Aircraft Structures and Systems Guide

AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
(AGK)
OCTOBER 2014
ARIRANG FLYING SCHOOL

AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE (AGK)
CONTENTS
Chapter Number & Topic Page Number

1. Aircraft Structures 1
1.1. Introduction 1
2. Fuselage Structure 1
2.1 Introduction 1
2.2 Framework 2
2.3 Flight Deck and Passenger Cabin Windows 4
2.4 Main planes (Wings) 6
2.5. Flight Controls 9
2.6. Flight Control Operations 16
2.6.1 Primary Controls 16
2.7. Powered Flight Control 20
3. Hydraulics 25
3.1 Basic Principles 25
3.2. Hydraulic Fluids 26
3.3. Basic Aircraft Hydraulic Systems 26
3.4. Hydraulic Components 28
3.5. Hydraulic System Indications: 40
3.6. Hydraulic Systems 41
4. Landing Gear – Undercarriages 44

4.1. Introduction 44
4.2. Fixed Undercarriage 45
4.3. Extendable/ Retractable Undercarriage 47
4.3.1. Nose Wheel Steering 49
4.3.2. Nose Wheel Shimmy 50
4.4. Landing Gear Operation 52
4.5. Landing Gear Control and Indication 54
4.6. Air/Ground Logic System 56
4.7. Ground Locks 56
4.8. Wheels and Tyres: 57
4.9. Wheel Braking Systems: 60
4.10 Anti-Skid Systems 63
4.11. Normal, Alternate and Reserve Systems 65
5. Aircraft Pneumatic Systems 67

5.1 High-Pressure Systems: 67
5.2. Pneumatic System Components 68
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6. Airconditioning and Pressurisation 72
6.1. Airconditioning: 72
6.2 Basic Principles of Aircraft Air Conditioning 74
6.3. Air Cycle Machines 74
6.4. Vapour Cycle Cooling 78
7. Pressurisation 80
7.1 Safety Devices 83
7.2. Pneumatic Controller and Indications 87
8. Emergency Equipment 88
8.1. Oxygen System 88
8.1.1. Introduction 88
8.1.2. Continuous Flow Passenger Supplementary Oxygen System 89
8.1.3. Flight Crew’s Diluter Demand System 90
8.1.4. Passenger Chemical Oxygen Generators 91
8.1.5. Protective Breathing Equipment 92
8.1.6. Gaseous Oxygen System Components 93
8.2. Emergency Equipment 95
9. Ice and Rain Protection 99

9.1. Anti-icing and De-icing 100
9.1.2. De-Icing Systems 101
9.1.3. Propeller De-Icing 103
9.2. Anti-Icing 105
9.3. Windshield Electrical Anti- Icing 107
9.4. Pitot Static Pressure Sensors and Stall Warning Devices 108
9.5. Rain Removal 108
10. Fire Detection and Protection 109

10.2. Classification of fires 110
10.3. Classifications Cargo compartment are listed below: 111
10.4. Lavatory Fire Protection 111
10.5. Reciprocating Engines 112
10.6. Gas Turbine Engines 113
10.7. Auxiliary Power Units –APU 116
10.8. Hand Held Fire Extinguishers 117
10.9. Fire Detection 119
10.10. Fire Suppression 124
11. Aircraft Fuel System 128

11.1 Introduction 128
11.2. Aviation Gasoline-AVGAS 128
11.3. Aviation Kerosene- AVTUR 129
11.4. Fuel Tanks 130
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11.4.1. Types of tanks 130
11.5 Gravity Feed Fuel System for a Single Engine Light Aircraft: 132
11.6. Pressure Feed Fuel System for a Single Engine light Aircraft: 134
11.7. Large Aircraft Fuel Systems 137
11.7.1. Flight Desk Fuel Control Panel 142
11.8. Under wing Single Point Pressure Refuel System 143
11.9. Flight Deck Contents Indications 144
11.10. Fuel Reconciliation on the Ground 145
11.11. Fuel Dump or Jettisoning 146
12. Power plant 148

12.2. Power and Weight 149
12.3. Types of Engines 149
12.4. Piston Engine 149
12.4.1. Principle of Operation 149
12.4.2. Four Stroke Cycle 150
12.4.3. Valve Timing 151
12.4.4. Ignition Timing 152
12.4.5. Cylinder Arrangements 153
12.4.6. Engine Efficiency 154
12.4.7. Engine Major Component 155
12.4.8. Carburetion 156
12.4.8.1. Aviation Fuels 156
12.4.8.2. Mixture Ratio 157
12.4.9. Carburetors 159
12.4.9.1. Introduction 159
12.4.9.2. Simple Float Carburetor 159
12.4.9.3. Limitations 160
12.4.9.4. Diffuser 160
12.4.9.5. Economiser 163
12.4.9.6. Alternate Air 164
12.4.10. Fuel Injection Systems 166
12.4.10.1. Fuel Injection Pumps 166
12.4.11. Carburetor and Intake Icing 167
12.4.12. Lubrication and Cooling 169
12.4.12.1. Lubrication Introduction 169
12.4.12.2. Oil Grades 170
12.4.12.3. Dry Sump System 170
12.4.12.4. Wet Sump System 171
12.4.13. Cooling 172
12.4.14. Ignition System 173
12.4.15. Piston Engine Power Augmentation and Performance 175
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12.4.15.2. Super Charging 176
12.4.15.3. Turbochargers or External Superchargers 177
12.4.16. Engine Operation 181
12.4.16.1. Propeller Inspection 181
12.4.17. Engine Instruments 182
12.4.18. Engine Performance 184
12.5 Propellers 186

12.5.2. Blade Geometry 186
12.5.3. Constant Speed Propeller Blade Positions 190
12.5.4. Double Acting Propeller Unfeathering 193
13. Gas Turbine Engine 194

13.1 Engine 194
13.2. Gas Turbine Working Cycle 196
13.3. Engine Efficiencies: 197
13.4. Main Components and Their Functions of Gas Turbine Engine 198
13.4.1. Air Intakes Duct 198
13.4.2. Hazards and Factors Affecting Intake Efficiency 199
13.5. Compressors 200
13.5.1. Centrifugal Compressors 200
13.5.2. Axial Compressors 202
13.5.3. Compressor Stall and Surge 203
13.5.4. Pilot Actions to Correct Compressor Stall and Surge 207
13.5.5. Multi-Spool Compressors 207
13.6. Combustion Chambers 208
13.6.1. Types of Combustion Chamber 210
13.7. Fuel Burners 212
13.7.1. Types of Burners 213
13.8. Turbines 214
13.8.1. Twin Spool Turbine 216
13.9. Exhaust and Jet Nozzles 217
13.10. Reverse Thrust 217
13.10.2. Clamshell Doors 218
13.10.3. External / Bucket Target Doors 218
13.10.4. Operation and Indication 219
13.11. Lubrication Systems 219
13.11.2. Types of System 219
13.11.3. Oil System Components 220
13.12. Fuel Systems 221
13.12.1. Engine Fuels 221
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13.12.2. Typical Fuel System 221
13.13. Starting and Ignition Systems 224
13.13.2. Starter 225
13.13.3. Ignition 227
13.13.4. Blow Out or Motoring Run 229
13.13.5. Effects of Damage 229
13.13.6. Engine Performance 230
13.13.7. Variations of Thrust with Speed, Altitude and Temperature. 231
13.13.8. Power plant Operation and Monitoring 233
13.13.9. Turbine Engine Instruments 335
14. Auxiliary Power Units 237

14.1. Location 237
14.2. Fuel System 238
14.3. Starting and Ignition 238
14.4. Fire Protection and Cooling Systems 239
14.5. Shutting Down 239
15. Electrical System 240

15.1. Basic Principles of DC Electricity 240
15.2. Definitions 241
15.3. Ohm's Law 242
15.4. Circuit Protection Devices 242
15.4.1. Fuses 242
15.4.2. Circuit Breakers 244
15.5. Batteries 244
15.5.1. Primary and Secondary Cells 245
15.6. Magnetism and Electricity 248
15.7. Solenoid/Relays 249
15.8. Generators, Alternators and Motors 249
15.8.1. Electro-Magnetic Induction 249
15.8.2. Fleming's Right Hand Rule 249
15.8.3. Simple AC Generators 250
15.9. Three Phase Generator/ Alternator 251
15.9.1. Practical Generators 253
15.9.2. Brushed Alternators 254
15.9.3. Brushless Alternators 254
15.9.4. Frequency Wild Alternators 255
15.9.5. Constant Speed Generator Drive Systems 255
15.9.6. C.S.D.U. Fault Indication in the Cockpit 255
15.9.7. Generator Fault Protection 256
15.9.8. Generator Failure Warning Light 256
15.9.9. The Ram Air Turbine R A T 256
15.9.10. The Auxiliary Power Unit A P U 256
15.10. Transformers 257
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15.10.1. Rectification of Alternating Current 257
15.10.2. Transformer Rectifier Units TRU's 259
15.11. Inverters 260
15.12. Simple DC Generators 260
15.13. Alternators 261
15.14. Electric Motors 262
15.14.1. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule 262
15.15. Real Load Sharing 263
15.15.1. The Bus Bars 263
15.15.2. AC Generator Supply 264
15.15.3. DC Generator Supply 265
15.15.4. Generator or Alternator Failure 265
15.16. Ram Air Turbine 266
16. Aircraft Instruments 266

16.2. The Atmosphere 268
16.2.1. International Standard Atmosphere 268
17. Indication Systems 269

17.2. Pitot Static System 270
17.3. Air Speed Indicator ASI 271
17.3.1. Construction and Operation 271
17.3.2. Colour Coding of the ASI 274
17.3.3. Blocked or Leaking Pressure Systems 274
17.4. Vertical Speed Indicator 275
17.4.2. Principle of Operation 275
17.5. Height 277
17.6. Altimeters 277

17.6.1. Principle of Operation of a Simple Altimeter 277
17.6.2. Sensitive Altimeter 278
17.6.3. Pressure Altimeter Errors 278
17.6.4. Radio Altimeters 281
17.7. Gyroscopes 282

17.7.2. The Principle of Gyroscope 282
17.7.3. Gimbal Rings 282
17.7.4. The Properties of a Gyroscope 283
17.7.5. Wander 284
17.7.6. Tied Gyros 284
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17.7.7. Rate Gyros 284
17.7.8. Summary 285
17.7.9. The Application of the Properties of a Gyro 286
17.8. The Turn And Slip Indicator 286

17.8.1. The Rate of Turn Indicator 286
17.8.2. The rate Gyro 286
17.8.3. Turn Indicators 287
17.8.4. Turn and Slip Indicator 287
17.8.5. Turn Coordinator 287
17.8.6. Inclinometer 288
17.9. Heading Indicator 289

17.9.1 Introduction 289
17.9.2. The Principle and Construction of the DGI 290
17.9.3. The Caging Device 290
17.9.4. DGI Limitations 291
17.10. Attitude Indicator 291

17.10.2. Operations 291
17.10.3. Limitations 293
17.11. The Direct Indicating Compass 293

17.11.1. Magnetic Compass 293
17.11.2. Magnetic Compass Induced Errors 294
17.11.3. Direct Indicating Magnetic Compass 295
17.12. Other Instruments 296

17.12.1. Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Gauge and Tachometer 296
17.12.2. Oil pressure and Temperature Gauge 297
17.12.3. Cylinder Head Temperature 298
17.12.4. Fuel Quantity and Pressure Gauges 298
17.12.5. Ammeter and Voltmeter 299
18. Semiconductor 301

18.2. Digital Logic System 303
18.3. Combinational logic systems 306
18.4. Landing gear warning logic 307
18.5. APU starter logic 308
18.6 Computers 308
19. Autopilot 311

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19.2. Autopilot for ILS Landing 311
19.3. Automatic Throttle Control 312
20. Electronic Indicating Systems 315

20.1. EICAS 315
20.2. ECAM 316
20.3. Warning Systems 317
20.4. Integrated Instrument Panel General Aviation Aircraft 318
21. Radio Propagation 318

21.1. Basic Principle 318
21.2. Wave Length, Frequency, and Speed of Propagation 320
21.3. Attenuation 321
21.4. Refraction 322
21.5. Propagation Paths 322
21.6. Direct and Ground Reflected Waves 322
21.7. Surface Wave 323
21.8. The Ionosphere 324
21.9. HF Sky Waves 324
21.10. Modulation 327
21.10.1. Amplitude Modulation 328
21.10.2. Frequency Modulation 328
21.11. Bandwidth 329
21.12. Single Side Band Transmission 330
22. Antennae 330

22.1 Introduction 330
22.2 Polarisation 330
22.3. Radiation Pattern or Polar Diagram 331
22.4. Half wave Dipole Antenna 331
22.5. Directional Antennae 332
22.6. Antenna Dimensions 332
22.7. Antenna Feeding Cables (Feeders) 332
22.8. Type of Antennae 333
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AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
For COMMERCIAL PILOT LICENSE COURSE
1. Aircraft Structures
1.1 Introduction
Since the advent of powered flight, aircraft designers and manufacturers have made use of available
technology, striving to build aircraft that are faster and can fly a greater distance with carrying a greater
load. Competition to produce the best machine has fuelled research and development. Dramatic leaps
in aviation technology were made in the First and Second World Wars of the Twentieth century.
Every aeroplane makes use of a horizontal aerofoil surface, the wing, to produce the lifting force to
support its mass. Lift produced by the wing can also create a pitching moment. To balance this pitching
moment, a second horizontal aerofoil is used. It can be placed in front of the main wing as a canard or
behind the wing as a tailplane. To give directional stability to the aircraft, a vertical aerofoil(s) fin is
mounted behind the wing, usually on the fuselage. Illustrated below, one of the most successful
Commercial Aircraft during 1930s and 1940s, Douglas DC-3 at take-off.
DC-3 Take-off
2. Fuselage Structure
2.1 Introduction
The fuselage forms the main body of the aircraft to which the wings, tail plane, canards, vertical fin, and
engine (in the case of a single-engine aircraft) are attached. In some aircraft designs, the engines and
landing gear also attach directly to the fuselage structure Diagram 2.1. In modern Civil Air Transport
Aircraft, the fuselage takes the form of a tube, Diagram 2.2, which houses the flight deck, passenger
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cabin, freight holds, and the majority of the equipment required to operate the aircraft. For passenger
aircraft that fly above 10 000 ft, the fuselage also forms a pressure hull so that a cabin altitude of 8000 ft
can be maintained throughout normal flight.
Diagram 2.1
Diagram 2.2
2.2 Framework
Truss Structure
The framework consists of light gauge steel tubes welded together to form a space frame of
Truss Structure
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triangular shape to give the most rigid of geometric forms with each tube carrying a specific load
the magnitude of which depends on whether the aircraft is airborne or on the ground. It is a strong,
easily constructed and relatively trouble free basic structure. The framework is covered by a lightweight
aluminium alloy or fabric skin to give an enclosed, aerodynamically efficient load carrying compartment.
Monocoque Structure
In a monocoque structure all the loads are taken by the skin with just light internal frames or formers to
give the required shape. Even slight damage to the skin can seriously weaken the structure. Sandwich
construction, a honeycomb core with a skin of composite material (GRP or CFP) or aluminium alloy, can
be used to provide rigidity and strength.
Monocoque Reinforced Frames
Semi- Monocoque Structure

As aircraft became larger and the air loads greater the pure monocoque structure was not strong
enough and additional structural members known as stringers (stiffeners)
and longerons were added to run lengthwise along the fuselage joining the frames together. The light
alloy skin is then attached to the frames and stringers by rivetting or adhesive bonding. Stringers stiffen
the skin and assist the sheet materials to carry loads along their length. Good examples of longerons are
the seat rails of passenger aircraft.
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Station Number:
A method of locating components on the aircraft by reference lines called station numbers for fuselage,
wings, empennage etc. Fuselage station numbers are determined by reference to Zero Datum Line at
or near the forward portion of the aircraft. Station numbers are given in inches/ mm forward (negative
– sign) or aft (positive + sign) of the zero datum. Wing stations are measured from the centre line of the
aircraft and are also given in inches /mm left or right of the centre line. Vertical position from line or
horizontal datum can be known as a Water Line or Buttock Line, given as a dimension in inches/ mm
from the horizontal datum.
Fuselage Cut Outs:

When cut-outs are made to stressed skin structures, for example to provide access panels, passenger
windows or when repairs are required to damaged areas, reinforcement, in the form of DOUBLERS or
backing plates, is required around the cut-out. If the skin is machined from the solid the skin around
windows etc. is left thicker than the rest of the skin to provide the required reinforcement.
Modern Aircraft Fuselage Cut Outs View
2.3. Flight Deck and Passenger Cabin Windows
Flight deck windows

The flight deck windows fitted to pressurised aircraft must withstand both the loads of
pressurisation and impact loads from bird strikes. They are constructed from toughened glass panels
attached to each side of a clear vinyl interlayer. An electrically conducting coating, applied to the inside
of the outer glass panel is used to heat the window. This prevents ice from forming and makes the
window more resilient and able to withstand bird strikes. The shock loading of a bird
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strike impact is absorbed by the ability of the vinyl interlayer to stretch and deform should the impact be
great enough to shatter the glass. Windscreens are attached to the frame by bolts passing through the
edge of the windscreen.
The vertical and horizontal angles of the windscreen are specified so that each pilot has a sufficiently
extensive, clear and undistorted view so that they can safely perform any maneuvers within the
operating limitations of the aeroplane.
An opening window may be provided in the control cabin to enable the pilot to land the aircraft safely
should forward vision be restricted. On light aircraft the flight compartment windows are generally
perspex.
Modern subsonic and transonic air transport aircraft use a ‘stepped nose’ profile; this allows:
 the nose to be aerodynamically profiled for the aircraft’s maximum operating speed
 the windscreens to be located in a position that is optically acceptable
 the pilot the required vision for both ground and flight operations
 the reduction in the physical size of the windscreens
Passenger Cabin Windows

These are designed to be ' fail safe' and normally have two panes of acrylic plastic mounted in an airtight
rubber seal fitted into a metal window frame. The inner and outer panes are each
capable of taking the full cabin pressurisation load. If one pane fails the other will prevent loss of cabin
pressure.
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2.4. Mainplanes (Wings)
The wings support the weight of the aircraft in the air and so must have sufficient strength and stiffness
to be able to do this. The strength and stiffness are determined by the thickness of the wing with the
thickness and type of construction used being dependent on the speed requirements of the aircraft. The
types of construction are:-
a. Bi-plane
b. Braced monoplane
c. Cantilever monoplane
Bi-plane.
Very few bi-planes fly at more than 200 knots in level flight and so the air loads are low which means
that the truss type design covered in fabric is satisfactory. The wing spars, interplane struts and bracing
wires form a lattice girder of great rigidity which is highly resistant to bending and twisting. A diagram of
Bi-plane shown below.
Bi plane Structure
Braced monoplane
This type of design is also used on low speed aircraft.
Braced monoplane Diagram
Cantilever monoplane
The mainplanes have to absorb the stresses due to lift and drag in flight and, if of cantilever. Bending
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stress relief is also provided by mounting the engines on the wing and positioning the major fuel tanks
within the wing. During flight the fuel in the wing tanks is the last to be used.
Cantilever monoplane Diagram
This is particularly important at high all up weights when the outer wing fuel tanks are full. As the fuel is
used the weight of the aircraft decreases which reduces the required lift and therefore the bending
moments.
Note: The maximum bending moment occurs at the wing root. The engine position also acts as a mass
balance to reduce wing flutter.
The mainplanes may be of single spar, twin spar or multi spar construction.
A conventional structure would consist of front and rear spars, the metal skin attached to the spar
booms to form a torsion box.
Structure of Modern Wing
Wing Structure
There is a form of construction that uses a series of small spars to replace the main spars. Other
mainplane components are:-
Skin: takes the loads due to differences in air pressures and the mass and inertia of the fuel (if any) in
the wing tanks. It generates direct stresses in a spanwise direction as a response to bending moments
and also reacts against twisting (torsion) .
Stringers: are spanwise members give the wing rigidity by stiffening the skin in compression.
Ribs: these maintain the aerofoil shape if the wings, support the spars, stringers and skin against
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buckling and pass concentrated loads from engines, landing gear and control surfaces into the skin and
spars. The major structural components of the wings are generally manufactured from aluminium alloys
with composite materials such as GRP(glass reinforced plastic), CRP (carbon reinforced plastic) and
honeycomb structures used for fairings, control surfaces, flaps etc.
Wing Breakdown diagram
While the design and method of manufacturing wings has changed, the basic requirements and
nomenclature remain the same. These are:
Spars, Ribs, Stringers, Skin, End caps, Wing tips, Leading edge, Trailing edge, Root, Torsion box, Centre
section
Stabilising Surfaces
There are many different designs of the empennage (tail unit) i.e. :- Conventional, T-tail, H-tail, V-tail.
Tail Surfaces
The tail units provide, in most cases, the longitudinal and directional stability and the means of
longitudinal control. Some aircraft have their longitudinal stability and control provided by foreplanes
(canards). The horizontal surfaces, which are known as the tailplane or horizontal stabiliser, provide
longitudinal stability by generating upwards or downwards forces as required. The vertical surface(s),
vertical stabiliser or fin, generate sideways forces as required.
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Break down Tail surfaces
Longitudinal control is provided by the elevators or moving tailplane with directional control provided by
the rudder. Both the tailplane and the fin are subject to both bending and torsional stresses. Structurally
the tail unit components are generally smaller versions of the mainplanes in that they use spars, ribs,
stringers and skin in their construction. On some aircraft they may also be sealed to provide fuel tanks,
particularly those used for longitudinal and / or mach trim. They also use the same basic materials i.e.
aluminium alloys, composites with honeycomb structures or high density expanding foam being used for
control surfaces, to provide greater stiffness at lower
weight.
2.5. Flight Controls
Introduction
Aircraft flight control systems are classified as primary and secondary. The primary control systems
consist of those that are required to safely control an airplane during flight. These include the ailerons,
elevator (or stabilator), and rudder. Secondary control systems improve the performance characteristics
of the airplane, or relieve the pilot of excessive control forces. Examples of secondary control systems
are wing flaps and trim systems.
Primary Flight Controls

Airplane control systems are carefully designed to provide a natural feel, and at the same time, allow
adequate responsiveness to control inputs. At low airspeeds, the controls usually feel soft and sluggish,
and the airplane responds slowly to control applications. At high speeds, the controls feel firm and the
response is more rapid. Movement of any of the three primary flight control surfaces changes the
airflow and pressure distribution over and around the airfoil. These changes affect the lift and drag
produced by the airfoil/control surface combination, and allows a pilot to control the airplane about its
three axes of rotation. Design features limit the amount of deflection of flight control surfaces. For
example, control-stop mechanisms may be incorporated into the flight controls, or movement of the
control column and/or rudder pedals may be limited. The purpose of these design limits is to prevent
the pilot from inadvertently over controlling and overstressing the aircraft during normal maneuvers.
A properly designed airplane should be stable and easily controlled during maneuvering. Control surface
inputs cause movement about the three axes of rotation. The types of stability an airplane exhibits also
relate to the three axes of rotation.
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AILERONS
Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are attached to the outboard trailing edge
of each wing and move in the opposite direction from each other. Ailerons are connected by cables, bell
cranks, pulleys or push-pull tubes to each other and to the control wheel.
Moving the control wheel to the right causes the right aileron to deflect upward and the left aileron to
deflect downward. The upward deflection of the right aileron decreases the camber resulting in
decreased lift on the right wing. The corresponding downward deflection of the left aileron increases
the camber resulting in increased lift on the left wing. Thus, the increased lift on the left wing and the
decreased lift on the right wing causes the airplane to roll to the right.
ELEVATOR
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Like the ailerons on small airplanes, the elevator is
connected to the control column in the cockpit by a series of mechanical linkages. Aft movement of the
control column deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface up. This is usually referred to as up
elevator. The up-elevator position decreases the camber of the elevator and creates a downward
aerodynamic force, which is greater than the normal tail-down force that exists in straight-and-level
flight. The overall effect causes the tail of the airplane to move down and the nose to pitch up. The
pitching moment occurs about the center of gravity (CG). The strength of the pitching moment is
determined by the distance between the CG and the horizontal tail surface, as well as by the
aerodynamic effectiveness of the horizontal tail surface. Moving the control column forward has the
opposite effect. In this case, elevator camber increases, creating more lift (less tail-down force) on the
horizontal stabilizer/elevator. This moves the tail upward and pitches the nose down. Again, the pitching
moment occurs about the CG. As mentioned earlier in the coverage on stability, power, thrust line, and
the position of the horizontal tail surfaces on the empennage are factors in how effective the elevator is
in controlling pitch. For example, the horizontal tail surfaces may be attached near the lower part of the
vertical stabilizer, at the midpoint, or at the high point, as in the T-tail design.
T-TAIL
In a T-tail configuration, the elevator is above most of the effects of downwash from the propeller as
well as airflow around the fuselage and/or wings during normal flight conditions. Operation of the
elevators in this undisturbed air makes for control movements that are consistent throughout most
flight regimes. T-tail designs have become popular on many light airplanes and on large aircraft,
especially those with aft-fuselage mounted engines since the T-tail configuration removes the tail from
the exhaust blast of the engines. Seaplanes and amphibians often have T-tails in order to keep the
horizontal surfaces as far from the water as possible.
An additional benefit is reduced vibration and noise inside the aircraft. At slow speeds, the elevator on
a T-tail aircraft must be moved through a larger number of degrees of travel to raise the nose a given
amount as compared to a conventional-tail aircraft. This is because the conventional-tail aircraft has the
downwash from the propeller pushing down on the tail to assist in raising the nose. Since controls on
aircraft are rigged in such a manner as to require increasing control forces for increased control travel,
the forces required to raise the nose of a T-tail aircraft are greater than for a conventional-tail aircraft.
Longitudinal stability of a trimmed aircraft is the same for both types of configuration, but the pilot must
be aware that at slow speeds during takeoffs and landings or stalls, the control forces will be greater
than for similar size airplanes equipped with conventional tails. T-tail airplanes also require additional
design considerations to counter the problem of flutter. Since the weight of the horizontal surfaces is at
the top of the vertical stabilizer, the moment arm created causes high loads on the vertical stabilizer
which can result in flutter. Engineers must compensate for this by increasing the design stiffness of the
vertical stabilizer, usually resulting in a weight penalty over conventional tail designs.
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T- Tail
When flying at a very high angle of attack with a low airspeed and an aft CG, the T-tail airplane may be
susceptible to a deep stall. In a deep stall, the airflow over the horizontal tail is blanketed by the
disturbed airflow from the wings and fuselage. In these circumstances, elevator or stabilator control
could be diminished, making it difficult to recover from the stall. It should be noted that an aft CG could
be a contributing factor in these incidents since similar recovery problems are also found with
conventional-tail aircraft with an aft CG.
Since flight at a high angle of attack with a low airspeed and an aft CG position can be dangerous,
many airplanes have systems to compensate for this situation. The systems range from control stops to
elevator down springs. An elevator down spring assists in lowering the nose to prevent a stall caused by
the aft CG position. The stall occurs because the properly trimmed airplane is flying with the elevator in
a trailing edge down position, forcing the tail up and the nose down. In this unstable condition, if the
airplane encounters turbulence and slows down further, the trim tab no longer positions the elevator in
the nose-down position. The elevator then streamlines, and the nose of the aircraft pitches upward. This
aggravates the situation and can possibly result in a stall. The elevator down spring produces a
mechanical load on the elevator, causing it to move toward the nose down position if not otherwise
balanced. The elevator trim tab balances the elevator down spring to position the elevator in a trimmed
position. When the trim tab becomes ineffective, the down spring drives the elevator to a nose down
position. The nose of the aircraft lowers, speed builds up, and a stall is prevented. The elevator must
also have sufficient authority to hold the nose of the airplane up during the round out for a landing. In
this case, a forward CG may cause a problem. During the landing flare, power normally is reduced, which
decreases the airflow over the empennage.
This, coupled with the reduced landing speed, makes the elevator less effective. From this discussion, it
should be apparent that pilots must understand and follow proper loading procedures, particularly with
regard to the CG position.
STABILATOR
A stabilator is essentially a one-piece horizontal stabilizer with the same type of control system. Because
stabilators pivot around a central hinge point, they are extremely sensitive to control inputs and
aerodynamic loads. Anti servo tabs are incorporated on the trailing edge to decrease sensitivity. In
addition, a balance weight is usually incorporated ahead of the main spar. The balance weight may
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project into the empennage or may be incorporated on the forward portion of the stabilator tips. When
the control column is pulled back, it raises the stabilator’s trailing edge, rotating the airplane’s nose up.
Pushing the control column forward lowers the trailing edge of the stabilator and pitches the nose of the
airplane down. Without an antiservo tab, the airplane would be prone to over controlling from pilot-
induced control inputs.
CANARD
The term canard refers to a control surface that functions as a horizontal stabilizer but is located in front
of the main wings. The term also is used to describe an airplane equipped with a canard. In effect, it is
an airfoil similar to the horizontal surface on a conventional aft-tail design. The difference is that the
canard actually creates lift and holds the nose up, as opposed to the aft-tail design which exerts
downward force on the tail to prevent the nose from rotating downward. Although the
Canard Configuration
Wright Flyer was configured as a canard with the horizontal surfaces in front of the lifting surface, it was
not until recently that the canard configuration began appearing on newer airplanes.
Canard designs include two types—one with a horizontal surface of about the same size as a normal aft-
tail design, and the other with a surface of the same approximate size and airfoil of the aft-mounted
wing known as a tandem wing configuration. Theoretically, the canard is considered more efficient
because using the horizontal surface to help lift the weight of the aircraft should result in less drag for a
given amount of lift.
The canard’s main advantage is in the area of stall characteristics. A properly designed canard or tandem
wing will run out of authority to raise the nose of the aircraft at a point before the main wing will stall.
This makes the aircraft stall-proof and results only in a descent rate that can be halted by adding power.
Ailerons on the main wing remain effective throughout the recovery. Other canard configurations are
designed so the canard stalls before the main wing, automatically lowering the nose and recovering the
aircraft to a safe flying speed. Again, the ailerons remain effective throughout the stall. The canard
design has several limitations. First, it is important that the forward lifting surface of a canard design
stalls before the main wing. If the main wing stalls first, the lift remaining from the forward wing or
canard would be well ahead of the CG, and the airplane would pitch up uncontrollably.
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Second, when the forward surface stalls first, or is limited in its ability to increase the angle of attack,
the main wing never reaches a point where its maximum lift is created, sacrificing some performance.
Third, use of flaps on the main wing causes design problems for the forward wing or canard. As lift on
the main wing is increased by extension of flaps, the lift requirement of the canard is also increased. The
forward wing or canard must be large enough to accommodate flap use, but not so large that it creates
more lift than the main wing.
Finally, the relationship of the main wing to the forward surface also makes a difference. When
positioned closely in the vertical plane, downwash from the forward wing can have a negative effect on
the lift of the main wing. Increasing vertical separation increases efficiency of the design. Efficiency is
also increased as the size of the two surfaces grows closer to being equal.
RUDDER
The rudder controls movement of the airplane about its vertical axis. This motion is called yaw. Like the
other primary control surfaces, the rudder is a movable surface hinged to a fixed surface, in this
case, to the vertical stabilizer, or fin. Moving the left or right rudder pedal controls the rudder.
When the rudder is deflected into the airflow, a horizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction.
By pushing the left pedal, the rudder moves left. This alters the airflow around the vertical
stabilizer/rudder, and creates a sideward lift that moves the tail to the right and yaws the nose of the
airplane to the left. Rudder effectiveness increases with speed, so large deflections at low speeds and
small deflections at high speeds may be required to provide the desired reaction. In propeller-driven
aircraft, any slipstream flowing over the rudder increases its effectiveness.
V-TAIL
The V-tail design utilizes two slanted tail surfaces to perform the same functions as the surfaces of a
conventional elevator and rudder configuration. The fixed surfaces act as both horizontal and vertical
stabilizers. The movable surfaces, which are usually called ruddervators, are connected through a
special linkage that allows the control wheel to move both surfaces simultaneously. On the other hand,
displacement of the rudder pedals moves the surfaces differentially, thereby providing directional
control. When both rudder and elevator controls are moved by the pilot, a control mixing mechanism
moves each surface the appropriate amount. The control system for the V-tail is more complex than that
required for a conventional tail. In addition, the V-tail design is more susceptible to Dutch roll
tendencies than a conventional tail and total reduction in drag is only minimal.
Secondary Flight Control

