1-y) (h3-h4) = [KW]
WHERE :
y= Fraction of the steam taken to CFWH
NOTE : h9= y h8 +(1-y) h7 y h8
h9 (1-y) h7
TTD = Terminal Temperature Difference.
TTD = Sat. Temp. of bleeding steam – Exit feed water temperature
TTD: is the difference in Temp. between the outlet of hot and cold fluid in heat
exchanger , and since CFWH is considered heat exchanger between the
extracted steam and feed water .
ΔT2=TTD = T6 - T7 T7=T6 - TTD
h7 = h6 – Cp *TTD = Cp (T6 – TTD)

TTD is about 2°C OR 3°C
Heat balance for CFWH

(1-y) (h7 – h5 ) = y (h2 - h6 )
NOTE:
The closed feed water heater can be also added with the reheating cycle .
h-s diagram for Rankine cycle
with
Reheat
+
CFWH
From h-s diagram

wt= (h1 – h2) + (h3 -h7) +(1-y) (h7 – h4)
WT=𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ wt = 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (h1 – h2)+ 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (1-y) (h7 – h4)
̇ (h3 -h7) + 𝑚𝑠𝑡
qadd= (h1-h11) + (h3 – h2) = [KJ/kg]

Qadd= 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (h3 – h2) = [KW]
̇ (h1-h11) + 𝑚𝑠𝑡
wp=(1-y) (h6-h5)+ (h10-h8) = [KJ/kg]

Wp = 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ wp = 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ (1-y) (h6-h5)+ 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h10-h8) = [KW]
Qrej= 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ qrej = 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y) (h4-h5) = [KW]
NOTE : h11= y h10 +(1-y) h9
y h10
h11 (1-y) h9
ΔT2=TTD = T8 - T9 T9=T8 - TTD
h9 = h8 – Cp *TTD = Cp (T9 – TTD)
c-Closed type with drains cascaded backward
wt= (h1 – h2) +(1-y) (h2 – h3) = [KJ/kg]

WT= 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ 𝑤𝑡 = 𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑡 (h1 – h2)+ 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y) (h2 – h3) = [KW]

QAdd= 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ qadd = 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h1-h6) = [KW]
wp= (h5 - h4) = [KJ/kg]

WP= 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ (h5 – h4) = [KW]
qrej= (1-y) (h3-h4) + y (h8-h4) = [KJ/kg]

= (1-y) (h3-h8) + (h8 - h4) = [KJ/kg]
Qrej = 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ qrej = [KW]
= 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y) (h3-h4) +𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ y (h8-h4) = [KW]
=𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (1-y) (h3-h8) + 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ (h8 - h4) = [KW]
WHERE : y= Fraction of the steam taken to CFWH
y (h2-h7) = h6 - h5
TTD : difference between both outlet of CFWH

T7=T6 – TTD T6=T7 – TTD
h6 = Cp T6 = h7- Cp TTD
RANKINE CYCLE with (super heater + reheater + OFWH + CFWH)
h-s diagram for Reheat

+
OFWH
+
CFWH
From h-s diagram :
wt= (h1-h2) + (h3-h4)+(1-y1)(h4-h5) + (1-y1-y2) (h5-h6) = [kJ/kg]
WT = 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ wt
= 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (h1-h2) +𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h3-h4)+ 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y1)(h4-h5) + 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y1-y2) (h5-h6)= [KW]
qadd= (h1-h14) +(h3-h2) = [kJ/kg]

QAdd = 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ qadd =𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ (h1-h14) +𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h3-h2) = [KW]
wp= (1-y1-y2) (h8-h7) + (1-y1)(h10-h9) + y1 (h13-h11) = [KJ/kg]

or
wp= (1-y1-y2) (0.1ΔP8,7) + (1-y1) (0.1ΔP10,9) + y1 (0.1ΔP13,11) = [KJ/kg]
WP= 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ wp = [KW]
qrej= (1-y1-y2) (h6-h7) = [kJ/kg]

Qrej= 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ (1-y1-y2) (h6-h7) = [KW]
TTD : difference between both outlet of CFWH

T11=T12 – TTD T12=T11 – TTD
h12 = Cp T12 = h11 - Cp TTD
NOTE : h14= y1 h13 +(1-y1) h12

(1-y1) (h12-h10) = y1 (h4-h11)
Or
y1 h4 + (1-y)h10 = (1-y) h12 + y h11
(1-y1-y2) h8 + y2 h5 = (1-y1) h9
Example (1.1):
For the Rankine cycle steam at 50 bar expands in steam turbine. Condenser
pressure, 0.1 bar.
Calculate Wnet &ηth for case (6). Also, find the amount of mass flow rate of
cooling water in condenser if temperature rise in cooling water was 10 oC and
steam flow rate was 100 Ton/hr. You can Fill the following table
Case WT, WP, Wnet, qadd, ηth,

no. kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg %
1 Simple cycle.
2 Superheat to 350 oC.
3 •Superheat to 350 oC.
•Expands up to saturation line.
•Reheat to to 350 oC.
•Bleeding steam to OFWH @ 1
bar
•Bleeding steam to CFWH @ 2
bar
•Bleeding steam to OFWH @ 1
bar
•Bleeding steam to CFWH @ 2
bar
Solution
General givens:
Pst = 50 bar Pcon= 0.1 bar ΔTcon=10oC ̇ =100 ton/hr = 100

𝑚𝑠𝑡 3.6
𝐾𝑔/𝑠
Find:
Wnet & ηth for each case and fill the table above
1-simple case
from tables @ P=50 bar
h1=hg=2794 kJ/kg , s1=5.973 kJ/kg.k

mark point (1) at chart using pressure
line =50 bar intersect with saturation
vapor line .
from point (1) draw vertical line (s=c)

until intersect with P=0.1 bar line .
h2=1887 kJ/kg
h3=hf @ P=0.1 bar

h3=192 kJ/kg
h4= h3 + 0.1 ΔP
h4= 192+ 0.1 (50-0.1)=196.99 kJ/kg
WNET=WT - WP
WT= h1 - h2
WT= 2794-1887=907 kJ/kg
Wp=0.1*ΔP = 0.1(50-0.1)=4.99 kJ/kg
WNET=907 - 4.99= 902.01 kJ/kg
Qadd= h1 – h4
Qadd= 2794-196.99 =2597.01 kJ/kg
WNET
ηth =
Qadd
902.01
ηth = ∗ 100 = 34.73 %
2597.01
2-super heat to 350°C
From super heating sables using

p=50 bar and T=350°C to find (1)
h1= 3069.3 kJ/kg
s1= 6.451 kJ/kg.k
In chart draw vertical line (s=c) untill

intersect with P=0.1 bar line to find (2)
h2= 2042 kJ/kg
(also can be found from thermo dynamics
laws ) using sf , sg , hf and hg at P=0.1 bar
x= (s1 - sf)/(sg - sf)
h2= hf + x(hg - hf)
h3= hf @ P=0.1 bar

h3= hf= 192 kJ/kg
h4= h3 + 0.1 ΔP
h4= 192+ 0.1 (50-0.1)=196.99 kJ/kg
WT= h1 - h2
WT= 3069.3-2042=1027.3 kJ/kg
Wp=0.1*ΔP = 0.1(50-0.1)=4.99 kJ/kg
WNET=WT - WP
WNET=1027.3- 4.99= 1022.31 kJ/kg
Qadd= h1 – h4
Qadd= 3069.3-196.99 =2872.31 kJ/kg
WNET
ηth =
Qadd
1022.31
ηth = ∗ 100 = 35.59 %
2872.31
3-super heat to 350°C and expand to saturation line then reheat to 350°C
h1= 3069.3 kJ/kg (same as previous case )

point (2) can be obtained by drawing (s=c)
line up to sat. vapor line
h2=2790 kJ/kg
h3 draw line from point (2) parallel with

pressure lines untill intersect with temp. line
T= 350°C , so h3= 3153 kJ/kg
point (4) is obtained by drawing S=C line

untill intersect with P=0.1 bar
h4 = 2250 kJ/kg
h5 = hf @ P=0.1 bar =192 kJ/kg
h6= h5 + 0.1 ΔP
h6= 192+ 0.1 (50-0.1)=196.99 kJ/kg
WT= (h1 - h2) + (h3-h4)

WT= (3069.3-2790)+(3153-2250) =1182.3 kJ/kg
Wp=0.1*ΔP = 0.1(50-0.1)=4.99 kJ/kg
WNET=WT - WP
WNET=1182.3- 4.99= 1177.31 kJ/kg
Qadd=( h1 – h6)+(h3 - h2)

Qadd= (3069.3-196.99)+(3153-2790) =3235.31 kJ/kg
WNET
ηth =
Qadd
1177.31
ηth = ∗ 100 = 36.38 %
3235.31
4- case(3) + bleeding steam to OFWH @ 1bar
h1=3069.3 kJ/kg , h2=2790 kJ/kg
h3= 3153 kJ/kg , h4 = 2250 kJ/kg
h5 = hf @ P=0.1 bar =192 kJ/kg
h6= h5 + 0.1 ΔP1,0.1

h6= 192+ 0.1 (1-0.1)=192.09 kJ/kg
point (7) is obtained by drawing vertical

line (s=C) from (3) until intersect with
P=1 bar line to get (h7= 2585 kJ/kg )
h8= hf @ p=1 bar = 417 kJ/kg
h9= h8 + 0.1 ΔP50,1

h9= 417+ 0.1 (50-1)=421.9 kJ/kg
HEAT BALANCE FOR O.F.W.H

Y h7
h6 (1-y) +y h7 =h8
192.09*(1-y)+y*2585 =417 h8
y=0.094
(1-y) h6
WT= (h1 - h2) + (h3-h7)+(1-y)(h7-h4)
WT= (3069.3-2790)+(3153-2585)+(1-0.094)(2585-2250) =1150.81 kJ/kg
Wp=0.1*(1-y)ΔP1,0.1+0.1*ΔP50,1 or Wp= (h6-h5)(1-y)+(h9-h8)

= 0.1(1-.094)(1-0.1)+0.1(50-1) =4.98 kJ/kg
WNET=WT - WP
WNET=1150.81- 4.98= 1145.83 kJ/kg
Qadd=( h1 – h9)+(h3 - h2)

Qadd= (3069.3-421.9)+(3153-2790) =3010.4 kJ/kg
WNET 1145.83
ηth = = ∗ 100 = 38.06 %
Qadd 3010.4
5-case (3) + bleeding steam to CFWH @ P=2 bar
h1=3069.3 kJ/kg
h2=2790 kJ/kg
h3= 3153 kJ/kg
h4 = 2250 kJ/kg
h5 = hf @ P=0.1 bar =192 kJ/kg
h6= h5 + 0.1 ΔP50,0.1

h6= 192+ 0.1 (50-0.1)=196.99 kJ/kg
point (7) is obtained by drawing vertical

line (s=C) from (3) until intersect with
P=2 bar line to get (h7= 2702 kJ/kg )
h8= hf @ p=2 bar = 505 kJ/kg
h10= h8 + 0.1 ΔP50,2
h10= 505+ 0.1 (50-2)=509.8 kJ/kg
h9 = h8 – T.T.D * Cp T.T.D (Terminal temperature difference) = 3 or 2°C
= 505-3*4.2 =492.4 kJ/kg
HEAT BALANCE FOR C.F.W.H

Y h7
h6 (1-y) +y h7 = y h8 + (1-y) h9 (1-y) h9
196.99*(1-y)+y*2702 =505*y +(1-y)*492.4
(1-y) h6
y=0.1185 h8y
h11=(1-y)*h9+y*h10
=(1-.1185)*492.4+ 0.1185*509.8 = 494.46 kJ/kg

Y h10
h11 (1-y) h9
WT= (h1 - h2) + (h3-h7)+(1-y)(h7-h4)
WT= (3069.3-2790)+(3153-2702)+(1-0.1185)(2702-2250)
=1128.738 kJ/kg
Wp=0.1*(1-y)ΔP50,0.1+y*0.1*ΔP50,1 or Wp= (h6-h5)(1-y)+(h10-h8)*y

= 0.1(1-0.1185)(50-0.1)+0.1185*0.1(50-2) =4.96 kJ/kg
WNET=WT - WP
WNET=1128.738- 4.96= 1123.778 kJ/kg
Qadd=( h1 – h11)+(h3 - h2)

Qadd= (3069.3-494.46)+(3153-2790) =2937.84 kJ/kg
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
ηth =
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑
1123.738
= ∗ 100 = 38.25 %
2937.84
5-super heat to 350°C then expant to sat. line and super heat to 350°C
+ bleeding steam to OFWH and to CFWH @ 1 bar and 2 bar respectively
h1=3069.3 kJ/kg (chart)

h2=2790 kJ/kg (chart)
h3= 3153 kJ/kg (chart)
h4 = 2250 kJ/kg (chart)
h5 = hf @ P=0.1 bar =192 kJ/kg
h6= h5 + 0.1 ΔP1,0.1

h6= 192+ 0.1 (1-0.1)=192.09 kJ/kg

h9= hf @ p=1 bar = 417 kJ/kg
h10= hf @ p=2 bar = 505 kJ/kg
h11= h9 + 0.1 ΔP50,1

h11= 417+ 0.1 (50-1)=421.9 kJ/kg
h12 = h10 – T.T.D * Cp T.T.D (Terminal temperature difference) = 3 or 2°C
= 505 - 3*4.2 =492.4 kJ/kg
h13= h10 + 0.1 ΔP50,2

h13= 505+ 0.1 (50-2)=509.8 kJ/kg
HEAT BALANCE FOR C.F.W.H Y1 h7
h11 (1-y1) +y1 h7 = y1 h10 + (1-y1) h12 (1-y1) h12

421.9*(1-y1)+y1*2702 =505*y1 +(1-y1)*492.4
(1-y1) h11
y1=0.0311 h10 y1
HEAT BALANCE FOR O.F.W.H
Y2 h8
h6 (1-y1-y2) +y2 h8 =(1-y1) h9
192.09*(1-0.0311-y2)+y2*2585 =417 (1-0.0311)
y2=0.091
(1-y1-y2) h6
(1-y1) h9
h14= y1 h13 +(1-y1) h12
=(0.0311)*509.8+ (1-0.0311)*492.4
Y1 h13
= 492.94 kJ/kg
H14 (1-y1) h12
WT= (h1 - h2) + (h3-h7) + (1-y1)(h7-h8)+ (1-y1-y2)(h7-h4)

WT= (3069.3-2790)+(3153-2702)+(1-0.0311)(2702-2585)
+(1-0.0311-0.091)(2585 -2250)
=1136 kJ/kg
Wp=(1-y1-y2)*0.1 *ΔP1,0.1+(1-y1)*0.1*ΔP50,1+y1* 0.1 ΔP50,2

= (1-0.0311-0.096)*0.1*(1-0.1)+(1-0.0311)*0.1(50-1)+ 0.0311*0.1*(50-2)
= 4.975 kJ/kg
or Wp= (h6-h5) (1-y1-y2)+(h11-h9)(1-y1)+(h13-h10)(y1)
= (192.09-192)(1-0.0311-0.096)+(421.9-417)(1-0.0311)+0.0311(509.8-505)
= 4.975 kJ/kg
WNET=WT - WP
WNET=1136- 4.975= 1131 kJ/kg
Qadd=( h1 – h14)+(h3 - h2)

Qadd= (3069.3-492.94)+(3153-2790) =2939.36 kJ/kg
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
ηth =
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑
1131
= ∗ 100 = 38.478 %
2939.36
condenser
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 = 100 ton/hr

100∗1000
= = 27.778 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
3600
𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y1-y2) (h4-h5) =𝑚𝑐.𝑤
̇ cp ΔTc.w
27.778 (1-.0311-.096)(2250-192) =𝑚𝑐.𝑤

̇ *4.2*10
𝑚𝑐.𝑤
̇ =1188.11 kg/s = 4277.21 ton /hr
Fill the table with previous with values at each case
Case WT, kJ/kg WP, Wnet, qadd, ηth, %

no. kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg
1 Simple cycle. 907 4.99 902.01 2597.01 34.73
o
2 Superheat to 350 C. 1027.3 4.99 1022.31 2872.31 35.59
3 •Superheat to 350 oC. 1182.3 4.99 1177.31 3235.31 36.38
•Expands up to saturation
line.
4 •Superheat to 350 oC. 1150.81 4.98 1145.83 3010.4 38.06
line.
•Bleeding steam to OFWH
@ 1 bar
5 •Superheat to 350 oC. 1128.738 4.96 1123.778 2937.84 38.25
line.
•Bleeding steam to CFWH
@ 2 bar
6 •Superheat to 350 oC. 1136 4.975 1131 2939.36 38.478
line.
•Bleeding steam to OFWH
@ 1 bar
•Bleeding steam to CFWH
@ 2 bar
Example (1.2):
For the modified Rankine cycle 180 Ton/hr of steam at 100 bar, 400 oC expands in high
pressure turbine up to the saturation line. Then it is reheated to the same
maximum temperature and expanded in low pressure turbine up to condenser
pressure, 0.1 bar. Bleeding steam at 2.5 bar & 1 bar to closed feed water heater
and open feed water heater respectively. Isentropic efficiency for turbine is
90%. Draw schematic diagram and h-s diagram.
Also Find thermal efficiency ,WT, Qadd , WNET
Solution
Givens :
180∗1000
𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ = 180 ton/hr = = 50 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
3600
Pst=100 bar , Tst=400 °C
Pcond=0.1 bar
PCFWH=2.5 bar ; POFWH= 1 bar
ηisen= 90%
From steam super heat tables