Secondary flight control systems may consist of the flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers/ speedbrake,
and trim devices.
FLAPS
Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on practically all airplanes. These surfaces, which are
attached to the trailing edge of the wing, increase both lift and induced drag for any given angle of
attack. Flaps allow a compromise between high cruising speed and low landing speed, because they may
be extended when needed, and retracted into the wing’s structure when not needed. There are four
common types of flaps: plain, split, slotted, and Fowler flaps. The plain flap is the simplest of the four
types. It increases the airfoil camber, resulting in a significant increase in the coefficient of lift at a given
angle of attack.
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At the same time, it greatly increases drag and moves the center of pressure aft on the airfoil, resulting
in a nose-down pitching moment. The split flap is deflected from the lower surface of the
airfoil and produces a slightly greater increase in lift than does the plain flap. However, more drag is
created because of the turbulent air pattern produced behind the airfoil. When fully extended, both
plain and split flaps produce high drag with little additional lift. The most popular flap on airplanes today
is the slotted flap. Variations of this design are used for small airplanes as well as for large ones. Slotted
flaps increase the lift coefficient significantly more than plain or spilt flaps. On small airplanes, the hinge
is located below the lower surface of the flap, and when the flap is lowered, it forms a duct between the
flap well in the wing and the leading edge of the flap. When the slotted flap is lowered, high-energy air
from the lower surface is ducted to the flap’s upper surface. The high-energy air from the slot
accelerates the upper surface boundary layer and delays airflow separation, providing a higher
coefficient of lift. Thus, the slotted flap produces much greater increases in CLmax than the plain or split
flap.
SPOILERS/SPEEDBRAKE
On some airplanes, high-drag devices called spoilers are deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth
airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag. Spoilers are used for roll control on some aircraft, one of the
advantages being the elimination of adverse yaw. To turn right, for example, the spoiler on the right
wing is raised, destroying some of the lift and creating more drag on the right. The right wing drops, and
the airplane banks and yaws to the right. Deploying spoilers on both wings at the same time allows the
aircraft to descend without gaining speed. Spoilers are also deployed to help shorten ground roll after
landing. By destroying lift, they transfer weight to the wheels, improving braking effectiveness.
Spoiler Operation with Aeliron

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Speed brake Operation
TRIM SYSTEMS
Although the airplane can be operated throughout a wide range of attitudes, airspeeds, and power
settings, it can only be designed to fly hands off within a very limited combination of these variables.
Therefore, trim systems are used to relieve the pilot of the need to maintain constant pressure on the
flight controls. Trim systems usually consist of cockpit controls and small hinged devices attached to the
trailing edge of one or more of the primary flight control surfaces. They are designed to help minimize a
pilot’s workload by aerodynamically assisting movement and position of the flight control surface to
which they are attached. Common types of trim systems include trim tabs, balance tabs, anti servo tabs,
ground adjustable tabs, and an adjustable stabilizer.
TRIM TABS
The most common installation on small airplanes is a single trim tab attached to the trailing edge of the
elevator, Aileron and rudder. Most trim tabs are manually operated by a small control wheel trim
selector knobs. Aileron and Elevator trim tab may be selected in up or down position as required to
balance the aircraft and also reduce control stick force. Rudder trim tab may be selected left or right to
prevent yaw and rolling effect of aircraft. Pilots normally establish the desired power, pitch attitude, and
configuration first, and then trim the airplane to relieve control pressures that may exist for that flight
condition. Any time power, pitch attitude, or configuration is changed, re-trimming will be necessary to
relieve the control pressures for the new flight condition.
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GROUND ADJUSTABLE TABS
Many small airplanes have a non-moveable metal trim tab on the rudder. This tab is bent in one
direction or the other while on the ground to apply a trim force to the rudder. The correct displacement
is determined by trial-and-error process. Usually, small adjustments are necessary until you are satisfied
that the airplane is no longer skidding left or right during normal cruising flight.
ADJUSTABLE STABILIZER
Rather than using a movable tab on the trailing edge of the elevator, some airplanes have an adjustable
stabilizer. With this arrangement, linkages pivot the horizontal stabilizer about its rear spar. This is
accomplished by use of a jackscrew mounted on the leading edge of the stabilator. On small airplanes,
the jackscrew is cable-operated with a trim wheel or crank, and on larger airplanes, it is motor driven.
The trimming effect and cockpit indications for an adjustable stabilizer are similar to those of a trim tab.
Since the primary and secondary flight control systems vary extensively between aircraft, you need to be
familiar with the systems in your aircraft. A good source of information is the Airplane Flight Manual
(AFM) or the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH).
2.6. Flight Control Operations
2.6.1 Primary Controls

The function of the primary flying control surfaces is to provide control about one of the three primary
axes of roll, pitch and yaw. These are usually the ailerons for control in roll, the elevators for control in
pitch and the rudder for control in yaw.
The ailerons, for roll control, are mounted on the outboard trailing edge of the wings and move
differentially when deflected, one hinging upward to decrease lift at that point and the other hinging
downward to increase lift. The resulting differential aerodynamic forces produce a rolling moment about
the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. They are operated in some cases by sideways movement of the
pilot’s control column (or side stick), but more often by rotation of a control wheel attached to the top
of the control column. Rotating the control wheel to the right deflects the right aileron up and the left
aileron down, for roll to the right. Rotating the control wheel to the left has the opposite effect.
The elevators, for pitch control, are hinged to the trailing edge of the horizontal tail surfaces. When
deflected downward the positive camber of the surface is increased, creating positive lift aft of
the aircraft CG to produce a nose-down pitching moment about the lateral axis of the aircraft.
Upward deflection of the elevators produces the opposite effect. They are operated by fore and aft
movement of the pilot’s control column. Forward movement deflects the elevators down for pitch
down; aft movement deflects the elevators up for pitch up. The rudder, for directional control, is hinged
to the trailing edge of the vertical stabiliser, or fin. When deflected it produces camber on an otherwise
symmetrical aerofoil, creating lift in a sideways direction. Left deflection of the rudder produces
sideways lift to the right, aft of the aircraft CG, creating a yawing moment about the aircraft normal axis,
which yaws the nose to the left. Right deflection of the rudder has the opposite effect. The rudder is
operated by the pilot’s rudder foot pedals, attached to the rudder bar. Pushing the left pedal forward
deflects the rudder to the left and vice versa.
In all cases the degree of movement of the control surfaces is directly proportional to the degree of
movement of the pilot’s controls.
On some aircraft the effect of two of the above is combined in a single set of control surfaces.
Examples are elevons, which combine the effects of elevator and ailerons and which are mounted at
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the wing tips of some swept-wing aircraft. They move differentially for roll control and up or down
together for pitch control. Tailerons are essentially the same as elevons, except that they are
tailmounted rather than wing-mounted. Ruddervators are used on Vee, or butterfly tail aircraft and
combine the effects of rudder and elevator, as explained earlier under stabilisers.
The method of actuation between the pilot’s controls and the primary control surfaces is, in many
aircraft, direct mechanical. In this type of system, movement of the pilot’s controls is directly
transmitted to the appropriate control surfaces by means of rods or wires passing through guiding
pulley wheels. The force exerted by the pilot in moving the controls depends entirely upon the
aerodynamic forces acting upon the control surfaces, which increase as the square of the true airspeed.
Individual pilot strengths will clearly vary and consequently airworthiness requirements stipulate specific
load limits for conventional wheel type controls which should not have to be exceeded. To assist the
pilot a variety of control balancing devices may be used, which reduce the aerodynamic force to be
overcome.
Aerodynamic Balance
When a control surface is deflected the airflow acting over it will try to return the control tothe neutral
position. The total force trying to return the control surface to the neutral position is theproduct of the
lift force on the control surface and the perpendicular distance of the centre ofpressure of the control
surface to the hinge line. This is called the hinge moment and is illustrated atfigure below.
The magnitude of the lift force generated by any control surface will vary directly as the square of the
EAS. The pilot is required to provide the force to overcome the hinge moment and deflect the control
surface (in a manual system). At all but the lowest airspeeds he or she could do with some form of
assistance. This assistance is supplied in the form of control balance devices. Control balancing is
achieved either by reducing the hinge moment, or by setting up a forcethat acts against the hinge
moment.
Nose Balance or Inset HingeThis is perhaps the simplest form of aerodynamic balance. The hinge is
set back towards the CP of the control surface so that, when it is deflected, air strikes the surface
forward of the hinge and reduces the force needed to move the control by partially balancing the
aerodynamic force aft of the hinge. With this type of balance, care must be taken in the design to ensure
that the centre of pressure is not too near the hinge line. When a control surface is operated its centre
of pressure moves forward. If the margin between the centre of pressure and the inset hinge is too
small there is a possibility that the CP will move forward of the inset hinge, reversing the direction of the
hinge moment and is known as overbalance. An inset hinge is illustrated at figure below.
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Horn Balance
An example of a horn balance is shown below. Although it is shown here on a rudder, horn balances can
equally well be used on ailerons or elevators. In this system a portion of the control surface acts ahead
of the hinge line, and therefore produces a moment in opposition to the hinge moment.
Internal Balance
A projection of the control surface in the form of a balance panel, often referred to as a ‘beak’, is
connected by a flexible diaphragm within a sealed chamber to a fixed structure (eg. spar). Shown below.
Control surface movement produces a pressure differential between upper and lower surfaces and
these upper and lower surface pressure changes are fed to the chamber to provide a partial balancing
moment. Internal balance is therefore achieved with no increase in exterior drag.
Balance Tab
Like the inset hinge and the horn balance the balance tab serves the purpose of reducing the
stick forces involved in moving a primary control surface, at a given airspeed. A balance tab is
shown at Figure below. As the primary control surface moves one way, so the balance tab moves the
other. Since the tab is a considerable distance from the hinge line of the primary control, the moment
produced by it is large. The balance tab imposes a small penalty in terms of drag, and diminishes
slightly the effectiveness of the primary control surface to which it is fitted.
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Anti-balance Tab
In some aircraft, far from requiring assistance in moving a control surface against the aerodynamic
loads, the hinge moment is too small. This results in very low control column loads, a lack of feel and the
possibility of over-stressing the airframe due to excessive deflection of the control surface. This often
occurs because of the hinge being too close to the centre of pressure of the control surface. In order to
improve the situation an anti-balance tab is fitted which operates in the same direction as the control
surface. An anti-balance tab is illustrated below.
Spring Tab
With many aircraft aerodynamic balancing is not considered necessary at low airspeeds, but is
progressively required as airspeed increases, and with it the aerodynamic loads. The spring tab system
may then be fitted to deal with this situation. A spring balance tab is shown below
The movement of the control column is transmitted to a lever pivoted on the main control surface but
not directly operating it. Operation of this surface is through springs, and with low aerodynamic loads
the movement of this pivot arm is transmitted to the main control surface through the springs;
consequently there is no alteration in the geometry between the primary control surface and the
balance tab. When the aerodynamic loads increase at high speed, in order to transmit the control
column movement via the pivot arm to the control surface, the spring becomes compressed. This upsets
the geometry of the system and brings into operation the balance tab on the trailing edge, which moves
in the opposite direction to the primary control surface, thus assisting the pilot by reducing the stick
forces involved.
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Servo Tab
When manual controls are used to operate very large control surfaces the loads involved, even
with balance tab assistance, may be unacceptable. Under these circumstances servo tabs are used to
operate the control surfaces. A servo tab is a small aerofoil section, once again attached to the
trailing edge of the main control surface. The servo tab is operated directly by the control column,
with no direct connection between the control column and the main control surfaces. As with the
balance tab and the trim tab (described later), the servo tab moves in the opposite direction to the
primary control surface. A servo tab is illustrated above.
2.7. Powered Flight Control

The force needed to move the control surfaces of a large aircraft flying at high speeds makes it virtually
impossible for satisfactory control to be exercised by manual controls. It is therefore necessary that the
primary control surfaces be power operated. Powered controls may be divided into two categories,
power-assisted controls and fully power operated controls.
Power Assisted Controls

With power-assisted controls, the force needed for movement of the control surface is provided partly
by the physical force produced by the pilot and partly by the power system. Here then the pilot will have
‘feel’ which is provided by the control surface loads. Should a fault or power failure occur in the control
system, a disconnect system will be available, and control will continue to be maintained by manual
means alone, although control loading will be relatively high. Trim control for a power-assisted control is
provided in the same way as that for manually operated flying controls.
Fully Powered Controls

Where fully power operated controls are installed, power systems are provided which, while
independent of each other, operate in parallel and provide all the force necessary for operation of
control surfaces. Movement of the pilot’s controls is transmitted to actuators, which provide the force
necessary to move the control surfaces. Safeguards against faults or power failure may be provided by
manual reversion, or by more than one system, each with its individual hydraulic circuit. Thus
conventional trailing edge tabs will not be included and trim would be obtained by altering the zero
positions of the artificial feel mechanism. Occasionally, where necessary, balance tabs are fitted for the
maintenance of servo and hinge loads. An example of a power operated control system is shown below.
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Power operated controls are irreversible, which means that there is no feedback of aerodynamic forces
from the control surface. Consequently, the pilot has no feel through the controls for the aerodynamic
loading on the control surfaces. Feel is provided by artificial methods and, in fact, the artificial feel rarely
has any direct relationship to the forces working on the control surface. Feel can be provided by a spring
that exerts a constant load for a given control position, so that the more the control is moved the
greater the spring force to be overcome. The disadvantage of this system is that the resistance to
control movement is the same irrespective of airspeed. A proportionate force at low airspeed would be
inadequate at high speed, alternatively a proportionate force at high airspeed would be too great at low
speed.
Fly-By-Wire
In many present-generation aircraft signals from the pilot's primary controls are transmitted
electrically to actuators which move the control surfaces. This is known as fly-by-wire. The system lends
itself to the incorporation of sophisticated electronic processing which alters the response to control
inputs by the pilots to avoid stalling, over-rapid or excess control surface movement, or unstable flight
regimes. Fly-by-wire not only has the capability to improve aircraft performance, efficiency and safety, it
can also incorporate co-ordination of control surface movements too complex for a pilot to achieve
unaided.
Indication of the aircraft response to the pilot’s control inputs is by means of the primary flight
instruments; artificial horizon for roll and pitch, turn and slip indicator for yaw. Angle of attack sensors
may give aural stall warning, or stick shaking, in the case of excessive pitch up.
To prevent control surface damage due to strong gusts of wind when the aircraft is stationary on the
ground, control locks are fitted. These can be either external mechanical locking devices to prevent
control surface movement, usually fitted to aircraft with manual controls, or internal hydraulic locks
incorporated with powered flying controls. Visual warning that such locks have been fitted are provided
externally at the control surface and in the cockpit at the operating control. On some aircraft, warning
lights indicate when control surface locks are in place.
Secondary Controls
The principal function of the secondary control surfaces is not to provide control about oneof the
primary axes, but to adjust the lift or trim in specific flight circumstances. Examples are flaps, slats,
spoilers (except when used for roll control), airbrakes, trimming tail-plane and trim tabs. All of
these are described in detail in Principles of Flight.
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Flaps and slats are attached to the trailing and leading edges of the wings and are extended
symmetrically to increase wing lift at low flight speeds, such as approach and take-off. Spoilers are
hinged to the wing upper surface and, when extended, destroy some of the lift generated. They are
used during and after touch down to prevent ‘floating’ and extension of the landing roll and can be
selected manually or automatically on landing after touchdown and wheel spin-up, provided the
lever is in the armed position, or for a rejected take-off, when reverse thrust is selected above a
particular speed (typically 60kt).
Spoilers /Airbrakes may be extended symmetrically from the wing upper or lower surfaces (or both)
or from the fuselage to create drag and slow the aircraft in flight, during descent for example. A
trimming tailplane is a horizontal stabiliser with variable incidence, adjusted to trim the aircraft
longitudinally so that aircraft attitude can be maintained with minimal stick force. Trim tabs are
attached to the primary control surfaces and adjusted to eliminate the stick force needed to hold a
given control position.
The mode of actuation of the secondary control surfaces may be direct mechanical, hydraulic or electric
powered, or fly-by-wire, depending upon the aircraft size and operating speed. The pilot’s controls
usually take the form of levers for flap, slat, airbrake and spoiler operation and trimming wheels or
electrical trim switch on the control wheel for trimming surfaces.
The position of flaps, slats, airbrakes and spoilers is indicated by the operating control position and, on
larger aircraft, by position gauges and/or electronic indicating systems. It is essential that wing-mounted
lift augmentation devices (flaps and slats) should always be extended symmetrically, since asymmetric
Trailing Edge Flaps
deployment would create a strong rolling moment difficult or impossible to counteract with the primary
controls. Interconnecting actuators are designed to prevent asymmetric deployment and many aircraft
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Leading Edge devices
Typical Speed Brake/ Lift Dumper/ Spoilers
are equipped with warning systems to alert the pilot to this potential hazard. Asymmetric deployment of
wing-mounted airbrakes is similarly undesirable and warning devices are often incorporated with these
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controls. In addition, a flap load limiter system protects the trailing edge flaps from excessive air loads
by automatically retracting flaps from the fully extended landing flap position whenever the airspeed
exceeds a predetermined speed. When airspeed is reduced, the flaps automatically return to the fully
extended position.
Artificial Feel
For larger aircraft where PCUs are used, the pilot has no direct feedback ‘feel’. Therefore the designer
has to use artificial feel to ensure that the pilot senses the magnitude of the effect that his control
movements have. The simplest of these is the spring feel unit.
Spring Feel Unit
Spring Feel Unit
In this design the balance springs are mounted inside a container and act on a piston that is linked to
the control input. As the pilot inputs a signal for the PCU to deflect the control surface he is aware of
the spring force resisting him – greater input, greater resistance. Like the balance springs this system
is effective at lower airspeed where greater deflections are required. To create a realistic ‘feel’ at
higher airspeed which will act as an indication to the pilot as to the air loads acting on the control
surfaces, a system measuring and utilizing dynamic pressure, referred to as ‘Q’, was devised –
dynamic pressure being found by subtracting static pressure from pitot pressure.
Basic Q Feel System
Basic Q Feel Unit

In this design pitot pressure is directed to one side of a double acting actuator and static pressure to
the other. The resulting differential is dynamic pressure, which acts to bias the system, see diagram
5.50 above. The body of the actuator is attached to the aircraft structure and the piston’s ram is
attached by a linking block to the control system. The actuator is frequently termed a ‘Q feel
pot’.The Q feel function is achieved by making any deflection away from neutral moving the
piston against the dynamic pressure.
The method of achieving this for both fore and aft movement of the control column is
to insert a bell crank between the control column and link. By deflecting the stick an equal distance each
side of neutral, the input rod to bell crank will move linearly the same amount in each direction.
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The Bell crank will turn about its pivot point and the output rod will move the same amount as the input
rod but in the opposite direction, sending the signal to the PCU to deflect the control surface. At the
same time the horn of the bell crank attached to the Q feel pot will scribe an arc. As the ram is attached
to the horn by a link, this arc is transcribed into a linear movement, pulling the piston against the
dynamic pressure. The greater the movement, the greater the resistance ‘feel’. Any increase in speed
increases the value of ‘Q’, which acts against the pilot although only small deflections are required.
Hydraulic Q Feel
In this design the waste bin sized Q feel pot is replaced with a small hydraulic actuator and a servo valve
operated by dynamic pressure as shown above.
In this design a small hydraulic servo valve is attached to a diaphragm separating pitot and static
pressure. The dynamic pressure biases the servo valve, allowing hydraulic pressure into the actuator.
To make the feel proportionate, the hydraulic pressure that passes through the servo valve also acts up
beneath the valve’s stem. This has the effect of neutralising the servo valve. A decrease in dynamic
pressure will bias the servo valve to release fluid, dropping the pressure and the force acting back on the
stick, this system has a self-centering action.
3. Hydraulics
3.1 Basic Principles
Most modern aircraft incorporate hydraulic systems to a greater or lesser degree. The use of fluid
(hydraulic) pressure to provide power transmission has several advantages when compared with a
mechanical system. With a hydraulic system the power transmitted is very large in comparison to the
size and weight of the equipment required. Hydraulic lines can easily be routed into inaccessible parts of
the aircraft where the use of mechanical linkages would pose engineering problems in terms
of 90° turns in the transmission train, and the establishment of sufficiently strong anchor points in
restricted and/or non-reinforced areas.
Principles of Hydraulic Power Transmission

Pascal law state that if a force is applied to a confined fluid the resulting pressure is transmitted equally
in all directions. Providing that the fluid is not compressed by the action of the applied force, then the
pressure transmitted in each and every direction is undiminished by distance. Pascal's law applies only
to a confined fluid which is not in motion. The situation is illustrated below.Since pressure is equal to
force divided by area the pressure in the hydraulic system shown in Figure below is 100 gm per sq cm
throughout, since the applied force of 1000 gram is acting on a piston of 10 square centimetres. This is
precisely the principle behind an airborne (or any other) hydraulic system. By moving the small applied
force through a large distance you can move a large load through a small distance.
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3.2. Hydraulic Fluids
Any work which is done in compressing the fluid in the system is work wasted. One of the essential
qualities of a hydraulic fluid is therefore that it should be effectively incompressible throughout its
entire range of approved operating pressures. Other required properties of the fluid are listed below.
a. Low viscosity
b. Good lubrication properties.
c. Non flammable.
d. Non toxic.
e. Low freezing point.
f. High boiling point.
g. No foaming.
h. Stable. The fluid should show no decomposition or waxing.
i. Compatibility. The fluid must be compatible with the elastic material used in the seals and with
the metal in the hydraulic system components.
j. Coloured. This is for easy identification and also to aid in the detection of leaks.
Types of Fluid
Only fluid of the type specified by the manufacturer may be used in an aircraft hydraulic system. Mineral
or petroleum based oil is most frequently used in small aircraft. It is red in colour and should be used
with synthetic rubber, leather or metal seals. It has good lubricating properties, is chemically stable and
has additives to prevent foaming and corrosion. There is little change of viscosity with change of
temperature. However, mineral based hydraulic fluid has serious flammability limitations such that, in
the event of a high pressure leak, there is a serious fire hazard. Mineral oil is corrosive to natural rubber
and seals of this substance must not be used with it. Synthetic rubber seals are used with mineral based
fluid. Mineral based fluid is designated DTD 585 or MIL-H-5606.
Synthetic Based Fluids

16. In high performance aircraft there is a requirement for fluids having a large temperature range. This
is provided by SKYDROL. The common grade is Skydrol 500B which is light purple in colour. Other grades
of Skydrol are coloured green or blue and have an operating range of temperatures varying from about -
55°C to more than +105°C. Skydrol is highly fire resistant and the seals used in association with it are
made of materials such as silicone, fluorocarbon or butyl. The drawback of Skydrol is its susceptibility to
water and atmospheric contaminants and thus a system using it must be sealed. If overheated, skydrol
turns acidic and then forms a sludge. Additionally, any fluid leak will attack the insulation of electrical
wiring or anything made of polyvinylchloride (PVC). Skydrol is also very harmful to the skin and
especially the eyes, and must therefore be handled with great care.
3.3. Basic Aircraft Hydraulic Systems

An aircraft hydraulic system is a source of pressure energy for activating a wide range of aircraft systems
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and components such as landing gear, wheel brakes, flaps and flying controls, and nose wheel steering.
All hydraulic systems must, therefore, contain a pump to provide the pressure, a reservoir of fluid for
the pump to draw upon, actuators to operate the various components listed above and selectors with
which the desired functions are controlled.
The hydraulic system shown in Figure below is a passive hydraulic system without a pressure pump. The
system is not pressurised unless the pump is operated.
Simple Hydraulic system

Active hydraulic system
As an introduction to the following sections, Figure shown beow a basic close hydraulic system, with the
added refinements of an automatic cut-out valve to unload the pump when the actuators are not being
used, an accumulator to store pressure whilst the pump is unloaded, and a hand pump for
emergency operation. This is an active hydraulic system.
Basic Close hydraulic system

Hydraulic pumps may be powered from various sources. Pumps may be engine driven, electric motor
driven or powered by an air motor. The hydraulic pipe-lines are normally stainless steel for pressure
lines and may be light alloy for low pressure return lines.
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3.4. Hydraulic Components
The major components which are to be found in a hydraulic system are described in the following pages,
together with an outline of the function or functions that they serve.
The Reservoir
The reservoir is effectively a storage vessel for the hydraulic fluid within a system. The reservoir will also
contain an additional quantity of fluid to allow for slight losses through minor leakages. A reservoir is
illustrated below..
Hydraulic Reservoir
The Properties of a Reservior
Hold sufficient fluid for the entire system’s use
Hold an extra volume of fluid to cater for small external leaks
Have sufficient volume to cater for jack ram displacement
Have sufficient volume to cater for fluid expansion due to heating
Have a means to remove air and dissolved gases from the returning fluid
Hold an emergency reserve of fluid
Ensure that only fluid can enter the pump inlet supply pipe
Have a physical means to determine the fluid level when the system is slack
Have a means of replenishment
Under conditions of thermal expansion the reservoir will hold the excess volume of fluid which results.
When units are actuated, for example the landing gear is raised or lowered, varying
volumes of liquid are required as the piston rods move inside their jacks. The reservoir will contain
the surplus fluid, or alternatively supply an increased demand. During the passage of fluid round a
system air bubbles may become trapped in it. The returning fluid is directed in such a way that foaming
is minimised and any air in the fluid will be swirled out or extracted. The device which does this is known
as a de-aerator.
The reservoir normally contains a screened filter to prevent foreign matter from entering the system, a
vent to allow air to leave or enter the tank when the fluid level rises or falls (assuming an unpressurised
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system), and baffles to prevent splashing of the fluid. A sight glass enables the fluid level to be checked.
Minimum and maximum level lines are normally etched onto the sight glass. The results of allowing the
system to become depleted are obvious. Overfilling the system should also be avoided, since this could
result in an overflow of hydraulic fluid, or possible rupture of the system if the vent could not cope with
the fluid surge in the event of a high fluid volume return from a retracting piston.
In the event of a major leak in the system, the level of fluid stored in the reservoir would diminish. In
order to prevent the power driven pump within the system forcing all of the fluid through the leak, a
standpipe is fitted in the reservoir. Once the level of fluid drops to the top of the standpipe the supply of
fluid to the powered pump ceases. A reserve of fluid is still available however for use with the
emergency back-up system, which is frequently in the form of a hand pump on small aircraft.
For aircraft that fly at high altitude where the atmospheric pressure is correspondingly low, the reservoir
is pressurised, typically to between 10 psi and 30 psi depending on the manufacturer. Pressurisation is
provided by a filtered air bleed from the engine compressor and the desired pressure is controlled by a
pressure relief valve. Pressurising the reservoir ensures that the system receives a constant supply of
fluid and that pump cavitation is avoided. Cavitation occurs (typically on the inlet or suction side of a
hydraulic pump) when the fluid pressure is so low that cavities form due to entrapped gas expansion.
Foaming can be prevalent when the outside air pressure falls to a low level. After entering the reservoir,
the fluid will be de-aerated.
The Power-Driven Pump

The powered pump in the system ensures that a supply of hydraulic fluid at the designed system
pressure is always available when required, at each and every part of the system.
The required system pressure at all points downstream of the pump is maintained in one of two ways.
In the constant delivery system the pump, known as a constant displacement pump, is operating
continuously and is driven by the engine. This type of pump will move a given amount of fluid for each
revolution and is used when a fairly large volume of fluid needs to be moved at a relatively low pressure.
It means, though, that once the required pressure has been attained a cut-out, or pressure relief valve,
will be required to prevent any further increase in pressure. A hydraulic accumulator will normally be
found in any system using a constant displacement pump.
Vane Type Constant Displacement Pump
The vanes, which are held against the wall of the sleeve by a spacer, are free floating in the rotor. As the
rotor rotates, the volume between the vanes on the inlet side of the pump will be increasing, so that
fluid will be drawn in. On the outlet side of the rotor, the volume between the vanes will be decreasing
and thus fluid will be forced out through the outlet port. This type of pump is illustrated below.
Vane Type Pump

Variable Displacement Pumps
In a constant pressure live line system the pump physically ceases to operate once the required line
pressure is achieved. As and when the line pressure falls the pump again delivers fluid into the system
until the pressure is restored. This type of system requires no cut-out valve or accumulator for pressure
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control, however a pump by-pass valve is essential, to prevent over-pressurisation of the system in the
event that the pump fails to cease delivery once the required line pressure is achieved. The constant
pressure live line system employs a variable displacement pump. In the variable displacement system,
pump output volume, or displacement, is varied to maintain constant discharge pressure. An axial piston
swash plate pump is often used in such systems. This type of pump is illustrated below..
High Pressure Engine Driven Pumps

All pumps that are driven directly from the engine or ancillary gearbox are referred to as Engine Driven
Pumps (EDP). The high pressure pumps that are used in the closed system are piston types. These
normally revolve at about 4500 rpm. They move a smaller volume of fluid than the spur gear and vane
type pumps but due to design can operate at far higher pressures.
Variable Displacement Pump
The pistons in the rotating cylinder block are held in sliding contact with the stationary swash plate
through shoes, pivoted to the ends of the piston rods, by springs acting upon the pistons. Since the
shoes slide around the angled, stationary, swash plate, the pistons will move backwards and forwards in
their cylinders as the cylinder block is rotated by the engine-driven shaft. The extent of the piston stroke
will depend upon swash plate angle, and this in turn is adjusted by pump outlet pressure acting upon a
spring-loaded control piston. When the outlet pressure is zero or low, the stroke will be at its greatest
and the maximum volume of fluid will be displaced. As pressure increases, the control piston overcomes
spring pressure, reducing the angle of the swash plate and progressively shortening the length of piston
stroke. A point will eventually be reached where the pistons will not be pumping at all. When this occurs
the pump is said to be idling.
The same device is often used as a rotary motor. If hydraulic pressure is supplied to one side of the
ported plate and the other side is connected to the return line to reservoir, the pressure acting upon the
‘retarding’ pistons, that is the pistons extended by hydraulic inlet pressure, will be converted into rotary
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motion by the shoes sliding around the angled swash plate. Alteration of the swash plate angle will alter
the speed of rotation (for a given supply pressure) and reversal of swash plate angle will reverse the
direction of rotation.
Lubrication and cooling of the pump is achieved by allowing a small amount of oil to escape from the
pistons into the central chamber of the pump and thence back to the reservoir. This is generally referred
to as the case drain cooling flow. The fluid can be routed via a heat exchanger in the aircraft fuel tank
before returning to the reservoir. The fuel in the aircraft tank is used to cool the hydraulic fluid.
The Hand Pump

While the hand pump may be the only source of power in a small light aircraft hydraulic system, in larger
aircraft it will be installed:
a. As an emergency standby unit.
b. To allow ground servicing without the need for a running engine.
c. So that pressure joints and lines can be tested.
d. So that cargo doors, undercarriage bay doors, and so on, can be operated.
The hand pump is normally double acting. It incorporates non-return valves and also a relief valve. In the
air, should a failure occur of either the power driven pump or the power unit driving the pump, the hand
pump will provide an alternative method of lowering the gear and flaps, as well as providing vigorous
exercise for the most junior of the pilots. Similarly, if a major leak occurs, and the system depletes to the
level of the top of the standpipe in the reservoir, the hand pump will be required. In this case fluid is
drawn from the bottom of the reservoir and fed to the essential hydraulic services via the hand pump
and duplicate hydraulic circuits. A hand pump is illustrated below.
Hand Pump
Additional Safety Features

Because of the large number of services operated hydraulically on large modern aircraft, it is necessary
to duplicate, or even triplicate pumps and some of the associated services. This will provide redundancy
in the event of one system failure other system will provide the required pressure.
Other means of emergency operation of essential services include:
e. Landing gear designed for free fall and lockdown under the influence of gravity, possibly
supplemented by the application of positive 'g'.
f. Electrically driven back-up pumps, with or without a hand pump to supplement them.
g. Air, nitrogen or CO2 bottles providing pressure via separate selector valves to selected services.
h. A drop out ram air turbine driving a hydraulic pump.
i. Power pack units, where all components other than the actuators are housed in one unit.
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Accumulators
The accumulator serves four functions in a hydraulic system:
a. It absorbs pressure surges, which occur when operation of a system component causes
a pressure drop, followed by a pressure rise as the pump control responds.
b. It provides supplemental system pressure when large fluid demands are made, by
supplementing the fluid flow from the hydraulic pump.
c. It maintains system pressure when the hydraulic pump is disconnected from the system by the
Automatic Cut-Out Valve.
d. It serves as a pressure storage unit to permit limited operation of hydraulic services when the
pump is not operating. This allows, for example, flap operation for ground servicing or brake
operation during towing, when the engines are not running.
The most common types of accumulator are the Diaphragm Type (the bladder type is essentially similar),
or piston type.
Hydraulic fluid at system pressure is connected to one side of the diaphragm, or piston, and the other
side is charged with nitrogen gas under pressure. System hydraulic fluid can flow freely into or out of the
accumulator. Since gas is compressible it acts rather like a spring to absorb pressure surges, the first of
the accumulator functions listed above. The remaining three functions are met by virtue of the gas
pressure acting on the diaphragm or piston, forcing hydraulic fluid out of the accumulator as required.
The accumulator is charged with gas during ground servicing, typically to a pressure of approximately
half system pressure. When the engines are started the hydraulic pumps pressurize the system and fluid
enters the fluid chamber of the accumulator, depressing the diaphragm, or piston, and compressing the
gas in the gas chamber. Thus, when the hydraulic system is operating the accumulator gas pressure and
system hydraulic pressure are the same value.
When the hydraulic pumps are not operating the gas pressure flexes the diaphragm, or moves the
piston, to displace fluid into the system as required. To ensure freedom of movement of the piston
in the piston-type accumulator a drilling is provided for lubrication of the lower (gas) sealing ring.
Accumulators usually incorporate a pressure gauge on the gas side for use during charging. System
hydraulic pressure is displayed on a pressure gauge which reads system hydraulic fluid pressure.
Piston Accumulator Pressure Diaphragm Type Accumulator
All accumulators are fitted to:

Store energy (fluid under pressure)
Provide a limited supply of fluid / pressure in the event of an emergency
Dampen pressure fluctuations downstream of themselves
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Absorb fluid due to thermal expansion
Cater for small internal leaks
Cut-Out Valves
As already described, the cut-out valve is used in the constant delivery system to divert fluid back to the
reservoir once the required line pressure is achieved a cut out valve. The automatic cut-out valve will:
a. Provide a return line to the hydraulic reservoir.
b. Close the return line and direct fluid into the system when pressure falls below a set figure.
c. Give a smooth transition between pump and accumulator pressure control.
d. Automatically cut out to off-load the pump and permit an idling circuit from pump to reservoir.
This will reduce pump wear and consumption of engine power and, at the same time, prevent
overheating of the hydraulic fluid.
e. Cut in automatically when a service is selected and pressure is required to operate it.
(Cut-in will also occur if a leak causes a drop in hydraulic pressure).
f. Act as a non-return valve during cut-out periods and seal off the system to maintain pressure
when the hydraulic pump is idling.
The interval between cut-out and cut-in of the automatic valve provides reliable information concerning
the condition of the hydraulic system. A leak, whether internal or external, will cause a reduction in the
period between cut-out and cut-in.
If the accumulator gas charge pressure is too high there will be insufficient fluid in the accumulator
when system and gas pressures have equalized. This inadequate quantity of ‘stored’ fluid under
pressure will be rapidly exhausted after a few service operations, causing the cut-out valve to cut the
pump in. Pressure will be immediately restored, only to be quickly exhausted again as the fluid contents
of the accumulator are once again depleted, resulting in a rapid on/off cycle.
Too low an accumulator pressure will cause rapid fluctuations in pressure since the accumulator will no
longer serve its function of absorbing pressure surges. The accumulator piston contacts an internal stop
and rapid on/off cycling of the automatic cut-out valve frequently leads to ‘hammering’, a loud knocking
noise, in the system.
Non-Return Valves
These valves permit the flow of hydraulic fluid in one direction only. A non return valve is shown in
below as part of the plumbing associated with the cut-out valve.
Non Return Valve
Pressure Relief Valves

In order to prevent damage to the hydraulic system caused by excess pressure, a pressure relief valve is
invariably incorporated into the system. It is used as a safety device and is designed to open when
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system pressure reaches a preset value which is slightly higher than the intended system pressure. The
valve comprises a simple ball valve which is held against its seat by a spring. The spring tension is
Simple Pressure Relief Valve
adjustable and is set to relieve a small amount of fluid to the return line to the reservoir. A simple
pressure relief valve is shown above.
Cracking Pressure
Cracking pressure is the term given to the pressure at which a pressure relief valve begins to open. For
example, in a typical aircraft hydraulic system which is designed to operate at 3000 psi, the pressure
relief valve might be designed to be fully open at 3650 psi and to reset at 3190 psi. The cracking
pressure will therefore be somewhere between these values of the fully open and the fully
reseated pressures.
Full Flow Relief Valves

A full flow relief valve protects the system against over-pressurisation due to a variable displacement
pump pressure control failure which leaves the pump stuck on maximum flow. This type of relief valve
must be capable of passing the maximum pump output while limiting the pressure to approximately
10% above normal working pressure.
Thermal Relief Valves

Just like normal pressure relief valves, thermal relief valves are designed to open when the pre-set
pressure at the valve is exceeded. In this case however the increase in pressure is caused by an increase
in the temperature and subsequent expansion of the fluid in a part of the system where the fluid is
trapped, typically between a non return valve and an operating jack. Thermal relief valves are designed
to operate at a higher pressure than the conventional pressure relief valves in the same system. The
thermal relief valves do not therefore interfere with the normal operation of the system.
Shut-Off Valves
Positioned between the hydraulic reservoir and the pump, shut-off valves are normally operated
electrically to cut off fluid supply to the pump. They are used to facilitate ground servicing and to isolate
the fluid supply in the event of engine fire.
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Shuttle Valves
Shuttle valves are used to disconnect one source of hydraulic fluid whilst connecting another. As already
described, following a leak in the system the powered pump would become useless as the level of fluid
in the reservoir dropped to the level of the standpipe. It would therefore be necessary to supply fluid
from the bottom of the reservoir via the hand pump. The necessary re-routing of the circuit would be
achieved using shuttle valves. In the event of a shuttle valve becoming stuck in its ‘normal’ position (as
illustrated below it would be incapable of connecting the emergency supply to the system.
shuttle valve
Pressure Reducing Valves
These will reduce the main system pressure to that required for a particular service, for example the
brake system.
Diagram shown below a pressure reducing valve in a non operating condition. The spring is designed to
resist the required service pressure. The main high pressure (HP) supply will, by definition, deliver a
greater pressure than the required service pressure. When main high pressure is supplied to the valve
the piston is forced against the spring which compresses, allowing the piston to move. This movement
closes off the HP supply port to a position where the pressure of fluid entering the valve is balanced by
the spring pressure and the low pressure (LP) output will therefore be required system pressure. The
movement of the piston will also uncover the return port to route
excess fluid back to the reservoir.
Pressure Reducing Valve

Hydraulic Fuse
Hydraulic Fuse
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Hydraulic Fuses, as shown in above diagram , which sense increased flow rate are fitted upstream of
components that could be a potential source of an external leak. Under normal conditions the piston
is held against its stops by a combination of fluid pressure and spring force.
If a leak occurs downstream of the fuse a pressure differential occurs across the piston resulting in
the piston moving across and blocking the flow. While the service downstream of the fuse is lost the
other services supplied by the system remain serviceable
Restrictors
Restrictors are used to control fluid flow, in most cases they are used as speed control devices. There
are two basic types these are:
Two way or choke
One way
Two Way Restrictors
Two Way Restrictor

Two way restrictors are formed by reducing the bore of a pipe; this will limit the flow of fluid in both
directions equally. They can be referred to as a choke and are frequently fitted to light aircraft with
retractable undercarriages.
One Way Restrictors
One Way Restrictor
A one way restrictor is designed to allow full flow in one direction but restrict the return flow; diagram
above shows a cross section of a standard one way restrictor. The left hand diagram shows the valve
Flap and Undercarriage

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open to allow unrestricted flow, the right hand diagram shows the valve in the closed position where
the flow is reduced. To show the direction of full flow a bold arrow is stamped on the case, with an
arrow made of dots showing the restricted flow. the flow is reduced. To show the direction of full flow a
bold arrow is stamped on the case, with an arrow made of dots showing the restricted flow.
The location of restrictors is very important and the forces acting on the service must be taken into
account, for example for use in controlling the speed of operation of the undercarriage and flaps as
shown in above diagram.
When lowering the undercarriage the rate of extension has to be controlled as the mass of the gear and
gravity would want to take charge and accelerate it. The force created by the mass times the
acceleration could be sufficiently large that at the end of the gear’s travel damage occurs. To control this
rate of extension a one way restrictor is fitted in the ‘up line’ restricting the flow from the actuator, this
creates a back pressure resisting the force of the fluid acting in the down side of the actuator and
gravity. If the restrictor was fitted to control the flow of fluid entering the down line then, the gear
would fall with gravity and a cavitation would form in the down side of the actuator as fluid could not
enter fast enough, this would result in the piston seals being damaged etc. For the flaps the restrictor is
fitted to control the rate of flap retraction by controlling the rate of flow from the downline of the flap
actuator. This prevents the air load acting on the flaps and moving them up faster than the fluid can flow
into actuator.
Ram Air Turbine
Ram Air Turbine Deployed
The Ram Air Turbine or RAT is designed to give limited hydraulic power to the primary services in the
event of the normal hydraulic power generation system failing. The RAT consists of a variable pitch
propeller driving a small hydraulic pump via a gearbox, as shown above. When not in use the RAT is
held in a bay, which is normally located in the underside of the aircraft by main system pressure. When
stowed the RAT’s propeller blades are kept in the feathered position. In the event of a drop in the
system’s pressure below a predetermined level and provided that the airspeed is below a set level the
RAT is deployed into the airflow, where the blades move from the feathered condition and start the
wind milling action which drives the pump.
The RAT’s RPM is controlled by altering the blades’ pitch angle, the first action of the RAT is to recharge
its own accumulator then charge the main system where the priority valve will ensure that the primary
flying controls get the flow. As the wheel brakes are also primary hydraulic services, if the RAT is
deployed in flight it will remain deployed on landing although its effectiveness drops as the aircraft loses
speed. In normal circumstances when an aircraft has landed and system pressure is dissipated the RAT is
held in its bay by interlocking switches that sense the aircraft is on its undercarriage.
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Priority Valves
On some aircraft systems a priority valve is used instead of a pressure maintaining valve. The end result
is the same but is achieved by different means. Let us assume that the system fluid content is falling due
to a leak. At a pre-determined level, a switch located in the reservoir will be activated. This will transmit
a signal to the priority valve which then closes off the supply line to the nonessential services. An
example of a system using a priority valve is shown in diagram below, where the powered controls are
necessarily the essential services. The undercarriages and gear doors can be lowered under free-fall, the
wheel brake accumulators will supply sufficient energy to stop the aircraft on the ground and the
aircraft can land without flaps. Consequently these are considered to be non-essential services.
Priority Valve
Selector Valves
In a complex hydraulic system, control valves or selector valves are needed to control fluid flow. The
simplest type of all is an on/off valve which opens or closes a line as required. More usually hydraulic
jacks are required to operate in both directions. In such cases it is necessary to incorporate a four-way
valve which permits fluid flow in either direction. Selector valves may be of rotary, poppet or piston
type. Rotary and piston type selector valves are shown at below:
Four Port Rotary Selector Linear Selector for a Double Acting Actuator
.
Sequence Valves
A sequence valve (or timing valve) organises a series of hydraulic operations into the required
sequence. A common example of the use of this valve is in the landing gear system. The undercarriage
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doors must be opened before the undercarriage itself is extended, and these operations are properly
sequenced by this type of valve. Examples of sequence valves will be seen in the section dealing with
landing gears.
Undercarriage Circuit Showing Sequence Valves
Manual Pressure Relief Valves

Alternatively known as off loading valves or dumping valves. They allow system pressure to be released
back to the hydraulic reservoir and would be operated:
a. to exhaust system pressure prior to gas-charging the accumulator, and
b. to permit servicing or exchanging of a hydraulic component.
Flow Dividers
Their function is to divide equally the flow between two components, thus avoiding a situation where
there is pressure in one line but cavitation in another.
Pressure Relay Valves

A pressure relay valve in the normal operating configuration is shown at diagram below.
These valves are fitted into pressure gauge lines and have three functions:
a. To protect the gauge from pressure fluctuations. This is achieved by the springs within
the valve, which dampen out random pressure changes.
b. To prevent hydraulic fluid loss in the event of a burst pressure gauge. Under normal operating
conditions back pressure will act on the piston and compress the piston springs. The valve spring
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will retain the valve in the open position. If the pressure downstream of the valve drops due to
component failure the higher system pressure will move the piston in order to overcome valve
spring pressure and seat the valve, thereby closing off the flow to the burst gauge or feed line.
c. To allow servicing/replacement of the pressure gauge. Disconnecting the gauge will
have the same effect as a burst gauge. With a pressure relay fitted in the line the gauge
may be removed for servicing/replacement without the risk of loss of hydraulic system
contents.
Modulator Valves
These will be found in brake systems in association with axle mounted anti-skid units. On initial brake
application, an unrestricted fluid flow is provided to match the capacity of the brake, but then fluid flow
will be modulated to only allow reduced pressure. The reduced flow conserves main system pressure
and allows the brake unit to completely exhaust operating pressure when the anti-skid unit comes into
operation.
Hydraulic Jacks
The purpose of any hydraulic jack is to convert the force produced by hydraulic pressure into a linear
movement of a piston rod, or ram. Two basic types of jacks are commonly used as described below:
a. Single acting jack. These move under hydraulic pressure in one direction, and in the
other direction under the influence of a non hydraulic force, such as a spring. common
application of the single acting jack is landing gear and door locks.
b. Double acting jack. In this case the movement in either direction is due to hydraulic
pressure, and is controlled by means of a selector valve. The jack may be compensated
(balanced) or non-compensated. In the first case the area on either side of the piston is
identical, since there is a piston rod or ram on both sides of the piston. In the second
case the area on the side of the piston which is remote from the rod or ram is greater
than on the other side. A non-compensated system is normally used for landing gear
and flap systems, where a greater force is needed in raising the gear or extending the
flaps than in lowering the gear or retracting the flaps.
Mechanical Locks
Locking devices are mechanical latches, braces or pins which are automatically engaged once the
required hydraulic function has been achieved. They must be automatically disengaged before the
process can be reversed. An obvious example of this is the undercarriage, which is well protected by
locking devices to prevent its retraction until required by the pilot, otherwise taxiing can prove a
little difficult.
3.5. Hydraulic System Indications:

Larger aircraft normally have a hydraulic services panel on the flight deck, containing indications of fluid
quantity, pressure and temperature. Loss of hydraulic pressure, excess temperature and loss of fluid
flow (indicating pump failure) may activate warning lights or captions. Diagram shows below a typical
hydraulic control panel for a twin-engined jet aircraft.
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Typical Hydraulic Control Panel
The implications of the hydraulic system warning lights are as follows:

a. System low pressure. This may be caused by loss of fluid, pump failure or pressure filter
blockage.
b. Reservoir Low Level. This may be low fluid level or low air pressure. Low air pressure may cause
pump cavitation.
c. Pump Low Pressure. This may be caused by pump failure or drive shaft failure.
d. Pump Overheat. Pump swash plate stuck in high flow position. Blockage of case drain
cooling flow.
Some large aircraft have two engine driven pumps supplying one hydraulic system. During
normal operation, one pump is capable of supplying the demand and the other pump is off loaded.
During periods of high demand i.e. simultaneous operation of landing gear, flaps and slats the other
pump may either automatically come on-line, or be selected to operate.
3.6. Hydraulic Systems

Diagram shows below a hydraulic system as fitted in a twin-engined executive jet type of aircraft. The
engine-driven constant displacement pumps (EDPs) supply pressure to an automatic cut-out valve,
which maintains system pressure between 1250 and 1500 psi. Standby hydraulic pressure can be
provided by an electrically-driven auxiliary pump, for emergency or ground operations. The reservoir is
pressurised to 10 psi from the cabin air conditioning system. A system relief valve is set to begin opening
at 1700 psi.
The concept usually found in larger passenger aircraft where system redundancy is important. Three
independent hydraulic systems, (Left, Centre and Right), provide power to operate the aircraft's primary
flying controls, spoilers, landing gear extension and retraction, wheel braking systems, nose-wheel
steering and wing flaps. System operating pressure is typically 3000 psi. Left and Right
System are pressurised by one engine-driven pumps and one AC Electric driven pumps each and
supplies hydraulic power for operation of wing flaps, outboard flight spoilers and ground spoilers,
ailerons, elevators, lower rudder, landing gear extension/retraction and nose-wheel braking.
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Hydraulic System -Twin Executive Jet
The center system is pressurised by two AC electrically-driven pump and also a DC electrically driver
pump to supply essential power to the emergency services required in case of both Lift and Right system
failure.
Light Aircraft Hydraulic Systems

In order to minimise the complexity of the hydraulic systems of light aircraft, where only a few
components such as flaps and landing gear are hydraulically operated, either an open centre
system or a self-contained hydraulic power pack may be used.
Open Centre Systems

These use selector valves in series with one another. When no components are being used the selector
valves are in a neutral position and hydraulic fluid can flow freely from the engine-driven pump, through
the open centre of each selector valve, and return to the reservoir. Thus the pump is operating on
virtually no load, with the component actuators (jacks) in a state of hydraulic lock. Only when a
selection is made does pump pressure build up to move the actuating jack. When jack travel is
completed, pump pressure builds up further and returns the selector valve to its neutral (open centre)
position. The main disadvantage of such a system is that, with the selector valves in series, only one
actuator can be operated at any one time. An open centre hydraulic system is illustrated below.
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Hydraulic System - Open Centre
Hydraulic Power Packs

The trend in modern light aircraft with only limited hydraulic system requirements is to incorporate the
whole of the hydraulic power system (hand pump, reservoir and selector valves) into one easily-serviced
unit. A schematic diagram of a hydraulic power pack as fitted in some Cessna light aircraft is shown
below. The selector valves in this pack are of the poppet type.
Hydraulic Power Pack
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4. Landing Gear – Undercarriages
4.1. Introduction
The landing gear of a fixed wing aircraft supports the weight of the aircraft while it is on the Ground,
enable ground maneuvioring and absorbed take-off and landing load. Landing gear may be installed as:
1. Cconventional—Main gear with a tail skids or boumper

2. Tricycle- Nose gear and main gear
The main gear provides the principal support and the nose or tail wheel installation provides support of
the aircraft as well as direction control of the aircraft on the ground maneuveoring. Present days
modern large aircraft are all using tricycle arrangement of landing gears.
The advantages of tricycle landing gear during ground operation are:

1. No risk of the aircraft ‘nosing over’ during hard braking.
2. Better visibility for the pilot during taxiing.
3. Less likelihood of ground looping during take-off or landing in cross-wind conditions.
Depending on the operation the aircraft are categorised into three groups
Land planes
Seaplanes / Float planes
Amphibians
Land planes can take off from prepared or unprepared surfaces including snow and ice. Normally land
planes are fitted with wheeled landing gear.
Seaplanes are those where the fuselage is designed to be a floating hull and only land and take off from
water.
Floatplanes are land planes where the wheeled undercarriage is replaced with two floats that allow the
aircraft to take off and land on water.
Amphibians are aircraft that can land or take off from water or prepared runways. Amphibious aircraft
can either have a fuselage hull with retractable landing gear or floats that incorporate retractable
landing gear.
Originally all land planes used fixed undercarriages. In the very early days this amounted to a cross axle
with two bicycle wheels attached to a vee frame by bungee cords, that was in turn attached to the
fuselage. The distance between the two wheels, the undercarriage’s ‘track’ was narrow, this lead to
poor landing and take-off stability.
While the cross axle can still be found on some light fixed gear aircraft, it is not in common use as apart
from the narrow track the axle can create sufficient drag in long grass to tip a landing aircraft onto its
nose.
With the increases in aircraft weight, engine power and aircraft performance the designers replaced the
Vee frames and bicycle wheels with wheels and tyres, designed for the purpose, attached to
undercarriage legs in an attempt to reduce the shock load when landing.
In the quest for increased airspeed and operational efficiency these gears were refined by fairing the
landing gear legs and wheels to reduce the drag created at higher airspeeds. The ultimate drag
reduction for landing gear is achieved by fully retracting it when not in use.
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Requirements for a Modern Undercarriage
The progress in the design of landing gear over the last century has led to the following specific
requirements for air transport aircraft undercarriages that all designs must meet.
* Absorb the landing load and dampen vibration
* Withstand side loads when landing and taxiing
* Support the aircraft on the ground when it is manoeuvring
* Provided minimum friction between the aircraft and the ground
* Possess a low coefficient of drag
* Withstand the flight air loads
Landing
When an aircraft lands there are several factors that come into play these are:
* Its mass
* Its vertical velocity at touch down [sink rate]
* Its forward velocity at touch down
As mass times velocity equals force at touch down the aircraft exerts a downward force via its landing
gear to the earth, obviously the greater the landing mass or the greater the sink rate, the greater the
force created. As every force has an equal and opposite reaction the earth pushes back against the
aircraft, unless controlled this will cause the aircraft to recoil [bounce] back into the air to touch down
again. Thus a landing can continue in a series of kangaroo hops down the runway, or until the aircraft is
pushed skywards but is lower than its stalling speed and crashes. This is due to the fact that at the initial
touch down, of the landing force the vertical component is absorbed, leaving the mass. As the reaction
is now greater than the mass alone, the aircraft bounces back into the air to restart the process.
4.2. Fixed Undercarriage

To improve the suspension the following systems were introduced;
Bungee cords / bungee blocks
Spring steel legs
Bungee Cords / Bungee Blocks
Bungee Cords / Bungee Blocks
This system was used on early aircraft and is still used on some light aircraft. Refer to the diagram
above. It consists of a series of bungee cord rings or rubber blocks [bungee blocks] mounted inside a
tubular housing, which is connected to the aircraft’s structure. The lower section of the leg with the
wheel attached presses upwards against the bungee blocks.
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As the aircraft lands the action of the upper and lower leg is to compress the bungee blocks. This act of
compression absorbs energy from the touch down, slows the sink rate and reduces the spine jarring
thump that early rigid systems subjected their pilots to, as part of the landing load has been absorbed
into the bungees prior to it being fed into the aircraft’s structure. As this system is un-damped the
reaction force from the touch down and the recoil from the compressed bungees pushes the aircraft
upwards. However under normal conditions the aircraft will bounce up and down without recoiling into
the air, during taxing each bump will cause the aircraft to sway and bounce.
Spring Steel
Action of a Spring Steel Leg

This system is frequently used on very light G.A. aircraft. It consists of several strips of spring grade steel
clamped together to form a bar, one end is attached to the fuselage structure the other to a stub axle,
diagram shown above. On landing the force of the aircraft sinking against the resistance of the runway
causes the spring steel legs to start bending and thus absorbing the landing energy. As with the bungee
system energy absorbed by the spring steel is dissipated back into the fuselage structure at a controlled
rate, again the aircraft will sway and bounce as it taxis over uneven ground.
Oleo-Pneumatic Shock Struts

The landing gear shock struts are designed to absorb the shock loads of landing and taxiing over uneven
ground, preventing them from being transmitted to the airframe. The upper (outer) cylinder of the strut
is attached to the airframe and contains a lower (inner) cylinder which is free to slide up or down (and
rotate in the case of the nose strut) within the outer cylinder. The cylinders are partially filled with oil
and pressurised with compressed air or nitrogen. This compressed gas absorbs the shocks of normal
taxiing and balances the weight of the aircraft when it is stationary on the ground, so that the inner
cylinder takes up an approximate midstroke position. Under the increased shock of landing the inner
cylinder moves up, shortening the strut length. To prevent excessive upward movement, transference of
oil from lower to upper cylinder is progressively restricted by either a metering pin or a snubber valve.
As the volume of the gas space in the upper cylinder decreases with the upward movement, the gas
pressure increases to balance the upward force. To prevent aircraft bounce on landing, the shock
absorber damping on rebound is greater than the damping on compression.
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Oleo-Pneumatic Shock Struts
It is important that the struts are inflated to the correct gas pressure. Too high a pressure and the shock
absorption is reduced, too low a pressure and the strut extension will be inadequate, leading to
‘bottoming’ and complete loss of shock absorption under shock loading. Checking the strut gas
pressures is a job for an engineer, however a check of the amount of the inner cylinder which is visible
(the amount of extension) is a good indication to the pilot on a walk around inspection that the gas
pressure is approximately right. Tables or graphs may be available which enable the pilot to determine
the appropriate extension for a given weight and loading configuration.
4.3. Extendable/ Retractable Undercarriage
Main Components of Landing Gear
Design and Construction of Extendable/ Retractable Landing Gears the following factors are taken into
consideration:
a. Size of aircraft.
b. Weight of aircraft.
c. Role of aircraft.
d. High or low wing.
e. Performance.
f. Construction of aircraft and associated stowage problems.
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A typical main landing gear component in a large aircraft:
Main Landing Gear Components
Nose Gear
A nose undercarriage unit is usually a lighter structure than a main unit since it carries less weight and is
usually subject only to direct compression loads. It does, however, carry the attachment for the towing
equipment and so must withstand shear loads as well. Its design is complicated by several requirements:
a. Castoring.
b. Self centering.
c. Steering.
d. Anti -shimmy.
e. Withstand shear loads.
Nose Gear with Steering
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Castoring
To enable the aircraft to be manoeuvred about the airfield the nose wheel must castor freely though
subjected to compression and shear loading, which presents a problem to the bearing design. It is
Nose Landing Gear Castoring
the ability of the nose wheel to tum to either side in response to the results of differential braking or
aerodynamic forces on the rudder.
Self Centering
Automatic self centering of the nose wheel is essential prior to landing gear retraction. If the nose gear
is not in a central position prior to its retraction, the restricted space available for its stowage will not be
sufficient and severe damage may be caused to the aircraft structure as the hydraulic system forces the
gear upwards. Centering is achieved by either a spring loaded cam or a hydraulic dash pot.
4.3.1. Nose Wheel Steering

A method of steering is required to enable the pilot to manoeuvre the aircraft safely on the
ground. Early methods involved the use of differential braking. Powered steering using hydraulic
systems are now common to most large commercial aircraft, allowing the engines to be set at the
minimum thrust for taxying, thereby saving fuel, an important consideration with large jet engines.
This method of steering is more accurate and also reduces tyre and brake wear and noise
pollution. To allow free castoring of the nose undercarriage when required, i.e. towing, a by-pass is
provided in the steering system hydraulics to allow fluid to transfer from one side to the other.
When steering is selected this by-pass is closed by hydraulic pressure. Steering is controlled, depending
on the type of aircraft, by:-
a. A separate steering wheel.
b. Operation of rudder pedals.
Incorporated in the steering system are;-
a. Self-Centering jack.
b. Shimmy damper.
Self Centering operation. An inner cylinder in each steering jack is connected to the landing gear 'up'
line and is supplied with fluid under pressure when the landing gear is selected up. The steering jacks
extend equally to centralise the nose wheel before pressure is applied to the nose retraction jack, and
the by-pass valve allows fluid from the steering jacks to flow to the return line. Whenever the control
valve is in its neutral position, fluid is free to flow between the steering jacks, thus allowing the aircraft
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to be towed, or the nose wheel to return to the central position after a turn has been initiated with the
steering wheel.
Angular movement of the nose wheel during towing will be transmitted through the follow-up linkage to
the steering wheel. Some form of quick-release pin is often provided to enable the steering jacks to be
disconnected so that the nose wheel may be turned through large angles during ground servicing.
Damping Restrictors in the pipelines between the control valve and the steering
jacks provide damping for the nose wheel steering operation.
4.3.2. NOSE WHEEL SHIMMY.