@ Pst=100 bar , Tst=400 °C
h1=3097 kJ/kg
h7= hf @ 0.1 bar = 192 kJ/kg (tables)
h8= h7+ΔP1,0.1 = 192 + 0.1 (1-0.1) = 192.09 kJ/kg
h9= hf @ 1 bar = 417 kJ/kg (tables )
h10= h9 + ΔP100,1=417 + 0.1(100-1) = 426.9 kJ/kg
h11 = hf @ 2.5 bar = 535 kJ/kg ; T12 = Tsat =127.4°C (tables)
T12 = T11 – TTD = 127.4 – 3 =124.4 °C
h12 = CP*T12 = 4.2 *124.4 =522.48 kJ/kg
or
h12= h11 – CP *TTD = 535 – 3*4.2 = 522.4 kJ/kg
h13= h11+0.1 ΔP1,0.1 = 535+ 0.1(100-2.5) =544.75 kJ/kg
NOTE : h14= y1 h13 +(1-y1) h12

(1-y1) (h12-h10) = y1 (h4-h11)
(1-y1) (522.48-426.9) = y1 (2680-535)
y1=0.0426
(1-y1-y2) h8 + y2 h5 = (1-y1) h9
(1-0.0426 -y2) 192.09 + 2532*y2= (1-0.0426) 417
y2= 0.092
h14= y1 h13 +(1-y1) h12

h14= 0.426 *544.75 +(1-0.0426)*522.48
=523.4 KJ /kg
wt,isen= (h1-h2) + (h3-h4)+(1-y1)(h4-h5) + (1-y1-y2) (h5-h6)

(3097-2803)+(3235-2680)+(1-0.0426)(2680-2532)
+ (1-0.0426-0.092)(2532-2210)
wt,isen = 1269.354 KJ /kg
wt = ηisen *wt,isen = 0.9*1269.354 =1142.4186 KJ /kg
qadd= (h1-h14) +(h3-h2)

(3097-523.4) + (3235-2803) = 3005.6 kJ/kg
wp= (1-y1-y2) (h8-h7) + (1-y1)(h10-h9) + y1 (h13-h11)

=(1-0.0426-0.092) (192.09-192) + (1-0.0426)(426.9-417)
+ 0.0426 (544.75- 535) = 9.971 KJ /kg
or
wp= (1-y1-y2) 0.1(ΔP8,7) + (1-y1) 0.1(ΔP10,9) + y1 0.1(ΔP13,11)
=(1-0.0426-0.092)* 0.1*(1-0.1) + (1-0.0426)*0.1*(100-1)
+ 0.0426 *0.1*(100-2.5) = 9.971 KJ /k
wnet =wt - wp
= 1142.4186 -9.971 = 1132.4476 KJ /kg
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑞𝑎𝑑𝑑
1132.4476
𝜂𝑡ℎ = *100% = 37.677%
3005.6
WT = 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ wt
= 50 * 1142.4 186 = 57120.93 KW
WP= 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ wp = [KW]
= 50 *9.971 = 498.55 KW
WNET =WT – WP
=57120.93-498.55 = 56622.38 KW
QAdd = 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ qadd = 50*3005.6 = 150280 KW
Drawing the major components of steam power plant.
• Steam generator (boiler).

• Steam turbine.
• Steam condenser plant .
• Circulating pump.
• Accessories;
Feed water heaters [closed and open (like deaerator) ]
Cooling Tower.
2-steam condenser plant
Pg Pabs
Atm
Patm Pvac
Pabs
Absolute datum
Pg : gauge pressure
Pc = Psteam + Pair
Psteam : steam partial pressure Pabs : absolute pressure
Pair : air partial pressure Pvac : vaccum pressure
Pc : condenser pressure Patm = atmospheric pressure
Pabs = Patm + Pg
Vaccum efficiency Pabs = Patm - Pvac
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 −𝑃𝑐
Ƞvac =
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚− 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
Condenser efficiency
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑐𝑤𝑜 −𝑇𝑐𝑤𝑖
Ƞcond = =
𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑐𝑤𝑖
Where: Ts @ Pc
2-Steam condensers
a-Open or jet condenser
Heat balance
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 (𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 +𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 ) ho =𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 hst +𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 hc.w

hst
ho = Cp Tc
Tc = condensate temperature
𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤
hw
b-closed (surface) condenser
Equations :
Qcond = 𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 (hst – hcond.)

= 𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 CPw (Tc.w.o -Tc.w.i )
= U Am ΔTm
hcond = CPw Tcondensate

CPw = 4.2 kJ/kg.C
di
𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 = ρ u a N
Where ρ : water density [kg/m3]
u: water velocity inside tube [m/s] do
a: tube cross sectional area [m2]
𝜋
a= di2
4
N: number of tubes
Am = π dm L N M
𝑑𝑜 +𝑑𝑖
dm =
2
M: number of paths
ΔT1 −ΔT2
ΔTm = ΔT1
ln( )
ΔT2
ΔT1 = Tsat – Tc.w.i
ΔT2 = Tsat – Tc.w.o
Example (2.1):
a) Draw and mention the major components of steam condensing plant.
b) In a condenser test the following observations were taken:
Vacuum reading = 690 mm Hg. Barometric reading = 750 mm Hg.
o
Mean condenser temperature = 35 C. Hot well temperature = 29 oC.
Inlet cooling water temperature = 12 oC.
Outlet cooling water temperature = 22 oC.
Steam flow rate (m.st ) = 1250 kg/hr.
Find 1.) Vacuum efficiency. 2.) Condenser efficiency. 3) Mass of air per 1 m3
of condenser volume. 4.) Mass flow rate of cooling water if dryness fraction
(x) for inlet steam was 0.85
-----------------------------------------------
Example (2.2) :
Design a surface condenser from the following:
Steam pressure is 0.1 bar ; x=0.95
Steam flow rate 100 ton/hr
Inlet and outlet Cooling water temperatures are 8°C and 26°C respectively , the
overall heat transfer coefficient is 3.5 KW/m2 °C , cooling water velocity in
condenser tubes is 1.5 m/s . Condenser tube diameters are 30 mm and 34 mm.
Solution
Givens:
Pcond.=0.1 bar ; x=0.95
100∗1000
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 =100 ton/hr = kg/s
3600
Tc.w.i=8°C , Tc.w.o=26°C
U=3.5 KW/m2 °C
u =1.5 m/s
di=30 mm ; do=34 mm
Qcond = 𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 (hst – hcond.)

from tables @Pcond=0.1 bar
Tsat=45.8 °C ; hf = 192 KJ/kg ; hfg =2392 KJ/kg ,
hst = hf + x hfg
= 192 + 0.95 (2392) = 2464.4 KJ/kg
hcond.= 192 KJ/kg

100∗1000
Qcond = (2464.4 – 192) = 63122.22 KW
3600
Qcond = 𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 CPw (Tc.w.o -Tc.w.i )

63122.22 = 𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 *4.2 *(26 - 8)
𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 = 834.95 kg/s
𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 = ρ u a N =45.8 °C
𝜋
834.95= 1000 *1.5* (30*10-3)* N
4
N = 788 tube
ΔT1 −ΔT2
ΔTm = ΔT1
ln( )
ΔT2
ΔT1 = 45.8– 8 = 37.8 °C
ΔT2 = 45.8 – 26 = 19.8 °C
37.8−19.8
ΔTm = 37.8 = 27.83°C
ln( )
19.8
Qcond = U Am ΔTm
63122.22 = 3.5 * Am* 27.83
Am = 648 m2
Am = π dm L N M
0.03+0.034
648 = π * ( ) * L*788*1
2
L = 8.179 m
-----------------------------------------------------------
Example (2.3 ):
For the modified Rankine cycle 150 Ton/hr of steam at 60 bar, 350 oC expands
in high pressure turbine up to the saturation line. Then it is reheated to the
same maximum temperature and expanded in low high pressure turbine up to
condenser pressure, 0.08 bar. Bleeding steam at 2 bar to closed feed water
heater. Design a surface condenser (find condenser length and number of
tubes) if the overall heat transfer coefficient was 0.5 kW/m2 oC. Condenser
tube diameters are 28 mm and 32 mm. Cooling water velocity inside condenser
tube was 0.2 m/s. Inlet and outlet cooling water temperatures are 10 oC and 22
o
C respectively
Solution
Givens:
Pst=60 bat , Tst =350 °C
Pcond.=0.08 bar
150∗1000
3600
Tc.w.i=10°C , Tc.w.o=22°C
U=0.5 KW/m2 °C
u =0.2 m/s
di=28 mm ; do=32 mm
bleed steam @ 2 bar
since only Required is making

design for condenser
h4 = 2190 KJ/kg (chart)
h5 = hf @ 0.08 bar =174 KJ/kg
h6 = h5 + 0.1 ΔP60, 0.08

h6 = 174 + 0.1 ( 60 – 0.08 ) =180 KJ/kg
h7 = 2635 KJ/kg ( chart)

h8 =hf @ 2 bar = 505 KJ/kg
h9 = h8 - CP * TTD
h9 = 505 – 4.2*3 =492.4 KJ/kg

(1-y) ( h9 – h6 )= y (h7 – h8 )
(1 – y ) ( 492.4 – 180 ) = y ( 2635 – 505)
y= 0.1279
Qcond = 𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 (1-y) (h4 – h5)

150∗1000
= *(1-0.1279)* (2190 -174) = 73256.4 KW
3600
Qcond = 𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 CPw (Tc.w.o -Tc.w.i )
73256.4 = 𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 *4.2 *(22 - 10)
𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 = 1453.5 kg/s
𝑚̇𝑐.𝑤 = ρ u a N
𝜋
1453.5= 1000 *0.2* (28*10-3)* N =41.5°C
4
N = 11803 tube
ΔT1 −ΔT2
ΔTm = ΔT1
ln( )
ΔT2
ΔT1 = 41.5 -10 = 31.5 °C
ΔT2 = 41.5 – 22 = 19.5 °C
31.5−19.5
ΔTm = 31.5 = 25°C
ln( )
19.5
Qcond = U Am ΔTm
73256.4 = 0.5 * Am* 25
Am = 5860.512 m2
Am = π dm L N M
0.028+0.032
5860.512 = π * ( ) * L*11803*1
2
L = 5.26 m
-----------------------------------------------------------
Closed Feed Water Heaters
(𝑚̇𝑓𝑤 , hf.w.o , Tf.w.o)
(𝑚̇𝑏 , hst )
(𝑚̇𝑓𝑤 , hf.w.i , Tf.w.i )

(𝑚̇𝑏 , hw ,TW)
Equations :
Qcond = 𝑚̇𝑏 (hst – hw.)

= 𝑚̇𝑓.𝑤 CPw (Tf.w.o -Tf.w.i ) = 𝑚̇𝑓.𝑤 (hf.w.o -hf.w.i)
= U Am ΔTm
Where 𝑚̇𝑏 : Bleed steam flow rate [kg/s]
Tf.w.o= Tw – TTD
hf.w.o= hw – Cp TTD = CP Tf.w.o
TTD ≈ 2 or 3 °C di
𝑚̇𝑓𝑤 = ρ u a N
Where ρ : water density [kg/m3]
u: water velocity inside tube [m/s] do
a: tube cross sectional area [m2]
𝜋
a= di2
4
N: number of tubes
Am = π dm L N M
𝑑𝑜 +𝑑𝑖
dm =
2
M: number of paths
ΔT1 −ΔT2
ΔTm = ΔT1
ln( )
ΔT2
ΔT1 = Tsat – Tf.w.i
ΔT2 = Tsat – Tf.w.o = TTD
Example (2.4 ):
For the modified Rankine cycle 200 Ton/hr of steam at 90 bar, 400 oC expands
in high pressure turbine up to the saturation line. Then it is reheated to the
same maximum temperature and expanded in low pressure turbine up to
condenser pressure, 0.1 bar. Bleeding steam at 3 bar & 1 bar to closed feed
water heater and open feed water heater respectively.
Draw surface condenser in details, and Find mass flow rate of cooling water
for steam condenser if temperature rise in cooling water was 10 oC. Design a
closed feed water heater (find its length and number of tubes) if the overall
heat transfer coefficient was 500 W/m2 oC. Tube diameters are 20 mm and 24
mm. Water velocity inside (CFWH) tube was 0.25 m/s. Terminal Temperature
Difference was 3 oC. Number of passes =4.
Solution
Drawings can be found in lectures
Givens:
Pst=90 bar Tst =400 °C Pcond.=0.1 bar
200∗1000
3600
ΔTc.w=10°C U=500 W/m2 °C = 0.5 KW/m2 °C
u =0.25 m/s di=20 mm do=24 mm
bleed steam to CFWH @ 3 bar bleed steam to OFWH @ 1 bar
TTD=3°C M=4

h7 = hf @ 0.1 bar =192 KJ/kg

h8 = h7 + 0.1 ΔP1 ,0.08
h8 = 192 + 0.1 ( 1 – 0.1 ) =192.09 KJ/kg
h9 =hf @ 1 bar = 417 KJ/kg
h10 = h9 + 0.1 ΔP90 ,1

h10 = 417 + 0.1 ( 90 – 1 ) =425.9 KJ/kg
h11 = hf @ 3 bar = 561 KJ/kg
h12 = h11 - CP * TTD

h12 = 561 – 4.2*3 = 547.4 KJ/kg
h13 = h11 + 0.1 ΔP90 ,3

h13 = 561 + 0.1 ( 90 – 3 ) =469.7 KJ/kg
(1-y1) ( h12 – h10 )= y1 (h4 – h11 )
(1 – y1 ) ( 547.4 – 425.9 ) = y1 ( 2760 – 561)
y1= 0.0523

(1-y1-y2)h8 + y2 h5 = (1-y1) h9
( 1- 0.0523 - y2) 192.09 + y2 2575 = (1- 0.0523) 417
y2 = 0.0894
𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ CPw (ΔTcw )

̇ (1-y1-y2) (h6-h7 ) = 𝑚𝑐𝑤
200 ( 1- 0.0523 – 0.0894 )(2242 – 192) =𝑚𝑐𝑤
̇ *4.2*10
𝑚𝑐𝑤̇ = 8378.73 ton/hr = 2327.4 kg/s (cooling water flow rate)
QCFWH = 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ y1 (h4 – h11) = 𝑚𝑠𝑡

̇ (1-y1) (h12 – h10 )
200
= * 0.0523 (2760 – 561 ) =6389.31 KW
3.6
̇ (1-y1) = ρ u a N
𝑚𝑠𝑡
200 𝜋
( 1- 0.0523 ) = 1000 * 0.25* (0.02)2 * N
3.6 4
N=670 tube
QCFWH =U Am ΔTm =133.5

ΔT1 −ΔT2
ΔTm = ΔT1
°C
ln( )
ΔT2
ΔT1 = Tsat -T10
ℎ 425.9
T10 = 10 = = 101.4°C
𝐶𝑃 4.2
ΔT1 = 133.5 -101.4 = 32.1 °C
ΔT2 =T11 – T12 = TTD = 3°C
32.1−3
ΔTm = 32.1 = 12.27°C
ln( )
3
Qcond = U Am ΔTm
6389.31 = 0.5 * Am* 12.27
Am = 1041.45 m2
Am = π dm L N M
0.020+0.024
1041.45 = π * ( ) * L*670*4
2
L = 5.62 m
Deaerator
Feed water flow diagram :
Evaporators
Single stage evaporator
assume no losses
𝑚̇𝒔𝒕 (hst – ho) = 𝑚̇𝒘 (hg/p1 – hw) 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ 𝑚𝑤̇ ,hg
hst @ Pst and Xst
ho = hf @ Pst hst
P1
hg/p1 = hg @ P1
hw = CPw Twi Pst 𝑚𝑤
̇ ,hw
𝑚𝑠𝑡̇
ho
multi stage evaporator
First stage
𝑚̇𝒔𝒕 (hst – ho1) = 𝑚̇𝒘1 (hg/p1 – hi,1)
Second stage
𝑚̇𝑤1 (hg/P1 – ho2) = 𝑚̇𝑤2 (hg/P2 – hi,2)
ho1 = hf @ Pst (unless mention else )
hg/P1 = hg @ P1
ho2 = hf @P1 (unless mention else )
hg/P2 =hg@P2
h1 = CP Tw1
Note :
If mentioned Condensate subcooled temperature: the outlet temperature of the
condensed steam is lower than Tsat with given Tsub value i.e (To = Tsat – Tsub) .
Example (2.5 ):
A single stage evaporator receives heating steam at P =2 bar , x=0.95 and with
flow rate 1 kg/s . Inlet raw water at 1 bar , 20 °C .
Find amount of liberated (generated) vapour .
Solution
Givens:
Pst = 2 bar , Xst = 0.95
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 = 1 kg/s
P1= 1 bar , T1 = 20 °C
Find 𝑚̇𝒘 = ??
assume no losses
𝑚̇𝒔𝒕 (hst – ho) = 𝑚̇𝒘 (hg/p1 – hw)
From tables@ Pst = 2 bar , x=0.95

hf = 505 KJ/kg , hfg = 2202 KJ/kg
hst = hf + x hfg
= 505 + 0.95 *2202 = 2596.9 KJ/kg
ho = hf @2 bar = 505 KJ/kg
hg/p1 = hg @ 1 bar = 2675 KJ/kg
hw = CPw Twi
= 4.2* 20 =84 KJ/kg
1*( 2596.9 – 505 ) = 𝑚̇𝒘 (2675 – 84 )