Due to the flexibility of tyre side walls, an unstable, rapid sinusoidal oscillation or vibration known as
shimmy is induced into the nose undercarriage. Excessive shimmy, especially at high speeds, can set up
vibrations throughout the aircraft and can be dangerous. Worn or broken torque links, wear in the
wheel bearings and uneven tyre pressures can all increase the tendency to shimmy.
Shimmy can be reduced in several ways:
a. Provision of a hydraulic lock across the steering jack piston.
b. Fitting a hydraulic damper.
c. Fitting heavy self-centering springs.
d. Double nose wheels.
e. Twin contact wheels.
Shimmy Dampers Light Aircraft

Where the nose wheel is steerable it is possible for the tyre to oscillate either side of the aircraft’s track
due to the play in the linkages. To overcome this shimmy damper is fitted. For light aircraft this consists
of a housing attached to the upper leg, which contains a piston and two compression springs, as shown
in diagram 7.18 above. The piston is connected to the steerable lower leg. When the wheel is fore and
aft the compression in the springs is equal. If the wheel starts to turn it will increase the compression
resisting its movement, which will act to return it to the fore and aft position. Worn shimmy dampers
and torque links are the most common cause of nose wheel shimmy.
Light Aircraft Shimmy Damper
Heavy Aircraft Shimmy Damper
Hydraulic Shimmy Damper
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For larger aircraft hydraulic damper struts are used similar to the one shown in diagram 7.19 above. This
system makes use of a balanced actuator with metered orifices drilled through the piston. As the lower
leg starts to oscillate the piston is moved through the fluid, the rate of transfer from one side of the
piston to the other being limited by the orifices results in damping and the pressure build up against the
piston resists the turning force of the oscillation.
Attaching the shimmy damper to the steering ring allows the nose wheel to be turned and still maintain
shimmy damping.
Nose Wheel Steering Disconnect

To allow the nose wheel of aircraft fitted with powered steering to be turned when they are being
towed or pushed a steering disconnect mechanism is fitted. In many designs it is not possible to attach
the tow bar until the steering disconnect cover cap is removed and the steering disconnected.
As a safeguard it is physically impossible to refit the cover cap without the steering being reconnected.
The pilot is also informed by a caution caption if the steering is inoperative, both of these measures
ensure that the pilot has control of the steering prior to a take-off run.
Wheel Layouts
As aircraft developed and their weight increased tyre pressures had to increase if the tyre size and
therefore undercarriage bay was not to become excessive (see tyres in the following chapter). As
modern aircraft operate on high-pressure tyres up to 315psi, to support the weight of ever larger
aircraft more wheels were required to be fitted to the undercarriage.
Wheel Mounting Systems
Wheel Mounting Systems

1 Half fork
2 Fork
3 Twin wheel - mounted on the same axle line
4 Tandem wheels
5 Bogies of four, or for the large air transport aircraft six wheel configuration.
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Bogies:
Bogie Layout
The bogie beam attaches via a pivot to the bottom of the oleo leg as diagram above the lower leg is kept
in fore and aft alignment by torque links, the function of the bogie beam is to locate and support the
axles.
To lessen the friction created when the bogie wheels touchdown it is standard practice for one pair of
bogie wheels to contact the runway first. This allows them to speed up and give the aircraft directional
control. If all bogie wheels were to touch down simultaneously it is possible that the friction created
would reaction the nose gear on to the runway with such force as to cause structural damage. It
depends on the aircraft designer as to whether the front wheels (Airbus) or the rear wheels (Boeing)
touchdown first. One of the reasons for using the front wheels is that it reduces the lever arm between
the touchdown point and the nose wheel.
4.4. Landing Gear Operation

Landing Gear Locks
Landing gear up locks and down locks are provided. The locks are engaged by spring force and broken
during retraction/extension by hydraulic pressure.
Landing Gear Doors

Landing gear doors are used to enclose the retracted landing gear to reduce drag in flight. The doors
may be mechanically operated by gear movement or hydraulically operated and sequenced with the
landing gear.
Extension and Retraction

Raising and lowering the retractable landing gear of an aircraft is, almost invariably, achieved by
hydraulic systems. Since the landing gear is essential to safe landing of the aircraft, it is of vital
importance that there should be an alternate means of extending the gear in the event of hydraulic
system failure. In many aircraft an emergency pneumatic system can be selected to actuate the
landing gear. An alternative method of lowering the landing gear in an emergency is a gravity extension
or free-fall system. In this type of system, hydraulic pressure to the retraction system is shut off, the
raise and lower lines are open to return and the gear and door up-locks are mechanically released. The
gear extends under the influence of gravity and the down locks are engaged by spring action.
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Diagram below shows a landing gear system and a description of its operation follows.
Landing Gear System
A selector valve directs hydraulic system pressure to the appropriate side of the operating jacks (up or
down), at the same time connecting the other side of the jacks to the reservoir return line. Diagram
above shows the gear extended, let us first follow the sequence of operations when UP is selected.
Up selection.
The selector valve spool moves to the right, directing hydraulic pressure to the up lines, releasing the
main landing gear (MLG) and nose landing gear (NLG) down locks. Pressure is also applied to the MLG
and NLG operating jacks to retract the gears. As the NLG reaches the fully retracted position the spring-
loaded NLG up lock engages with a spigot on the torsion links. As the MLG reaches the fully-retracted
position the spring-loaded MLG up lock engages the detent on the MLG shock strut and a pintle on the
main gear opens the sequence valve (SV1). This directs up line pressure to the inner door jack, which
operates to close the inner door.
Landing Gear Up and Lock
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Down selection
The selector valve spool moves to the left, directing hydraulic pressure to the down lines, releasing the
NLG up lock and pressurising the NLG operating jack to extend the nose gear. Before the main gear is
extended the inner doors must be opened by the door jack. When the door reaches the full open
position a pintle contacts sequence valve 2 (SV2), opening it and allowing hydraulic pressure to release
the MLG up lock and extend the main gear. It will be noted that a one way restrictor valve is fitted in the
up line between the selector valve and the MLG jack. This restricts the flow of fluid returning from the
jack to the reservoir during MLG extension, thus limiting the rate of travel of the heavy main gear which,
with gravity added to hydraulic force, would otherwise be excessive. During retraction the one-way
restrictor permits full fluid flow.
Accidental retraction of the landing gear, due to inadvertent UP selection with the aircraft on the
ground, is prevented by weight-on safety switches, commonly called squat switches, (which isolate the
selector switch when aircraft weight is on the wheels) or by mechanical locking devices inserted by
ground maintenance staff.
Landing Gear Down Selected
4.5. Landing Gear Control and Indication
The landing gear control panel contains a selector handle with a knob in the shape of a wheel for UP or
DOWN and indications of landing gear position - down and locked, travelling (unlocked) and up and
locked. The gear operating handle may be locked when the gear is down and the aircraft weight is on
the wheels. It will only be unlocked when the aircraft is airborne and its weight is off the wheels. In
order to compare operator demands with aircraft conditions (airborne or on the ground) a logic circuit is
provided. Three-position selector handles (UP/OFF/DOWN) are often used for additional safety. The OFF
position permits depressurisation of the landing gear retraction system in flight.
Landing gear position is displayed by means of one indicator for each gear (nose, left main, right main)
and often takes the form of three lights which illuminate green when the gears are down, and locked in
the down position. Whilst the gears are travelling from UP to DOWN, or vice versa, a red light
illuminates to indicate ‘gear unlocked’. This sometimes takes the form of a flashing red light in the gear
operating handle.
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When the gear is locked up, all lights are extinguished. An alternative type of indication is shown at
Figure below. The three gear indicators show:
a. up and locked
b. unlocked (travelling)
c. down and locked
The unlocked condition is accompanied by a red warning light.
Landing Gear Control & Indication
Landing Gear Warning System

The warning system provides visual and aural warning that an unsafe landing condition exists. The red
landing gear warning lights come on and a warning horn sounds whenever the gear is not down and
locked and the aircraft is not safe to land. Under certain conditions the warning horn can be cancelled.
The landing gear red lights illuminate when the throttles are retarded. The warning horn sounds with a
combination of flap extension and throttles retarded.
Gear Safety Features

Since the correct operation of the landing gear is of the utmost importance, a number of safety features
are included in the retraction system to ensure its correct operation under all conditions.
Nose Wheel Centering

To avoid damage to the airframe structure, the nose wheel must always be aligned in a fore and
aft direction during retraction, and a number of methods are used to ensure that this happens
automatically. One of the method is Hydraulic Nose Wheel Centering on aircraft with powered steering.
Gear Selector Lock

To prevent inadvertent retraction of the landing gear when the aircraft is resting on its wheels,
a safety device is incorporated which prevents movement of the selector lever. This safety
device consists of a spring-loaded plunger which retains the selector in the down position and
is released by the operation of a solenoid. Electrical power to the solenoid is controlled by a switch
mounted on the shock absorber strut (part of the air\ground logic circuits). When the strut is
compressed the switch is open, but as the strut extends after take-off, the switch contacts close and the
Page-55
electrical supply to the solenoid is completed, thus releasing the selector lever lock and allowing the
landing gear to be selected up. A means of overriding the lock, such as a separate gated switch to
complete the circuit, or a mechanical means of avoiding the locking plunger, is provided for emergency
use and for maintenance purposes.
Ground Locks
Ground locks or landing gear locking pins are a further safety feature which is intended to
prevent inadvertent retraction of the gear when the aircraft is on the ground. They will usually consist of
pins or metal sleeves which interfere with the operation of the gear in such a way that
it is impossible for the gear to move when they are in position. They are fitted with warning flags which
should prevent the crew from getting airborne with them still in position on the gear. This
embarrassment can be averted by ensuring that the ground locks are removed before flight and stowed
on board the aircraft so that they are visible to the crew.
Warning Devices
To guard against landing with the landing gear retracted or unlocked, a warning horn is
incorporated in the system and connected to a throttle operated switch. If one or more throttle
levers are less than approximately one third open, as would be the case during approach to land, the
horn sounds if the landing gear is in any position other than down
and locked.
A horn isolation switch is often provided to allow certain flight exercises and ground servicing
operations to be carried out without hindrance, but an airspeed switch is a definite advantage,
since unlike an isolation switch, it cannot be first used, and then forgotten, with perhaps
disastrous consequences. An airspeed switch can also be used to prevent the horn sounding
during initial descent from high altitude.
4.6. Air/Ground Logic System

Inevitably there are systems of all types which need to be selected on or off in response to the
criterion of whether the aircraft is airborne or not.
This effect can be obtained by merely placing micro switches or the main landing gear oleo's so
that their position will be changed when the weight of the aircraft compresses the oleo, or
alternatively, on take off, when the weight of the wheel and bogie assembly extends the oleo.
On more modem aircraft, the use of micro switches has been superseded by proximity sensing
devices which work essentially in the same manner as the micro switches by deducing the
extension or retraction of the oleo by capacitive or inductive sensing equipment fitted to the oleo.
Whichever system is used, a controlling signal will be sent to a relay or bank of relays, which
in themselves are capable of switching the affected circuits on or off as required. Some aircraft use
sensors on just one main landing gear oleo, but it is common to find the sensors duplicated on both
main oleos to provide a degree of redundancy in the system.
4.7. Ground Locks

When aircraft are being towed or serviced without hydraulic power available, ground locks are
fitted. These take the form of tubular clamps or small pins. To indicate that they are fitted, each
locking device has a red or red and white diagonally striped flag (pennant) attached to it. When
fitted, these locks physically prevent the movement of the gear and doors.
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Each aircraft carries its own set of locks. For an air transport aircraft, these must be mounted in an open-
fronted or clearfronted stowage cupboard, which the captain can check on the way to the flight deck.
Diagram above shows sleeves and pins, the two main types of ground locks used. Sleeves are tubes that
are hinged along their length and clamp around the ram of an actuator when it is fully extended. The
sleeve forms a physical lock to the ram’s retraction. Pins, often used on geometric locks, fit through
holes that align when the struts are in the over centered condition and have a locking tag to prevent
them from falling out. Beware of ground locks that have lost their warning flags.
4.8. Wheels and Tyres:

Aircraft wheels are usually constructed from forgings or castings made from aluminium or magnesium
alloy to minimise aircraft weight. The most critical part of a wheel is the bead seat area which is rolled,
pre-stressing its area, thus increasing its strength to protect from tensile loads applied by the tyre. Most
large aircraft use tubeless tyres mounted on split-hub wheels. An example of such a wheel is shown at
diagram below.
Split-Hub Wheels Fusible insert
The two halves of the wheel are separated for installation and removal of the tyre. Obviously when
assembled they make an airtight seal to contain the tyre pressure. The surface condition of the wheel
flanges is also a vital factor in preventing air escaping from the tyre.
Page-57
The high pressures used to inflate large aircraft tyres make the structural integrity of the wheels
extremely important. Corrosion and cracking conditions are to be inspected periodically and guarded
against aways. Aircraft wheel hubs are made from aluminium alloy, but in some cases magnesium alloy,
a material prone to rapid corrosion.
Aircraft tyres:
Aircraft tyres must withstand aircraft loads of many tons at speeds up to 250 mph. Consequently their
construction is designed to withstand these loads whilst the tyre is constantly flexing during wheel
rotation. Typical aircraft tyre construction is shown at figure below.
Aircraft Tyre Construction
Tyres are classified by load, ply and speed rating. The term ‘ply rating’ is used to identify a tyre with its
maximum recommended load and pressure. It is the index of the tyre strength and does not necessarily
represent the number of cord piles used in its construction. The marking may be imprinted in full, e.g. 10
PLY RATING or abbreviated, e.g. 10PR. The speed rating is included for tyres used above 160 mph.
The tyre tread rubber is the abradable material in contact with the ground and may be patterned to
achieve particular characteristics. The most common pattern is the ribbed tread. The ribs provide
directional stability and the grooves between the ribs enable the tyre to disperse water, reducing the
risk of aqua-planning.
Tyre tread pattern is generally limited to a ribbed or patterned variety for aircraft tyres. The tread of the
tyre refers to the area forming the crown and shoulder. The most popular tread pattern is the ribbed
variety which is formed from circumferential grooves around the tyre. A ribbed tread provides good
traction, long tread wear and directional stability mostly suited for hard surface runways.
Patterned (diamond) tread tyres are particularly suitable for unpaved airfields.
Some nose wheels are fitted with a water deflector (or chine) on the upper sidewall to deflect water
away from rear mounted engines.
Twin contact tyres are used on nose wheels or tail wheels to prevent shimmy.
Tyre flexure, and friction due to contact with the ground, are causes of tyre wear and deterioration. The
condition of the tyre must be sufficient to withstand the dynamic and static loads of supporting the
aircraft.
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Damage to aircraft tyres, reducing their usable life, is caused by ‘creep’ around the wheel:
Creep. During braking and when the wheels spin up on touch-down the tyres may ‘creep’ around the
wheel, which leads to wear of the tyre bead and can damage the inner tube in tubed tyres (fitted to
some light aircraft). White creep indication marks are painted on tubed and tubeless tyres and the
wheel rim (flange) in line with each other. These marks are one inch in width for tyres of up to 24 inches
outside diameter and one and a half inches in width for tyres over 24 inches outside diameter. The
tendency of the tyre to creep is greater when the tyre is newly fitted, and/or when the tyre pressure is
too low.
Temperature. Build up of high wheel temperature during prolonged braking could result in
overheating of the tyre bead, and an increase in tyre inflation pressure which could result in explosive
fracture of the wheel. Fusible plugs are fitted in high performance aircraft wheels. These plugs melt at
a predetermined temperature and release tyre pressure as shown below.
Fuseable Plug
Wear: If a tyre is over-inflated it suffers excess wear on the crown. If the tyre is under-inflated it wears
on its shoulders (rim of the crown). Locked wheels and the spin up on touch-down cause scuffing of the
tread. It is recommended that tyres be removed when wear has reached the limits defined below:
1. Patterned tread tyres may be used until the tread is worn to the depth of the pattern.
2. Ribbed tyres with marker tie bars may be used until worn to the top of the tie bars.
3. Ribbed tyres without marker tie bars may be worn to within 2mm of the bottom of the wear
indicator groove.
4. Twin contact tyres may be used until the centre of the crown shows sign of contacting the
ground.
Cuts: Foreign objects on the runway/taxiway can cut into the tyre tread.
Contamination: Leakage of oil (especially some hydraulic oils) and solvents onto tyres will destroy the
rubber casing.
Tyre Checking Procedures
Tyre Inflation: Tyre inflation pressure is given in the aircraft operating manual. This is always the
inflation pressure with the wheel not supporting the aircraft weight. When tyre pressure is adjusted
with aircraft weight on wheels an allowance of 4% should be added to the rated inflation pressure. A
tolerance of 5% to 10% above this loaded inflation pressure is generally specified and tyre pressures up
to this maximum are permitted. Tyres should be inflated with nitrogen for safety.
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If tyre pressures increase as a result of heating, due to prolonged taxying or heavy braking, the excess
pressure should not be released as this could result in under-inflation at normal temperatures.
When checking the pressure of cold tyres which are at ambient temperature, any tyre which is more
than 10% below loaded inflation pressure should be rejected, together with the companion tyre on the
same axle. Any tyre which is between 5% and 10% below loaded inflation pressure should be re-inflated
to the correct pressure and checked at the next daily check; if the pressure is again more than 5% low
the tyre should be rejected.
When it is necessary to check the pressure of tyres that are still hot following a landing the pressure of
each tyre should be checked and noted and compared with the pressures of the other tyres on the same
undercarriage leg. Any tyre with a pressure 10% or more below the maximum recorded on the same leg
should be re-inflated to that maximum pressure, but should be rejected if a similar loss is apparent at
the next check. A typical tyre pressure for a commercial aircraft is in the range 150-250 PSI. Aircraft with
electronic instrument systems (glass cockpit) may include a tyre pressure indication system.
Tyre Venting: Tubeless tyres are vented to release air trapped in the casing during manufacture or by
normal permeation through the inner liner. The awl hole vent positions are marked by green or grey
dots on the lower side wall.
4.9. Wheel Braking Systems:

Almost without exception, aircraft wheel brakes are of the disc type, only a few light aircraft remain
fitted with drum brakes. Larger aircraft use multiple disc brakes, whereas light general aviation
aeroplanes often require only single disc brakes. To avoid disc distortion due to heat, very large aircraft
often use a variation of the multiple disc system known as a segmented rotor brake.
Unboosted Brake System
On light aircraft an independent or unboosted brake system may be used. A brake pedal attached to
each rudder pedal permits the application of differential braking. The applied brake pressure is
proportional to pedal pressure. The brakes may be locked on by applying a parking brake as shown
above diagram.
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The single disc brake comprises a polished steel disc which is keyed to the landing gear wheel.
When the brake is applied, hydraulic pressure on a piston forces high friction pads to clamp on either
side of the disc. The greater the force applied, the greater the braking friction.
Multiple disc brakes use a number of discs mounted parallel to each other with more hydraulically
operated pads, to increase the braking friction. This is necessary when stopping a large, heavy aircraft.
Diagram below shows a disc brake with a single disc, or brake plate. The brake plate is splined to
the aircraft wheel and rotates with it. The torque plate carrying the brake operating pistons is
attached to the axle and is stationary.
Single Disc Brake
Fixed Brake Housing Sliding Disc
Basic Brake Circuit
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Basic Brake Master Cylinders
Application of braking causes hydraulic pressure to move the piston to the right. The brake pad attached
to the piston pushes against the brake plate, which in turn moves on its splines to contact the fixed pad,
effectively clamping the disc between the stationary brake pads. Release of the hydraulic pressure
allows the return springs to move the brake pads axially out of contact with the disc.
Multiple Disc Brakes:

The heavier the aircraft the greater the kinetic energy that must be converted into heat energy by the
wheel brakes. This conversion takes place through friction between brake pads and wheel discs, thus
more pads and more discs are necessary with heavy aircraft. A multiple disc brake ND Wheel Hub is
shown below.
Multiple Disc-Brake and Wheel Hub
Component Parts Of A Multi Disc Brake

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The majority of large aircraft have main landing gears that retract inwards towards the aircraft centre-
line. To reduce the stress on the wheel spinning before gear retraction takes place, the main wheels are
braked. This braking function is achieved by an autoretract brake system. Nose gears that retract
fore/aft usually have de-spin friction pads contacted by the tyres when the gear reaches the up position.
4.10. Anti-Skid Systems

The function of the wheel brakes is to convert the kinetic energy of the aircraft into heat energy,
through the friction in the brakes. If the wheel stops rotating (locks) and the tyre skids on the runway,
the brakes have ceased to function and the energy transfer is now only between tyre and runway.
Furthermore, on a wet runway directional control of the aircraft may be lost.
To prevent the wheels locking during braking, transport aircraft braking systems include skid control, or
anti-skid systems. The principle of operation of such a system requires a device to measure wheel
rotational speed (the skid-control generator) and to apply the brakes in proportion. As rotational speed
diminishes, braking force is reduced sufficiently to just prevent wheel-locking.
The skid-control generator consists of a small DC or AC generator mounted in the wheel axle. The
voltage output of the generator (and frequency in the case of AC) will be directly proportional to wheel
rotary speed. This is fed as a signal to the skid control unit which compares it with the pilot's braking
demands. If there is no wheel skid developing, the braking action is proportional to the pilot's pressure
on the brake pedals. If a skid is developing, the skid control unit activates valves to release some of the
brake actuating pressure to prevent the skid developing further. This is called pressure bias modulation.
Clearly, the anti-skid sensing system can only function if the wheels are rotating in the first place. If, for
example, the aircraft were to touch down with wheel brakes applied, the wheels would skid and the
anti-skid system would have no way of sensing this, so the wheels would remain locked. A protection
circuit in the control unit prevents the brakes from being applied during the landing approach. This
circuit is called touch down protection or touch down control.
Anti-skid System
Mechanical Anti-skid System

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Should any wheel lock fully when the aircraft is rolling, as can happen on a patch of ice, the anti-skid
system will release the brakes fully on that wheel until it spins back up. This is known as locked-wheel
skid control and is only functional at aircraft speeds above 15 to 20 mph.
In the case of failure of the anti-skid system a warning light is activated on the flight deck and then the
brake system becomes fully operational manually by the pilots.
A schematic diagram is shown below with layout of the wheel braking and anti-skid system of modern
aircraft.
Electronic Anti-Skid System
Electronic Anti-Skid System
The output of the wheel speed sensor is fed to a deceleration rate controller, which compares
actual deceleration rate of wheel rotation with a preset reference value. If the wheel deceleration rate
(spin-down) is within limits there is no output from the rate controller and a permanent magnet
holds a flapper valve in its mid-position. This allows hydraulic pressure from the spool valve to
escape equally from the jets on either side of the flapper and maintains equal pressure at either end of
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the spool valve, centralising it. In this position, hydraulic pressure from the pilot's brake pedals is
transmitted directly to the wheel brake cylinders. If the deceleration rate exceeds the preset value the
rate controller produces an output signal which biases the permanent magnet field and causes the
flapper valve to tilt. This results in an increased pressure on the left side of the spool valve and a
decrease on the right, which causes the spool to move over, relieving the brake cylinder pressure and
releasing the brakes, thus preventing the wheels decelerating to a locked condition. Once the
deceleration rate is back within limits the controller will restore normal brake operation.
Parking Brake:
The purpose of the parking brake is to hold the aircraft stationary while the pilot is not operating the
brake pedals. Applying the parking brake routes brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel brakes to hold
them firmly ON so long as brake hydraulic pressure is available.
Operation varies with aircraft types, but in general the procedure is to depress the toe brake pedals fully
and apply the parking brake, which holds the brake control valves in the fully ON position. It should be
noted that, in many aircraft, application of the parking brake (even partial application) cuts out the anti-
skid system by closing the return line from the anti-skid valves.
With parking brake applied a warning indication is illuminated on the flight deck, together with anti-skid
failure warnings. Parking brakes usually only operate main wheel brakes, and in aircraft with multiple
main wheels often only some of the main wheel brakes are operated by the parking brake shown in
above diagram.
4.11. Normal, Alternate and Reserve Systems

The power for operating the wheel braking system is provided by the aircraft hydraulic system. Normal
braking hydraulic pressure is supplied by one of the main hydraulic systems and alternate braking by
another system.
The brake hydraulic system(s) always include an accumulator and a non-return valve. In the event of loss
of hydraulic supply the non-return valve prevents pressure loss from the brake system to main system
and the accumulator holds sufficient reserve pressure for a number of brake applications. In many
modern transport aircraft reserve braking is also available by connecting an electric hydraulic pump to a
reserve supply of fluid in the event of loss of main hydraulic systems. In some cases emergency brake
operation employs pneumatic pressure.
Indications:
Flight deck brake system indications are usually of brake system (accumulator) pressure, and brake
temperature. Warning indications of failure of normal supply and the anti-skid system are always
provided and may include aural as well as visual warnings. Aircraft with electronic instrument systems
may have tyre pressures displayed. The system has a pressure transducer in each wheel which sends a
signal corresponding to tyre pressure to a computer for display on a page showing landing gear
information.
Brake wear is indicated at the brakes. A protruding wear indicator pin shows brake life remaining, the
pin retracts as wear progresses. Where no wear indicator is provided, wear of the brake pads can be
determined by measuring the distance between brake piston and disc with the brakes applied. Brake
temperature indications are usually numerical, increasing with increased temperature. Above a certain
value a warning indication is activated, since brake efficiency decreases with increasing temperature.
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On some aircraft with ‘conventional’ displays a brake temperature monitoring system is fitted which
includes temperature sensors at each wheel, which feed to a central monitor and warning unit on the
flight deck. The monitor has a single temperature gauge and an illuminating selector button for each
wheel. The monitor is calibrated to a predetermined temperature level and the gauge normally displays
the highest of the brake temperatures. If any of the individual wheel brake temperatures exceed the
predetermined temperature the selector button associated with that wheel will illuminate. Pressing any
of the selector buttons will cause the gauge to indicate the temperature of the brake unit on that
particular wheel.
Auto Brakes:
Modern large transport aircraft incorporate an auto-braking facility which enables the pilot to pre-
select various deceleration rates. The maximum auto-brake deceleration rate is less than that available
from manual braking. Anti-skid protection is maintained during auto-brake operation. The system is
armed by selecting a deceleration rate, but it will only apply the brakes when the engine thrust levers
are at IDLE. The auto-brake system then maintains the selected deceleration rate in conjunction with the
aerodynamic speed brakes and thrust reversers. It will continue to provide braking to a complete stop or
until disarmed.
If an anti-skid or auto-brake system fault develops, the auto-brakes disarm automatically and
a warning light is displayed on the instrument panel. Brake application by the pilot will also disarm
the auto brake system.
The auto-brake system includes a rejected take-off (RTO) selection, which can only be armed with the
aircraft on the ground. With RTO selected, the auto-brake system applies maximum brake if the engine
thrust levers are retarded to idle above a certain aircraft speed (typically 80 to 90 knots).
Brake Symptoms:
Fading: Loss of braking action. This occurs in drum type brakes when they are hot and is due to
expansion of the drum away from the brake shoes. Disc brakes are designed to resist brake fade, but
this may occur with a fully worn brake during a severe rejected take-off.
Dragging: Failure of the brakes to release completely. Caused by a variety of factors including weak or
broken return springs, distorted discs and air in the brake hydraulic system.
Chattering or Squealing: Instead of maintaining an even friction the brake friction varies during one
revolution of the wheel. This causes a ‘chatter’ sound to come from the segmented brake discs. If the
frequency of this chattering is high enough the brakes emit a squealing noise. The causes are warped or
glazed discs or deposits of brake lining material on the discs, leading to uneven friction.
Overheating: The function of the brakes is to convert kinetic energy into heat energy. The greater the
kinetic energy to be converted, the greater the heat generated in the brakes. The major single cause of
brake overheating is high taxiing speeds. Overheating brakes may cause the disc to warp or cause the
friction material to break up and adhere to the disc. Aircraft with very hot brakes should not be parked
with the brakes applied to prevent fusing of the heat pack.
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5. Aircraft Pneumatic Systems
Some aircraft manufacturers have equipped their aircraft with a high pressure pneumatic system (3,000
psi) in the past. The last aircraft to utilize this type of system was the Fokker F27. Such systems operate a
great deal like hydraulic systems, except they employ air instead of a liquid for transmitting power.
Pneumatic systems are sometimes used for:
• Brakes
• Opening and closing doors
• Driving hydraulic pumps, alternators, starters, water injection pumps, etc.
• Operating emergency devices
Both pneumatic and hydraulic systems are similar units and use confined fluids. The word confined
means trapped or completely enclosed. The word fluid implies such liquids as water, oil, or anything that
flows. Since both liquids and gases flow, they are considered as fluids; however, there is a great deal of
difference in the characteristics of the two. Liquids are practically incompressible; a quart of water still
occupies about a quart of space regardless of how hard it is compressed. But gases are highly
compressible; a quart of air can be compressed into a thimbleful of space. In spite of this difference,
gases and liquids are both fluids and can be confined and made to transmit power. The type of unit used
to provide pressurized air for pneumatic systems is determined by the system’s air pressure
requirements.
5.1. High-Pressure Systems:

For high-pressure systems, air is usually stored in metal bottles at pressures ranging from 1,000 to 3,000
psi, depending on the particular system.
High Pressure Pneumatic System

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This type of air bottle has two valves, one of which is a charging valve. A ground-operated compressor
can be connected to this valve to add air to the bottle. The other valve is a control valve. It acts as a
shutoff valve, keeping air trapped inside
the bottle until the system is operated. Although the high pressure storage cylinder is light in weight, it
has a definite disadvantage. Since the system cannot be recharged during flight, operation is limited by
the small supply of bottled air. Such an arrangement cannot be used for the continuous operation of a
system. Instead, the supply of bottled air is reserved for emergency operation of such systems as the
landing gear or brakes. The usefulness of this type of system is increased, however, if other air
pressurizing units are added to the aircraft.
Pneumatic Brake System
5.2. Pneumatic System Components