𝑚̇𝒘 = 0.807 kg/s
-----------------------------------------
Example (2.6 ):
Calculate the make-up water (@ 25 oC ) required for a double effects
evaporator per hour. If heating steam flow rate was 100 kg/hr and its
conditions @ 2.5 bar, x=0.9. Water pressure inside first and second effects of
evaporator are 2 bar & 1.5 bar respectively. Condensate subcooled from first
and second effects of evaporator are 2 oC and 1 oC respectively.
Solution
Givens:
Pst = 2.5 bar , Xst = 0.9
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 = 100 kg/hr
P1= 2 bar ,P2 = 1.5 bar , T1 = 25 °C
Tsub1 = 2°C Tsub 2 = 1°C Twi = 25°C
Note :
Condensate subcooled temperature: means that the outlet temperature of the
condensed steam is lower than Tsat with given Tsub value i.e (To = Tsat – Tsub) .
Find 𝑚̇𝒘𝟏 = ??
𝑚̇𝒘𝟐 = ??
First stage : assume no losses

𝑚̇𝒔𝒕 (hst – ho1) = 𝑚̇𝑤1 (hg/p1 – hi)
From tables@ Pst = 2.5 bar , x=0.9

hf = 535 KJ/kg , hfg = 2182 KJ/kg , Tsat = 127.4 °C
hst = hf + x hfg
= 535 + 0.9 *2182 = 2498.8 KJ/kg
ho1 = CP To1
To1 = Tsat – Tsub1 = 127.4 -2 =125.4 °C
ho1 = 4.2 * 125.4= 526.68 KJ/kg
or
ho1 = hf – CP Tsub1 = 535- 4.2*2 = 526.6 KJ/kg
hg/p1 = hg @ 2 bar = 2707 KJ/kg
hi = CPw Twi
= 4.2* 25 =105 KJ/kg
100*( 2498.8 – 526.68 ) = 𝑚̇𝑤1 (2707 – 105 )

𝑚̇𝒘 = 75.79 kg/hr
Second stage : assume no losses

𝑚̇𝑤1 (hg/p1 – ho2) = 𝑚̇𝒘𝟐 (hg/p2 – hi)
hg/p1 = 2707 KJ/kg
ho2 = CP To2
@ p1 = 2 bar Tsat =120.2 °C , hf = 505 KJ/kg
To2 = Tsat – Tsub2 = 120.2 -1 =119.2 °C
ho1 = 4.2 * 119.2= 500.64 KJ/kg
or
ho2 = hf /P1 – CP Tsub1 = 505- 4.2*1 = 500.8 KJ/kg
hg/p2 = hg @ 1.5 bar = 2693 KJ/kg
hi = CPw Twi
= 4.2* 25 =105 KJ/kg
75.79*( 2707 – 500.64 ) = 𝑚̇𝑤2 (2693 – 105 )

𝑚̇𝒘𝟐 = 64.61 kg/hr
----------------------------------------------------------
Example (2.7 ):
Calculate the make-up water for a double stage effects evaporator per hour .
If heating steam @ 2.5 bar ; x=0.9 and flow rate was 400 kg/hr .
1st effect 2nd effect
Pressure 1.5 bar 1 bar
Temperature inlet 20°C 20°C
Condensate subcooled 3°C zero
Solution
Givens:
Pst = 2.5 bar , Xst = 0.9
P1= 1.5 bar ,P2 = 1 bar , Twi,1 =Twi,2 = 20 °C
Tsub1 = 3°C Tsub 2 = zero
Find 𝑚̇𝒘𝟏 = ??
𝑚̇𝒘𝟐 = ??
First stage : assume no losses

𝑚̇𝒔𝒕 (hst – ho1) = 𝑚̇𝑤1 (hg/p1 – hi,1)
From tables@ Pst = 2.5 bar , x=0.9

hf = 535 KJ/kg , hfg = 2182 KJ/kg , Tsat = 127.4 °C
hst = hf + x hfg
= 535 + 0.9 *2182 = 2498.8 KJ/kg
ho1 = CP To1
To1 = Tsat – Tsub1 = 127.4 -3 =124.4 °C
ho1 = 4.2 * 124.4= 522.48 KJ/kg
or
ho1 = hf – CP Tsub1 = 535- 4.2*3 = 522.4 KJ/kg
hg/p1 = hg @ 1.5 bar = 2693 KJ/kg
hi,1 = CPw Twi,1

= 4.2* 20 =84 KJ/kg
400*( 2498.8 – 522.48 ) = 𝑚̇𝑤1 (2693 – 84 )

𝑚̇𝒘 = 303 kg/hr
Second stage : assume no losses

𝑚̇𝑤1 (hg/p1 – ho2) = 𝑚̇𝒘𝟐 (hg/p2 – hi,2)
hg/p1 = 2693 KJ/kg
ho2 = hf @ P1 = 467 KJ/kg (Tsub2 = zero then To2=Tsat )
hg/p2 = hg @ 1 bar = 2675 KJ/kg
hi,2 = CPw Twi

= 4.2* 20 =84 KJ/kg
303*( 2693 – 467 ) = 𝑚̇𝑤2 (2675 – 84 )

𝑚̇𝒘𝟐 = 260.31 kg/hr
----------------------------------------------------------
3-Cogeneration
Cogeneration is defined as; the simultaneous generation of electricity and

steam (or heat) in a single power plant.
Cogeneration plant is a plant that producing both electrical power and process
heat simultaneously.
Examples are chemical industries, paper mills, and places that use district
heating.
From an energy resource point of view, cogeneration is beneficial only if it

saves primary energy when compared with separate generation of electricity
and steam (or heat).
The cogeneration plant efficiency ( ηco ) is given by;
WT +QH
ηco =
Qadd
where;
WT = Electrical Energy generated, kW
QH = Heat energy in process steam, kW
Qadd = Heat added to the plant, kW
For separate generation of electricity and steam the heat added per unit total
energy output is;
e 1−e
+
ηe ηh
Where;
WT
e= electrical fraction of total energy output =
WT +QH
ηe = electrical plant efficiency.
ηh = steam (or heat) generator efficiency.
The combined efficiency for separate generation is given as;
1
ηc = e 1−e
+
ηe ηh
ηc : combined efficiency for two separate electrical and thermal plant
cogeneration is beneficial : if ηco > ηc
WT +QH
the cogeneration plant efficiency ηco = exceeds that of the
Qadd
1
combined efficiency for separate generation ηc = e 1−e
+
ηe ηh
ηe : efficiency of electrical plant producing same electrical output power

as the electrical split (part) in cogeneration plant .
ηh : efficiency of thermal plant producing same thermal (heat) output power
as the thermal split (part) in cogeneration plant .
From the previous figure :
WT = 30 unit
QH = 45 unit
Qadd =100 unit
ηe = 31 %
ηh = 80%
WT 30
e= = = 0.4 ; 1-e = 0.6
WT +QH 30+45
WT +QH 30+45
ηco = = = 75%
Qadd 100
1
ηc = 0.4 0.6 = 49%
0.31
+ 0.8
Types of cogeneration
There are two categories of cogeneration;

1.) The topping cycle:
Process steam pressure requirements vary between 0.5 bar and 40 bar.
Therefore, primary heat at high temperature and low temperature are used.
It is possible to generate the required power and make available the required
quantity of exhaust steam at the desired low heating temperature. Exhaust
steam from turbine is utilized for process heating in which case is called back
pressure turbine. The process heating was replacing the condenser of the
ordinary Rankine cycle.
Most process applications required steam at low grade temperature.

There are several arrangements for cogeneration in topping cycle as;
a) Steam- electrical power-plant with a back pressure turbine.
b) Steam- electrical power-plant with steam extraction from turbine.
c) Gas turbine power plant with a heat recovery boiler.
d) Combined steam-gas-turbine-cycle power-plant.
Arrangement a: suitable for low electrical demand compared with heat demand.
Arrangement d: suitable for high electrical demand compared with heat demand.
Arrangement c: lies in between.
Arrangement b: suitable over a wide range of ratios.
2.) The bottoming cycle

Primary heat is used at high temperature directly for process heat requirements
(as in cement kiln). The low temperature waste heat is used to generate
electricity at low efficiency.
Only the topping cycle can provide true saving in primary energy.
From figure:
you can notice that the total fuel used in cogeneration plant =(100 unit fuel ) is
lower than the total fuel used in two separate plant to produce same amount of
heat and electricity (91+56 =147 unit fuel) , although the output is the same.
And so ηco = 75% while ηc = 51%
Here ηe and ηh for separate electrical and thermal plant are given but to find it
in the problems :
ηh : separate thermal plant efficiency is the boiler efficiency

because in thermal plant , assuming no pressure drop (ideal ) .
then the only component in the cycle is the boiler used to generate heat .
𝛈𝐡 = 𝛈𝐛𝐨𝐢𝐥𝐞𝐫
ηe : separate electrical plant efficiency can be obtained by substituting

the process with CFWH .
i.e : the same amount of bled steam extracted to the process heat
in the cycle will be used to increase temperature of the feed water
in closed feed water heater before going to the boiler .
Finding ηh , ηe and ηc will be explained further in the examples .
Example ( 3.1 ):
In textile factory required 10 ton/hr of steam for process heating @3 bar dry
saturated and 1000 Kw of power for which aback pressure turbine with 70%
internal efficiency is to be used. find steam condition @ inlet to the turbine .
Solution
Given
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 = 10̇ 𝑡𝑜𝑛/ℎ𝑟
PH=3 bar (dry saturated)
Power generated = 1000 Kw
ηs,T =70%
2,a
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 = 2.778 kg/s
power =𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 (h1-h2,a)
h2,a = hg @ 3 bar because process heat

s
inlet is dry saturated
h2,a=2725 KJ/kg hst
1000=2.778 (h1-2725)
a
h1= 3085 KJ/kg
d
ℎ1 − ℎ2,𝑎
ηs,T =
ℎ1 − ℎ2,𝑠
3085− 2725 h2,s

0.7 =
3085− ℎ2,𝑠
h2,s =2570.7 KJ/kg b
c
To get point(1)(steam inlet conditions):
a- draw h1=3085 KJ/kg (horizontal line )
b- draw h2,s=2570.7 KJ/kg ( line)
c- from intersection of h2,s line with pressure line P=3 bar mark point (2,s).
d- draw vertical line from point (2,s) until intersect with h1 line , this will be
point (1) then read the values of pressure and temperature from the P,T lines
steam condition @ inlet to the turbine P1 = 37.5 bar , T1= 344 °C
----------------------------------------------------
Example ( 3.2 ):
In a cogeneration plant (combined power and process heat), the boiler
generates 21 Ton/hr of steam @17 bar and 230 oC. A part of the steam goes to
a process heater which consumes 133 kW, the steam leaving the process heater
@ 17 bar, x=0.96 being throttled (at constant enthalpy) to 3.5 bar. The
remaining steam flows through high pressure turbine which exhausts at a
pressure of 3.5 bar. The exhaust steam mixes with the process steam before
entering the low pressure turbine. The low pressure turbine develops 1333 kW.
At the end of expansion, steam goes to condenser @ pressure is 0.3 bar and
x=0.92. Draw h-s diagram and schematic diagram. Also, determine;
1) The steam quality at the exhaust of high pressure turbine. 2) The power
developed by high pressure turbine.
3) The isentropic efficiency of high pressure turbine. 4) Cogeneration plant
efficiency.
Solution
GIVENS
msṫ =21 ton/hr = 5.8333 kg/s

Pst=17 bar Tst=230 °C Qh=133 KW X2=0.96 WLPT=1333 KW
Pcond=0.3bar x6=0.92
h1=2865 KJ/kg (super heated steam tables @ 17 bar and 230 °C )
from tables@17 bar , x=0.96

hf=872 KJ/kg hfg=1923 KJ/kg
h2=hf+X(hfg)
=872 + 0.96 (1923) = 2718 KJ/kg
Qh=ṁ ( h1-h2)
133= ṁ (2865 – 2718 )
ṁ = 0.904 kg/s
h3=h3 (throttling @ constant enthalpy)
from point (1) on the chart draw (s=c) line until P=3.5 bar to get point (4,s)
h4,s=2570 KJ/kg
from tables @ P=0.3 bar and x=0.92

hf=289 KJ/kg hfg=2336KJ/kg
h6= hf+X(hfg)
= 289 + 0.92 *2336 =2438 KJ/kg
WLPT= ṁst (h5 -h6)
1333= 5.833 (h5-2438 )
h5=2666.5 KJ/kg
Now mark point (5) @ intersection of( P=3.5 bar line ) with h5=2666.5 KJ/kg
then draw vertical line (s=c) until intersection with P=0.3 bar to get point(6,s)
h6,s = 2280 KJ/kg
h7=hf @ 0.3 bar =289 KJ/kg

h8=h7+0.1 ΔP17,0.3
h8 = 289 + 0.1 (17-0.3) =290.67 KJ/kg
h3𝑚̇
Heat balance 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ h5
ṁst h5=𝑚̇ h3 +(ṁst - 𝑚̇ )h4
5.833*2666.5 = 0.904*2718 + (5.833-0.904)*h4 (ṁst - 𝑚̇ )h4
h4=2657 KJ/kg
ℎ4,𝑎 −ℎ𝑓@3.5 2657−584
(1) - X4= = = 0. 965
ℎ𝑓𝑔@3.5 2148
(The steam quality at the exhaust of high pressure turbine =0.965 )
(2) WHPT= (ṁst - 𝑚̇ ) (h1-h4)

=(5.833-0.904)(2865 -2657) = 1025 KW
ℎ1 −ℎ4
ηisen =
ℎ1 −ℎ4,𝑠
2865−2657
(3) -ηisen = *100= 70.5%
2865−2570
𝑄ℎ +𝑊ℎ𝑝𝑇 +𝑊𝑙𝑝𝑇
ηco=
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑
Qadd=ṁst (h1-h8)
=5.833(2865 – 290.67 ) =15016 KW
133+1025+1333
(4)- ηco= *100= 16.58%
15016
Example (3.3 ):
In a cogeneration plant, the power load is 5.6 MW and the heating load is 1.2
MW. Steam is generated at 50 bar, 500 oC and isentropic expansion in a
turbine to a condenser at 0.1 bar. The heating load is supplied by extracting
steam from turbine at 2 bar, which condensed in process heater to saturated
liquid at 2 bar and then pumped to the boiler. Neglect pump work.
Draw Schematic diagram, and h-s diagram.
Compute:
1) The steam flow rate in boiler in Ton/hr.
2) Input heat to boiler.
3) Heat reject in condenser.
4) Rate of fuel burnt in boiler in Ton/hr if boiler efficiency is 88% and coal
C.V. is 25 MJ/kg.
5) Electric plant efficiency.
6) Process heat efficiency.
7) Cogeneration and combined efficiencies.
Solution
Givens:
WT = 5.6 MW QH=1.2 MW
Pst=50 bar , Tst = 500°C
Pcond. = 0.1 bar
Pproces = 2 bar
From chart
h1 @ 50 bar & 500 C =3433 KJ/kg
h5=2645 KJ/Kg
h2=2210 KJ/Kg
From tables
h6=hf @ 2 bar = 505 KJ/Kg k
h3=hf @ 0.1 bar = 192 KJ/Kg
QH= ṁ (h5-h6)
1.2*103= ṁ (2645-505)
ṁ=0.56 Kg/sec
WT = ṁst (h1- h5) + (ṁst-ṁ) (h5- h2)
5.6*103 = ṁst (3433-2645) + (ṁst -0.56) (2645-2210)
ṁst =4.778 Kg/sec
2) Input heat to boiler
Qadd = (ṁst-ṁ) (h1 – h3 ) + ṁ (h1 – h6)
Qadd = (4.778+0.56) (3433-192)+0.56 (3433-505)
Qadd = 15310.32 KW = 15.31032 MW
3) Heat reject in condenser
Qrej = (ṁst-ṁ) (h2 – h3)
Qrej = (4.778+0.56) (2210-192)
Qrej =8511.93 KW
4) Rate of fuel burnt in boiler

𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑
ηb = =
𝑄𝑇 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐶.𝑉
15310.32
0.88=
𝑚̇𝑓 25000
ṁf = 0.695 kg/sec = 2.505 ton/hr

𝑊𝑇 +𝑄𝐻 5.6+1.2
𝜂𝑐𝑜 = = = 44.41 %
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑 15.31032
For combined efficiency ηc :
We can use same flow rate and using that bled steam is used for heating feed
water (CFWH) instead of process heat .
In conventional cycle that will produce
same amount of power (5.6 MW)
we will use same enthalpy values to find
new Qadd for separate cycle
h8=h6 – CP TTD
= 505 – 4.2* 3 =492.4 KJ/kg
Qadd= 𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 (h1-h8)
Qadd= 4.778 (3433 – 492.4)=14050 KW = 14.05 MW

𝑊𝑇 5.6
ηe = = = 39.8%
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑 14.050
𝑊𝑇 5.6
e= = = 0.823
𝑊𝑇 +𝑄𝐻 5.6+1.2
1-e = 0.177
1
𝜂𝑐 =
𝑒 1−𝑒
+
𝜂𝑒 𝜂ℎ
1
𝜂𝑐 =0.823 0.177 = 44%
+
.398 0.88
-----------------------------------
Example ( 3.4 ):
A steam power plant produces 500 MW, with inlet steam to high pressure
turbine at 100 bar, 500 oC and condensation at 0.1 bar. It has one stage of
reheat at 8 bar, which raises the steam temperature back to 500 oC. Draw
Schematic diagram, and h-s diagram for the following cases;
a) One closed feed water heater receives bled steam at the reheat pressure, and
the remaining steam is reheated and then expanded in the low pressure turbine.
Calculate mass flow rate of steam inlet to H. P. turbine and cycle efficiency.
Design a closed feed water heater (find its length and number of tubes) if the
overall heat transfer coefficient was 1.5 kW/m2 oC. Tube diameters are 24 mm
and 28 mm. Water velocity inside (CFWH) tube was 1 m/s. Terminal
Temperature Difference was 3 oC. Number of passes =4.
b) A cogeneration plant is considered; the heating load is supplied by extracting
the same amount of steam which flow in CFWH at the reheat pressure, then it
condensed in process heater to saturated liquid at 8 bar and pumped to the
boiler. The remaining steam at 8 bar is reheated and then expanded in the low
pressure turbine. Compute: 1) Heat reject in condenser. 2) Rate of fuel burnt
in boiler in Ton/hr if boiler efficiency is 88% and coal C.V. is 25 MJ/kg. 3)
Electric plant efficiency. 4) Process heat efficiency. 5) Cogeneration and
combined efficiencies.
Givens
Wt=500 MW=500,000 KW
Steam inlet to H.P.T @ P1= 100 bar,T1= 500 oC
Pcond.=0.1 bar
Preheat=8 bar to T=500°C
solution
a)from super heating tables

@ P1= 100 bar,T1= 500 oC
h1=3373 kJ/kg
from chart draw vertical (s=c) line to

intersect with pressure line P=8 bar
h2=2740 kJ/kg
h3=hf @ 8 bar = 721 kJ/kg
elevate with 8 bar line untill reaching

Treheat=500°C to get h4 = 3480 kJ/kg
from point (4) draw (s=c) line to P=0.1 bar
h5 =2490 KJ/kg
h6= hf @ P=0.1 bar =192 kJ/kg
h7= h6 + 0.1 ΔP100,0.1

h7= 192+ 0.1 (100-0.1)=202 kJ/kg
h8= h3 + 0.1 ΔP100,8

h8= 721+ 0.1 (100-8)=730.2 kJ/kg
h9 = h3 – T.T.D * Cp T.T.D (Terminal temperature difference) = 3°C
= 721-3*4.2 =708.4 kJ/kg
or h9= Cp*T9 T9=T3 – T.T.D T3=Tsat. @ P=8 bar = 170.4 °C
HEAT BALANCE FOR C.F.W.H

Y h2
h7 (1-y) +y h2 = y h3 + (1-y) h9 (1-y) h9
202*(1-y)+y*2740 =721*y +(1-y)*708.4
(1-y) h7
y=0.2
h3y
h10=(1-y)*h9+y*h8
=(1-0.2)*708.4+ 0.2*730.2 = 712.76 kJ/kg
WT= 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h1 - h2) + 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y)(h4-h5) Y h8
500*1000= 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (3373-2740)+ 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-0.2)(2480-2490)
h10 (1-y) h9
𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ =350.877 kg/s (mass flow rate to H.P.T)
̇ ( h1 – h10)+ 𝑚𝑠𝑡
Qadd=𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ (1-y)(h4 - h2)
Qadd= 350.877*(3373-721.76)+350.877*(1-0.2) (3480-2740) =1141136 KW
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 500∗1000
ηth = = ∗ 100 = 43.81%
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑 1141136
Design a closed feed water heater
̇ 𝑠𝑡 (h2-h3) = U Am ΔTm
Qh = 𝑦 ∗ 𝑚
=0.2 * 350.877*(2740-721)=141684 KW = 141.684 MW
̇ (1 − ̇ 𝑦) = ρ u a N
𝑚̇ = 𝑚𝑠𝑡
𝜋
350.877*(1-0.2) =1000*1* *(24*10-3)2 *N
4
N= 620 tube Tsat=170.4°C

Δ T2
T9=T3 – T.T.D T3=Tsat. @ P=8 bar
T9=170.4 – 3 =167.4 °C ΔT 1 ΔT 9
T7=h7/Cp = 202/4.2 = 48.085 °C
ΔT1= Tsat -T7 =170.4 - 48.085= 122.3 °C
ΔT 7
ΔT2= Tsat -T9= T.T.D = 3 °C
𝛥𝑇1 −𝛥𝑇2 122.3−3
ΔTm= 𝛥𝑇 = 122.3 = 32.17 °C
ln( 1 ) ln(
3
)
𝛥𝑇2
Qh = U Am ΔTm
141684 = 1.5*Am* 32.17
Am= 2936.15 m2
Am= π dm L N M
𝑑𝑜 + 𝑑𝑖
dm=
2
0.028+ 0.024
2936.15=π* *L*620*4
2
L=14.19 m
b)
same as (a)
h1=3373 KJ/kg
h2=2740 KJ/kg
h3=721 KJ/kg
h4=3480 KJ/kg
h5=2490 KJ/kg
h6=192 KJ/kg
h7= 202 KJ/kg
h8=730.2 KJ/kg
but since the bled steam isn’t to be used

to heat the water as (a) , it goes to
process heat then pumped to boiler after process heat is finished at sat. liquid
h9=(1-y)*h7+y*h8
=(1-0.2)*202+ 0.2*730.2 = 307.64 kJ/kg
Y h8
1) Qrej= 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y)(h5-h6)
= 350.877(1-0.2)(2490 – 192) =645039 KW
h9 (1-y) h7
𝑄𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑
ηboiler= =
𝑄𝑇 𝑄𝑇
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑
0.88 =
𝑚𝑓̇ 25∗103
Qadd =𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (h1-h9) + 𝑚𝑠𝑡
̇ (1-y)(h4-h2)
= 350.877 (3373-307.64)+350.877 (1-0.2) (3480-2740) =1283257 KW
1283257
2) 𝑚𝑓̇ = = 58.33 𝐾𝑔/𝑠 =209.988 ton/hr
0.88 ∗ 25∗103
𝑄ℎ +𝑊𝑇
ηco=
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑
500∗1000+141684
ηco= *100= 50%
1283257
ηe = 43.81 %
ηh = 88 %
𝑊𝑇 500
e= = = 0.78
𝑊𝑇 +𝑄𝐻 500+141.684
1-e = 0.22
1
𝜂𝑐 =
𝑒 1−𝑒
+
𝜂𝑒 𝜂ℎ
1
𝜂𝑐 = 0.78 0.22 = 49%
+
.4381 0.88
ηco > ηc
-------------------------------------------------------
Example ( 3.4 ):
a) Define cogeneration and mention in detail its types.
b) A textile factory required 10 Ton/hr of steam for process heat @ 3 bar,
DSS, and 1 MW of power for which a back pressure turbine is to be used.
Find Steam condition @inlet to the turbine, and cogeneration efficiency.
------------------------------------------------------------
4-Heat Balance Sheet for Internal Combustion Engine
One of thermodynamic test for internal combustion engines is heat balance

sheet, which taken the required measurements after the engine has reached the
steady state conditions.
Also, other important tests like;
• Indicated Mean Effective Pressure.
• Indicated power and thermal efficiency.
• Engine speed and temperature.
• Brake torque, brake power and mechanical efficiency.
• Fuel consumption, air consumption, and volumetric efficiency.
Indicated power (IP)

Indicated power (IP) is the power actually developed by the engine cylinder;
IP = ((MEP)*105*(L A n)k )/60 Watt
Where;
MEP = Mean Effective Pressure, bar.
L = Stroke length, m.
A = Piston area (cross section), m2.
n = number of working strokes per minute,
n = N/2 for 4 stroke engine
n = N for 2 stroke engine
N: RPM
k = number of cylinders, -
Heat Balance Sheet for Internal Combustion Engine:
Heat balance sheet is done during a certain time (one minute);
• Heat supplied by the fuel; Qt = 𝐦.𝐟 (C.V. ), kJ/min.

Where;
m.f = Mass flow rate of supplied fuel, kg/min.
C.V. = Lower calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg.
• Heat absorbed in I. P. produced;
IP = (MEP)*105*(L A n)k, kJ/min.
• Heat losses
∑Qloss = QT – I. P. , kJ/min.
1- Heat rejected to cooling water:
Q1 = m.cw Cpcw ( Tcw,o –Tcw,i ) , kJ/min.

Where;
m.cw = mass flow rate of cooling water, kg/min.
Cpcw = specific heat at constant pressure for cooling water, kJ/kg.oC.
Tcw,i = Cooling water inlet temperature, oC.
Tcw,o = Cooling water outlet temperature, oC.
2- Heat carried away by exhaust gasses:
Q2 = m.g Cpg ( Tg,o –Tg,i ) , kJ/min.

Where;
m.g = mass flow rate of exhaust gasses, kg/min.
Cpg = specific heat at constant pressure for exhaust gasses, kJ/kg.oC.
Tg,i = exhaust gasses inlet temperature, oC.
Tg,o = exhaust gasses outlet temperature, oC.
3- Unaccounted losses:
There are some of heat due to friction leakage, radiation,…..etc., which can not
be determine experimentally. Then;
Q3 = ∑Qloss – (Q1 + Q2 ) , kJ/min.
Example (4.1 ):
In an internal combustion engine: Indicated power developed =18 kW.
Cooling water flow rate=12 kg/min. Temperature rise of cooling water=25 oC.
Exhaust gas flow rate was 4 kg/min. Temperature rise of exhaust gas 220 oC.
Fuel consumption= 6 kg/hr, Fuel C.V. =44000 kJ/kg. Take: Cp g =1.1 kJ/kg.oC.
, Cpcw =4.2 kJ/kg.oC.
Draw heat balance sheet for engine per 1 min.
Solution
Givens:
I.P = 18 KW
𝑚𝑐𝑤̇ = 12 kg/min , ΔTcw =25 °C
𝑚̇𝑔 =4 kg/min , ΔTg =220 °C
𝑚̇𝑓 = 6 kg/hr =0.1 kg/min , C.V. = 44000 kJ/kg
Cpg =1.1 kJ/kg.oC , Cpcw =4.2 kJ/kg.oC.
QT = 𝑚̇𝑓 C.V.
= 0.1 * 44000 = 4400 KJ/min
I.P = 18 KW
= 18*60 =1080 KJ/min
∑Qloss = QT – I. P
= 4400 -1080 = 3320 KJ/min
1) Heat loss to cooling water

Q1 = 𝑚𝑐𝑤̇ CPcw ΔTcw
= 12 * 4.2 * 25 = 1260 KJ/min
2) Heat loss to exhaust (flue gases)

Q2 = 𝑚̇𝑔 CPg ΔTg
= 4 * 1.1 * 220 = 968 KJ/min
3) Unaccounted heat loss
Q3 = Qloss - (Q1 +Q2)
= 3320 – (1260 + 968 ) = 1092 KJ/min
Heat balance sheet :
Equation Value(KJ/min) %
QT (total ) QT = 𝑚̇𝑓 C.V. 4400 100%
I.P (indicated power) 1080 24.54%
∑Qloss (total loss) ∑Qloss = QT – I. P 3320 75.45%
Q1 (cooling water) Q1 = 𝑚𝑐𝑤̇ CPcw ΔTcw 1260 28.63%
Q2 (exhaust loss ) Q2 = 𝑚𝑔̇ CPg ΔTg 968 22%
Q3 (unaccounted) Q3 = ∑Qloss – (Q1 +Q2) 1092 24.81%
Example ( 4.2 ):
The following data are collected during a trial on the 6 cylinder, four stroke
diesel engine (360 mm bore and 500 mm stroke) has the following data:
Engine speed=500 rpm. Fuel consumption= 240 kg/hr,
Fuel C.V. =44000 kJ/kg.
Jacket cooling water = 320 kg/min.
Rise in cooling water temperature =40 oC.
Piston cooling oil =140 kg/min, Cpoil = 2.1 kJ/kg oC.
Temperature rise of oil = 28 oC.
All heat of exhaust gases is absorbed in calorimeter; circulating water in gas
calorimeter is 300 kg/min. with temperature rise 42 oC. Mean effective
pressure = 7.3 bar.
Draw heat balance sheet.
solution
Givens:
K= 6 ; 4 stroke ; D=0.36 m ; L = 0.5 m
N= 500 rpm MEP= 7.3 bar = 730 kpa
𝑚̇𝑓 = 240 kg/hr = 4 kg/min ; C.V. = 44000 kJ/kg
𝑚𝑐𝑤 ̇ = 320 kg/min ; ΔTcw =40 °C
̇ = 140 kg/min
𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑙 ; ΔToil =28 °C
𝑚𝑐𝑎𝑙.̇ =300 kg/min ; ΔTcal =42 °C
o
Cpoil =2.1 kJ/kg. C
= 4 * 44000 = 176000 KJ/min
I.P = (MEP)*102*(L A n)k

𝜋 𝑁
=(MEP)*102*(L* (D)2 * )k
4 2
𝜋 500
= (7.3)*102*(0.5) * (0.36)2* )* 6 = 55728.7 KJ/min
4 2
= 176000 -55728.7 = 120271.3 KJ/min

= 320 * 4.2 *40 = 53760 KJ/min
2) Heat loss to oil

̇ CPoil ΔToil
Q2 = 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑙
= 140 * 2.1 * 28 = 8232 KJ/min
3) Heat loss to water in calorimeter
̇ CPw ΔTcal
Q3 = 𝑚𝑐𝑎𝑙
= 300 * 4.2 * 42 = 52920 KJ/kg

Q4 = Qloss - (Q1 + Q2 + Q3)
= 120271.3 – (53760 + 8232 + 52920 ) = 5359.3 KJ/min

QT (total ) QT = 𝑚̇𝑓 C.V. 176000 100%
I.P (indicated power) 2
I.P =(MEP)*10 *(L A n)k 55728.7 31.66 %
∑Qloss (total loss) ∑Qloss = QT – I. P 120271.3 68.34 %
Q1 (cooling water) Q1 = 𝑚𝑐𝑤̇ CPcw ΔTcw 53760 30.54 %
Q2 (exhaust loss ) Q2 = 𝑚̇𝑔 CPg ΔTg 8232 4.47%
Q3 (loss to oil ) Q3=𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑙̇ CPoil ΔToil 52920 30.06 %
Q4 (unaccounted) Q4 = ∑Qloss – (Q1 +Q2 +Q3) 5359 3.04 %
Example ( 4.3 ):
The following data is given for a 4-stroke , 4-cylinder diesel engine :
Diameter of cylinder is 35 cm ; piston stroke 40 cm ,speed of engine315 rpm,
indicated mean effective pressure 7 bar , fuel consumption is 80 kg/hr .
calorific value of the fuel 43000 KJ/kg ,
air consumption is 30 kg/min
cooling water flow rate 90 kg/min , rise in cooling water temperature 38°C
piston cooling oil used 45 kg/min , rise cooling oil 23°C
exhaust gas temperature =322°C , ambient air temp. =22°C
CPg= 1.1 KJ/kg. °C , CPoil = 2.2 KJ/kg. °C
Draw :heat balance sheet per minute .
Solution
Givens:
K= 4 ; 4 stroke
D=0.35 m ; L = 0.4 m
N= 315 rpm MEP= 7 bar = 700 kpa
𝑚̇𝑓 = 80 kg/hr ; C.V. = 43000 kJ/kg
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 ̇ = 30 kg/min
𝑚𝑐𝑤 ̇ = 90 kg/min , ΔTcw =38 °C
̇ = 45 kg/min
𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑙 , ΔToil =23 °C
o
CPoil =2.2 kJ/kg. C , CPg =1.1 kJ/kg.oC.
Texh =322 oC , Tamb= 22 oC
80
= * 43000 = 57333 KJ/min
60
I.P = (MEP)*102*(L A n)k

𝜋 𝑁
=(MEP)*102*(L* (D)2 * )k
4 2
𝜋 315
= (7)*102 * (0.4) * (0.35)2 *( )* 4 = 16971 KJ/min
4 2
= 57333 – 16971 = 40362 KJ/min

= 90 *4.2 *38 = 14364 KJ/min
2) Heat carried away by exhaust gasses

Q3 = 𝑚̇𝑔 CPg (Tg,o – Tg,i)
Tg,i = Tamb = 22 °C (because exhaust gases go to ambient air )
Since exhaust gases are produced by combustion of fuel with air
𝑚̇𝑔 = 𝑚̇𝑓 + 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟
̇
80 94
= + 30 = = 31.333 kg/min
60 3
Q3= 31.333* 1.1 *(322- 22) = 10340 KJ/kg
3) Heat loss to oil

̇ CPoil ΔToil
Q2 = 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑙
= 45 * 2.2 * 23 = 2277 KJ/min