Pneumatic systems are often compared to hydraulic systems, but such comparisons can only hold true
in general terms. Pneumatic systems do not utilize reservoirs, hand pumps, accumulators, regulators, or
engine-driven or electrically driven power pumps for building normal pressure. But similarities do exist
in some components.
Air Compressors
On some aircraft, permanently installed air compressors have been added to recharge air bottles
whenever pressure is used for operating a unit. Several types of compressors are used for this purpose.
Some have two stages of compression, while others have three, depending on the maximum desired
operating pressure.
Relief Valves
Relief valves are used in pneumatic systems to prevent damage. They act as pressure limiting units and
prevent excessive pressures from bursting lines and blowing out seals.
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Control Valves
Control valves are also a necessary part of a typical pneumatic system. Diagram below illustrates how a
valve is used to control emergency air brakes. The control valve consists of a three-port housing, two
poppet valves, and a control lever with two lobes. In Diagram below “A”, the control valve is shown in
the off position. A spring holds the left poppet closed so that compressed air entering the pressure port
cannot flow to the brakes. In Diagram below “B”, the control valve has been placed in the on position.
One lobe of the lever holds the left poppet open, and a spring closes the right poppet. Compressed air
now flows around the opened left poppet, through a drilled passage, and into a chamber below the right
poppet. Since the right poppet is closed, the high-pressure air flows out of the brake port and into the
brake line to apply the brakes. To release the brakes, the control valve is returned to the off position.
Diagram below ”A”. The left poppet now closes, stopping the flow of high-pressure air to the brakes. At
the same time, the right poppet is opened, allowing compressed air in the brake line to exhaust through
the vent port and into the atmosphere.
Pneumatic Control Valve
Check Valves:
Check valves are used in both hydraulic and pneumatic systems. A flap-type pneumatic check valve. Air
enters the left port of the check valve, compresses a light spring, forcing the check valve open and
allowing air to flow out the right port. But if air enters from the right, air pressure closes the valve,
preventing a flow of air out the left port. Thus, a pneumatic check valve is a one-direction flow control
valve.
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Restrictors:
Restrictors are a type of control valve used in pneumatic systems. An orifice-type restrictor with a large
inlet port and a small outlet port. The small outlet port reduces the rate of airflow and the speed of
operation of an actuating unit.
Variable Restrictor
Another type of speed-regulating unit is the variable restrictor. It contains an adjustable needle valve,
which has threads around the top and a point on the lower end. Depending on the direction turned, the
needle valve moves the sharp point either into or out of a small opening to decrease or increase the size
of the opening. Since air entering the inlet port must pass through this opening before reaching the
outlet port, this adjustment also determines the rate of airflow through the restrictor.
Filters
Pneumatic systems are protected against dirt by means of various types of filters. A micronic filter
consists of a housing with two ports, a replaceable cartridge, and a relief valve. Normally, air enters the
inlet, circulates around the cellulose cartridge, and flows to the center of the cartridge and out the
outlet port. If the cartridge becomes clogged with dirt, pressure forces the relief valve open and allows
unfiltered air to flow out the outlet port. A screen-type filter is similar to the micron filter but contains a
permanent wire screen instead of a replaceable cartridge. In the screen filter, a handle extends through
the top of the housing and can be used to clean the screen by rotating it against metal scrapers.
Desiccant/Moisture Separator
The moisture separator in a pneumatic system is always located downstream of the compressor. Its
purpose is to remove any moisture caused by the compressor. A complete moisture separator consists
of a reservoir, a pressure switch, a dump valve, and a check valve. It may also include a regulator and a
relief valve. The dump valve is energized and deenergized by the pressure switch. When deenergized,
it completely purges the separator reservoir and lines up to the compressor. The check valve protects
the system against pressure loss during the dumping cycle and prevents reverse flow through the
separator.
Chemical Drier
Chemical driers are incorporated at various locations in a pneumatic system. Their purpose is to absorb
any moisturethat may collect in the lines and other parts of the system. Each drier contains a cartridge
that should be blue in color. If otherwise noted, the cartridge is to be considered contaminated with
moisture and should be replaced.
Emergency Backup Systems

Many aircraft use a high-pressure pneumatic back-up source of power to extend the landing gear or
actuate the brakes, if the main hydraulic braking system fails. The nitrogen is not directly used to
actuate the landing gear actuators or brake units but, instead, it applies the pressurized nitrogen
to move hydraulic fluid to the actuator. This process is called pneudraulics. The following paragraph
discusses the components and operation of an emergency pneumatic landing gear extension system
used on a business jet.
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Pneumatic Emergency Landing Gear Extension System
Nitrogen Bottles
Nitrogen used for emergency landing gear extension is stored in two bottles, one bottle located on each
side of the nose wheel well. Nitrogen from the bottles is released by actuation of an outlet valve. Once
depleted, the bottles must be recharged by maintenance personnel. Fully serviced pressure is
approximately 3,100 psi at 70 °F/21 °C, enough for only one extension of the landing gear.
Gear Emergency Extension Cable and Handle
The outlet valve is connected to a cable and handle assembly. The handle is located on the side of the
copilot’s console and is labeled EMER LDG GEAR. Pulling the handle fully upward opens the outlet valve,
releasing compressed nitrogen into the landing gear extension system. Pushing the handle fully
downward closes the outlet valve and allows any nitrogen present in the emergency landing gear
extension system to be vented overboard. The venting process takes approximately 30 seconds.
Dump Valve
As compressed nitrogen is released to the landing gear selector/dump valve during emergency
extension, the pneudraulic pressure actuates the dump valve portion of the landing gear selector/dump
valve to isolate the landing gear system from the remainder of hydraulic system. When activated, a blue
DUMP legend is illuminated on the LDG GR DUMP V switch, located on the cockpit overhead panel. A
dump valve reset switch is used to reset the dump valve after the system has been used and serviced.
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Emergency Extension Sequence:
1. Landing gear handle is placed in the DOWN position.
2. Red light in the landing gear control handle is illuminated.
3. EMER LDG GEAR handle is pulled fully outward.
4. Compressed nitrogen is released to the landing gear selector/dump valve.
5. Pneudraulic pressure actuates the dump valve portion of the landing gear selector/dump valve.
6. Blue DUMP legend is illuminated on the LDG GR DUMP switch.
7. Landing gear system is isolated from the remainder of hydraulic system.
8. Pneudraulic pressure is routed to the OPEN side of the landing gear door actuators, the UNLOCK side
of the landing gear uplock actuators, and the EXTEND side of the main landing gear sidebrace actuators
and nose landing gear extend/retract actuator.
9. Landing gear doors open.
10. Uplock actuators unlock.
11. Landing gear extends down and locks.
12. Three green DOWN AND LOCKED lights on the landing gear control panel are illuminated.
13. Landing gear doors remain open.
6. Airconditioning and Pressurisation
6.1. Airconditioning:
The Air-conditioning system of an Aircraft is designed to maintain selected temperature
conditions within the Flight Deck, Passenger cabins and other compartments, and is comprised
of five principal sections, namely: Air supply, Heating, Temperature control and Distribution of
air throughout the above mentioned areas. In Some aircraft a humidity control section also
forms part of the air conditioning system. This conditioned is also used for ventilation of the
aircraft and to pressurised the aircraft fuselage for crew and passengers comfort. It is also
observed that the average person requires:
* a pound of air per minute – 1ppm for ventilation
* a temperature between 18 – 24 degree C – the comfort zone
* an average humidity of between 30-60% at 18 degree C
The source of air supply and arrangement of essential components depends on the type of aircraft ana
air conditioning system installed.
Light Aircraft Ram Air Heating Systems

For un-pressurised light aircraft cabin temperature can be controlled by using ‘ram air’ systems.
These ram air system heat ambient air and supply it into the cabin, the air that enters the heating
unit is taken from a forward facing scoop hence the term ‘ram air’.
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Combustion Heater:
Combustion Heater Schematic

More sophisticated light aircraft can use a dedicated combustion heater to heat ram air. These systems
can normally operate up to altitudes of 16,000 feet and can be left operating on the ground to warm the
aircraft’s cabin prior to flight. The disadvantages of these systems are, that they draw fuel from one of
the aircraft’s fuel tanks, they could be a source of carbon monoxide poisoning, and are a potential fire
risk.
Diagram above shows a schematic for a typical combustion heater system. The unit located within the
fuselage has to be supplied with two sources of air. The air to be heated, ‘ram air’, is taken from an inlet
at the base of the fin, the air for use in the combustion chamber ‘combustion air’ is taken from an inlet
on the side of the aircraft so that it is at static pressure.
Ambient air is drawn in through the static inlet by an electrically powered combustion blower, which
supplies the combustion chamber with the correct weight of air for complete combustion of the fuel
(aviation gasoline). A pressure switch in the duct between the combustion blower and the combustion
chamber senses the pressure in the duct and ensures that the correct pressure is maintained.
In flight the air to be heated is supplied as ram air through the forward motion of the aircraft. For
operation on the ground an electrically powered blower fan is fitted between the heater and the intake
this induces a flow through the duct. The power supply for the blower fan is routed through a squat
switch on the undercarriage, so that after take –off the blower fan is automatically switched off.
A valve is fitted into the ram air duct, which allows the pilot to control the rate of flow into the
combustion heater. A micro switch mounted by the valve and linked to a fuel shut-off valve will prevent
the heater from operating until the valve is opened to the minimum air flow position, this prevents
damage to the heater from overheating.
The central chamber is interlinked with two concentric chambers, so that the hot exhaust gases have to
pass back and forth before venting to atmosphere via an exhaust pipe or mast that protrudes below the
aeroplane. This design ensures that the ram air, which passes between the heated chambers, extracts
the maximum heat possible. The solenoid valve acts as a fuel shut-off.
Temperature is controlled by a valve plate in the output duct downstream of the heater unit. To get
hotter air the pilot closes the valve slowing the through flow of air from the heater unit, allowing more
time for heat transference. A temperature thermistor is located in the outlet duct, this serves two
functions firstly as overheat protection, secondly as a temperature / economiser control.
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In the event of the outlet air temperature exceeding preset limits the thermistor closes the solenoid
valve, de-energises the fuel pump and the ignition system, shutting the heater down. At the same time
the master caution and a heater overheat indicator on the central warning panel illuminates. If this
situation occurs the heater can only be reset on the ground.
To make the heater economical the thermister registers the temperature as set by the pilot’s positioning
of the valves and cycles the heater to maintain the temperature of the outlet air within a tolerance.
When the upper temperature is reached the heater unit closes down until the temperature falls then
cuts back in again automatically.
As a fire precaution to protect the aircraft from a possible failure of the cut out system in an overheat
situation leading to the combustion chamber cracking and flames entering the air ducts, flame valves
are fitted. These look like the folded wings of a butterfly and are located in the ducts each side of the
heater unit. If the temperature of the air surrounding them exceeds a set value a bimetal latch
disengages and strong springs snap the valve closed isolating the heater from the duct. This is unlikely to
happen as the combustion chamber is deliberately kept at a lower pressure than the surrounding ram
air, ensuring that any crack in the combustion chamber will result in ram air entering the chamber.
If the heater is shut down in flight the pilot keeps the ram air valve open for a minute to allow the unit
to cool. When the heater is to be shut down on the ground the pilot must keep the blower fan running
with the ram air valve open for approx 3 minutes to ensure that the unit cools after the heater is turned
off, failure to do this can lead to the unit cracking with attendant dangers of carbon monoxide poisoning
and fire.
6.2. Basic Principles of Aircraft Air Conditioning
As aircraft are going to be operated at different flight levels in different temperature zones around the
world, the aircraft’s air conditioning system has to capable of taking extremely cold air and warming it,
or extremely hot humid air and cooling it and dehumidifying it. As the ambient temperature is a variable
these systems will use heated ambient air. The heating of the ambient air is either by dedicated means
or hot bleed air is taken from a gas turbine’s compressor. This heated air often referred to as ‘charge air’
is then split and a proportion is cooled, before being mixed together to achieve the required
temperature.
Cooling the charge air is a major function of the pack; there are two different methods in which this can
be achieved, the use of air as a cooling medium referred to as ‘air cycle’ or the use of a refrigerant
referred to as ‘vapour cycle’.
6.3. Air Cycle Machines
The component that cools the charge air is termed a Cold Air Unit or CAU, there are three different
designs of these, each come under the heading of ‘air cycle machines.
The types are:
The bootstrap
The brake turbine
The turbo fan
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Bootstrap in conjunction with a Mechanical Blower
Bleed Air Bootstrap
Bleed Air Bootstrap System
Diagram shown above is a schematic for a bootstrap used in conjunction with bleed air from a
gasturbine engine. Turbine powered aircraft where the compressor section can supply more air than the
core engine requires are able to supply bleed air to the packs.
This air has been heated due to compression so in this system there is no requirement for a blower and
silencer. In the event of any problem the bleed air to the air conditioning pack can be cut by closing the
bleed air shut off valve [S.O.V.]. This isolates the engine, and as the air-entering engine will pass through
it there is no need for a spill valve.
A pressure relief valve protects the ducts from over pressure created due to increased engine RPM, a
mass flow controller linked to a flow control valve ensures that the correct mass of air is supplied to the
system as the aircraft changes altitudes and engine RPM settings.
The bootstrap functions in the same manner as before, heating the air before passing onto a turbine to
ensure that there is an adequate temperature loss across the turbine. In these systems if hotter air is
required in the system the bleed air can be taken from latter stages of compression in the engine. As
before the streams of air are mixed in a plenum chamber before passing into the aircraft cabin.
Spill Valve and Flow Control Valve

The spill valve is designed to allow charge air to bleed overboard in different condition and is linked to
the flow control valve. For older aircraft during the take off run when the propellers require all the
available power the spill valve opens to allow all the charge air to vent to atmosphere, this off loads the
blower and reduces the load on the engine.
During flight the flow control valve, also referred to as a ‘mass flow controller’ determines the
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correct mass of air passing through the system to ventilate the aircraft, this is done by venting charge air
to atmosphere, as the aircraft climbs and the ambient density decreases the flow control valve will
progressively close the spill valve, engine RPM thus blower RPM will also alter the spill valves position.
In the event of an engine fire, to prevent contamination of the cabin air the spill valve will be fully
opened when the pilot operates the engine’s fire handle. In the event of the cabin air becoming
contaminated with smoke from the air conditioning system the pilot can open the spill valve manually to
isolate the system. An NRV is fitted downstream of the spill valve to prevent loss of cabin air pressure in
the event of the spill valve being opened or failure of the blower.
Duct Relief Valve

A duct relief valve is located down stream of the NRV, the function of this valve is to protect the duct
from over pressurisation, as there is a real danger that if the duct ruptures high temperature air could
play onto fuel lines or electrical cables and start a fire. The relief valve is set to operate at 10 Psi above
the ducts normal pressure, refer to the graph on diagram 12.8 above. It is standard for question setters
to just use the valves value (10 Psi) in questions.
Choke Valve and Dual Pressure Switch

The choke valve is fitted as a means of increasing the charge air’s temperature in certain conditions, by
restricting the through flow and creating a backpressure. The choke valve only 12-9
restricts the airflow when the bypass valve downstream is fully open. The dual pressure switch is located
upstream of the choke valve and monitors the duct pressure, if the pressure rise increases to 8.5 Psi
above the normal value the dual pressure switch signals the choke valve preventing the choke valve
closing any further. In the event of the pressure continuing to rise at 9.5 Psi the dual pressure switch
signals the choke valve and drives the valve fully open.
Bypass Valves
There are two bypass valves fitted in this system one down stream of the choke valve, and a second
downstream of the primary heat exchanger. They function as temperature control valves. The first
bypass valve can direct all the air through the heat exchanger or allow a percentage of air to bypass the
heat exchanger, the second valve controls the amount of air that enters the CAU. Both valves are
controlled by temperature sensors either mounted in the aircraft’s cabin or in the duct leading into the
aircraft’s cabin.
Primary Heat Exchanger

The system has two heat exchangers, these act as radiators. Charge air from the first bypass valve is
ducted into the primary heat exchanger, this is also known as a ‘pre-cooler’. In the heat exchanger the
hot charge air is passed through a matrix of small-bore pipes while ram ambient air passes around them.
As the heat exchanger is open ended this results in adiabatic cooling where the temperature decreases
but there is no significant change in the pressure.
Bootstrap
The bootstrap consists of three components in the following order compressor, heat exchanger, and
turbine. The compressor and turbine form are linked together and form one unit referred to as the cold
air unit or CAU. The system is referred to as a bootstrap as it is able to self-start, as soon as there is air
flowing across the turbine it will start to revolve itself and the compressor.
As the air from the compressor drives the turbine an increase in airflow from the compressor will result
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in the turbine trying to accelerate, however the compressor’s rotation applies a load back on the
turbine, thus they self regulate. Due to the compression and work done by the cold air unit and the
speed of rotation these units have to be lubricated, failure of the oil seals can result in blue smoke
entering the cabin.
Air that has been cooled by the pre-cooler is directed by the second bypass valve into to the eye of the
CAU’s centrifugal compressor here it is compressed raising both pressure and temperature as seen in
above diagram. The output from the compressor is then passed through the secondary heat exchanger,
also referred to as an ‘intercooler’, before being ducted on to the edge of a turbine.
In its passage across the turbine the air is made to work by rotating turbine and compressor. This work
absorbs pressure energy and at the same time the air is able to expand, the combined effect reduces the
temperature of the air, resulting in a stream of cold air leaving the turbine. To get more cold air, more
hot air is ducted into the eye of the compressor and vice versa, the speed of the CAU will be determined
by the temperature requirements of the system and the air’s density.
Water Extractor
At lower altitudes the moisture content [humidity] is higher than that found at high altitudes. Excess
humidity inside the aircraft would manifest itself as condensation or even water droplets falling from
the air conditioning low-pressure ducts. This would lead to discomfort for the passengers and crew.
To remove this excess moisture water extractors also known as water separators are fitted downstream
of the cold air unit, in some systems more than one water extractor is used as warm air can support
more moisture than cold air.
The extractor is fitted in the cold air supply downstream of CAU as shown in above diagram. Between
them is an ice screen, this is fitted to prevent moist air leaving the turbine, which will be below the dew
point, forming ice pellets and damaging the water extractor.
There are different designs of water extractor, however they all work on the same basic principle of
diffusion, coalition and extraction. As the air enters the water extractor it passes through a diffuser
section that slows the airflow and guides it over a coalascer section (see note) here the moisture is
coalesced [brought together] into larger droplets.
The droplets are carried by the airflow to the extractor section. Here the water impinges on a series of
loose rods, forming large droplets, and runs down to a collector. The rods are loose to enable them to
vibrate and shake the water downwards. Dried air leaves the extractor to be mixed with the other
streams of air.
In turbo prop systems and older gas turbine aircraft systems the water that has been collected is drained
overboard or collected and drained by ground staff. In modern air transport aircraft this moisture can be
collected and reintroduced into the air stream when the aircraft is flying at high altitude where the
humidity is low.
Water extractors incorporate an internal bypass valve, in the unlikely event of the water extractor
become blocked by ice the bypass valve opens and allows un-dried air to pass into the air conditioning
system.
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6.4. Vapour Cycle Cooling
In some large passenger transport aircraft, vapour cycle (refrigerator) air cooling systems are installed to
supplement the air cycle systems whilst the aircraft is on the ground. Vapour cycle refrigeration systems
make use of the fact that, during evaporation, a liquid absorbs latent heat from its surroundings. By
using a liquid with a low boiling point, the latent heat removed from the cabin fresh air supply results in
the temperature of the cabin air supply being chilled. The refrigerant typically used in vapour cycle
systems is freon, with a boiling point of about 3°C at ISA msl pressure. A vapour cycle cold air unit is
shown schematically as shown below..
Vapour Cycle Cold Air Unit
Refrigerant at low pressure is drawn through the tubes of the evaporator (a heat exchanger) by the air
turbine-driven compressor. The refrigerant enters the evaporator as a liquid, however the heat of the
cabin air supply passing over the tubes of the evaporator causes the refrigerant to boil and the latent
heat absorbed during this process of evaporation cools the cabin air supply.
The compressor raises the pressure, and therefore the boiling point, of the refrigerant before it enters
the second heat exchanger in the cycle, the condenser. Ram air passing over the tubes of the condenser
cools the refrigerant, which condenses back into a liquid, giving up latent heat to the ambient ram air as
it does so.
The pressurised liquid passes through an expansion valve which is an integral part of the evaporator
situated at the inlet side. The valve causes the refrigerant to start evaporating the instant it enters the
evaporator and to be completely evaporated before it leaves the coil. A thermal element is attached to
the suction side of the evaporator and any change in temperature at the suction line causes a
corresponding change in the thermal element. The temperature change in the thermal element is
signalled to the expansion valve which then controls the refrigerant entering the evaporator according
to temperature demand. The refrigerant tank acts as a reservoir.
Turbine outlet and inlet air is mixed with the chilled air output from the evaporator by means of a
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thermostatically operated series of valves. Air then enters the cabin at a controlled temperature of
about 20°C.
In many aircraft systems the compressor is electrically-driven, the evaporator being capable of chilling
the cabin air supply without the need of a pre-cooling turbine. A major advantage of vapour cycle
cooling is that it can be used on the ground without the need to run the engines. Units are lighter than
air cycle units and do not require a high pressure air supply. Smaller pipes from the diffuser branch
pipes take air to the passengers’ overhead service panel punka louvres, also known as ‘gaspers’,
which allows the users to direct air onto their faces.
Cabin Air Circulation
Diagram above shows the circulation pattern for an air transport aircraft, which ensures that the whole
cabin is correctly ventilated.
Typical Air Conditioning System Schematic
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The flight deck always has a separate distribution supply from the passenger cabin and in large aircraft
the passenger cabin can be divided into zones with each zone having a separate supply duct, diagram
shown below for a schematic of the complete air conditioning system of a modern aircraft.
Where cargo holds are heated by warm air they will always use the air that has already passed through
the cabin the exhaust from the flight deck is used to ventilate and cool the aircraft’s avionics that are
normally located in a bay beneath and behind the flight deck, on medium and large aircraft there is
normally an access hatch from the flight deck into this bay.
The air distribution shown in above aircraft has two air conditioning packs, packs 1 and 2. In normal
operation pack 1 is supplied with bleed air from the No 1 engine and pack 2 from engine No2.
Therefore if there is any problem with an engine, e.g. forward spool oil seal failing allowing oil into
the compression cycle, the engine can be isolated from the pack.
In the event of an engine failing the crew can elect to open the cross feed valve and operate both packs
from the single engine, this does have ramifications on the aircraft’s and engine’s performance.
On the ground the APU normally supplies pack 1 with bleed air to condition the cabin, however if
wanted the APU can supply pack 2 via the cross feed valve. If the APU is unserviceable hot high-pressure
air from a ground conditioning trolley can be fed into the system. A further connection allows low -
pressure pneumatic conditioned air from a cart to be fed directly into the aircraft’s distribution system.
The amount of bleed air and the point from which it is taken is determined by the bleed air regulation
valves. This will depend on the engine’s RPM, and the amount of air required by the different pneumatic
systems. At lower RPM or the need for high temperature bleed air the air will be drawn from the HP
compressor section. The pack valves allow the pilot to isolate the packs from the bleed air supply.
7. Pressurisation
In order to stay alive the human body requires oxygen. Insufficient oxygen, or hypoxia, results in loss of
consciousness and, eventually, death. With increase in altitude both air pressure and air density
decrease and this has a twofold effect:
a. With decreased air density the proportions of the gases in the air will remain constant,
but will quite simply be reduced in quantity. The amount of oxygen inhaled will therefore
reduce.
b. The body absorbs oxygen through the lung tissues during normal respiration, and this
process is assisted by the pressure of air within the lungs. The lower the pressure, the
more difficult it becomes for the lungs to perform efficiently.
Up to an altitude of 10,000 feet (3.3 km) there is sufficient air pressure and oxygen to enable the human
body to perform efficiently. Above this level some artificial method must be employed to produce an
environment inside the aircraft which equates to the conditions of air pressure and density at or below
10,000 feet. Cabin pressurisation normally achieves conditions equivalent to those of about 8,000 feet
(2.6 km) or less. Under these circumstances the aircraft is said to be operating at a cabin altitude of
8,000 feet or less.
a. If certification for operation over 25,000ft is requested, the aeroplane must be able to
maintain a cabin pressure altitude of not more than 15,000ft in event of any probable
failure or malfunction in the pressurisation system.
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b. Pressurised cabins must have at least the following valves, controls and indicators, for
controlling cabin pressure.
1. Two pressure relief valves to automatically limit the positive pressure differential to
a predetermined value at the maximum rate of flow delivered by the pressure source. The
combined capacity of the relief valves must be large enough so that the failure of any one valve
would not cause an appreciable rise in the pressure differential. The pressure differential is
positive when the internal pressure is greater than the external.
2. Two reserve pressure differential relief valves (or their equivalent) to automatically prevent a
negative pressure differential that would damage the structure. However, one valve is enough if
it is of a design that reasonably precludes its malfunctioning.
3. A means by which the pressure differential can be rapidly equalised.
4. An automatic or manual regulator for controlling the intake or exhaust airflow, or both, for
maintaining the required internal pressure and airflow rates.
5. Instruments to indicate to the pilot the pressure differential, the cabin pressure altitude and the
rate of change of cabin pressure altitude.
6. Warning indication at the pilot station to indicate when the safe or pre-set pressure differential
is exceeded and when a cabin pressure altitude of 10,000ft is exceeded.
7. A warning placard for the pilot if the structure is not designed for pressure differentials up to
the maximum relief valve setting in combination with landing loads.
8. A means to stop rotation of the compressor or to divert airflow from the cabin if continued
rotation of an engine-driven cabin compressor or continued flow of any compressor bleed air
will create a hazard if a malfunction occurs.
The main problem with pressurised aircraft is not the complexity of the pressurisation system, but the
fact that the airframe must be strong enough to withstand the considerable pressure differential.
Pressure differential is the pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the pressurised
hull of the aircraft. It imposes large stresses (known as hoop stress) which the hull must be capable of
withstand.
The flight deck, passenger areas and main cargo holds are pressurised, whilst areas such as the wheel
wells and the tail cone are normally unpressurised. This reduces the number of potential leakages of
cabin pressure, but introduces stress concentration points where, for example, the fuselage meets the
fore and aft pressure bulkheads. These points undergo significant stress each time the aircraft is
pressurised and de-pressurised (a pressurisation cycle). Just as continually bending and straightening a
piece of wire will cause it to fatigue and break, so the repetitive stresses of pressurisation cycles will
eventually lead to fatigue failure. Fortunately, those clever engineers can calculate the fatigue life of an
aircraft structure and ensure replacement takes place in good time. The number of pressurisation cycles
is a major element in assessing the fatigue life of an aircraft.
The rate of change of pressure from the surface upwards, through the first few thousand feet, is far
greater than for the same number of thousands of feet at altitude. For this reason, a cabin pressure
altitude of 8,000 feet or less is maintained, rather than mean sea level pressure. By this means the
pressure differentials the hull must withstand are kept within the bounds of engineering feasibility.
Table 1 illustrates this point.
Altitude Air Pressure