Q4 = Qloss - (Q1 + Q2 + Q3)
= 40362– (14364 + 10340 + 2277) = 13381 KJ/min

QT (total ) QT = 𝑚̇𝑓 C.V. 57333 100%
I.P (indicated power) I.P =(MEP)*102*(L A n)k 16971 29.6 %
∑Qloss (total loss) ∑Qloss = QT – I.P 40362 70.39 %
Q1 (cooling water) Q1 = 𝑚𝑐𝑤̇ CPcw ΔTcw 14364 25.05 %
Q2 (exhaust loss ) Q2 = 𝑚̇𝑔 CPg (Tgo – Tamb) 10340 18.03%
Q3 (loss to oil ) Q3=𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑙̇ CPoil ΔToil 2277 3.97 %
Q4 (unaccounted) Q4 = ∑Qloss – (Q1 +Q2 +Q3) 13381 23.33 %
Example ( 4.4 ):
The following observation were made during test on an oil engine with indicated
power 31.5 KW , fuel used 10.5 kg/hr , calorific value of the fuel 43000 KJ/kg .
Jacket circulating water 540 kg/hr , rise in cooling water temperature 56°C .
Exhaust gases passed through exhaust gas calorimeter .
For finding heat absorbed by calorimeter. water circulated through Calorimeter
with 454 kg/hr , rise in temperature of calorimeter water 36°C .
Temperature of exhaust gases leaving calorimeter 82°C,ambient temperature17°C
Air to fuel ratio 19:1
solution
Givens:
IP = 31.5 KW
𝑚̇𝑓 = 10.5 kg/hr = 0.175 kg/min ; C.V. = 43000 kJ/kg
𝑚𝑐𝑤̇ = 540 kg/hr ; ΔTcw =56 °C
𝑚𝑐𝑎𝑙.
̇ =454 kg/hr ; ΔTcal =36 °C
o
Texh =82 C ; Tamb= 17 oC
Cpg =1 kJ/kg.oC
𝐴⁄𝐹 =19 : 1
10.5
= * 43000 = 7525 KJ/min
60
I.P =31.5 *60= 1890 KJ/min
= 7525 - 1890 = 5635 KJ/min

540
= * 4.2 *56 = 2116.8 KJ/min
60
2) Heat loss to water in calorimeter

̇ CPw ΔTcal
Q2 = 𝑚𝑐𝑎𝑙
454
= * 4.2 * 36 = 1144.08 KJ/kg
60
3) Heat carried away by exhaust gasses

Q3 = 𝑚̇𝑔 CPg (Tg,o – Tg,i)
Tg,i = Tamb = 22 °C (because exhaust gases go to ambient air )

Tg,o = Texh = 82 °C
𝐴 19 𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟
= =
𝐹 1 𝑚̇𝑓
19 ∗̇ 𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟̇
Since exhaust gases are produced as result of combusting of fuel with air
𝑚̇𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟
̇ + 𝑚̇𝑓
𝑚̇𝑔 = 19 ∗ 𝑚̇𝑓 + 𝑚̇𝑓
𝑚̇𝑔 = 19 ∗ 10.5 + 10.5 = 210 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
210
Q3= *1 *(82- 17) = 227.5 KJ/kg
60

Q4 = Qloss - (Q1 + Q2 + Q3)
=5635 – ( 2116.8+ 1144.08+ 227.5 ) = 2146.62 KJ/min

QT (total ) QT = 𝑚̇𝑓 C.V. 7525 100%
I.P (indicated power) 1890 25.11 %
∑Qloss (total loss) ∑Qloss = QT – I. P 5635 74.88 %
Q1 (cooling water) Q1 = 𝑚𝑐𝑤̇ CPcw ΔTcw 2116.8 28.13 %
Q2 (calorimeter ) Q2=𝑚𝑐𝑎𝑙̇ CPw ΔTcal 227.5 3.02 %
Q3 (exhaust loss ) Q3 = 𝑚𝑔̇ CPg ΔTg 1144.08 15.2%
Q4 (unaccounted) Q4 = ∑Qloss – (Q1 +Q2 +Q3) 2146.62 28.52 %
5-Steam Generator (Boiler)
a- Classification of boilers
1- Fire tube boiler
• Low capacity .
• Low pressure .
• Dry saturated steam (D.S.S) .
• Fire (flue gases)inside tubes .
2- Water tube boiler
• high capacity
• high pressure
• super heated steam
• water inside tubes
Heat Balance Sheet for Steam Generator
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

Evaporation rate =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 (𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑)

=
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

=
𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Evaporation capacity for boiler :-

• Feed water temperature
• Working pressure
• Fuel
• Final condition of steam
Equivalent evaporation (me):

𝑚𝑠 (ℎ𝑠𝑡 − ℎ𝑓𝑤 )
𝑚𝑒 =
2257
2257 : is laten heat of vaporization @ 1 bar
Equivalent evaporation is defined as : the quantity of D.S.S that could be

generated by the boiler per unit time from the water @100°C
to steam @ 100°C .
Boiler efficiency :-
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 (ℎ𝑠𝑡 − ℎ𝑓𝑤 ) 𝑄𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙
Ƞ𝑏 = =
𝑚̇𝑓 (𝐶. 𝑉) 𝑄𝑇
Ƞ𝑏 =
(𝐶. 𝑉)
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡
Where : 𝑚𝑠 = [kgst/kgf]
𝑚̇𝑓
Total losses : ∑Qloss = QT - Quse
Quseful : useful heat , KW
QT : total input heat , KW
C.V : fuel calorific value , KJ/kg
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 : steam flow rate , kg/s
𝑚̇𝑓 : fuel flow rate , kg/s
ℎ𝑠𝑡 : specific enthalpy for steam , KJ/kg
ℎ𝑓𝑤 : specific enthalpy for water , KJ/kg
Boiler trial to determine :
• Generating capacity
• Thermal efficiency
• Heat balance sheet for boiler
Heat balance sheet for boiler per 1kgfuel :
Total input heat : (per 1 kgfuel)
𝑚̇𝑓 ( 𝐶.𝑉)
QT = = 1* C.V = [KJ /kgf ] (same unit of C.V )
𝑚̇𝑓
Useful heat (per 1 kgfuel) :

𝑚̇𝑠𝑡
Quse = (hst – hfw ) = [KJ /kgf ]
𝑚̇𝑓
= ms ( hst – hfw ) = [KJ /kgf ]
𝑘𝑔𝑠𝑡 𝐾𝐽 𝐾𝐽
= ∗ =
𝑘𝑔𝑓 𝑘𝑔𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑔𝑓
Total losses
∑Qloss = QT - Quse = [KJ /kgf ]
Losses in boilers :-
1) Dry gas loss:

Q1 = mg CPg (Tg,o = Tg,i) = [KJ /kgf ]
𝐴
mg = ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 + mc
𝐹
𝐴 𝐶% 𝑁%
(𝐹 )𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 33 (𝐶𝑂
2 %+𝐶𝑂%)
Where :
mg : mass of flue gas per 1 kgfuel , [kgflue gas / kgf ]
mc :mass of carbon per 1 kgfuel , [kgcarbon / kgf ]
Tg,i : inlet gas temperature ,°C
Tg,o : outlet gas temperature ,°C
CPg : specific heat for flue gas , [KJ/kg. °C]
𝐴
( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 :actual air to fuel ratio
𝐹
C% : percentage of carbon mass in fuel .
N% : percentage of nitrogen in flue gas .
CO% : percentage of CO in flue gas .
CO2% : percentage of CO2 in flue gas .
2) Un burned fuel :
Q2 = mun burned C.V = [KJ /kgf ]
mun burned = mass of unburned fuel
𝑚̇𝑢𝑛
mun burned = = [𝑘𝑔𝑢𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑑 /𝑘𝑔𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ]
𝑚̇ 𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
3) Moisture loss in fuel :

Q3 = (mm + 9 H2 ) (hs – hw )
Where :
mm : mass of moisture in fuel per 1 kgfuel , [kg / kgf ]
H2 :mass of hydrogen in fuel per 1 kgfuel , [kg / kgf ]
ℎ𝑠 : specific enthalpy of liberated super heated steam in flue gas @Tg,o
and partial pressure of steam in flue gas , [KJ/kg ]
ℎ𝑤 : specific enthalpy for water @ Tg,i (boiler house temperature), KJ/kg
ℎ𝑤 = CPw Tg,i
CPg : specific heat for flue gas , [KJ/kg. °C]
4) Incomplete combustion :
𝐶𝑂%
Q4 = mc * 24000 = [kg / kgf ]
𝐶𝑂2 % +𝐶𝑂%
Where :
mc :mass of carbon per 1 kgfuel , [kgcarbon / kgf ]
CO% : percentage of CO in flue gas .
CO2 % : percentage of CO2 in flue gas .
5) Moisture loss in combustion air :

𝐴
Q5 = 1.926 ( ) H (Tg,o – Tg,i )
𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑡
H :specific humidity of combustion air , [𝑘𝑔𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 / 𝑘𝑔𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ]
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
6) Thermal radiation loss and other unaccounted loss :

Q6 = ∑Qloss – (Q1 +Q2 +Q3 +Q4 + Q5 ) = [kg / kgf ]
NOTE:
1- ms , mg and mun burned are not mass flow rates .
2- Un burned fuel loss may not exist if mun burned equal zero .
3- Incomplete combustion also doesn’t exist if CO% in flue gas was zero .
4- If mm (mass of moisture in fuel per 1 kgfuel ) equal zero use all previous
equation directly to obtain the boiler losses , but if it have a value
mentioned in the problem . Every term of the (analysis of fuel by mass)
and calorific value C.V exist in one of the equations ( percentage or
mass) should be multiplied by (1-mm ) as will be explained.
Analysis of fuel and flue gas :
Mass analysis for fuel : C% , H2% , and Ash

Flue gas analysis by volume : CO2% , CO% , N2% , and O2%
In the previous boiler equations , if there was [CO2% , CO% , N2% or C% ]

with the percentage sign (%) then the number in (Mass analysis for fuel) or
(Flue gas analysis by volume) is used as given .
But if the formulas contains [ H2 , mc ] without percentage sign (%) then the
given numbers in (Mass analysis for fuel) must be divided by 100 before using
it in the equations .
𝐻2 % 𝐶%
H2 = , mc =
100 100
Mass of moisture in fuel (mm)

1- If is exists in the problem as mentioned before then . Every term of the
(analysis of fuel by mass) and calorific value C.V exist in one of the
equations ( percentage or mass) should be multiplied by (1-mm ).
(C%)act = C% (1-mm)
𝐶%
(mc )act = mc (1-mm) = (1-mm)
100
𝐻2 %
(H2 )act = H2 (1-mm) = (1-mm)
100
(C.V)act = C.V (1-mm )
Mass analysis of fuel No mass of moisture With mass of moisture (mm)

Carbon percentage C% C% (1-mm)
Carbon mass in fuel (C% / 100 ) = mc (C% / 100 ) (1-mm) = mc (1-mm)
Hydrogen mass in fuel (H2% / 100) = H2 (H2% / 100) (1-mm) = H2(1-mm)
Calorific value C.V C.V (1-mm)
Formulas will change due to (mm ) :

QT = (1-mm)* C.V
𝐴
mg = ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 + mc (1-mm)
𝐹
𝐴 𝐶% (1−𝑚𝑚 ) 𝑁%
( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 =
𝐹 33 (𝐶𝑂2 %+𝐶𝑂%)
Q2 = mun burned C.V
Q3 = (mm + 9 H2 (1-mm) ) (hs – hw )
𝐶𝑂%
Q4 = mc (1-mm)* 24000
Explanations Boiler losses :
1- dry gas loss :

after the flow gases outlet from the preheater (the last stage that flue
gases are used to heat combustion air ) but still hot with temperature
Tg,o > 100°C and this temperature is considered loss because it wasn’t
useful to through this thermal energy in the flue gases to the ambient
(boiler house temperature ).
2- Un burned fuel :
From the name we can predict that some of the fuel didn’t burn so this is
loss because we didn’t benefit from all the fuel in the boiler .
3- Moisture loss in fuel :

First of all the fuel contains some moisture as (mm) or as (H2) which
forms H2O after burning the fuel with air .
This amount of water means that there is mass in the fuel isn’t applicable
to burn generating heat because water (moisture) doesn’t have calorific
value thus the moisture in fuel isn’t benifical .
when we burn this fuel containing moisture , the moisture evaporates
and becomes super heated steam due to combustion of the fuel, so this
moisture actually absorbed some of the heat from burning the fuel and
this carries away heat in the form of its latent heat, and instead of using
this heat to evaporate the water in the boiler drum , it were used to
evaporate the moisture in the fuel it self
4- Incomplete combustion :
in complete combustion all the carbon become CO2 and having CO in
the combustion product means that the combustion wasn’t complete
because amount of air wasn’t enough .
5- Moisture loss in combustion air :

Loss due to moisture in air (H2O), the air used for combusting the fuel is
taken from the ambient so the amount of moisture in air .
Vapour in the form of humidity in the incoming air, is superheated as it
passes through the boiler. Since this heat passes up the stack
6- Un accounted loss :
Loss due to surface radiation, convection to the surrounding and other
unaccounted sources.
Boiler Plant :
1) Heat balance for super heater
mfg CPg (Tfg,i – Tfg,o)s.heater = ms (hsuper -hDSS )
mfg : total mass of flue gas per 1 kgf

𝐴
mfg = ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 + 1 =[ kgfg/kgf ]
𝐹
Tfg,i : super heater flue gas inlet temp.
Tfg,o : super heater flue gas outlet temp.
hsuper :outlet super heater specific enthalpy of steam.
hDSS :intlet super heater specific enthalpy of steam.
2) Heat balance for economizer
mfg CPg (Tfg,i – Tfg,o)eco = ms CPw (Tfw,o -Tfw,i)
Tfg,i : economizer flue gas inlet temp.

Tfg,o : economizer flue gas outlet temp.
Tfw,o : economizer water outlet temp.
Tfg,i : economizer water inlet temp.
3) Heat balance for air preheater
mfg CPg (Tfg,i – Tfg,o)air preheater = mair CPair (Ta,o – Ta,i )

𝐴
mair : mass of air per 1 kgf = air to fuel ratio ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐹
T1 :air preheater flue gas inlet temp.
T2 : air preheater flue gas outlet temp.
Tair,i :air preheater inlet temp. of air .
Tair,o : air preheater outlet temp. of air .
CPair : specific heat for air
Notes :
1- There is two (mass of flue gas per 1 kg f ) were mentioned in previous
equation either in boiler losses formulas or in the heat balance for (super
heater , economizer and air preheater )
a- mg : mass of flue gases per 1kgf in boiler losses equations .
𝐴
mg = = ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 + mc = kgflue /kgf
𝐹
b- mfg : mass of flue gases per 1kgf in heat balance equations .

𝐴
mfg = ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 + 1 = kgflue /kgf
𝐹
2- If there is (mm) :
𝐴 𝐶% (1−𝑚𝑚 ) 𝑁%
( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 =
𝐹 33 (𝐶𝑂2 %+𝐶𝑂%)
𝐴
mg = ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 + mc (1-mm) = kgflue /kgf
𝐹
𝐴
mfg = ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 + 1 = kgflue /kgf
𝐹
So what is the difference between both mg and mfg ?
mg : is used in calculating the dry gas loss because rest of components

like moisture present in fuel the. The losses due to these components have not
been included in the dry flue gas loss since they are separately calculated as a
wet flue gas loss.
mfg : because all the component of fuel (carbon , hydrogen and moisture )
combust with air producing flue gas which is used with it’s components
in super heater , reheater , economizer and air preheater .
At last mg doesn’t include moisture mass (mm) and (H2 ) which forms H2O in
combustion product unlike mfg which include all the flue gas components .
Example (5)
The following data collected during a boiler trial per hour .
• Steam generated = 640 kg/hr
• Fuel used =55 kg/hr
• Temperature of feed water =50 °C
• Outlet steam pressure = 10 bar (i.e D.S.S )
• Boiler room temperature = 30°C
• Fuel calorific value = 40 MJ/kgf
• Flue gas outlet temperature = 150 °C
Composition of fuel oil by mass
C% =85% H2% = 13% Ash =2%
Flue gas analysis by volume
CO2 % = 12.5% ; CO% = 0.5 % ; N2% = 82% ; O2% = 5%
Partial pressure of water vapor carried by flue gas =0.1 bar
Calculate : boiler efficiency and draw heat balance sheet .
Cpw = 4.2 KJ/kg oC , CPair = 1 KJ/kg oC and CPg = 1.1 KJ/kg oC
Solution
Givens:
𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑡 = 640 kg/hr 𝑚̇ 𝑓 = 55 kg/hr
Tfwi =50 oC Psteam = 10 bar (DSS)
Tg,i =30 oC Tg,o =150 oC
C.V= 40 MJ/kgf Pp= 0.1 bar
QT = 1* C.V = 40000 KJ/Kgf

𝑚̇𝑠𝑡
Quse =ms (hst – hfw ) = (hst – hfw )
𝑚̇𝑓
From tables @Pst = 10 bar
hst = hg = 2778 KJ/Kg
hfw = Cp* Tfw
=4.2 * 50=210 KJ/Kg
640
Quse = (2778 – 210 ) = 29882.18 KJ/Kgf
55
𝑄𝑢𝑠𝑒
ηboiler =
𝑄𝑇
29882.18
= * 100 = 74.7 %
40000
∑Qloss = QT - Quse
= 40000 - 29882.18=10117.82 KJ/Kgf
Losses in boiler
1- Dry gas loss:
Q1 = mg CPg (Tg,o = Tg,i)
𝐴
mg = ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 + mc
𝐹
𝐴 𝐶% 𝑁2 %
( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 =
𝐹 33 (𝐶𝑂2 % + 𝐶𝑂%)
𝐴 85% 82%
( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 = = 16.247
𝐹 33 (0.5%+12.5%)
mg=16.247 + .85= 17.097 Kg/Kgf
Q1= 17.097*1.1*(180-30) =2256.81 KJ/Kgf
2- Moisture loss in fuel: -

Q2 = (mm + 9 H2 ) (hs – hw )
From superheated tables @ p= 0.1 bar & Tgo=150 oC
hs= 2783 KJ/Kg
hw = CPw Tg,i
= 4.2 *30 = 126 KJ/kg
Q2 = (0 + 9*0.13) (2783 – 126) =3108.69 KJ/Kgf
3- Incomplete combustion
𝐶𝑂%
Q3 = 𝐶𝑂 % +𝐶𝑂% mc * 24000
2
0.5%
= *0.85 * 24000 = 784.61 KJ/Kgf
12.5 % +0.5%
4- Thermal radiation loss and other unaccounted loss

Q4 = ∑Qloss – (Q1 +Q2 +Q3 )
=10117.82 - (2256.81+ 3108.69 + 784.61) = 3967.71 KJ/Kgf
Heat balance sheet
Equation Value (Kj/kgf) %
QT 1* C.V 40000 100%
Quse ms (hst – hfw) 29882.18 74.7 %
∑Qloss QT - Quse 10117.82 25.29 %
Q1 mg CPg (Tg,o = Tg,i) 2256.81 5.64 %
Q2 (mm + 9 H2 ) (hs – hw ) 3108.69 7.77 %
𝐶𝑂%
Q3 mc * 24000 784.61 1.96 %
𝐶𝑂 % +𝐶𝑂%
2
Q4 ∑Qloss – (Q1 +Q2 +Q3 ) 3967.71 9.919 %
------------------------------------------------
Example (5)
A boiler generates 20,000kg/hr at 40 bar and 400°C . feed water enters
economizer at 100 °C . mass flow rate of fuel =2000 kg/hr ,
fuel C.V= 40000 KJ/kg ,moisture in fuel = 4%, boiler room temp.=35°C
economizer flue gas inlet and outlet temp. are 400°C, 250°C respectively.
flue gas inlet and outlet temp. from air preheater are 250°C , 150°C .
specific humidity = 0.008 kgw/kgair and partial pressure of water vapor in
flue gas is 0.1 bar .
mass analysis for dry fuel :
C%=83% , H2% = 14% ,and Ash=3%
mass analysis by volume:
CO2%=12% , CO%=1% , N2%=80% , and O2%=7%
Take Cpw = 4.2 KJ/kg oC , CPair = 1.005 KJ/kg oC and CPg = 1.15 KJ/kg oC
Find:
1- boiler efficiency .
2- heat balance sheet .
3- outlet water temp. from economizer .
4- outlet air temp. for air preheater .
Solution
Given :
𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑡 = 20000 kg/hr , Pst = 2000 bar Tst = 400°C
Tfwi =100 oC 𝑚̇ 𝑓 = 2000 kg/hr
C.V= 40000 kJ/kgf , mm = 4% , TBR =35 oC
Economizer : Tfg,i = 400°C , Tfg,o = 250°C
Air preheater : Tfg,i = 250°C , Tfg,o =150°C
H=0.008 kgw/kgair , Pp= 0.1 bar
Because there is mm = 4%
QT= (1-mm)*C.V
= (1-0.04)*40000= 38400 KJ/Kgf
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡
Quse = (hst – hfw )
𝑚̇𝑓
From superheated tables @ p=40 bar & T= 400 oC
hst = 3214 KJ/Kg
hfw =CPw Tfwi
= 4.2*100= 420 KJ/Kg
20000
Quse = (3214 – 420) = 27940 KJ/Kg
2000
∑Qloss = QT - Quse
= 38400 - 27940 =10460 KJ/Kg
𝑄𝑢𝑠𝑒
ηboiler =
𝑄𝑇
27940
= * 100 % =72.76%
38400
Losses in boiler
1- Dry gas loss:
Q1 = mg CPg (Tg,o - Tg,i)
𝐴
mg = ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 + mc (1-mm)
𝐹
𝐴 𝐶% (1 − 𝑚𝑚 ) 𝑁2 %
( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 =
𝐹 33 (𝐶𝑂2 % + 𝐶𝑂%)
𝐴 83% ∗(1−0.04)∗ 80%
( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 = = 14.858
𝐹 33 (12%+1%)
mg=14.858 + 0.83* (1-0.04)=15.654

Q1=15.654*1.15*(150-35)=2070.24 KJ/Kgf
2- Moisture loss in fuel: -

Q2 = (mm + 9 H2 (1-mm)) (hs – hw )
From superheated tables @ Pp= 0.1 bar & Tg,o=150 oC
hs= 2783 KJ/Kg
hw =CPw Tg,i ; Tg,i = TBR = 35°C
hw = 4.2 * 35 = 147 KJ/kg
Q2 = (0.04+ 9*0.14 (1- 0.04) ) (2783- 147)=3293.95 KJ/Kgf
3- Moisture loss in combustion air :
𝐴
Q3 = 1.926 (𝐹 )𝑎𝑐𝑡 H (Tg,o – Tg,i )
Tg,o = Tfg,o (from air preheater)
Q3 =1.926 * 14.858 * 0.008 * (150-35) =26.32 KJ/Kgf
4- Incomplete combustion
𝐶𝑂%
Q4 = 𝐶𝑂 % +𝐶𝑂% * mc*(1 - mm) * 24000
2
1%
= 12% +1% 0.83*(1-0.04) * 24000 = 1471 KJ/Kgf
5- Thermal radiation loss and other unaccounted loss

Q5 = ∑Qloss – (Q1 +Q2 +Q3+Q4 )
=10460 - (2070.24 + 3293.95 + 26.32+1471) = 3598.74 KJ/Kgf
HEAT BALANCE SHEET

Equation Value Percentage
QT (1-mm)*C.V 38400 100%
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡
Quse (hst – hfw ) 27940 72.76%
𝑚̇𝑓
∑Qloss QT - Quse 10460 27.24%
Q1 mg CPg (Tg,o - Tg,i) 2070.24 5.4%
Q2 (mm + 9 H2 (1-mm)) (hs – hw ) 3293.95 8.6%
𝐴
Q3 1.926 ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 H (Tg,o – Tg,i ) 26.32 0.068%
𝐹
𝐶𝑂%
Q4 * mc*(1 - mm) * 24000 1471 3.83%
Q5 Q5 = ∑Qloss – (Q1 +Q2 +Q3+Q4 ) 3598.74 9.37%
Heat balance for economizer
𝐴
mfg = ( )𝑎𝑐𝑡 + 1
𝐹
=14.858 + 1 = 15.858
mfg CPg (Tg,o - Tg,i) = ms CPw (Tec,o –Tec,i )
20000
15.858*1.15*(400-250) = *4.2*(Teco -100)
2000
Tec,o=165.13 oC
Heat balance for economizer
mfg CPg (Tg,o - Tg,i) = mair CPair (Tair,o-Tair,i)

15.858*1.15*(250-150)= 14.858*1.005*( Tair,o-35)
Tair,o=157.12 oC
Example ( 5.3 ):
For a boiler plant consists of boiler, economizer and super-heater:
Coal used = 675 kg/hr. Fuel C.V =29800 kJ/kg. Steam Pressure = 14 bar.
Water evaporated= 5000 kg/hr.
Feed water temperature entering and leaving economizer are 35 oC and 135 oC
respectively.
Dryness fraction of steam leaving boiler = 0.98.
Temperature of steam leaving super-heater = 320 oC.
Draw boiler plant and water tube boiler.
Calculate: overall efficiency of the plant, and percentage of the available heat
utilized in the economizer, boiler, and super-heater.
Solution
Given:
𝑚̇𝑓 = 675 kg/hr ; C.V = 29800 kJ/kg
Pst = 14 bar ; X = 0.98
Economizer : Tfw,i = 35 oC ; Tfw,o = 135 oC
Super heater : Tsuper,o = 320 oC
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 (ℎ𝑠𝑡 − ℎ𝑓𝑤 )

Ƞ𝑏 =
𝑚̇𝑓 (𝐶. 𝑉)
From tables @Pst = 14 bar and x=0.98
hf = 830 KJ/kg hfg = 1960 KJ/kg
hst = hf + x hfg
= 830 + 0.98*1960 = 2750.8 KJ/kg
hfw = CPw Tfw,o
= 4.2 *135 =567 KJ/kg
5000(2750.8−567)
Ƞ𝑏 = ∗ 100% = 54.28%
675 (29800)
Qeconomizer = ms CPw (Tfw,o -Tfw,i )

5000
= *4.2 * (135 -35 ) = 3111.11 KJ/kgf
675
Qboiler = ms ( hst – hfw )

5000
= * ( 2750.8 – 567 ) = 16176.29 KJ/kgf
675
Qsuper.heater = ms (hsuper – hst )

From super heated tables @Pst = 14 bar and T=320°C
hsuper = 3085 KJ/kg
5000
Qsuper.heater = * ( 3085 - 2750.8 ) = 2475.55 KJ/kgf
675
Example ( 5.4 ):
The following observations are taken during a boiler trial:
Coal used = 250 kg/hr. Fuel C V =29800 kJ/kg.
Water evaporated= 2000 kg/hr.
Steam Pressure = 12 bar. Dryness fraction = 0.97.
Feed water temperature = 35 oC.
Calculate: equivalent evaporation and boiler efficiency.
Solution
Given :
𝑚̇𝑓 = 250 kg/hr C.V = 29800 kJ/kg
Pst = 12 bar X = 0.97
Tfw = 35 °C
𝑚𝑒 =
2257
From tables @Pst = 12 bar and x=0.97

hf = 798 KJ/kg hfg = 1986 KJ/kg
hst = hf + x hfg
= 798 + 0.97*1986 = 2724.42 KJ/kg
hfw = CPw Tfw
= 4.2 *35 =147 KJ/kg
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 2000
ms = = =8
𝑚̇𝑓 250
8 ∗ (2724.42 − 147)
𝑚𝑒 = = 9.135 𝑘𝑔𝑠𝑡 /𝑘𝑔𝑓
2257
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡 (ℎ𝑠𝑡 − ℎ𝑓𝑤 )
Ƞ𝑏 =
𝑚̇𝑓 (𝐶. 𝑉)
2000(2724.42−147)
Ƞ𝑏 = ∗ 100% = 69.19 %
250 (29800)
Example ( 5.5 ):
The following data are collected during a boiler trial:
Steam generated 100 Ton/hr, @ 60 bar & 360 oC.
Fuel used = 8.5 Ton/hr , Fuel C.V. =42000 kJ/kg.
Boiler house temperature = 37 oC.
Partial pressure for vapor carried with flue gas=0.09 bar.
Flue gas outlet temperature from boiler= 115 oC.
Specific humidity for air in flue gas , H= 0.075 kg/kgdry air .
Mass analysis for fuel was: C=84%, H2=13%, and Ash=3%.
Flue gas analysis by volume was:CO2= 13% ,CO=1% ,N2=82 % , and O2= 4%.
Take Cpg=1.15 kJ/kg oC , Cpw=4.2 kJ/kg oC.
Draw heat balance sheet per 1 kgf . Also, draw boiler plant and water tube
boiler.
Example ( 5.6 ):
Steam generated 650 Ton/hr, @ 10 bar & D.S.S.
Fuel used = 55 Ton/hr, Fuel C.V. =40000 kJ/kg.
Flue gas analysis by volume was:CO2= 13% ,CO=1% , N2=82 % ,and O2= 4%.
Find boiler efficiency and Draw heat balance sheet per 1 kgf.
Example ( 5.7 ):
Steam generated 100 Ton/hr, @ 60 bar & 360 oC.
Fuel used = 8.5 Ton/hr , Fuel C.V. =42000 kJ/kg.
Flue gas analysis by volume was: CO2= 13%, CO=1%, N2=82 % , and O2=
4%.
Find boiler efficiency and Draw heat balance sheet per 1 kgf .
6-Station performance
Plant performance is defined the input output curve which derived from tests
as;
I= fn(L)
I = a + a1 L + a2 L2 + a3 L3 + …..
The slope for I/O curve @ the given load is defined as Incremental Rate.
Physically the IR is the amount of additional energy required to produce an
added unit of output at any given load.
𝐝𝐈
𝐈𝐑 =
𝐝𝐋
The efficiency curve is defined as;
𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭
𝛈=
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭
𝐋 × 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭.
𝛈= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐈
Heat rate is the reciprocal of efficiency;

𝐈
𝐇𝐑 =
𝐋
𝐚
𝐇𝐑 = + 𝐛 + 𝐜𝐋 + 𝐝𝐋𝟐 + ⋯ ..
𝐋
Maximum efficiency can be found @ Minimum HR:
𝐈
𝐝𝐇𝐑 𝐝( )
= 𝐋 =𝟎
𝐝𝐋 𝐝𝐋
𝐋𝐝𝐈 − 𝐈𝐝𝐋
= = 𝟎.
𝐋𝟐
L dI=I dL
𝐝𝐈 𝐈
=
𝐝𝐋 𝐋
IR= HRmin
For maximum efficiency the heat rate is minimum
Also @Ƞmax heat rate = incremental rate (min)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example (6.1 ):
Find maximum efficiency and minimum heat rate from the following I/O
curve:
I=2.4*106 [100+2L +0.0004L3] , where L in MW and I in kJ/hr.
Solution
I
HR =
L NOTE :
100 the Const. in efficiency equ. is
HR=2.4*106 [ +2 + 0.0004L2]
L to convert MW to KJ/hr
At min HR or max. Efficiency: or convert KJ/hr to MW
6 100 2
d(HR) d(2.4∗10 [ L +2 +0.0004L ])
=
dL
=0 MW =
MJ
=
kJ∗1000
dL s hr
3600
−100
2.4*106 [ + 0.0008L]=0
L2 KJ
−100 MW= ∗ 3600 ∗ 1000
[ + 0.0008L]=0 hr
L2
100 kJ
= 0.0008L MW= *3.6*106
L2 hr
100
L3= = 125000
0.0008
3
Therefore; L= √125000 = 50 MW
I@L=50 = 2.4*106 [100+2*50 +0.0004*503] = 1.68*109 600*106 kJ/kg
L × Const. 50 × 3600 ∗ 1000
η= = = 30%
I 600 ∗ 106
100
HR=2.4*106 [ +2 + 0.0004*502] =12*106 kJ/MW.hr = 12 MJ/kW.hr
50
HRmin = 12 MJ/kW. hr
η max = 30 %
------------------------------
Example (6.2):
Find maximum efficiency and minimum heat rate from the following I/O
curve:
I=106 [16+5L +0.02L3] , where L in MW and I in kJ/hr.
Also, Draw I//O curve , η – L curve, HR – L curve, and IR – L curve.
Solution
6 3
I=10 [16+5L +0.02L ]
dI
IR =
dL
= 106 [5 +0.06L2]
I
HR=
L
16
=106 [ +5 +0.02L2]
L
L × Const.
η=
I
At min HR or max. Efficiency:
16
d(HR) d(106 [ L +5 +0.02L2 ])
= =0
dL dL
−16
106 [ + 0.04L]=0
L2
−16
[ + 0.04L]=0
L2
16
= 0.04L
L2
100
L3= = 400
0.04
3
Therefore; L= √400 = 7.368 MW
I@L=7.368 = 106 [16+5*7.368 +0.02*7.3683] = 60.839*106 kJ/kg
L × Const. 7.368 × 3600 ∗ 1000
η= = = 43.59%
I 60.839 ∗ 106
16
HR=106 [ +5+ 0.02*7.3682] =8257301 kJ/MW.hr = 8.2573 MJ/kW.hr
7.368
HRmin = 8.2573 MJ/kW. hr
η max = 43.59 %
L , MW 0 2 4 6 8 10
I , MJ/hr 16000 26160 37280 50320 66240 86000
IR,MJ/KW.hr 5 5.24 5.96 7.16 8.84 11
HR , MJ/KW.hr Ꚙ 13.08 9.32 8.386667 8.28 8.6
η, % 0 27.52 38.62 42.92 43.47 41.86
I/O curve η- L curve

50
100000
45
90000
40
80000
35
70000
30
60000
25
50000
20
40000
15
30000
10
20000
5
10000
0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
HR - L curve IR-L Curve
20 12
18
10
16
14 8
12
10 6
8
4
6
4 2
2
0
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
-----------------------------------------------------------
Example ( 6.3 ):
A 20 MW station has the following I/O curve;
I= 106[30 + 0.5L+0.65 L2+ 0.01L3] , where L in MW and I in kJ/hr
Find the increase in input to increase the output from 7 MW to 9 MW.
Solution
• From I/O curve
I@ L=7 MW = 106[30 + 0.5L+0.65 L2+ 0.01L3]
=106[30 + 0.5(7)+0.65 (7)2+ 0.01(7)3]
= 68.78 × 106 kJ/hr.
I@ L=9 MW = 106[30 + 0.5L+0.65 L2+ 0.01L3]
=106[30 + 0.5(9)+0.65 (9)2+ 0.01(9)3]
= 94.44 × 106 kJ/hr.
The increase in input to increase output 2 MW = (94.44 – 68.78)× 106
= 25.66× 106 kJ/hr.
• From IR curve:
IR @L= 8MW = dI/dL
=106[ 0.5 + 1.3 L+ 0.03 L2] =12.82× 106 kJ/MW.hr
Therefore;
The increase in input to increase output 2 MW =2×12.82× 106
= 25.64× 106 kJ/hr.
-----------------------------------------------
Example (6.4 ):
A 20 MW station has the following I/O curve;
I= 106[30 + 0.5L+0.65 L2+ 0.01L3] , where L in MW and I in kJ/hr
Find the average heat rate of this station for a day when it was operating at a
load 20 MW for 12 hr. and was kept hot at zero load for the remaining 12 hr.
Also, Compute the value of HRav at load factor =1 (ie. The same energy were
produced for the day at a constant 24-hr load).
Solution
load
6 2 3
I@ L=0 MW = 10 [30 + 0.5L+0.65 L + 0.01L ]
= 30 × 106 kJ/hr.
2020
MWMW
6 2 3
I@ L=20 MW = 10 [30 + 0.5L+0.65 L + 0.01L ]
=106[30 + 0.5(20)+0.65 (20)2+ 0.01(20)3]
= 380 × 106 kJ/hr.
Energy = L1 * Time1 + L2*Time2