Mean Sea Level 1013.2 mb ( 14.7 psi )
8000 feet 758 mb ( 10.92 psi )
40,000 feet 186 mb ( 2.7 psi )
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If the cabin were to be maintained at mean sea level pressure whilst the aircraft was flying at 40,000
feet, the pressure differential across the skin of the hull would be 12 lbs/in2. By maintaining a cabin
altitude of 8,000 feet the pressure differential is reduced to 8.3 lbs/in2.
Modern aircraft pressure hulls are normally designed to accommodate a maximum operating pressure
differential of 8.6 lbs/in2 to 8.9 lbs/in2 .
Cabin pressurisation is not controlled, as one might expect, by governing the rate at which air is supplied
from the air conditioning units, but by governing the rate at which cabin air is released to atmosphere.
This is achieved by means of a pressure controller, which passes a signal to discharge valves. These
valves restrict the rate at which cabin air is released to maintain the required cabin air pressure (cabin
altitude).
As well as maintaining a constant cabin altitude in level flight, the pressure controller/ discharge valve
arrangement is designed to ensure a steady rate of change of cabin altitude as the aircraft climbs or
descends. A rate of change of between 300 feet per minute and 500 feet per minute is normally
considered to be comfortable. The rate of change is determined by the controller setting selected by the
flight deck crew and by the rate of climb/descent of the aircraft. Maximum permissible rates of change
of cabin altitude are discussed later.
In addition to the pressure controller and the discharge valves, pressure limiting safety valves
and inward relief valves are also fitted to safeguard the structural integrity of the hull in the event of
failure of the basic components.
Pressure controllers vary in construction and operation, but they basically consist of pressure sensing
capsules and/or diaphragms (which are subjected to both cabin and external pressures) and metering
valves and controls for setting the required cabin altitude and its rate of change. As the cabin pressure
changes, the pressure controller automatically senses the change relative to the external pressure and
transmits a signal to the discharge valves. This signal adjusts the discharge valve opening until the
release of air from the cabin is just sufficient to achieve the desired pressure differential.
On some pressure controllers a ditching control is fitted. When activated, this will signal all discharge
valves to fully close in order to minimise inflow of water. At the same time, all compressor output will be
dumped, otherwise operation of the emergency exits would be impeded if the cabin remained
pressurised. Appreciate that the force required to open a plug type door measuring 6 feet by 3 feet,
with a positive differential pressure of just 1 lb/in2, would be 1.16 tons.
Some pressurisation systems incorporate a manual/automatic dumping facility linked to the safety
valve. This is to ensure that, whilst the aircraft is on the ground, the safety (dump) valve will be held in
the open position preventing the pressurisation of the aircraft. Alternatively, the pressure dumping
facility on some systems is linked to the discharge/outflow valves. In both cases manual switching is
available to the pilot or automatic operation is via the aircraft weight (squat) switch.
Placards are displayed on flight deck pressurisation control panels, warning operators not to exceed
nominated pressure differentials on take-off and landing. The restricted negative differential pressures
typically range from .1 psi to .5 psi depending on aircraft type. This is to ensure that undue stresses are
not imposed on the airframe structure which could occur during take-off and landing with excess
negative differential pressure.
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7.1. Safety Devices
The requirement for various safety devices is outlined in the following list:
a. The aircraft must be fitted with devices in duplicate which will, at the maximum rate
of flow, automatically limit the positive pressure differential to a given value. (If the aircraft is
climbing at its maximum rate of climb it is permitted to exceed this maximum pressure
differential value by 0.25 lb/in2).
b. The capacity of each half of the duplicated system shall be such that failure of one half would
not cause appreciable fall in the pressure differential.
c. Devices must be fitted in duplicate to prevent the negative differential pressure from exceeding
0.5 lb/in2.
d. A manually operated device must be fitted which permits the crew to reduce the pressure
differential to zero.
e. The system must have a suitable manual or automatic regulator (the pressure controller) for
controlling both cabin pressure and rate of change of cabin pressure.
f. Suitable instruments must be provided. If the system controls are not situated at the pilot
station, an instrument indicating cabin altitude must be fitted at the pilot station.
The crew member in charge of the cabin air supply shall have an indication of cabin altitude and
differential pressure. The value of maximum differential pressure shall be indicated on or near the
instrument.
Wide bodied jet transport aircraft are fitted with a means of equalising the pressure differential
between sections inside the pressure hull which would result from a rapid loss of pressurisation. A rapid
loss of pressurisation in one area could cause collapsing of floors, panels, walls etc. separating other
areas in the pressure hull.
Of the items on the above list perhaps one is worthy of further discussion, namely the concept of
negative differential pressure. The pressure hull is strengthened to withstand the forces imposed by
relatively high pressure acting outwards on the pressure hull (positive differential pressure). If, during a
descent, the cabin altitude stuck at 8,000 feet whilst the aircraft descended to mean sea level, the
pressure outside the aircraft would be greater than the pressure inside (negative differential pressure).
Hence the pressure loading would be the reverse of that for which the pressure hull is designed. In
this condition, on the ground, the operation of inward opening doors would be extremely hazardous
and the operation of outward opening doors impossible.
Cabin Pressure Safety Valve
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To prevent a condition of negative differential pressure from occurring, inward relief valves are fitted to
the pressure hull. These valves open automatically at a differential pressure of, typically, 0.5 lb/in2,
whenever the outside air pressure exceeds cabin air pressure.
The action of the pressure limiting safety valves is to ensure that the absolute maximum pressure
differential is never exceeded. This safety valve is usually combined with the inward relief valve and is
spring-loaded to open at a differential pressure slightly higher then the controlled maximum differential
pressure. In normal circumstances it is lightly spring-loaded in the shut position. In many aircraft the
safety valve may be selected OPEN on the ground to ensure pressures are equalised. It is selected
CLOSED prior to take-off.
Cabin Pressure
The cabin is pressurised using the ventilation air from the air conditioning systems. The flow rate of this
is controlled by the mass flow controller (in some aircraft, the crew can alter the rates within set
tolerances) and, therefore, is considered fixed. The cabin pressure (ambient altitude) is determined by
controlling the outflow of this air. The less air that is allowed to escape, the greater the cabin pressure,
and vice versa.
During climb of an aircraft, cabin air has to be allowed to escape from the cabin at a greater rate than
inflow from the air conditioning system to allow the cabin altitude to climb. When the aircraft and the
cabin arrive at their predetermined level, the outflow must equal the inflow. During the descent, the
inflow must be greater than the outflow to enable the cabin pressure to rise.
Outflow Valve
While the mechanics of cabin pressurisation are separate from the air conditioning system, both
systems are interrelated for the design of an aircraft. The major component in the cabin pressurisation
system is the outflow or discharge valve. The outflow valve must be matched to the aircraft to ensure
complete pressure control at the aircraft’s maximum differential if one of the air conditioning packs
fails.
Pressrisation outflow valve
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Where two or more valves are installed in an Aircraft, the system must permit complete pressure
control over the full pressure range when all inflows are operating and one outflow valve has failed.
Rate of Change
The term rate of change, or ROC, is given to the value by which the cabin altitude is allowed to ascend or
descend. This is normally given in feet per minute or fpm. However, ROC can also be used as rate of
climb and ROD used for rate of descent. The aircraft also has a rate of change. The rate of change of the
aircraft and the cabin are interrelated. See the Maximum Rates of Change graph below. Be very careful
when reading JAR FCL questions as to which ROC is being considered.
Maximum Rates of Change
Maximum Rate of Change
The maximum rate of ascent is 500 fpm and 300 fpm for descent, 152m/60s and 91m/60s respectively.
These rates have been determined by passenger comfort due to the human ear physiology.
In above diagram, the lower line depicts the maximum rate of climb of cabin, the maximum cabin
altitude,
and the maximum rate of descent for an air transport aircraft’s passenger cabin. As the max cabin
altitude is 8000 ft and the max ROC 500 fpm, the minimum time for the cabin to reach the max cabin
altitude is 16 minutes (8000 ft/500 fpm=16 min). For physiological and psychological reasons, it is
standard for the aircraft to level out from its climb at the same time as the cabin levels off at its cruise
altitude. Therefore, the aircraft’s rate of climb can be determined by dividing the level-off altitude by
the time taken, in this case 20 000 ft/16 min=1250 fpm.
The same method is used to calculate the start of the let down (the maximum ROD for the aircraft
is 300 fpm). If a slow aircraft descent is planned, a new cabin ROD can be calculated. Where
aircraft are taking off or landing at elevations that are above sea level, these values must be subtracted
from the aircraft and cabin height to climb or descend.
Page-85
Cabin Pressure Control System
There are three types of cabin control system used in pressurised air transport aircraft. These are:
 Pneumatic pressure control system
 Electro-pneumatic pressure control system
 Electronic pressure control system
The other systems must be designed to meet the following criteria in order of precedence:
 Safety
 Passenger comfort
 Economic factors, crew convenience
The design of any system must also consider the following:

 High rates of change of cabin inflow which may be caused by rapid engine or cabin source
variation
 High rates of change of local ambient static pressure at the overboard location of the
cabin air outflow valve, such as may occur during aircraft rotation just prior to take-off
 Lack of responsiveness of the cabin pressure control system

The crew must be provided with the means to monitor the following:
 Cabin pressure rate of change
 Cabin pressure altitude
 Cabin to ambient pressure differential
 The outflow valve position
Variable Isobaric Controls
All air transport aircraft cabin pressure control systems must incorporate an altitude selector permitting
the crew to vary the selected isobaric cabin altitude based on the flight plan and the aircraft’s structural
safety pressure differential limitation. The selector for the isobaric control must be located in a position
that is accessible to the crew. This normally forms part of the cabin pressurisation panel, which also
incorporates the means to monitor the items listed above. The range of adjustable isobaric control for
aircraft that operate at airports that are below 10 000 ft amsl is between -1000 ft to +10 000 ft. For
aircraft that are certified to operate to and from airports above 10 000 ft amsl the adjustable range
should be between -1000 ft to +14 000 ft.
Pneumatic Pressure Control system
Diagram below shows a simplified schematic of a pneumatic pressure control system. This is used
as a vehicle for the explanations of how the following function and operate:
 The discharge valve

 The cabin pressure controller
 Altitude capsule
 Rate of change capsule
 The max differential capsule
Explanations on climbing, cruise, and descent follow.
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Discharge valve
In the diagram below shows the control chamber of the discharge valve pneumatically linked to the
cabin pressure controller. Within the control chamber, a light spring acts to hold the discharge valve
closed when there is no pressure differential and to assist the control chamber pressure. The valve is
located within the pressure hull and is subjected to cabin pressure, which acts under the flexible
diaphragm that is connected to the outflow valve. A restricted orifice allows cabin air to enter the
control chamber, but the control chamber is always lagging behind the cabin pressure by 0.25 psi due to
the restriction.
7.2. Pneumatic Controller and Indications
Pneumatic Pressure Controller
Above diagram shows a typical cabin pressurisation panel for a pneumatic controller. The top left
instrument is the cabin’s vertical speed indicator (VSI). This is marked with the maximum accepted rates
of change. This VSI only shows the aircraft’s rate of change if the cabin and ambient pressures are the
same. The second instrument is a combined differential gauge and aircraft altimeter. The differential
gauge registers the differential across the aircraft’s pressure hull and has a green arc up to the
max diff, which is denoted with a red line. Below them is the pressure controller itself. This has an outer
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scale showing the cabin pressure. The pilot uses the cabin alt selection knob, lower right, to move the
pointer to the selected cabin altitude. As the cabin altitude is selected, the maximum aircraft altitude at
maximum differential is displayed in the lower window. This allows flight crew to check planned flight
levels with selected cabin altitudes.
The window at the top of the gauge shows the barometric pressure as set by the barometric correction
knob. The cabin rate of change knob is located to the left of the main dial, while the only indications are
max and min. The APR specifies that the rate control should be smoothly adjustable from a minimum
rate of 50 fpm to not less than 750 fpm.
8. Emergency Equipment
8.1. Oxygen System
8.1.1. Introduction
With increase in altitude the pressure of the atmosphere and the partial pressure of its oxygen content
decreases, resulting in a deficiency of oxygen in the blood and tissues of individuals subjected to such
passengers. This condition known as Anoxia seriously impairs physical and mental abilities.
Hypoxia
Hypoxia is a lack of oxygen in the body, its onset can be insidious as it affects the decision making
process to a point where the person affected cannot make rational decisions or even remember his
name and will if not reversed lead to un-consciousness and finally death.
Oxygen Saturation
As oxygen is effectively 21% of the atmospheric gases and at sea level the ambient pressure is 14.69 Psi,
Altitude Useful Physiological and Psychological effect

Sea level Normal body and Mental condition
0 -7000 feet Normal body and Mental condition
10000 feet Long exposure result in fatigue and headaches
15000 feet Drowsiness, blue lips and fingernails, impaired vision,
increased respiration and pulse rates. Certain personality
changes, over confidence and lack of judgment
18000 feet 30 minutes
22000 feet Loss of co-ordination, double vision, convulsions, danger of
collapse
25000 feet 2-3 minutes Loss of consciousness followed by death
30000 feet 45-75 seconds Maximum of 75 seconds before
unconsciousness
35000 feet 30-60 seconds Maximum of 1 minutes before lapsing into unconsciousness
followed by death
40000 feet The Maximum altitude for breathing 100% oxygen at
ambient pressure, above this altitude positive pressure
oxygen is required
45000 feet Approx 12 Maximum of 12 seconds before
seconds Unconsciousness and death
Effects of Altitude and Oxygen
the pressure exerted by the oxygen alone is 2.94 Psi [normally rounded to 3 Psi]; this is termed a
‘partial pressure’. It is the partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs that forces the oxygen across the
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lung tissue into the blood stream. At sea level the blood has an oxygen saturation of 100%. The level of
saturation decreases with an increase in altitude due to the decrease in barometric pressure.
The hypoxia effects shown in diagram shown above are exacerbated by length of exposure, altitude at
which the aircraft is flying and the rapidity of the cabin’s rate of climb to that altitude.
The aircraft that operate above 25,000 ft or those that operate at or below 25,000 ft, but cannot descend
safely within 4 minutes to 13,000 ft. must be fitted with automatically deployable oxygen equipment
immediately available to each occupant, wherever seated. The total number of masks must exceed the
number of seats by at least 10%. The extra masks are to be evenly distributed throughout the cabin.
These extra masks are to enable cabin crew or passengers who are away from their seats to gain
immediate access to oxygen, as crew or passengers might be in the aircraft toilet when oxygen is required
each aircraft toilet must have two facemasks.
For aircraft to fly above 30,000 ft these masks must be able to be automatically deployed before the
cabin altitude exceeds 15,000 ft and the crew must be provided with a manual means to release the
masks in the event of failure of the automatic system. Indication of the operation of the automatic
presentation system should be provided on the flight deck.
Gaseous Aviation Breathing Oxygen

The BSI specification for gaseous aviation breathing oxygen is N3 this requires the O2 to have a
maximum of 0.0056 grams of moisture per cubic meter of O2 at standard pressure and temperature. The
reason for this is to prevent the water content icing up inside the regulators.
Gaseous Oxygen Systems

There are two gaseous oxygen systems in current use these are:
the continuous flow system
the diluter demand system
The continuous flow system is normally used in light un-pressurised aircraft intending to fly above
10,000 feet or as the passenger supplementary oxygen system for some pressurised aircraft. The diluter
demand system, a more sophisticated and therefore more expensive system, is used for flight crew of
air transport aircraft.
8.1.2. Continuous Flow Passenger Supplementary Oxygen System

In these systems gaseous oxygen stored in a cylinder at 1800 Psi is passed through an intermediate
pressure regulator where the pressure is dropped to between 80 – 100 Psi, it is then fed into a ring main
or manifold. Oxygen is prevented from flowing to the passenger masks by a barometric valve.
When the cabin altitude exceeds 14,000 ft the barometric valve opens and allows oxygen to pass into
the low pressure regulator and at the same time pneumatic pressure opens a latch allowing the PSU
door to open and deploy the masks in the half hung condition. The act of passengers pulling the
facemask down to themselves opens the valve to mask allowing a continuous flow of oxygen into a one
size fits all rubber cup that covers the mouth and nose and has an elasticated head strap. 13‐25
The manifold is kept pressurised to ensure that passengers at the far end of the manifold receive oxygen
at the same instant as the passengers closest to the supply and to prevent the ingress of moisture. There
is always a slight bleed off from the manifold; this loses oxygen that the operator has had to pay for. This
coupled with the extra weight of storage cylinders, pipe work and regulators, and the cost of their
servicing has resulted in operators specifying chemical oxygen generators for passenger oxygen in most
modern aircraft purchases.
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Continuous Flow Passenger Supplementary Oxygen System
8.1.3. Flight Crew’s Diluter Demand System

A diluter demand system as fitted to air transport aircraft. Oxygen from the cylinders is supplied to the
diluter demand unit at high pressure, this is regulated to 400 Psi and passes through an inline filter unit
to an on / off valve. From the on/ off valve the oxygen flows past a flow indicator or ‘dolls eye’ this gives
the crew a visual indication that oxygen is flowing when the unit is in the diluter mode, as oxygen is
odourless and tasteless. Low-pressure regulation is controlled by the demand valve, diaphragm and
bow spring. When normal is selected and the pilot is not breathing in or in the process of exhaling the
demand valve is closed by spring and oxygen pressure. As the pilot inhales a partial vacuum is formed in
the mask and is felt by the diaphragm. The other side of the diaphragm is subjected to cabin ambient,
the differential created biases the diaphragm across to the right, its movement is limited by the bow
spring, oxygen pressure acting on the demand valve and the demand valve’s spring. This allows oxygen
to flow past the demand valve; pressure is maintained at approx 8 Psi as the pilot inhales. As the pilot’s
rate of inhalation slows the pressure builds up against the diaphragm and acts to close the
demand valve. This is the demand action of the regulator, in this system the pilot has to make the effort
during the inhalation rather than the exhalation.
In certain conditions the flight crew can require a supplementary supply of oxygen when the cabin
altitude is below 33,000 feet, therefore to supply 100% oxygen on demand would be wasteful. To
overcome this a port allows cabin ambient air to enter the regulator via a non-return valve, so that as
the pilot inhales a mixture of predominantly cabin air and oxygen is supplied to the mask.
In slow decompression as the cabin altitude rises the barostatic valve which is set for 32,000 feet starts
to close the air metering valve reducing the ratio of cabin air to oxygen. At 32,000 feet the air metering
valve is fully closed ensuring that the pilot is on 100 % oxygen before 33,000 feet. A further barostatic
capsule [not shown] will increase the flow rate to ensure that the pilot is on pressure breathing
[continuous flow] at 40,000 feet.
At normal cabin altitudes if the ventilation air is contaminated with smoke and fumes, using the mask
with the regulator in the ‘ normal’ mode would subject the pilot to smoke inhalation via the air metering
valve. To overcome this the pilot selects 100 % oxygen. This closes the cabin air supply port and at the
same time opens a supplementary oxygen valve, which makes up the volume as the air metering valve
will still be in the position of reducing the oxygen flow. The regulator still functions as a demand system.
In the event of thick smoke, high cabin altitude or stress pilots can select emergency oxygen. When
emergency is selected the diaphragm is biased to the right (with reference to diagram 13.33 above)
unseating the demand valve, allowing a constant flow of oxygen at a pressure higher than the demand
supply [nominally 12 Psi] to enter the mask. This gives a positive pressure within the face mask, which
ensures that smoke is kept out and increases the oxygen saturation of the pilot’s blood.
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There is one further position of the normal / emergency selector, this is mask test. By holding the
selector in this position the demand valve is opened even further, allowing a much higher pressure to
enter the system. This is used pre-flight to check and purge the mask line, no attempt should be made to
wear the mask or use this pressure for breathing as it can damage the lungs. Any over pressure in the
demand regulator will cause the pressure relief valve to open.
8.1.4. Passenger Chemical Oxygen Generators
Passenger Oxygen Mask and Generator Stowage
passengers’ heads in the PSU, diagram shown above. The generators work on the principle that some
mono fuels, when ignited, produce more oxygen than the combustion process requires and that this
oxygen can be utilised. It consists of a mixture of sodium chlorate and iron powder [not iron filings]. This
is surrounded by a filter material, and thermal insulation.
When ignited the charge block at a temperature of 400oF and will burn for 15 minutes minimum
releasing about 45% of its weight as usable oxygen. Cooling of the oxygen takes place in the supply pipe
and reservoir bag, which is located just before the facemask, the oxygen must be no more than 10oC
above the ambient temperature when it enters the facemask.
Each unit incorporates a pressure relief valve to prevent excessive internal pressure. Once ignited the
unit will continue to supply oxygen until the entire charge block has been consumed. To indicate if the
unit has been used a band of heat sensitive paint is painted around the cylinder with adjacent band(s) of
black paint to aid identification.
For chemical oxygen generators the door latches of the PSUs are released by a 28 volt DC electrical
signal from a barostatic unit. In the event of an incipient decompression the pilot can release the latches
by the operation of a guarded switch on the flight deck. For generators that supply more than one mask
activation is initiated by the first passenger to pull a mask from the half hung position down to his face.
In the older units the as the mask was pulled a lanyard attached to the supply pipe released a sprung
loaded striker on to a fulminate, see diagram 13.37 above. Modern systems use a 28 volt DC squib to
ignite the charge block, this is still activated by the act of pulling the mask downward.
Pax Masks and Smoke

The passenger facemasks are designed to allow ambient cabin air into the mask as the wearer inhales.
This air is supplemented by the continuous flow from the oxygen generator or the gaseous system, this
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precludes their use in smoke filled atmospheres as the oxygen enrichment will result in the wearer’s
trachea opening, allowing deeper smoke inhalation.
Cabin Crew
Cabin crew positions are provided with the same supplementary oxygen system as the passengers, the
additional 10% of passenger masks ensure that cabin crew who are away from their seats can access
oxygen regardless of their location at the time of cabin pressurisation failure.
Where a cabin crewmember's work area is not within easy reach of the supplementary oxygen mask
provided at his seat station, additional mask units should be provided at work stations such as galleys.
8.1.5. Protective Breathing Equipment

Protective breathing equipment or PBE is the term given to equipment that is for protection against
smoke, fumes and other harmful gases, by protecting the eyes, nose and mouth, and provides oxygen
for a period of not less than 15 minutes.
PBE intended for flight crew use must be conveniently located on the flight deck and be easily reached
by the crewmember when seated in his normal position. Cabin crew PBE is located at their normal crew
duty station.
Additional PBE must be located at or adjacent to cabin mounted hand fire extinguishers. For B class
compartments where the hand held fire extinguisher is located inside the compartment door PBE must
be located adjacent to the entrance but stowed outside the door. PBE can take two forms, either a
portable gaseous cylinder with a full facemask or a smoke hood with a chemical oxygen generator.
Portable Gaseous Oxygen Walk Round Kit

Diagram shown above an American style single cylinder gaseous oxygen potable PBE or ‘walk round kit’,
these typically hold 120 litres of oxygen at 1800 Psi and have either two or three rates of continuous
supply, these are
normal 2 litres per minute giving 60 minutes duration
high 4 litres per minute giving 30 minutes duration
emergency 10 litres per minute giving 12 minutes duration
Each cylinder has a pressure gauge, which can be calibrated either in pressure or volume by being
divided into eighths; the first eighth is coloured red to indicate that the pressure is very low. Each
cylinder has an on / off selector and flow rate selector, some cylinders have the emergency flow rate,
this extra rate is not mandatory. The full-face plate protects the eyes, nose and mouth from smoke and
fumes and the strap allows the user to carry the cylinder and have both hands free.
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Each cylinder must be equipped with a pressure relief valve to prevent the cylinder bursting in the event
that a fire prevents it from being removed from its storage position. The release of oxygen in a fire
situation will aid combustion; the rate of relief is set so that the internal pressure is prevented from
rising above the cylinder’s maximum structural pressure while preventing excessive oxygen enrichment
of the cabin atmosphere.
Flight Crew Masks

Flight crew masks must be located within the immediate reach of crewmembers while seated at their
duty stations. For pressurised aircraft that are certified to operate above 25,000 feet the flight crew
oxygen masks must be of the ‘quick donning type’.
That is they must be able to be fitted one handed and fully functional within 5 seconds then leave both
hands free. They must be able to be put on over spectacles without disturbing them. These masks must
not interfere with immediate communication between the flight crewmembers and other crewmembers
over the aeroplane intercommunication system or inhibit radio communications.
The above diagram shows a typical facemask, these require smoke goggles to turn them into the flight
crew’s duty station PBE. The facemask has inflatable head straps, these are inflated for fitment by
squeezing two toggles, one each side of the mask, together. When they are released the harness
deflates and holds the mask onto the face.
8.1.6. Gaseous Oxygen System Components
Basic Oxygen System

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with hemispherical ends, the cylindrical section of some of these storage cylinders are wire bound to
increase resistance to fragmentation in the event of a catastrophic failure of the cylinder. To denote that
they contain oxygen they are colour coded, those of American origin are painted green, those of UK
origin are painted black with a white neck and shoulder. Cylinders are also marked with ‘use no oil or
grease’ in red paint and ‘aviation oxygen’ in white paint and have their manufacture and test dates
stamped around the neck. Each main storage cylinder has an isolation valve attached to the neck of the
cylinder, these are only closed by ground engineers otherwise they are secured open.
As there is a risk that these cylinders could explode if they were subjected to excessive temperature
each cylinder is connected to an external vent via a ‘bursting disc’.
If the oxygen pressure due to thermal heating exceeds the bursting disc’s design maximum pressure it
ruptures and allows the entire contents of the cylinder to vent to atmosphere. To indicate that this has
occurred a green plastic indicator disc is blown out of the vent pipe’s skin fitting leaving a red bowl
visible.
Rather than have a single large cylinder to store all the gaseous oxygen required, several smaller
cylinders are normally used. Each is connected to a main manifold via a non-return valve, with each
cylinder having its own bursting disc system so that in the event of any single failure not all the oxygen is
lost overboard.
In modern systems the oxygen system pipe work will be made from stainless steel, flexible pipes may
only be used for the low-pressure hoses such as to the masks where they are not subjected to
permanent oxygen pressure. All fixed oxygen systems rigid pipe work must be located so that in the
event of a wheels up landing the pipes will not be abraded
Portable Oxygen Sets

These consist of a cylinder, charged to 1800 ib/in2 and containing, usually, 120 litres of oxygen. They are
provided for use by cabin crew in dealing with depressurisation and paramedical incidents. The cylinder
is contained in a fabric carrying bag, with straps so that it may be worn by the bearer, and a mask
connected to the cylinder regulating valve by a flexible hose. It is usually possible to select ‘normal’,
‘high’ and (in some cases) ‘emergency’ flow rates from these sets, corresponding to 2, 4 and 10 litres per
minute. The endurance of a 120 litre portable oxygen set at these flow rates would therefore be 60, 30
and 12 minutes respectively
Portable Fire Extinguishers

Portable extinguishers in aircraft use either CO2, WATER or BCF as the extinguishant. The type of
extinguisher chosen for a particular location will contain an extinguishant suitable for the type of fire to
be expected in that compartment. Extinguishers should be easily accessible and are therefore retained
in brackets by quick-release fittings.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) extinguishers are particularly suitable for electrical fires. The released CO2, gas
excludes two of the three components required for combustion, namely heat and oxygen (the third
being fuel). Because of its rapid cooling effect, CO2 can cause damage if used on an engine fire.
BCF extinguishers are suitable for all types of fires and are therefore widely used in aircraft. The
disadvantages of BCF are that, once heated by the fire that it is tackling, it gives off noxious gases. Also,
BCF does not cool the fire-affected area, and it is therefore necessary to employ a follow-up action to
cool the area and prevent re-ignition of the fire, either with a water extinguisher or a convenient
coffeepot (as we know, airline coffee is invariably only luke warm).
WATER extinguishers are suitable only for use on dry materials (furnishings, paper, wood
and so on). They should never be used on electrical equipment fires, since the water jet can conduct
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electricity and may lead to electrocution of the fire-fighter. Water is also unsuitable for use on metal
fires, since the high temperature of burning metal may cause the water to break down into hydrogen
(a fuel) and oxygen. Liquid fuel fires are another type of fire where water extinguishers are
unsuitable, since the burning fuel could well float on the water and result in the spread of the fire.
Smoke Hoods
The description which follows is of the Drager Oxycrew smoke hood as provided in many aircraft. It is
reasonably representative of most smoke hoods in current usage and is a light-weight portable
breathing device, designed to provide the wearer with respiratory and eye protection in oxygen
deficient, smoke-filled or toxic atmospheres.
Smoke Hood
A Drager mask is illustrated above and comprises a single size hood which completely covers the head.
An apron extending down over the chest contains a life support pack in the form of a chemical oxygen
canister filled with potassium superoxide. This chemical reacts with water vapour and carbon dioxide in
the wearer’s exhaled air, to produce pure oxygen. The chemical action can be initiated by simply
breathing into the mask, but this takes a few seconds to start and these may not be available in an
emergency situation. Consequently a quick-start toggle is located at the bottom of the apron. When
pulled this immediately provides oxygen for the wearer until the potassium superoxide reaction
commences.
8.2. Emergency Equipment
Emergency Locator Beacon/Transmitter (ELT)

An operator shall not operate an aeroplane unless it is equipped with an automatic Emergency
Locator Transmitter (ELT) attached to the aeroplane in such a manner that, in the event of a crash,
the probability of the ELT transmitting a detectable signal is maximised and the possibility of the
ELT transmitting at any other time is minimised. An operator must ensure that the ELT is capable of
transmitting on the distress frequencies 121. 5 MHz and 243 MHz for a period of 48 hrs at an operating
temperature of -20ºC. To minimise the possibility of damage in the event of crash impact, the Automatic
Emergency Locator Transmitter should be rigidly fixed to the aeroplane structure as far aft as practicable
with its antenna and connections so arranged as to maximise the probability of the signal being radiated
after a crash.
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Life Jackets
Passenger lift jackets are normally stored beneath the passenger seats and crew lift jackets in easily
accessible locations. Although there are several types of lift jacket in general use, they are all basically
similar. Inflation is by means of CO2, stored under pressure in a small cylinder incorporated in the life
jacket and activated manually by a pull-cord. A stand-by mouth-operated inflation valve is provided for
emergency inflation and to maintain inflation over extended periods. If the CO2 inflation is inadvertently
activated the life jacket can be deflated. Subsequent re-inflation
can only be effected through mouth-operation. To aid in rescue operations, life jackets are equipped
with a battery-operated light and a mouth-operated whistle. The battery is activated by contact with
water. Some types of life jacket also incorporate fluorescent dye marker and shark repellent
compounds, which stain the surrounding water when immersed. Passenger life jackets are generally
coloured yellow and crew life jackets are coloured dayglow.
Life Rafts
On overwater flights, an operator shall not operate an aeroplane at a distance away from land, which is
suitable for making an emergency landing, greater than that corresponding to:
a. 120 minutes at cruising speed or 400 nautical miles, whichever is the lesser, for aeroplanes
capable of continuing the flight to an aerodrome with the critical power unit(s) becoming
inoperative at any point along the route or planned diversions; or
b. 30 minutes at cruising speed or 100 nautical miles, whichever is the lesser, for all other
aeroplanes,
c. Uunless the equipment specified in sub-paragraphs below is carried. Sufficient life-rafts to carry
all persons on board. Unless excess rafts of enough capacity are provided, the buoyancy and
seating capacity beyond the rated capacity of the rafts must accommodate all occupants of the
aeroplane in the event of a loss of one raft of the largest rated capacity.
The life-rafts shall be equipped with:

a. A survivor locator light
b. Life saving equipment including means of sustaining life as appropriate to the
flight to be undertaken
c. At least two survival Emergency Locator Transmitters
d. A Pump
e. Sea Anchor
f. Lifelines around the raft
g. Water resistant torch
h. First aid kit
i. food
j. Drinking Water
Megaphones
To enable the cabin staff of air transport aircraft to control any emergency evacuation ( normal public
address system failed), there is a requirement for portable battery power operated megaphones to be
readily accessible for use by crewmembers during emergency.
Flares
One of the most common types of pyrotechnic carried in aircraft is the combined Day/Night distress
signal. This is normally a cylinder with a cap at each end, one for day, the other for night. The day
distress signal is an orange smoke. The night signal is a hand held fare.
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Emergency Torches
The emergency torches are self-powered, they are automatically switched ON when removed from their
stowage and OFF when refitted. The state of charge of the torch battery is indicated by a red light on the
torch body which flashes every 3 to 4 seconds as long as the battery has an adequate reserve of power.
The rate of flashing becomes slower as the battery power diminishes and when it reaches one flash
every 10 seconds the battery is in need of replacement. The red light also monitors the bulb filament,
the red light will cease to flash when the filament fails. Once removed from its stowage, refitment of an
emergency torch is a maintenance procedure, since the wall bracket retaining band which holds the
torch in place must be broken to remove the torch. A typical emergency torch stowage is illustrated below.
Emergency Torch
.
Emergency Lighting
Emergency lighting and exit signs must operate when all of the main electrical circuits on the aircraft are
rendered inoperative. Cabin emergency and escape path lighting will illuminate automatically and will
be supplied from the battery bus or an essential/vital/standby bus or from its own dedicated battery.
The lighting must be capable of illumination for a minimum of 10 minutes.
Emergency Exits
The term emergency exits include main entry doors as well as over wing escape hatches. For structural
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reasons, all these doors and hatches have carved corners. The size, number, location of these doors and
hatches with different type designation are given below:
Type –A These are the normal floor level entry and exit doors of air transport aircraft.
Type-I- These are also smaller floor level doors with a rectangular opening.
Type-II These exits must mount at floor level unless fitted as over wing escape hatches.
Type-III and IV- Normally these type of hatches are used as over wing exits.
Marking of Emergency Exits