Energy = 20×12 +0×12 = 240 MW.hr.
Heat = I1 * Time + I2 * Time2

Heat = [ 30 × 12+ 380 × 12] × 106 = 4920×106 kJ 12 Time,hr
Heat 4920∗106
HRav = = = 20.5×106 kJ/MW.hr = 20.5 MJ/KW.hr
Energy 240
Case (2) same energy for day at a constant 24-hr load and load factor = 1
Energy
Load factor =
load∗duration
240
1=
load∗24
Load = 10 MW (const. load for 24-hr)

L@L=10 MW = 106 [30+ 0.5*10 +0.65*(20)2 +0.01*(10)3 ] = 110*106 KJ
Heat = I * Time
Heat = 110*106 * 24 = 2.64*109 KJ/hr
Heat 2.64∗109
HRav = = = 11×106 kJ/MW.hr = 11 MJ/KW.hr
Energy 240
--------------------------------------------------------
Example (6.5):
Derive the required condition to devise a load between two units for most
economical operation.
Devise a load between the following two units for most economical operation:
Unit (a): I= 106[10+5L+0.2L2] , Lmax=10 MW, where L in MW and I in kJ/hr.
Unit (b): I= 106[10+6L+0.02L3] , Lmax=10 MW, where L in MW and I in kJ/hr.
solution
For most economica operation Ic = minimum
dIC
=0 ; IC = Ia + Ib
dIa
dIa dIb
+ =0
dIa dIa
dIa dIb dIb
+ ∗ =0
dIa dIa dIb
dIa dIb dIb
+ ∗ =0 1
dIa dIb dIa
I C = Ia + I b
dIc dIa dIb
= +
dIa dIa dIa
dIc
=0
dIa
dIa dIb dIb dIa
0= + = −
dIa dIa dIa dIa
dIb
= −1 2
dIa
From 1 ,and 2
dIa dIb
+ ∗ (−1) = 0
dIa dIb
dIa dIb
=
dIa dIb
IRa = IRb
For most economical operation.
Incremental rate of (a) = incremental rate of (b)
Ia= 106[10+5L+0.2L2]
Ib= 106[10+6L+0.02L3] ,
dI
IR=
dL
dIa = 106 [ 5+0.4 L]

dIb = 106 [ 6 + 0.06 L2 ]
L (MW) 0 2 4 6 8 10
IRa (KJ/MW.hr) 5000000 5800000 6600000 7400000 8200000 9000000
IRb (KJ/MW.hr) 6000000 6240000 6960000 8160000 9840000 12000000
12000000
11000000
10000000 IRa
IRb IRC
9000000
8000000
7000000
6000000
5000000
4000000
3000000
2000000
1000000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Draw IRa and IRb curves then collect load of the two curves to get the IR c
curve .
From the curves distribute the total load on the two stations .
Lc 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
La 0 2 3 3.4 4.2 5.5 6.7 8 9.2 10 10
Lb 0 0 1 2.6 3.8 4.5 5.3 6 6.8 8 10
----------------------------------------------------------
Example ( 6.6 ):
State the required rules for most economical operation in power stations. And,
Tabulate a capacity scheduling for the following units;
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Capacity, 20 30 40 40 50 50
MW
Order of 5 4 2 1 3 6
efficiency
Solution
Load,MW 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total,MW
40 40 40 80
80 40 40 50 130
110 30 40 40 50 160
130 20 30 40 40 50 180
180 20 30 40 40 50 50 230
------------------------------------------
Example ( 6.7):
Tabulate a capacity scheduling for the following units :
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Capacity, MW 20 30 40 40 40 50 50
Order of efficiency 7 6 3 2 1 4 5
Solution
Load,MW 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total,MW
40 40 40 80
80 40 40 40 120
120 40 40 40 50 170
170 40 40 40 50 50 220
200 30 40 40 40 50 50 250
220 20 30 40 40 40 50 50 270
7) Load curves
To design power plant it is important to know the following conditions for
energy supply;
1) Maximum demand.
2) Total energy required.
3) Distribution of energy demand.
7.1 Maximum Demand for Consumer:

a) Every consumer has connected load and maximum demand. The relation
between them is defined as;
𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐝𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝
Demand factor = ≤1
𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝
Experience shows that: Demand factor for hotels was about 25% and for
refrigeration plants was about 90 %.
b) Experience shows that, the maximum demand of individual consumers do not

occur simultaneously but are spread out over a period of time. The time
distribution of maximum demands for group of consumers is defined as;
𝐒𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐝𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐬

Group Diversity factor = ≥1
𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐝𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩
c) The peak demand of a system is made up of the individual demands of the

group of consumers. The diversity is measured by;
𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐝𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐫 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩

Peak diversity factor = ≥1
𝐃𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐫 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐩𝐞𝐚𝐤
Example (7.1):
It is required to add a demand of new housing development to lines of public
utility.
a) Domestic-load : There are 1000 apartments each one having 30 KW connected
load, with the following factors:
Demand factor=0.5, Group diversity factor=3.5, and Peak diversity factor=1.5.
b) Commercial-load: like stores and services as;

Store number Connected load , kW Demand factor
Mosque 1 150 0.6
Church 1 150 0.56
Laundry 1 50 0.68
Theatre 1 300 0.5
Hospital 1 500 0.67
Bookstore 3 25 for each 0.66
Clothing store 5 40 for each 0.55
Different store services 20 50 for each 0.7
Commercial-load group diversity factor= 1.5, and peak diversity factor=1.1
Find increase in peak demand on the total system resulting from adding this
development. Assume line loss is to be 5% of the delivered energy.
Sol.
a) Domestic-load:
Max. Demand per apartment = Demand factor × Connected load
= 0.5 × 30 = 15 kW

Max. Demand of 1000 apartments =
𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫
= (1000 × 15) / 3.5 = 4285.7 kW
Demand of 1000 apartments at time of system peak

=
𝐏𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫
= (4285.7/ 1.4) = 3061.2 kW
c) Commercial-load:
Store number Max. Demand=Connected load × Demand factor
Mosque 1 150×0.6
Church 1 150 ×0.56
Laundry 1 50 ×0.68
Theatre 1 300 ×0.5
Hospital 1 500 ×0.67
Bookstore 3 75 × 0.66
Clothing store 5 200 × 0.55
Different store services 20 1000 × 0.7
Total of commercial max demands = 1552.5 kW
Max. Demand of commercial group=

𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫
= (1552.5) / 1.5 = 1035 kW
Commercial demand at time of system peak

=
𝐏𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫
= (1035 /1.1) = 940.9 kW
Total demand at time of system peak = 3061.2 + 940.9 = 4002.1 kW
Total increase in max. demand at station bus = 4002.1 1.05 = 4202.2 kW

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Load curves
Load curve is a graph which represents the variation of electrical demand with
time.
Load, kW
Time, hr
Chronological load curve. Load duration curve
One year = 8760 hrs

A.M.= After Mid-night.
P.M. = Previous Mid-night.
The annual factors are defined as follow;
1) Annual Load factor measure the variation of load over the operating
time;
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐞𝐝
Load factor =
𝐌𝐚𝐱.𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 ×𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
2) The use of the generating plant over one year (8760 hrs) is measured by:
Capacity factor =
𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 ×𝟖𝟕𝟔𝟎
3) The use of the generating plant over the operating time is measured by:
Use factor =
𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 ×𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
• Load factor and Use factor become identical when the peak load is equal
to the capacity of the plant over the operating time.
• Load factor, capacity factor, and Use factor become identical when the
peak load is equal to the capacity of the plant over 8760 hrs.
4) The utilization factor measure the use of the total installed capacity of
the plant:
𝐌𝐚𝐱.𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝
Utilization factor =
𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲
• Low utilization factor means the plant is used only for stand-by purpose.
Example (7.2 ):
A 300 MW thermal power station is to supply the power to a system having
maximum and minimum demands 240 MW and 180 MW respectively in a
year. Assuming annual load duration curve is to be a straight line between
maximum and minimum values.
Compute: load factor, capacity factor, use factor and utilization factor.
Solution
Lmax = 240 MW
Lmin = 180 MW 240 MW
Energy = area under curve 180 MW

Energy = 0.5(240+180)*8760
= 1839600 MW.hr
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1839600
Load factor = = = 0.875
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 240 ∗ 8760
Capacity factor = = = 0.7
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 8760 300∗ 8760
Use factor = = = 0.7
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 300∗ 8760
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 240
Utilization factor = = = 0.8
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 300
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example (7.3)
The daily load is defined as
Time ,hr 0- 6 6-8 8-12 12-14 14-18 18-24
Load , KW 40 50 60 50 80 40
Find load factor and draw load curve and load duration curve .
Solution
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Load factor =
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Energy = 40*(6) + 50* (2)+60*(4)+50*(2)+ 80*(4) + 40*(6) = 1240 KW.hr
Lmax from table = 80 MW
1240
Load factor = = 0.645
80∗24
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example ( 7.5 ):
Steam power plant 600 MW capacity carries the following loads:
Duration Time, hr 1500 1500 2500 1500 1760

Load, MW 500 450 400 350 300
Plant performance curve is given by: I=103[1500+8L]+0.01L3

Where; L in MW and I in MJ/hr.
a. Draw load duration curve, and I-L curve.
b. Find maximum efficiency, min. heat rate and average heat rate.
c. Find load factor, capacity factor, use factor and utilization factor.
Solution
Duration Time, hr 1500 1500 2500 1500 1760
Load, MW 500 450 400 350 300

Input , MJ/hr 6750000 6011250 5340000 4728750 4170000
I 1500
HR= = 103 ( +8)+ 0.01L2
L L
1500
d(HR) d(103 (
L
+8)+0.01𝐿2
= =0
dL dL
−1500
103 ( )+ 0.02 L = 0
𝐿2
1500000
= 0.02L
L2
1500
L3= = 75*106
0.02
3
Therefore; L= √75 ∗ 106 = 421.716 MW
I@L=421.716 = 103[1500+8*421.716]+0.01(421.716)3 = 5.6237*106 MJ
L × Const. 421.716 × 3600
Ƞ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 26.99%
I 5.6237 ∗ 106
1500
HR=103 ( +8)+ 0.01(421.716)2 =13335 MJ/MW.hr = 13.335 MJ/kW.hr
421.716
Enenrgy = 1500*500+1500*450+2500*400+1500*350+1760*300
= 3478000 MW.hr
Heat= 6750000*1500 +6011250*1500 +5340000*2500+ 4728750*1500

+417000 0*300 = 46924200000 MJ
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
HRavg =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
46924200000
= = 13491. MJ/MW.hr = 13.491 MJ/KW.hr
3478000
Load factor = = = 0.794
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 500 ∗ 8760
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 8760 600∗ 8760
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 500
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example ( 7.6 ):
Steam power plant 60 MW capacity and load curve is defined as:
Time, hr 0-1500 1500-5000 5000-6000 6000-7000 7000-8760

Load, MW 35 45 50 40 25
6 2
I/O curve; I=10 [8+8L+0.008L ] , where L in MW and I in kJ/hr.
a. Draw load curve, load duration curve, and I-L curve.
b. Find maximum efficiency, average heat rate.
c. Find load factor, capacity factor, use factor and utilization factor.
solution
1500 3500 1000 1000 1760

Load, MW 35 45 50 40 25
Input , KJ/hr 297800000 384200000 428000000 340800000 213000000
I-L curve
500000000
450000000
400000000
350000000
300000000
250000000
200000000
150000000
100000000
50000000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
I 8
HR= = 106 ( L + 8 + 0.008L )
L

8
d(HR) d(106 (L +8+ 0.008L )
= =0
dL dL
−8
106 ( + 0.008 )= 0
𝐿2
8
= 0.008
L2
8
L2= = 1000
0.008
I@L=31.62 = 106[8+8*31.62+0.008(421.716)2 ] = 368958595 kJ/hr

L × Const. 31.62 ∗ 3600 ∗ 1000
η= = = 42.32%
I 368958595
η max = 42.32 %
Enenrgy = 35*1500+3500*45+50*1000+ 40*1000+25*1760 = 344000 MW.hr
Heat= 2978*105*1500 +3842*105*3500 +4280*105*1000+ 3408*105*1000

+2130*105*1760 = 2.93508*1012 KJ
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 2.93508∗1012
HRavg = = = 8.532*106 kJ/MW.hr = 8.532 MJ/KW.hr
Load factor =
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 50 ∗ 8760 = 0.785
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 8760 60∗ 8760
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 50
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example (7.7 ):
The load duration curve carried out by the base unit having a capacity 18 MW
and stand by unit having a capacity 20 MW.
Base unit Stand by unit

Capacity , MW 18 20
Max. load, MW 18 12
Operating time, hr 8760 2190
Energy, MW.hr 101350 7350
Compute: load factor, capacity factor, use factor and utilization factor
Solution
Equation Base unit Stand by unit

Load factor 𝐸𝑁𝐸𝑅𝐺𝑌 101350 7350
= 0.642 = 0.279
18∗8760 12 ∗ 2190
Capacity factor , 𝐸𝑁𝐸𝑅𝐺𝑌 101350 7350

𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 8760
= 0.642 = 0.0419
18∗8760 20 ∗ 8760
Use factor 𝐸𝑁𝐸𝑅𝐺𝑌 101350 7350

𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 18∗8760
= 0.642 = 0.0419
20 ∗ 2190
Utilization factor 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 18 12

𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =1 = 0.6
18 20
8-Power Economic
To produce electricity one of the following proposal may be achieved :

1. Erection
2. Extension
3. Replacement
………………
……
P:investment P(1+i) P(1+i)2 P(1+i)3 P(1+i)n
S: accumulated sum
i: interest
n: no. of years
S=P(1+i)n
………………
……
A A A A
1
S= A + A(1+i) + A(1+i)2 + …………+ A(1+i)n-1
S (1+i) = A(1+i) + A(1+i)2 + A(1+i)3 + …………+ A(1+i)n

2
2 - 1
S i = A (1+ I )n – A
𝐴 ( 1+𝑖 )𝑛 −𝐴 𝑨 [( 𝟏+𝒊 )𝒏 −𝟏]

𝑆= =
𝑖 𝒊
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 S= P ( 1+ i)n
𝑨 [( 𝟏+𝒊 )𝒏 −𝟏]
= P ( 1+ i)n
𝒊
𝑃 [𝑖 (1 + 𝑖)𝑛 ] 𝑃 [𝑖 (1 + 𝑖)𝑛 + 𝑖 − 𝑖]
𝐴= =
[(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1] [(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1]
𝑖 [(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1] 𝑖
A =𝑃 [ 𝑛
(1+𝑖) −1
+ (1+𝑖)𝑛 −1
]
𝑖
A = 𝑃 [𝑖 + (1+𝑖)𝑛 −1
]
i : interest
𝑖
: depreciation
(1+𝑖 )𝑛 −1
Annual total cost and cost of KW/hr :
1- Fixed cost (Cf )

Cf = R.P
Where :
P = installation cost * capacity
R: fixed change rate

R = i + depreciation + fixed taxes + fixed insurance
2- Operation cost ( Co )
Co = fuel cost + labor cost + operation cost + maintenance cost
+ other costs
Fuel cost = mf * price of ton

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑚𝑓 =
𝐶. 𝑉
Labor cost = labor price * 8760

Operating cost = operating taxes * Energy
Total annual cost (Ct ): Ct = Cf + Co

𝐶𝑡
Cost of KW/ hr = = [ L.E /KW.hr ]
Example ( 8.1 ):
Steam power plant 625 MW capacity
Capacity factor = Use factor =0.8,
Average heat rate HRav = 9 MJ/kW.hr
Fuel price 3550 LE/Ton. Fuel C. V. =39420 kJ/kg.
Installation cost 8000 LE/kW.
Labor cost 5000 LE/hr. Operating taxes=0.01 LE/kW.hr.
All other costs= 9×106 LE.
Fixed taxes and insurance are 0.5% and 0.2% respectively.
Money interest, i=8%, n=20 years.
Calculate) cost of kW.hr.
Solution
Capacity factor = Use factor
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
=
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦∗8760 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦∗𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
operation time = 8760 hr
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 625 ∗ 8760 ∗ 0.8 = 4380000 MW. hr

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
HRavg =
Heat = 9 * 4380000*103 = 3.942*1010 MJ
Fixed cost (Cf )

Cf = R.P
P = installation cost [LE/KW] * capacity [KW]
P = 8000 * 625*103 = 5*109 L.E

𝑖
Depreciation =
(1+𝑖 )𝑛 −1
0.08
= = 0.0218
(1+0.08 )20 −1
R = 0.08 + 0.0218 + 0.005+0.002= 0.1088
Cf = 5*109 * 0.1088 = 544*106 L.E
Operation cost ( Co )
Co = fuel cost + labor cost + operation cost + other costs
Fuel cost = mf [ton] * price of ton
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 [ KJ ] 3.942 ∗ 1010 ∗ 103

𝑚𝑓 = = = 1 ∗ 109 𝑘𝑔 = 1 ∗ 106 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐾𝐽 39420
𝐶. 𝑉 [ ]
𝑘𝑔
Fuel cost = 1 ∗ 106 * 3550 = 3550*106 L.E

= 5000 *8760 = 43.8*106 L.E
Operating cost = operating taxes [LE/kw.hr] * Energy [KW.hr]

= 0.01 * 4.38*106 *103 = 43.8*106 L.E
Co = 3550*106 + 43.8*106 + 43.8*106 + 9*106 = 3646.6*106 L.E

Total annual cost (Ct ):
Ct = Cf + Co
Ct = 544*106 + 3646.6*106 = 4190.6*106 L.E
𝐶𝑡 [𝐿.𝐸]
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 [𝐾𝑊.ℎ𝑟]
4190.6∗106
Cost of KW/ hr = = 0.956 L.E /KW.hr
4.38∗106 ∗103
----------------------------------------------------------
Example (8.2 ):
Steam power plant 60 MW capacity and load curve is defined as;
Time, hr 0-1500 1500-4000 4000-6000 6000-7000 7000-8760
Load, MW 35 45 55 40 35
6 2
I/O curve; I=10 [8+8L+0.008L ] , where L in MW and I in kJ/hr.
a) Draw load curve, load duration curve, and I-L curve.
b) Find maximum efficiency, average heat rate.
c) Calculate load factor, capacity factor and use factor
Fuel C V =40 MJ/kg. Cost of kW.hr=0.95 LE.
Installation cost=8000 LE/kW. Labor cost=3000 LE/hr.
Fixed taxes and insurance are 0.5% and 0.2% respectively, i=9%, n=20 year,
operating taxes=0.01 LE/kW.hr, All other costs=5×106 LE.
d) Find the required fuel price in LE/Ton.
e) For the previous data except the load is constant and equal to 55 MW all the
year (8760 hr), Find the required fuel price in LE/Ton
Solution
a)
Time, hr 1500 2500 2000 1000 1760

Load, MW 35 45 55 40 35
INPUT , KJ/hr 297800000 384200000 472200000 340800000 297800000
Chart Title
500000000
450000000
400000000
350000000
300000000
250000000
200000000
150000000
100000000
50000000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
I 8
HR= = 106 ( + 8 + 0.008L )
L L
8
d(HR) d(106 (L +8+ 0.008L )
= =0
dL dL
−8
106 ( + 0.008 )= 0
𝐿2
8
= 0.008
L2
8
L2= = 1000
0.008
I@L=31.62 = 106[8+8*31.62+0.008(421.716)2 ] = 368958595 kJ/hr
L × Const. 31.62 ∗ 3600 ∗ 1000
η= = = 42.32%
I 368958595
η max = 42.32 %
Enenrgy = 35*1500+2500*45+55*000+ 40*1000+35*1760 = 376600 MW.hr
Heat= 2978*105*1500 +3842*105*2500 +4722*105*2000+ 3408*105*1000

+2978*105*1760 = 3.21653*1012 KJ
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 3.21653∗1012
HRavg = = = 8.54*106 kJ/MW.hr = 8.54 MJ/KW.hr
C) Load factor =
= 55 ∗ 8760 = 0.781
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 8760 60∗ 8760
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 55
d) cost of KW .hr = 0.95 L.E/KW.hr
Cost of KW/ hr =
𝐶𝑡
0.95 =
376600∗103
Ct = 357.77*106 L.E
Fixed cost (Cf )

Cf = R.P
P = 8000 * 60*103 = 480*106 L.E

𝑖
Depreciation =
(1+𝑖 )𝑛 −1
0.09
= = 0.0195
(1+0.09)20 −1
R = 0.09 + 0.0195 + 0.005+0.002= 0.1165
Cf = 480*106 * 0.1165 = 55.92*106 L.E
Ct = Cf + Co
Co =357.77*106 - 55.92*106 = 301.85*106 L.E
= 3000* 8760 = 26.28*106 L.E

= 0.01 * 376600*103 = 3.766*106 L.E
301.85*106 = fuel cost + 26.28*106 + 3.766*106 + 5*106

Fuel cost = 266.804*106 L.E
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 [ KJ ] 3.21653 ∗ 1012

𝑚𝑓 = = = 80.413 ∗ 106 𝑘𝑔 = 80413 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐾𝐽 40000
𝐶. 𝑉 [ ]
𝑘𝑔
266.804 ∗ 106
𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = = 3317.9 𝐿𝐸/𝑡𝑜𝑛
80413
e) If load is const and equal 55 MW for 8760 hr
Energy = 55 *8760 = 481800 MW.hr

Input @ 55 MW = 472200000 KJ/hr
Heat = 472200000 *8760 = 4.136*1012 KJ
Cost of KW/ hr =
𝐶𝑡
0.95 =
481800∗103
Ct = 457.71*106 L.E
Cf = 55.92*106 L.E
Ct = Cf + Co
Co =457.71*106- 55.92*106 = 401.79*106 L.E
= 3000* 8760 = 26.28*106 L.E

= 0.01 * 481800*103 = 4.818*106 L.E
401.79*106 = fuel cost + 26.28*106 + 4.818*106 + 5*106

Fuel cost = 365.692*106 L.E
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 [ KJ ] 4.136 ∗ 1012

𝑚𝑓 = = = 103.4 ∗ 106 𝑘𝑔 = 103400 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐾𝐽 40000
𝐶. 𝑉 [ ]
𝑘𝑔
365.692 ∗ 106
𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = = 3536.67 𝐿𝐸/𝑡𝑜𝑛
103400
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example ( 8.3 ):
Steam power plant 600 MW capacity carries the following loads:
Duration Time, hr 1500 1500 2500 1500 1760
Load, MW 500 450 425 350 325
Plant performance curve is given by: I=10 [1500+8L]+0.01L3, where L in MW
3
and I in MJ/hr.
Fuel price 5000 LE/Ton. Fuel C. V. =42000 kJ/kg.
Installation cost 8000 LE/kW.
Labor cost 5000 LE/hr. Operating taxes=0.01 LE/kW.hr.
All other costs= 8×106 LE.
Fixed taxes and insurance are 0.5% and 0.2% respectively.
Money interest, i=8%, n=20 years.
Calculate Average heat rate (HRav ) and cost of kW.hr in this case and in case
of the load is constant and equal to 500 MW all along the year.
Solution
Duration Time, hr 1500 1500 2500 1500 1760
Load, MW 500 450 425 350 325
Input , MJ/hr 6750000 6011250 5667656.25 4728750 4443281.25
Enenrgy = 1500*500+1500*450+2500*425+1500*350+1760*325
= 3584500 MW.hr
Heat= 6750000*1500 +6011250*1500 + 5667656.25*2500+ 4728750*1500

+4443281.25 *1760 = 4.822*1010 MJ
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
HRavg =
4.822∗1010
= = 13452 MJ/MW.hr = 13.452 MJ/KW.hr
3584500
Fixed cost (Cf )

Cf = R.P
P = 8000 * 600*103 = 4.8*109 L.E

𝑖
Depreciation =
(1+𝑖 )𝑛 −1
0.08
= = 0.0218
(1+0.08 )20 −1
R = 0.08 + 0.0218 + 0.005+0.002= 0.1088
Cf = 4.8*109 * 0.1088 = 522.24*106 L.E
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 [ KJ ] 4.822 ∗ 1010 ∗ 103

𝑚𝑓 = = = 1.147 ∗ 109 𝑘𝑔 = 1.147 ∗ 106 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐾𝐽 42000
𝐶. 𝑉 [ ]
𝑘𝑔
Fuel cost = 1.147 ∗ 106 * 5000 = 5735*106 L.E

= 5000 *8760 = 43.8*106 L.E

= 0.01 * 3584500 *103 = 35.845*106 L.E
Co = 5735*106 + 43.8*106 + 35.845*106 + 8*106 = 5822.6*106 L.E

Ct = Cf + Co
Ct = 522.24*106 + 5822.6*106 = 6344.84*106 L.E
6344.84∗106
3584500∗103
If load is constant and equal 500 MW all year

Energy = 500*8760 =4380000 MW.hr
I@500 MW = 6750000 MJ/hr
Heat = 6750000 * 8760 =5.913*1010 MJ
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
HRavg =
5.913∗1010
= = 13500 MJ/MW.hr = 13.5 MJ/KW.hr
438000
Fixed cost (Cf )
Cf = 522.24*106 L.E
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 [ KJ ] 5.913 ∗ 1010 ∗ 103

𝑚𝑓 = = = 1.407 ∗ 109 𝑘𝑔 = 1.407 ∗ 106 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐾𝐽 42000
𝐶. 𝑉 [ ]
𝑘𝑔
Fuel cost = 1.407 ∗ 106 * 5000 = 7035*106 L.E
Labor cost = 5000 *8760 = 43.8*106 L.E

= 0.01 * 4380000*103 = 43.8*106 L.E
Co = 7035*106 + 43.8*106 + 43.8*106 + 8*106 = 7130.6*106 L.E

Ct = Cf + Co
Ct = 522.24*106 + 7130.6*106 = 7652.84*106 L.E
7652.84∗106
4380000∗103
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example (8.4)
Choose the most economical one from the following two plants A,B to perform
the following .
Duration , hr 500 3000 1500 2000 1760

Load , MW 50 40 20 10 5
Plant (A) Plant (B)

Fuel C.V , MJ/kg 28 36
Fuel price L.E/ton 1000 1200
Labor cost 2000 , L.E/hr 48000 , L.E/day
HRavg , MJ/KW.hr 9 8.5
Installation cost, LE/kW 1000 1000
For the two plants n= 15 year

All other cost = 8*106 L.E
Repair cost = 8.5 LE/ton of fuel used
i=8%
operating taxes = 0.01 of annual operating cost
fixed annual insurance = 0.2%
Solution
Fixed cost (Cf )

Cf A = RA.PA
Cf B = RB.PB
because no capacity is given in problem , take capacity = Lmax = 50 MW
PA = 1000 * 50*103 = 50*106 L.E

PB = 1000 * 50*103 = 50*106 L.E
RA=RB = i + depreciation + fixed insurance

𝑖 0.08
Depreciation = = = 0.0368
(1+𝑖 )𝑛 −1 (1+0.08 )15 −1
R = 0.08 + 0.0368 +0.002= 0.1188
Cf A=Cf B = 50*106 * 0.1188 = 5.94*106 L.E
Co = fuel cost + labor cost + operation cost+ maintenance cost + other costs
Energy = (500*50)+(3000*40)+(1500*20)+(2000*10)+(1760*5) =
203800 MW.hr
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝐴
H.RavgA =
HeatA = 9*203800*103 = 1834200 MJ
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝐵
H.RavgA =
HeatB = 8.5 * 203800*103 = 1732300 MJ
(Fuel cost)A = mfA [ton] * (price of ton)A

(Fuel cost)B = mfB[ton] * (price of ton)B
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝐴 [ MJ ] 1834200 ∗ 103

𝑚𝑓𝐴 = = = 65507 ∗ 103 𝑘𝑔 = 65507 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑀𝐽 28
(𝐶. 𝑉)𝐴 [ ]
𝑘𝑔
(𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡)𝐵 [ KJ ] 1732300 ∗ 103

𝑚𝑓𝐵 = = = 48119 ∗ 103 𝑘𝑔 = 48119 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐾𝐽 36
(𝐶. 𝑉)𝐵 [ ]
𝑘𝑔
(Fuel cost)A = 65507 * 1000 = 65.507*106 L.E
(Fuel cost)B = 48119* 1200 = 57742*106 L.E
(Labor cost)A = (labor price)A * 8760

= 2000 *8760 = 17.52*106 L.E
(Labor cost)B = (labor price[L.E/day])B * 365
= 48000 * 365 = 17.52*106 L.E
(maintenance cost )A = repair cost [L.E/ ton fuel] * mFA

= 8.5 *65507 = 556809 L.E
(maintenance cost )B = repair cost [L.E/ ton fuel] * mfB
= 8.5 * 48119 = 409011 L.E
(Operating cost)A.B = 0.01 Co
CoA = 65.507*106 + 17.52*106 +0.01 CoA + 556809 + 8*106

CoA = 92.508*106 L.E
CoB = 57.742*106 + 17.52*106 +0.01 CoB + 409011+ 8*106

CoB = 84.516*106 L.E
CtA = CfA + CoA
CtA = 5.94*106 + 92.508*106 = 98.448*106 L.E
CtB = CfB + CoB

CTa = 5.94*106 + 84.516*106 = 90.456*106 L.E
𝐶𝑡𝐴 [𝐿.𝐸]
(Cost of KW/ hr)A = = [ L.E /KW.hr ]
98.448∗106
(Cost of KW/ hr)A = = 0.483 L.E /KW.hr
203800∗103
𝐶𝑡𝐵 [𝐿.𝐸]
(Cost of KW/ hr)B = = [ L.E /KW.hr ]
90.456∗106
(Cost of KW/ hr)B = = 0.4438 L.E /KW.hr
203800∗103
Plant (b) is more economical than plant (A)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Acknowledgement:
Greet Thanks to: Abd-elrahman Esam Attia.
Also, Thanks to: Mohamed El-Agamee.

Thermal Engineering Lectures1

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‫سم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Thermal Engineering, ME 231

Prof. Dr. Hesham Mostafa

where : T1=Minimum temperature, K

Entropy (s); It means transformation.

Change of entropy (ds);

Rankine cycle with modifications

WT=𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ (h1-h2) = [KW] (work done by turbine)

Superheated steam expanded part of the way in a high pressure turbine,

wt= (h1 - h2)+ (h3 - h4) = [KJ/kg]

qadd= (h1-h6) + (h3 – h2 ) = [KJ/kg]

There are three types of feed water heaters;

a-Rankine cycle with open or direct contact type (OFWH)

wt= (h1-h4) + (1-y) ( h4 - h2) = [KJ/kg]

qadd= (h1-h7) = [KJ/kg]

Wp= 𝑚𝑠𝑡̇ wp = 𝑚𝑠𝑡 ̇ [(1-y) (h6 - h3)+ (h7 - h5)] = [KW]

WHERE : y= Fraction of the steam extracted to OFWH

h-s diagram for Rankine cycle

wt= (h1 – h2) + (h3 -h7) +(1-y) (h7 – h4)

qadd= (h1-h9) + (h3 – h2) = [KJ/kg]

wp=(1-y) (h6-h5)+ (h9-h8) = [KJ/kg]

wt= (h1 – h2) +(1-y) (h2 – h3) = [KJ/kg]

qadd= (h1-h9) = [KJ/kg]

̇ (1-y) (h5 – h4) + 𝑚𝑠𝑡

Qrej = (1-y) (h3-h4) = [ kJ/kg]

NOTE : h9= y h8 +(1-y) h7 y h8

ΔT2=TTD = T6 - T7 T7=T6 - TTD

h7 = h6 – Cp *TTD = Cp (T6 – TTD)

Heat balance for CFWH

From h-s diagram

qadd= (h1-h11) + (h3 – h2) = [KJ/kg]

wp=(1-y) (h6-h5)+ (h10-h8) = [KJ/kg]

NOTE : h11= y h10 +(1-y) h9

ΔT2=TTD = T8 - T9 T9=T8 - TTD

h9 = h8 – Cp *TTD = Cp (T9 – TTD)

wt= (h1 – h2) +(1-y) (h2 – h3) = [KJ/kg]

qadd= (h1-h6) = [KJ/kg]

wp= (h5 - h4) = [KJ/kg]

qrej= (1-y) (h3-h4) + y (h8-h4) = [KJ/kg]

WHERE : y= Fraction of the steam taken to CFWH

Heat balance for CFWH

TTD : difference between both outlet of CFWH

h-s diagram for Reheat

qadd= (h1-h14) +(h3-h2) = [kJ/kg]

wp= (1-y1-y2) (h8-h7) + (1-y1)(h10-h9) + y1 (h13-h11) = [KJ/kg]

qrej= (1-y1-y2) (h6-h7) = [kJ/kg]

TTD : difference between both outlet of CFWH

NOTE : h14= y1 h13 +(1-y1) h12

Heat balance for CFWH

Heat balance for OFWH

Case WT, WP, Wnet, qadd, ηth,

Pst = 50 bar Pcon= 0.1 bar ΔTcon=10oC ̇ =100 ton/hr = 100

from tables @ P=50 bar

h1=hg=2794 kJ/kg , s1=5.973 kJ/kg.k

from point (1) draw vertical line (s=c)

h3=hf @ P=0.1 bar

Wp=0.1*ΔP = 0.1(50-0.1)=4.99 kJ/kg

WNET=907 - 4.99= 902.01 kJ/kg

From super heating sables using

In chart draw vertical line (s=c) untill

h3= hf @ P=0.1 bar

Wp=0.1*ΔP = 0.1(50-0.1)=4.99 kJ/kg

h1= 3069.3 kJ/kg (same as previous case )

h3 draw line from point (2) parallel with

Wp=0.1(1-y)ΔP1,0.1+0.1ΔP50,1 or Wp= (h6-h5)(1-y)+(h9-h8)

=(1-.1185)492.4+ 0.1185509.8 = 494.46 kJ/kg

Wp=0.1(1-y)ΔP50,0.1+y0.1ΔP50,1 or Wp= (h6-h5)(1-y)+(h10-h8)y

Wp=(1-y1-y2)0.1 ΔP1,0.1+(1-y1)0.1ΔP50,1+y1* 0.1 ΔP50,2

wt = ηisen wt,isen = 0.91269.354 =1142.4186 KJ /kg