All doors and hatches are required to be opened from the outside as emergency exits must have colour
band outlining the exit marked on the fuselage. This band of paint must be a contrasting colour to the
aircraft’s livery to make the door readily discernable from the surrounding fuselage.
Breaking in Marking
To enable rescuers to cut through the fuselage without endangering themselves with high pressure
pipes or high voltage cables, break in and cut in areas are marked on the external surface.
Break in Marking
Crash Axes
One or Two crash axe must be onboard the aircraft depending on the approved passenger easting
configuration. If the approved passenger seating configuration is more than 200, a crash axe must be
carried and located in or near the most rearward galley area and the crash axes must not be visible to
passengers.
First Aid Kits and Emergency Medical Kit

Depending on the number of passenger seats air transport aircraft are required to carry first aid kits for
use of crew and survivors. Operators are responsible for ensuring that the kits are inspected and
replenished as required to ensure that the minimum number of kits are serviceable prior to flight. In
addition to first aid kits an emergency medical kit is also carry onboard the aircraft. The captain of the
aircraft is responsible for ensuring that only medically qualified personnel administer drugs, and the
emergency medical kit should be kept on the flight deck but must be under secure conditions where
practicable. The kit must be inspected periodically to ensure that their contents are in a serviceable
condition.
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Flight crew Emergency exits- Escape Hatch and removable direct vision Window
For aircraft f less than 21 passenger seats, a flight crew escape hatch is only required if passenger
emergency exits do not offer convenient and readily accessible means of evacuation. For some aircraft,
the pilots escape route is via a removable or sliding side window, which also provides the direct vision
window that the regulations require. On large aircraft with these exits, the crew are provided with
escape ropes. All passengers and crewmember must be evacuated within 90 seconds in case of
emergency by using 50% of the exits
9. Ice and Rain Protection

In this chapter the systems employed to ensure that the airframe and the power units are protected
from the effects of ice and rain are considered.
Conditions Conducive to Aircraft Icing:

Aircraft on the ground or in flight are susceptible to accumulation of ice accretions under various
atmospheric and operational conditions. Aircraft in flight can encounter a variety of atmospheric
conditions which will individually or in combination produce ice accretions on various components of
the aircraft. These conditions include:
a. Supercooled clouds. Clouds containing supercooled water droplets (below 0°C) that have
remained in the liquid state. Supercooled water droplets will freeze upon impact with another
object. Water droplets can remain in the liquid state at ambient temperatures as low as -40°C.
The rate of ice accretion on an aircraft component is dependent upon many factors such as
droplet size, cloud liquid water content, ambient temperature, and component size, shape, and
velocity.
b. Ice Crystal Clouds. Clouds existing usually at very cold temperatures where moisture has frozen
to the solid or crystal state. Airframe icing does not occur in these conditions.
c. Mixed Conditions. Clouds at ambient temperatures below 0°C containing a mixture of ice
crystals and supercooled water droplets.
d. Freezing Rain and Drizzle. Precipitation existing within clouds or below clouds at ambient
temperatures below 0°C where rain droplets remain in the supercooled liquid state.
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Icing Problems on the Ground
Aircraft on the ground, during ground storage or ground operations, are susceptible to many of the
conditions that can be encountered in flight in addition to conditions peculiar to ground operations.
These include:
a. Supercooled ground fog and ice clouds.
b. Operation on ramps, taxiways, and runways containing moisture, slush, or snow.
c. Blown snow from snow drifts, other aircraft, buildings, or other ground structures.
d. Snow blown by ambient winds, other aircraft or ground support equipment.
e. Recirculated snow made airborne by engine, propeller, or rotor wash. Operation of jet
engines in reverse thrust, reverse pitch propellers, and helicopter rotor blades are
common causes of snow recirculation.
f. Conditions of high relative humidity that may produce frost accretions on aircraft
surfaces having a temperature at or below the frost point. Frost accumulations are
common during overnight ground storage and after landing where aircraft surface
temperatures remain cold following descent from higher altitudes. This is a common
occurrence on lower wing surfaces in the vicinity of fuel cells. Frost accretions can also
occur on upper wing surfaces in contact with cold fuel (with the wing tanks full of
cold-soaked fuel).
9.1. Anti-icing and De-icing

Anti-icing is the prevention of ice formation and may be achieved on the ground by repeatedly coating
the aircraft with a freezing point depressant (FPD) fluid. In the air, surfaces prone to ice formation
(leading edges of wing and tail surfaces, propeller blades, engine intakes) may be heated electrically, by
hot bleed air or by heated fluids.
De-icing is the removal of ice or frost which has formed on the aircraft surface. On the ground this may
be done by spraying the aircraft with hot FPD fluid. In flight the susceptible surfaces may be heated as
described above. Alternatively, flexing leading edges (de-icing boots) may be fitted on lower
performance aircraft.
Ice Warning:
In-flight warning of ice formation is provided by ice detection devices which activate a warning indicator
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on the flight deck. The traditional automatic ice detection system consists of an
electric motor driving a serrated rotor which projects into the airstream from the side of the fuselage.
Adjacent to the rotor is a fixed cutting edge.
As ice builds up on the serrated rotor it is scraped off by the cutting edge, the greater the ice
build-up the greater the torque loading on the motor. The torque reaction trips a microswitch,
activating a cockpit warning. The system is shown in above diagram.
Pressure operated ice detector heads consist of a short aerofoil section tube mounted at right
angles to the air flow and having four small holes drilled in the leading edge. During flight air enters
these holes and can partially escape through smaller holes in the trailing edge, hence there is a
pressure build-up in the tube and this pneumatically holds open the points of an electrical relay. In
icing conditions the leading edge holes become blocked, the pressure in the tube falls and the relay
points close to illuminate a warning indication on the flight deck. Vibrating rod ice detectors consist
of a probe in the airstream which vibrates at approximately 40 KHz. Ice forming on the probe
reduces the vibration frequency and activates the ice detector warning circuit. Both devices are
illustrated Below.
Pressure Operated Ice detector Vibrating Rod Ice detector
9.1.2. De-Icing Systems
Pneumatic De-Icing Systems
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Some piston-engined and turbo-prop aircraft use pneumatically-operated de-icing systems.
These take the form of flat inflatable tubes, closed at the ends, attached to the leading edges of wings,
tailplanes and fin. The rubberised fabric tubes normally run parallel to the span of the flying surface
and they are inflated with a nominal pressure of 18 psi and deflated cyclically with air from the aircraft's
compressed air system.
Inflation of the tube, or boot, causes any ice layer formed to break away. When not in use a vacuum
source is applied to the boots to hold them flush with the leading edge. De-icer boots may be attached
to the airframe by screw fasteners or by bonding cement. A diagram of a pneumatic de-icing system is
shown in above diagram..
De-icing boots are only suitable for relatively low performance aircraft, since they obviously disturb
airflow over the wing to some extent.
Flight deck controls and indications typically comprise an automatic alternating time sequence of
pressure and vacuum to the de-icing boots, with pressure and vacuum gauges or lights and an on/off
switch. The rubberised fabric is susceptible to damage from oils, greases, knocks, abrasions and
exposure to strong sunshine.
De-Icing Control Panel for a light aircraft
Green light
To confirm to the pilot that they are functioning correctly a green light above illuminates at 8 psi and
remains illuminated until the pressure drops below 8 Psi. To prevent them remaining inflated should the
pressure not reach 18 Psi or the pressure switch fail as the inflation valve opens, a timer unit starts to
count down. If the inflation sequence has not started before the timer unit reaches zero it automatically
opens the deflation valve and closes the inflation valve. The whole operation from start of inflation to
complete deflation should not exceed 34 seconds, if the pilot notices that the green 8 Psi light remains
illuminated the circuit breakers for the surface de-icer should be pulled.
Fluid De-Icing Systems

De-icing fluid is distributed to porous metal panels by an electrically-driven pump. The escaping
fluid destroys the bond between ice and aircraft and is carried rearward over the aerofoil to
prevent further ice build-up. A typical fluid de-icing system is shown below. The pilot’s controls consist
of a rotary timing switch which times from 0 to 8 minutes, a chime that sounds when the switch
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reaches zero, a contents warning light that illuminates when the tank’s capacity has 30 minutes of
fluid left and a low pressure warning light.
When ice has formed the pilot selects the appropriate amount of fluid to be dispensed by using the
timer, this activates the pump and the fluid Isopropyl Alcohol is pumped to the panels where it
weeps out of the micro pores onto the skins surface.
The pilot must be aware of the effect of the airflow across the aircraft’s wings at different angles of
attack, as this will alter the distribution pattern of the fluid. The system suffers from the pores
becoming blocked by impact with insects and fine airborne partials, to overcome this the system
has to be function regularly to clean the pores.
Initiation / Timing of De-icing System Usage
Where possible the icing situation should be avoided, but where it is unavoidable pilots must
make a critical analysis of the situation. Whatever system is available, be it thermal, fluid or
electrical, it must be fully utilised, requiring a judgement by the pilot for initiation and duration of
use. Type operations manuals will lay down recommended procedures for this eventuality. Since deicing
systems are designed to remove ice, once it has been formed, the decision for activating the
system is vital to ensure adequate removal. Once switched on, most systems incorporate a cyclic
timing device, which automatically controls the de-icing medium to de-ice aerofoil section leading
edges or propellers. This automatic control is programmed to de-ice the sections using a timed
sequence selected alternately.
9.1.3. Propeller De-Icing

If ice is allowed to build-up and remain upon a propeller, the propeller becomes heavier and,
more importantly, unbalanced. Vibration is generated which ultimately will cause damage to the
engine and the airframe.
De-icing systems are used to remove ice after it has built-up. The removal is carried out by
means of electrical heating elements in the blades, to melt the ice and to remove it by centrifugal and
aerodynamic forces. After a short period of time, the electrical current is switched off, the ice begins
to form again, the current is switched on, the ice melts, and so on.
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Light Aircraft Electrical De-icing System
The pilot controls the propeller de-icing by means of a control switch on the control panel. Also on the
control panel will be found a load meter which indicates the current being drawn. On early systems, one
load meter served all of the propellers. Modern systems tend to use one load meter for each set of
propellers.
Since the propeller blades of only one engine are being de-iced at any one moment, a timer or cycling
unit is required to arrange for the application of current to the propeller blades of the appropriate
engine at any particular moment. The timer in fact controls power relays located in the engine nacelles.
In this way, the length of heavy current wiring is kept to the minimum.
Mounted on the engine front casing behind the propeller hub will be found the slip ring from which the
current to the heating elements on the propellers is passed via brushes attached to the rear of the
propeller hub (but the opposite arrangement may also be found on some installations). Since the
propeller has remained unheated for a relatively short period of time, only a thin film of ice will have
built up, without interfering with the aerodynamic characteristics of the propeller blades. The deposited
ice acts as a thermal insulator. As the ice in contact with the heated propeller blade melts, the main
body of ice is removed under the influence of aerodynamic and centrifugal forces.
According to aircraft type, the current used may be either DC or AC. Although only one set
of propellers is being de-iced at any one time, the timer will ensure that there is a null period of at
least one second between the de-icing of one set of propellers being switched off and the de-icing of
the next set of propellers being switched on. Heating current is applied to a set of propellers over a
typical period of 30 seconds.
In the case of propellers attached to a turbo-prop engine, the propeller de-icing is part of the engine de-
icing system, and the timer is part of the engine intake heating circuit. The spinner is also de-iced on
turbo-prop installations.
Some turbo-prop aircraft employ thermal de-icing systems using exhaust gas heat exchangers to
produce the hot air required. An alternative, combustion heater, system is used in some piston-engined
aircraft.
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9.2. Anti-Icing
Thermal Anti-icing Systems

The leading edges of wings, tailplanes and fins may be anti-iced by hot compressor bleed air
supplied by the aircraft pneumatic system. A motorised shut-off valve controls the air flow into a
titanium distribution duct routed through the fixed leading edge of the wing. Telescopic ducts feed
the hot air into a perforated duct (piccolo tube) inside the slat surface.
Thermal Anti-icing System
The hot air anti-ices the slat leading edge and flows into the remainder of the slat structure. The hot air
is then exhausted overboard through the slat track openings and under wing drain holes. If the slats are
retracted the exhausting air warms the wing leading edge section.
The temperature of the air supply to the leading edges is thermostatically controlled by a system of
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leading edge temperature sensing units and duct control valves. The major source of failure in these
systems is leakage of the very hot bleed air from the distribution ducting, which can cause damage to
other systems, particulary electrical circuits. High temperature sensing probes are usually positioned at
strategic locations adjacent to the ducting.
Jet Engine Air intakes

Part of the certification process for jet engines for use in aviation is an ice ingestion test, as the effect of
a block of ice hitting a high speed rotor off centre is to put it out of balance. The most likely place for ice
to form on an engines nacelle is the intake lip where the airflow stagnates allowing ice to form easily. Ice
will also form on the tip of the engine’s rotating bullet, Inlet Guide Vane [IGVs] and at the root end of
the first /second row(s) of compressor blades.
Apart from the hazard from lumps of ice forming on the lip then breaking off and being ingested, ice
formations will disrupt the airflow into the engines, which can lead to the engines stalling in certain
flight conditions such as high pitch angles. There are two systems for protecting air intakes, for large
turbine aircraft this is normally done using bleed air anti-icing, for smaller turbo-prop engines this is
normally achieved by a mixture of electrical anti-icing and de-icing.
Engine Nacelle Bleed Air Anti-icing
Intake Bleed Air Anti-Icing
Diagram shown above shows how the intake lip of a turbine engine is anti-iced using bleed air. When
engine anti –icing is selected, the anti-icing valves open allowing bleed air to enter the bleed air
manifold. Where IGVs are fitted some air is passed down through them to prevent ice forming on
them, this air can be used to anti-ice the ‘bullet’. A piccolo tube behind the intake lip heats the lip
structure preventing the formation of ice.
If the air used for anti icing is exhausted overboard there is reduction in EPR, however if the bleed
air is exhausted back into the intake [close to the blade roots] it will ensure that ice does not form
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at the blade roots but raises the temperature of the intake air which reduces its density. Engine
anti-icing can be selected and operated on the ground due to the large volume of airflow passing
over the intake lips even when the aircraft is stationary and the engines are at ground idle.
9.3. Windshield Electrical Anti- Icing
Typical Electrical Anti-ice System
The use of electrical heating elements built into flight deck windscreens is widely used in modern
transport aircraft. A layer of transparent conductive material (can be referred to as Gold Film) is
supplied from the aircraft A/C electrical system. The heating process will provide a nonshattering
quality to the window and the flight crew are provided with normal and failure indications. The (inner)
glass panel is the load-bearing agent. The vinyl interlayer is the ‘fail-safe’ load carrying member and
prevents the window shattering if the inner panel should fail. The outer glass panel has no structural
significance, it provides rigidity and a hard scratch resistant surface. A conductive film is applied to the
inner surface of the outer glass panel to permit electrical heating for anti-icing and de-fogging. However
damage of the outer panel due to arcing can lead to visibility problems. For an electrical supply failure a
limited amount of de-fogging can be gained from the windscreen warm air de-misting supply. A
conductive coating on the outer panel also assists in dissipating static electricity from the windscreen.
Diagram above shows a typical electrical windshield anti-ice system.
Specific problems associated with this type of system are:
Delamination: Separation of the vinyl windscreen plies which if neglected can spread and cause
visibility or electrical problems. Limitations of allowable delamination is laid down by manufactures.
Arcing: Indicated by a breakdown in the conductive coating resulting in local overheating causing
further damage to the panel. This can lead to loss of temperature control and in the extreme, panel
failure.
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9.4. Pitot Static Pressure Sensors and Stall Warning Devices
Anti-ice Probe Locations
Pitot Heater
Pitot probes contain an electrical heating element supplied by aircraft electrical system power.
Once switched on they are thermostatically controlled. Normal and failure warnings are provided on
the flight deck. Some provision is made for lower voltage applied on the ground to protect against
burning out the element. This type of control is normally activated by the undercarriage weight
(squat) switches. Stall warning detectors are anti iced in a similar manner. Where a TAT (Total Air
Temperature) system is used this also will be anti-iced by electrical elements.
All pitot probes and some static vents have heating elements, some large aircraft have two elements for
redundancy, as a precaution air transport aircraft have a heater fail light shown above. The pitot is
heated to prevent the ingress of moisture and icing and selected before take –off, pilots must check that
the heater element is operating before flight. For light aircraft this done by switching the heater on and
holding a hand near the probe to feel the heat.
Do not touch the probe it will burn, always offer the back of the hand to the underside or side of the
probe. If the probe is inadvertently touched the natural reaction is to pull the hand away, never cup
the hand around the probe, as the natural reaction is to grasp, this leads to a severe burn of the palm
and fingers.
9.5. Rain Removal

During flight in heavy rain it may be necessary to cease the operation of the windshield
wipers with application of a rain repellant. The main thing to remember about rain repellant fluid is
that, when inadvertently selected with a dry windscreen, it will obscure the view through the
windscreen rather than improving it.
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Rain Repellent
During heavy rain a chemical is sprayed onto the windscreen which forms on the surface and
causes the rain water to form beads, leaving large areas of dry glass in between. The beads of water
are easily removed by the natural airstream.
Activation of the system is by switch or push button on the flight deck. Irrespective of switch/
button operation only a measured amount of fluid will be applied.
The system should not be applied to dry windscreen surfaces because it can cause smearing
and restrict visibility. After application the film will gradually deteriorate with further rain
impingement. The length of time between applications is dependent on rain intensity, type of
repellent and windscreen wiper usage.
10. Fire Detection and Protection
10.1. Introduction
In most cases when we talk about fire we tend to visualise leaping flames, we must also be aware that a
smouldering material is on fire and presents an equal hazard if not discovered and extinguished. Before
looking at the methods of fire detection, crew alerting and extinguishing a fire, it would be
advantageous to refresh our memories on the basic chemistry of fire and the classifications of fire.
Basic Chemistry of Fire

For fire to start and take hold there are three conditions that must be present, these are:
Fuel
Heat
Oxygen
When all three are present fire may persist and absence of any one will break the fire triangle and the
result will be:
An existing fire being extinguished
The prevention of fire started
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Combustion Products
The two principle products of combustion are heat and smoke.
Heat
The heat output of a fire will depend on the surface area of the fuel that is burning, the fuel’s calorific
content, and the oxygen supply. For example, an oxy - acetylene welding torch increases the intensity of
the acetylene flame by adding extra oxygen, however if too much oxygen is added then the flame can be
snuffed out.
Heat is transferable by conduction, convection and radiation.
Smoke
Smoke is normally taken as being the visible vapour created by particles of carbon from the combustion
of a fuel. However, the process of heating a fuel before and during combustion will result in the
production of gases, which can be toxic depending on the type of material that is being heated.
The volume and density of these gases will depend on the material and the temperatures involved. We
must be aware that some of these gases are combustible in their own right. Therefore it is more
accurate to think of all products of combustion as ‘smoke’ whether it is seen or not. The old saying
“there’s no smoke without fire”, is a warning to the unwary, but there are combustible gases before
flames.
Where fire takes place within a confined space, the action of combustion will reduce the oxygen
content. The smoke produced will reduce the oxygen content further and reduce visibility.
The reduction of oxygen and the body’s natural reaction to smoke inhalation will affect breathing, vision
and the mental process. Vision will also be affected by density of the vapours and the body’s natural
reaction to smoke in the eyes. There is also the attendant danger that the material being burnt will give
off toxic gases, which could either incapacitate or kill.
10.2. Classification of fires

Class A: Fires that involves solid materials, predominantly of an organic kind such as paper, cotton and
wood will also form glowing embers. The means of extinguishing these fires is to cool them; the
use of water will also prevent re-ignition by soaking the fuel.
Class B: Fires that involve liquids or liquefiable solids can be further sub divided into B1 and B2.
B1 These are liquids that are soluble in water such as Methanol
The means of extinguishing this fire is Carbon Dioxide, Dry powder, Water spray, Light water
and Halons.
B2 These are liquids that are not soluble in water such as Avgas, Avtur, Oil, Petrol, Diesel and
Paint. The means of extinguishing this fire is Foam, Dry powder, Carbon Dioxide and Halons.
Class C: Fires that involve gases or liquefied gases such as Butane, Propane and Methane etc resulting
from spillage or leakage.
The means of extinguishing these fires is to smother them with foam or dry powder and use
water to cool any leaking container.
Class D: Fires that involve metals such as aluminium
The means of extinguishing these fires is to smother them with a special dry powder.
Note For theoretical purposes in the JAA exam fires that involve magnesium chips or flares would be
smothered using SAND. Also for exam purposes the CAA / JAA count all items in the Class B as one and
will be looking for the selection of: Foam, Dry powder, Carbon Dioxide and Halons as the agents to use.
Fires Involving Electricity

There is no categorisation of electrical fire as there used to be, as electricity does not burn, but any of
the above fire classes may involve an electrical supply that must be isolated before water or foam is
used.
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Domestic Situations
Carbon Dioxide, dry powder, Halon 1301 and 1211 can be used on fires that involve electrical equipment
before the power supply is turned off. However, if a fire involves electrical equipment it is safer to
isolate it from the supply first where possible.
Fire Prevention by Design

Obviously the best way to fight a fire is to prevent it from starting in the first place. Ideally all the
materials that are used in the production of aircraft would be fire proof, however, in reality for practical
purposes some of the materials used in the manufacture of aircraft are combustible, others are fire
resistant.
10.3. Classifications Cargo compartment are listed below:
Class A is one where a crewmember at his/her duty station would easily discover the presence of a fire
and each part of the compartment is easily accessible in flight.
Class B is one where there is sufficient access in flight for a crewmember to effectively reach any part of
the compartment with the contents of a hand held fire extinguisher. Where on the accessing the
compartment no hazardous quantity of smoke, flame or extinguishing agent will enter any compartment
occupied by the crew or passengers. A smoke or fire detector is fitted that warns the flight crew as to
the presence of a fire.
Class C is a compartment which is not classed as either A or B. It requires a fire or smoke detection
system that warns the flight crew and a fixed fire-extinguishing system that is operated by flight crew.
The ventilation rate can be controlled so that the fire-extinguishing agent used can control the fire.
There are means to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke, flame and extinguishing agent from any
compartment occupied by the crew or passengers.
Class D are compartments that, were a fire to break out it would be completely confined without
endangering the safety of the aeroplane or the occupants. The volume of the compartment does not
exceed 1000 cubic feet. There are means to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke, or other noxious
gases from any compartment occupied by the crew or passengers. Heat from a fire within a class D
compartment must not affect critical parts of the aircraft the ventilation and draught are controlled
within each compartment so that any fire likely to occur in the compartment will not progress beyond
safe limits.
Class E classification is used for air cargo aircraft only where the main cabin is turned into freight bay.
They must have a smoke or fire detection system that warns the crew.
The crew must be able to shut off the ventilation airflow to and from the compartment.
There are means to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke, or other noxious gases from any
compartment occupied by the crew.
That the required emergency exits are accessible by the crew under any cargo condition.
10.4. Lavatory Fire Protection

There is a requirement for aircraft with 20 passenger seats or more to have a built in fire extinguisher
that discharges automatically into the waste bin if a fire occurs. This is because some passengers on long
haul non - smoking flights try to use the aircraft’s toilets as smoking booths.
They block off the smoke detectors then dispose of their cigarette butts in the waste paper bins. In some
cases they dispose of them before they are fully extinguished and there is a very real risk of the contents
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of the waste bin igniting and setting fire to the surrounding trim. The chemicals in the lavatory fluid can
also act as a fuel, therefore there is a need for an automatic means of extinguishing any fire in the waste
bins.
Potty Bottle For Lavatory Fire Suppression
A small capacity Halon fire extinguisher often termed a ‘potty bottle’ is fitted behind the waste bin unit
in each toilet as shown in figure. The bottle has a small diameter pipe, which is sealed with a low melting
point alloy after it has been charged with the BCF.
In the event of a fire in the waste bin the heat melts the alloy and the bottle discharges into the bin. To
warn the ground engineers of the temperatures that were obtained before the fire was extinguished, a
placard with a series of temperature sensitive silver spots is mounted inside the vanity unit, the placard
silver spots will be darken to black as the temperature rises.
Fire Zones
Fire zones are those areas where there are the ingredients for a fire, such as the main engines, auxiliary
power units (APU) and combustion heaters. Main engines can be divided into reciprocating and turbine.
10.5. Reciprocating Engines

The fire zone for reciprocating engines is defined as the complete power plant compartment, where
there is no isolation between the power section and the accessory section. If an engine is installed with
its power plant in one area and its accessory section in another, then both zones will be counted as fire
zones.
Drainage and Ventilation of Fire Zones

There must be complete drainage of each part of each fire zone; the drains must be arranged so that
they do not create an additional fire hazard. Each fire zone must be ventilated to prevent the
accumulation of flammable vapour. The ventilation openings must not allow entry of flammable fluids,
vapours or flame from other zones. Each means of ventilation must be arranged so that discharged
vapours will not cause an additional fire hazard.
Firewalls
Firewalls are designed to separate fire zones from the rest of the aircraft’s structure and must be made
of material that at the thickness used is able to resist the penetration of a 1100 oC flame for 15 minutes.
Any opening in a firewall, such as a hole to allow an electric cable etc to pass through, must be sealed
with a fireproof grommet or fitting.
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The firewall must be protected from corrosion; this can be seen in light single engine aircraft where the
front fuselage bulkhead is also the firewall between the engine bay and the rest of the aircraft, and is
galvanised.
For firewalls not physically attached to the rest of the aircraft’s structure, such as engine bays or
nacelles where an access panel closes across a firewall that divides the compartment into two, the gap
between the firewall and access panel must be sealed. The material must be fireproof and if by nature
would absorb flammable liquid or vapour must be sealed to prevent it from doing so.
10.6. Gas Turbine Engines

Gas Turbine engines are normally divided into three zones, these are zone 1 the fire zone, zone 2 the
cold zone and zone 3 the hot exhaust zone as shown in Diagram below.
Fire Zone Fire Extinguisher Bottles
Zone 1: Is defined as, the compressor and accessory section where there is isolation from the rest of the
engine. The accessory section is where, the fuel pumps, hydraulic pumps, engine lubricating oil,
generators and gearboxes are located. This zone requires fire detection and protection systems, as a fire
here would rapidly get out of control.
Zone 2: Is the area around the compressor spool where there is no fuel or source of ignition; a fire in
this zone would be a metal fire due to the compressor blades rubbing against the containment casing.
This would be indicated by a severe vibration and engine shutdown removing the source of ignition.
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Zone 3: Is the hot zone from the combustion chambers rearwards, normally this is considered an
overheat zone as there is no fuel, but a cracked exhaust could lead to hot gases jetting into the
surrounding structure.
However if either of the following conditions exists then they are included in the zone 1 category.
 The combustor, turbine and tail section will be included in zone 1 if there are any lines or
components that carry flammable fluid or gases.
 Any complete power plant compartment in which there is no isolation between the
compressor, accessory, combustor, turbine and tailpipe section.
Built In Test - BIT

Modern fire detection systems have built in test circuits. When electrical power is applied to the
systems they constantly monitor the loops for integrity of the whole system. If the test circuit detects a
fault then an amber ‘Fault’ light will illuminate on the appropriate fire-warning panel, this alerts the pilot
to select the serviceable loop.
However in the unlikely event of a fault occurring in one loop where both have been selected exactly at
the same time as a fire occurs, modern solid-state controllers monitoring the systems are designed to
give a fire warning.
Older systems required the pilot to frequently press a test button in flight to determine that the system
had integrity.
Pre-Flight Test
The Commander of an aircraft with a fire warning system must test the system’s integrity before take-
off to ensure that he complies with the regulations.
Aural and Visual Alerting

For fire the aural warning can take the form of a bell, horn, or chime. The crew can cancel this, once
cancelled if another fire warning is given then the aural warning will sound again.
To visually alert the pilot to a problem attention getters will flash red. The pilot can cancel these, as with
the aural warning if a further fire condition occurs then the attention getters will flash again.
Fire Warning – Indicating the Source
Central warning Panel
A constant red light will illuminate on the appropriate fire-warning panel as shown above.
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This cannot be cancelled by the pilot and will remain illuminated until the fire condition ceases to exist,
where the fire sensor resets itself. If another fire condition for the same area were to exist after it has
reset then the warnings would start again.
Fire Handles Illuminate to Warn of Engine Fires

Engine Fire Indications
For large air transport aircraft the continuous fire indication is normally given by illuminating the
appropriate engine’s fire handle. In the event of an engine fire, to meet the requirements of isolating
the engine from flammable fluids, removing possible sources of ignition, closing the engine down,
arming and operating the fire extinguisher quickly, these functions have been combined into two
operations of the fire handle.
Fire Handles
Engine Fire Warning Panel
The first action is to pull the appropriate fire handle this action will simultaneously:
 Disconnect the engine’s alternator from the aircraft’s electrical system
 Close the fuel, hydraulic and any other flammable fluid FSOVs
 Isolate the engine’s ignition circuit
 Arm the firing circuits
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In the case of a large fanjet the crew must wait for the engine’s RPM to drop before firing the
extinguishers so as to reduce the ventilation rate through the fire zone.
The second action is to turn the fire handle in the direction of the master cylinder No1 and hold it to
actuate the appropriate squib, and then carefully return it to the central position. Turning the handle in
the opposite direction will fire the other extinguisher. Care must be taken as the handles are sprung
loaded to centre and it is feasible for the handle to bounce when released.
The fire handle will remain illuminated until the fire has gone out and the fire wire has reset itself.
Operation of fire handle in discharging a bottle will illuminate the appropriate white discharged light;
this will remain on for the remainder of the flight. It is standard practice for the fire handle to remain
pulled out as this ensures that the engine bay remains isolated from fuel etc.
After a fire has been successfully put out many operational procedure manuals instruct the crew to
operate the second engine / cargo bay bottles prior to landing as a precaution against re-ignition during
the landing phase.
For turbo props the propeller must be feathered to prevent it wind milling, not only creating drag but
driving the engine and increasing the ventilation rate.
10.7. Auxiliary Power Units –APU
APU Bay
Auxiliary power units are normally located in the tail of an aircraft, where they are isolated from the rest
of the aircraft’s structure by a firewall. In this case the whole of the APU and compartment are classed
as a fire zone 1, as shown in diagram above.
Modern APU's have two operating conditions these are:

Ground
Flight.
On the ground it is common practice for APUs to be left running when the flight deck is unattended. To
ensure that there is fire protection, the fire detection and suppression system can be selected to
automatic. If either loop of a twin loop system detects a fire condition it will automatically shut down,
isolate the APU and operate the fire extinguisher.
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APU Control Panel
In flight the regulations require the crew to monitor the APU so the system is set to manual, where any
fire warning is given via the attention getters, horn and dedicated continuous red, the crew will then
activate the APU’s fire bottle. Modern solid state systems use the aircraft’s weight on wheels- ground
logic to automatically change the fire detector from in-flight AND logic to ground OR logic as shown in
above control panel.
Wheel Bays
Main wheel wells are monitored for fire and overheat as there is a possibility of a fire starting alongside
the wing fuel tanks due to overheated brake units. The corrective action in the event of an overheat
warning being given is for the pilot to slow down to landing gear extended speed and lower the gear to
cool or blow out the flames.
10.8. Hand Held Fire Extinguishers
The regulations state that:

* Each hand fire extinguisher must be approved.
* The type and quantity of extinguishing agent must be suitable for the kinds of fires likely to
occur in the compartment where the extinguisher is intended to be used and, for personnel
compartments, must minimise the hazard of toxic gas concentration
* Each extinguisher should be readily accessible and mounted so as to facilitate quick removal
from its mounting bracket.
* Unless an extinguisher is clearly visible, its location should be indicated by a placard or sign
Flight Deck
 There should be at least one fire extinguisher, suitable for both flammable fluid and electrical
equipment fires, installed on the flight deck. This fire extinguisher must contain Halon 1211
(Bromochlorodifluoromethane, CBrCIF2), or equivalent and must be conveniently located on the
flight deck for use by the flight crew
 Dry chemical fire extinguishers should not be used on the flight deck, or in any compartment not
separated by a partition from the flight deck, because of the adverse effect on vision during
discharge and, if non-conductive, interference with electrical contacts by the chemical residues.
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Cargo Compartments A, B and E
At least one readily accessible hand fire extinguisher must be available for use in each Class A or Class B
cargo or baggage compartment and in each Class E cargo or baggage compartment that is accessible to
crew members in flight
Galleys
Lower Galley of a Large Air Transport Aircraft
At least one hand fire extinguisher must be located in, or readily accessible for use in each galley
located above or below the passenger compartment.
Hand Held Fire Extinguisher for Passenger Compartments
The minimum number of hand fire extinguishers and their types are depend on the passenger seat
capacity of the aircraft. Where more than one fire extinguisher is required the other extinguisher(s)
must be appropriate for the kinds of fires likely to occur where used.
Where only one hand fire extinguisher is required in the passenger compartments it should be located
near the cabin crew member's station, where provided.
In situations where there is no cabin crewmember, the fire extinguisher will be located adjacent to the
entry door. Where two hand fire extinguishers are required in the passenger compartments and their
location is not otherwise dictated by consideration of regulation above, the fire extinguishers should
be located near each end of the cabin.
In this situation where there is a cabin crewmember, the second fire extinguisher would be located
adjacent to the entry door, or the opposite end of the cabin. Where more than two hand fire
extinguishers are required in the passenger compartments, the additional extinguisher(s) should be
located near each end of the cabin with the remainder distributed throughout the cabin as evenly as is
practicable
In reality taking into account the number and size of the passenger compartments the need to
minimise the hazard of toxic gas concentrations and the location of toilets, galleys etc, may result in
the number being greater than the minimum prescribed.
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10.9. Fire Detection
Introduction
There are three methods of detecting a fire, these are heat detection, smoke detection and flame
detection. Heat detection is normally used in areas that have large changes of air due to the ventilation
rates; these are the fire zones around engines, APUs and main undercarriage wheel bays. Smoke
detection is normally used in cargo compartments [B – E] and toilet compartments. Flame detection is
where rapid response is required.
Engine Fire Detection Warning Time

Flame detection systems that are fitted into engine bays must be able to detect a fire within 5 seconds
of it starting.
Cargo Compartment Fire Warning Times

Fires in class C cargo compartments must be detected within one minute of the fire’s initial ignition. This
ensures that the crew has sufficient time to take remedial action before the fire can cause structural
damage.
Smoke Detectors
The most commonly used smoke detectors for class B and C cargo areas are those that sense the
presence of airborne particulates and aerosols. These are:
radioactive ionisation
photoelectric light scatter
photoelectric light attenuation
Radioactive Ionisation Detectors
Ionised Radiation Smoke Detector
Ionised radiation smoke detectors operate in a similar manner to the common household smoke
detector and are able to detect small amounts of smoke as given off by a flaming fire. They use an
ionisation chamber shown above, a source of ionising radiation, which emits alpha particles. The alpha
particles ionise the oxygen and nitrogen atoms of the air in the ionisation chamber.
When smoke particles enter the ionisation chamber they disrupt the current being created by attaching
themselves to the ions, which neutralises their potential. In this situation the detection circuit senses the
drop in current between the plates, this triggers the warning.
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Photoelectric Light Scatter Detectors
Labyrinth Type Photoelectric Light Scatter Smoke Detector
As light travels in a straight line through clear air, in these detectors a photoelectric light sensor is placed
out of line from a light source. Under normal conditions the sensor is hidden from the light source, when
smoke enters the chamber the light is scattered through refraction and reflection allowing some of the
light to fall on the sensor.
When an internal fan draws air through the labyrinth chamber any smoke will reflect some of the light
from the LED onto the photodiode causing it to give an output voltage. Any increase in the volume of
smoke will result in a further increase in the output voltage; the internal electronics will give an alarm
warning when the output voltage reaches a calibrated level.
To prevent spurious warnings caused by dust, filters are fitted to the air intakes and the labyrinth
chamber is heated to stop condensation forming in humid conditions.
These units self test and are designed to prevent spurious warnings being given on the flight deck, in the
event of the unit failing in operation the pilot is warned by a fail light.
Photoelectric Light Attenuation Detectors
Light Attenuation Type Smoke Detector
In these smoke detectors a light source is in direct line with a sensor, as shown above. Under normal
conditions a beam of light a known value from the light source shines on the sensor cell. As the sensor
cell is photoelectric the light creates an electrical voltage that is measured and compared against a set
value.
When smoke enters the detector chamber it starts to obscure the light [attenuation], the subsequent
reduction in light falling on the sensor drops the voltage output of the photoelectric cell. This drop in
voltage is sensed by the measuring circuit, which triggers the flight deck warning. This type of detector
requires a greater volume of smoke than either of the previous designs.
Location and Redundancy of Smoke Detectors

Smoke detectors can either be ceiling mounted in the areas that they monitor or remotely located,
whichever method is chosen the system installed has to have the ability to continue being fully
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functional in the event of a failure. To ensure that a single failure in a detection system does not cause
the loss of fire warning, the systems are duplicated so that there are two separate detection systems
monitoring the same area.
Ceiling Mounted
Where they are ceiling mounted there has to be sufficient detectors to enable any source of smoke to
register within one minute, thus a large open cargo hold or smaller hold that is subdivided will require
several detectors. The radioactive ionisation type smoke detector with its high sensitivity detection is
ideally suited for this type of installation.
Another method is to mount a pair of smoke detectors in a remote location. Air from several points
within the cargo bay is drawn through them, allowing two detectors to cover a large open hold etc.
Optical type smoke detectors function more efficiently when air is passed through their chambers, in
above diagram a labyrinth type smoke detectors are being used remotely.
To ensure redundancy, two units are mounted in parallel both taking air drawn from the same sources.
Overheat Detectors – Fenwal Thermoswitch

In areas where there is the possibility of high temperature air or gases from a ruptured duct impinging
on structure and damaging it or starting a fire, over heat detectors are fitted. These areas include fire
zone 3 of a gas turbine engine, the area surrounding a jet exhaust pipe, the areas surrounding thermal
anti-icing ducting.
Overheat Detectors
Diagram shown above a typical overheat sensor. In this design a tube with a high co-efficient of
expansion is mounted on a base plate, inside the tube are two sprung elements bowed away from each
other by the compression effect of the tube. These sprung elements are made of a material with a low
co-efficient of expansion.
These are electrically insulated from each other, one end being attached to the base plate and the other
to the sealed end of the tube. Attached to each element is an electrical wire, thus the sensor forms an
electrical switch in the ‘open’ condition. When the temperature surrounding the sensor is heated, the
tube expands faster than the sprung elements, resulting in them being pulled together. When the
temperature reaches a predetermined level the two elements make contact to complete a circuit.
In areas such as zone 3 of an engine bay several of these detectors are mounted on the surrounding
structure around the combustion chamber / turbine and are wired in parallel to ensure that should a
lancing flame from a cracked casing burn through one of the cables to a sensor, other units will pick up
the condition and give the alarm warning.
.
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Fire Detectors
Fire detectors can be divided into two types - those that respond to an increase in heat above the
background level and those that respond to the optical properties of a fire, the latter are normally
referred to as flame detectors.
There are several designs of thermal fire detectors these are:
Resistive firewire systems
Capacitive firewire systems
Gas pressure systems
Thermocouple systems
Firewire TM Kidde Graviner

Firewire TM is the registered trademark of Kiddie Graviner and operates in a dual mode sensing both
resistance and capacitance simultaneously. Other companies manufacture similar style sensors but
these only function as either resistive or capacitive systems.
Firewire
Firewire is a term used for a fine central electrode surrounded with a filler material inside a slim
stainless steel capillary tube or sheath, which is earthed to the aircraft. Diagram above showing a cross
section of a Firewire. Firewire is mounted as a continuous loop in areas where the outbreak of fire is
possible. To prevent it becoming kinked or subjected to excessive vibration, it is supported by clamps
along its length.
The Firewire TM loop is linked to a control unit that measures both resistance and capacitance.
The resistance of the unit is measured between the central wire and the capillary tube, application of
heat either in one point as a ‘hot spot’ or over a length will result in the filler material’s resistance
decreasing. This decrease of resistance is accompanied by an increase in capacitance.
The control unit monitors a combination of resistance and capacitance and will signal a warning when
the resistance reaches its operating value provided that the capacitance is sufficiently high. This
prevents spurious warnings in the event of a drop in resistivity.
If there are multiple breaks in the Firewire loop, provided that the central element is not touching the
outer capillary tube, the parts of the loop that are still attached to control unit will still function as a fire
detector.
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As different areas that need fire protection can have different background temperatures such as engine
bays and wheel bays Firewire is manufactured in three different temperature elements.
Thermocouple Fire Detector
This is an older design of fire detector that uses the electrical potential produced by two strips of
dissimilar metals that are connected at the ends and where one end is heated. In this design several
thermocouples are connected in series, one thermocouple is located in an area that has the same
background temperature as the area to be monitored but unlikely to be subjected to an over heat or fire
situation diagram shown above. When an overheat situation occurs the difference in temperature
between the reference unit and the sensing units acts to create a current flow, the larger the
temperature differential or sensitive relay, which in turn makes the warning circuit.
To carry out an integrity test a further thermocouple is located in the same area as the reference unit,
co-located to the unit is a heating element. When the pilot selects test the element heats and the
differential temperature causes the current flow, triggering a fire warning. In the event of a connecting
cable between units becoming severed only those units connected to the cold end will function as fire
detectors
Flame Detectors – Ultra Violet Type

For areas that can be subjected to sudden intense flame such as the pencil thin lancing flame 2000 oC
caused by a turbine engine’s combustion chamber rupturing referred to as ‘combustion can breakout’,
an optical fire detection system offers very rapid response from a sensor that is subjected to high
temperatures due to its location.
The first optical system was developed by Kidde-Gravener for Concorde to detect combustion can
breakouts before the flame burnt its way into the wing fuel tanks. It can also be used to monitor reheat
systems to ensure that a pilot flame type ignition source is alight before the fuel is pumped into the jet
pipe. The properties of above system are:
 High immunity to false alarms
 Suitability for high temperature environments
 Light weight
Requirements For Fire Warning

The flight crew of twin engine aircraft (gas turbine or reciprocating fitted with a turbo charger),
commuter aircraft, or aircraft where the engine is not readily visible from the flight deck must be
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warned if a fire or overheat condition exists in:
 Engine fire zone 1
 The hot zone 2 of a gas turbine engine
the combustion section , the turbine section , the tailpipe, APU,s
 Any other fire zone

 Main wheel bays
 Cargo compartments [B – E]
 Toilet compartments
10.10. Fire Suppression
Introduction
This next section of the chapter details how in flight fire suppression is achieved and the regulations in
force. This is subdivided into fixed fire extinguisher systems and hand held fire extinguishers as it will
align itself with further emergency equipment, but first we will look at the fire extinguishing agents that
can be used in aircraft.
Fire Extinguishing Agents

The fire-extinguishing agents used in an aircraft must:
* Be capable of extinguishing flames emanating from any burning of fluids or other combustible
materials in the area protected by the fire extinguishing system
* Have thermal stability over the temperature range likely to be experienced in the compartment
in which they are stored.
* If any toxic extinguishing agent is used, provisions must be made to prevent harmful
concentrations of fluid or fluid vapours from leakage or discharge from entering any personnel
compartment.
Agents that can be used for aircraft fixed fire extinguisher systems are:
Agent Known Chemical Usage

as Formua
Carbon Dioxide CO2 CO2 Cargo Compartments
Engine Bays
Bromovhorodifluoromethane BCF CBrClF3 Flight deck, Passenger Compts
Halon1211 Cargo Compts, Engine bays
Bromotrifluoromethane Halon 1301 CF3Br Cargo Compts, Engine bays
Water H2O H2O Passenger Compts
Methyl Bromide MB MB Engine bays
Protective Breathing Equipment for Flight Crew

Where a fire extinguishing system is fitted to an aircraft the regulations require that there is protective
breathing equipment for each flight-crew member on flight deck duty shown above. The first action of a
flight crew on receiving and confirming a fire warning is to don protective breathing equipment to
ensure that they are not incapacitated by either toxic fumes or fire extinguishing agent.
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Oxygen and Smoke Goggles
Built in Fire Extinguishers Systems
For areas that a crewmember cannot access with a hand held fire extinguisher a fixed fire suppression
system must be fitted, the regulations state that:
* Fuel burning heaters [combustion heaters] may be protected by an individual 'one-shot' system.
* For each other designated fire zone, two discharges must be provided each of which produces
adequate agent concentration.
* The capacity of each required built-in fire extinguishing system must be adequate for any fire
likely to occur in the compartment where used, considering the volume of the compartment and the
ventilation rate.
* The fire-extinguishing system for a nacelle must be able to simultaneously protect each zone of
the nacelle for which protection is provided.
To comply with this requirement the system has to have sufficient agent to:
* Knock the fire down
* Blanket the area so as to prevent re-ignition while it cools.
Fixed Fire Extinguishers – Spherical

Modern fixed fire extinguishers ‘fire bottles’ are spherical in shape as they hold the larger volume for a
smaller size compared with the older cylindrical designs.
Squib Test
Each outlet incorporates a frangible disc type valve that is ruptured by a small explosive charge called a
‘squib’ see diagram 14.24 above. When the fire extinguisher is operated an electrical current fires the
charge causing it to detonate. This explosion either ruptures the sealing disk directly or drives a slug
through it, releasing the agent.
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To ensure the integrity of each firing circuit the crew carries out a continuity test before flight. When the
pilot depresses the squib test button a micro voltage is passed through the squib, this tests the
complete circuit without detonating the squib. If the system is serviceable a green or yellow /green light
will illuminate as shown above. An unsatisfactory test will preclude flight until remedial action is carried
out.
Fixed Fire Extinguishers – Cylindrical
Dual Operating Head Cylindrical Fixed Fire Extinguisher
Above diagram shows a cylindrical fixed fire extinguisher with two outlet branches, referred to as a ‘Dual
Operating Head’ connected to the neck of the cylinder. Each leg of the dual operating head, which takes
the form of an upside down Y, is connected to a separate compartment or engine and has its own squib,
see cross feed later in these notes.
Thermal Over Pressure Vent Valve and Thermal Discharge Indicator

To prevent the containers from bursting in the event of excessive temperature acting on the container, a
pressure relief valve opens and vents the entire contents to atmosphere. This operates the external
Thermal Discharge Indicator. To ensure that the crew are warned of a discharge a pressure switch is
fitted, this is linked to the fire-warning panel and activates the discharge light.
Thermal Discharge Indicators
To indicate that a bottle has been discharged due to thermal over pressurisation, a thermal discharge
indicator is fitted to the aircraft’s skin, as shown above. The discharge indicator is connected to the vent
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line and when the contents of the container are relieved overboard it ejects a disc to show a red disc.
This warns the ground crew and the pilot on a pre-flight walk round that the fire extinguisher bottle is
empty.
Discharge Indicators
There are two methods used to indicate that a fire extinguisher has been discharged without applying
electrical power and checking the fire panel, these are:
Discharge pin
Discharge piston
Fixed Fire Extinguisher Discharge Indicator Pin
Where the operating head is accessible a discharge pin can be used, when the squib is detonated it
drives a piston down which causes a small pin to protrude from the centre of the end cap. This can be
felt or seen as in above diagram.
Where the operating head is inaccessible a discharge piston can be used, this takes the form of a skin
fitting and is plumbed into the line from the container to the compartment. When the squib is
detonated gas pressure from the released agent drives a small piston outwards, this ejects a yellow disc
then blocks the flow of the agent, allowing the entire agent to discharge into the hazard zone.
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11. AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS
11.1 Introduction
Depending on quality and specifications recommended by the aircraft engine manufacturer two types of
fuel are used in aviation:
AVGAS — Aviation gasoline for use in conventional piston engines with ignition systems.
AVTUR — Aviation kerosene for use in gas-turbine engines and the new diesel engines that are being
developed and licensed for aircraft use.
Both fuels are distillates from mineral oil and have different properties. Aviation gasoline is a mixture
of lighter hydrocarbons and manufactured to produce a fuel with a specific gravity, or SG, of 0.72
at 15°C. Aviation kerosene is a mixture of heavier hydrocarbons and produced with an SG range
of 0.75 to 0.84.
All fuels possess the following properties in varying degrees:

Volatility is the measure of a fuel’s tendency to change state from a liquid to a vapour.
Vapour Pressure is the term used to indicate the ambient pressure at which the fuel vaporises. A high
vapour pressure indicates that the fuel vaporises at high atmospheric pressure.
Flash Point is the lowest temperature at which there are sufficient fuel vapours, due to the fuel’s
volatility, above the liquid to ignite. This results in combustion that burns all the vapours seen as a flash.
There is not a sustained flame.
Fire Point is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can sustain combustion through
vaporisation.
Auto-Ignition Temperature (AIT) is the temperature at which a fuel spontaneously ignites

without the presence of an ignition source.
Freezing Point is the point at which the last ice crystal disappears from the fuel as it warms up.
As aviation fuels are a mixture of hydrocarbons, they do not become a solid homogenous mass at one
temperature like water, but individual hydrocarbons can form ice crystals.
11.2. Aviation Gasoline-AVGAS

The specifications for aviation gasoline were developed for the earlier carburetted aero engines
and have been developed into three grades as engine power has increased. However, the basic
specifications remain the same.
Aviation gasoline having a low density (compared to kerosene) is volatile and has a high vapour
pressure. Gasoline easily vaporises (evaporates) at sea level on an ISA standard day. As the
ambient pressure decreases, the volatility of the fuel increases and is said to be boiling off
(e.g. at 10 000 ft, the ambient pressure has dropped by approximately 31% of the sea level
value). The flash point of AVGAS is approximately –40°C, thus the fire point is within the normal range of
ambient atmospheric conditions. The freezing point of AVGAS has to be –58°C or lower.
This has several effects on the fuel. First, it makes starting easier and reduces the likelihood of
running problems at low ambient temperatures. However, due to the high vapour pressure,
AVGAS can easily vapour lock as temperatures increase or ambient pressure decreases.
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GRADES OF AVGAS
There are three grades of aviation gasoline depending on characteristics:
80 GRADE
80 grade aviation gasoline is coloured red for identification purposes. It is for use in low-power (low
compression ratio) normally-aspirated (carburetted) aero engines. The grade number gives its octane
rating, which is an indication of its resistance to detonation.
100 GRADE
100 grade fuel is dyed green for identification and is for use in higher-powered (compression)
engines as it is more resistant to detonation. To improve the fuel’s resistance to detonation liquid,
tetraethyl lead is added. This of course has an environmental impact, so 100LL grade was introduced.
100LL GRADE
100LL is dyed blue for identification and has the same octane rating as 100 grade but has a
Lower Lead content and has become the standard fuel grade for high-powered engines (injected,
turbo-charged or super-charged engines).
11.3. Aviation Kerosene- AVTUR

Aviation turbine fuel was developed from paraffin for use in gas-turbine engines. This fuel has a
greater density than AVGAS and a lower vapour pressure (about 0.14 psi), so it is less volatile. This,
whilst reducing the likelihood of vapour locks occurring and the loss of fluid via boil-off, requires the fuel
to be conditioned to ensure that it flows and vaporises when sprayed through special injectors at high
pressure into the combustion chamber of the engine. As it has to be pressurised prior to atomisation in
the combustion chamber, the fuel has to pass through a high-pressure pump and fuel-metering system.
These are covered in the gas turbine engine notes but are mentioned here to explain why turbine fuel
must have lubricant properties. The fuel has to be chemically stable. However, if it is stored over a long
period in conditions where oxidation can occur, soluble gums and insoluble particulates form which clog
filter units and pipes.
GRADES OF AVTUR
The following three commercial grades of gas turbine engine fuel are available:
Jet B
This was the original American aviation turbine fuel. It is what is termed a wide cut, wide range, or
wide distillate as it is manufactured from mixing 70% gasoline with 30% kerosene. This has
several very important effects:
 A high vapour pressure (2.6 psi)
 A low flash point (below 0°C)
 A low fire point (below 0°C)
 A low freezing point
 A lower SG
 Reduced lubricity
 Greater fuel loss through evaporation
As can be seen from the first three points, Jet B is a greater fire risk, which reduces crash
survivability. Its use increases the wear in the fuel components, and if it is added to an aircraft
that normally uses Jet A or Jet A1, it requires the fuel control system to be adjusted as its mass
per unit of weight is less. Jet B is not used as a commercial fuel except in areas such as Alaska
or Canada where its lower freezing quality is useful in arctic conditions.
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Jet A
Jet A was the next generation of turbine fuel. This is termed straight kerosene, as there is no blending
with gasoline. The flash point for this fuel is 38°C and its freezing point is –40°C. This fuel is normally
used for domestic flights within the USA, as it is cheaper to produce than the current world standard
commercial gas-turbine fuel Jet A1.
Jet A1
Jet A1 was developed for use in long-haul high-altitude commercial airliners. This was achieved
by lowering the freezing point to –47°C and is considered by the JAA to be the preferred aviation
kerosene fuel for commercial aviation worldwide.
11.4. FUEL TANKS

11.4.1. Types of Tanks:
There are three types of fuel tanks used in aircraft for storing fuel:
 Rigid or Fabricated tanks
 Flexible tanks
 Integral tanks
Rigid or Fabricated Tanks:
Rigid tanks were the first type of fuel tank used on aircraft. The fuel is carried in an externally mounted
rigid tank allowing a gravity feed to the engine. While modern aircraft can incorporate rigid fuel tanks
fitted internally, they are no longer the main fuel storage system as they have the following
disadvantages:
1. The rigid fuel tank and the extra strengthening required adds to the overall mass of
the aircraft and reduces the useful load of the aircraft.
2. As they are built as a separate structure, if they are large, they have to be built up in situ as the
aircraft is manufactured, making maintenance replacement awkward. For practical and economic
purposes, rigid tanks can only be fitted where there is sufficient space available for a large
uncomplicated shape to be manufactured.
3. They have to be tied to the aircraft’s structure. This requires the surrounding structure to be
strengthened to support the added mass and cater for the acceleration/deceleration loads imposed
by the fuel tank and its contents.
Flexible Tanks:
Flexible tanks are made from a fuel resistant rubberised fabric, which has the advantage of being lighter
than the comparable rigid tank. They can be manufactured to fit into areas where it would not be
practicable to produce and fit a rigid tank. Being flexible (to an extent) they are more crashworthy than
either rigid or integral tanks provided that they do not get punctured. Some tanks have an external layer
of high-density closed cell foam that swells when in contact with fuel, so it self-seals (reducing the size
of the leak). While modern aircraft can incorporate flexible fuel tanks fitted internally, they are no
longer the main fuel storage system as they have the following disadvantages:
1. There is no guarantee that the bottom of the tank is flat. It can be rucked, causing ridges that trap
water.
2. The fuel from a leaking flexible tank can run down the internal structure before showing on the
exterior of the aircraft.
3. The areas in which they are fitted have to be lined with tape to prevent any sharp edges from
puncturing them.
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4. They have to be clipped or tied to the surrounding structure to preventing them from collapsing as
the fuel is used.
Once used with fuel, the tank must not be allowed to dry out as it can split and leak. Over a period of
time, these tanks can become porous, so they have a finite life.
Integral Tanks:
Modern air transport aircraft use integral tanks as their main fuel storage system. These are formed by
internally sealing structures. This system allows manufacturers to utilise areas that would otherwise not
be viable as part of the aircraft’s fuel system. As the main areas used are the aircraft’s wings, the system
has been termed wet wing. In this system, sections of the wing’s structure are converted into fuel tanks
and section of aircraft fuselage with proper sealants.
Integral Fuel Tank
The system has the advantage of being lighter and making use of structural bays that would otherwise
be left as voids. The disadvantage, as with the flexible tank, is that the rubberised sealant must not be
allowed to dry out. Otherwise, it can crack and cause the tank to leak. This weight reduction in turn
allows either more fuel to be carried to extend the aircraft’s range or more payload in place of the extra
fuel. For modern turbine-powered air transport aircraft with thinner wing sections, the utilisation of the
wet wing system allows fuel to be stored further toward the tips. Increasing the weight at the tips,
counters the upward bending action created by lift.
Wing Ribs Act as a Baffle Plate
As most modern air transport aircraft have wings that are straight or slightly dihedral, the fuel runs from
the tips toward the wing root. Any manoeuvre that causes a wing to drop results in the fuel running
back toward the wing tip. To control the movement of fuel within the tank, baffles can be fitted. Here
the fuel is able to flow past the rib, as there are gaps between it and the surrounding structure.
Flapper valve:
Where the ribs or baffle plates are completely sealed and there is no provision for lightening holes,
flapper valves are fitted to allow the fuel to pass in one direction only, as diagram shown below.
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Where the ribs or baffle plates are completely sealed and there is no provision for lightening holes,
‘flapper’ valves are fitted to allow the fuel to pass in one direction only. The left diagram shows the
flapper valve in the open condition when the aircraft is in a straight and level condition, allowing fuel to
flow down to the fuel collector and then on to the engine. The right diagram shows the flapper valve
closed when the aircraft’s wing tip is lower than the fuel collector, trapping the fuel in the collector. This
prevents fuel starvation of the engine.
Unusable Fuel, Stack Pipe and Sump
To prevent the risk of engine failure due to water or contaminants passing through the fuel line, the fuel
supply to the engine is taken from above the bottom of the tank. Normally fuel being drawn off via a
stack pipe. This leaves a volume of fuel that cannot be used by the engine and is termed unusable fuel.
The aircraft’s pilot’s manual specifies this volume and its mass. To prevent any large item of debris that
would block the fuel line, a coarse mesh (gauze) filter, referred to as a finger strainer, is fitted over the
inlet of the stack pipe.
Sumps
Each fuel tank must have a low point, which is termed a ‘sump’ to which any free water can drain down
and can be drained from via a water drain valve. In diagram 10.8 above the water drain valve is shown
fitted in a distinct sump as per a rigid tank. For integral tanks the sump will be formed by the dihedral of
the wing and the height of the take off pipe above the bottom of the tank. For JAR 23 certified aircraft
the sump has a minimum capacity of 1/16 US gallon or 0.25% of the tanks capacity, whichever is the
greater.
Water Drain Valves

Water drain taps are fitted at the lowest point of the fuel tank and in filter units to allow any free water
to be drained off when the pilot carries out the water sediment checks prior to flight. The water drain
cock is sprung loaded to close and has to be pushed upwards to open, pilots must ensure that after
operating the water drain tap that it seats correctly and stops the flow of fuel.
11.5 Gravity Feed Fuel System for a Single Engine Light Aircraft:
Gravity feed and pumped are two types of fuel systems. High-wing single-engine light aircraft use the
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former, shown in diagram 10.9. These systems are used where the vertical height between the fuel tank
and the engine’s carburetor is sufficient to produce a sufficient head of pressure to supply the
carburetor’s float chamber at 1.5 times the flow rate required by the engine at take-off power. The
latter are used where there is an insufficient head of pressure or the engines are mounted above the
fuel tanks.
Primer Pump
Hand operated priming pumps are sometimes fitted to aircraft for cold weather starting or as an
optional extra. They draw fuel from the top of the gascolator and deliver it into the cylinder head just
before the inlet valve. The primer pump works on a pull push action [in the same manner as a bicycle
pump+ pulling the plunger out fills the pump, pushing the plunger in delvers the fuel, if the pump’s
plunger is not locked in the closed position when the engine is running the suction created in the
manifold can draw fuel through the primer pump and cause the cylinders that are primed to run rich.
See engine notes for further details.
Manually Operated Fuel Selector

For light aircraft may use a manually operated fuel selector, the selector must comply with the following
requirements, these are:
 That the fuel selector can be seen and operated by the pilot in flight without having to move the
seat or the primary flight controls
 That each engine can be isolated from or connected to the fuel supply in flight
 That the ‘off’ selection selector requires a separate and distinct action.
 That the tank and off positions are marked and detented
 That the selector does not pass through ‘off’ when moving from one tank position to another
 That the selector’s handle is formed into a pointer and indicates the position of the valve.
Fuel Selector for a Light Aircraft
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11.6. Pressure Feed Fuel System for a Single Engine light Aircraft:
For aircraft where the engine is mounted above or on the same level as the fuel tanks, the fuel system
has to be able to deliver the fuel at all normal attitudes of flight. To meet this requirement, a mechanical
pump operated by the engine draws the fuel from the tanks and supplies it under pressure to the
carburetor. To ensure that the engine continues to function in the event that the mechanical pump fails,
an auxiliary electrical pump is mounted in parallel with the mechanical pump.
Auxiliary fuel Pump:

The auxiliary pump is selected on:
 For take-off
 For landing
 For tank changes
 In the event of low fuel pressure readings
 In the event of the engine running rough
By selecting the auxiliary pump ‘on’ during take-off and landing, the aircraft is protected from a
sudden mechanical pump failure at a critical stage of flight. Using the auxiliary pump during tank
changes ensures that a positive fuel flow is established at the point of change over.
Fuel Pressure Indications
Light Aircraft Fuel Pressure Gauge

For any fuel system that uses pumps to supply a carburetor or injector system there has to be an
indication of the supply pressure. Diagram 10.12 above shows the type of gauge used on a small light
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aircraft system as per diagram 10.11above, this is a direct reading gauge where the fuel pressure being
delivered into the carburetor is tapped off just before the carburetor’s inlet and displayed to the pilot.
The fuel system is designed, so that the maximum supply pressure is not exceeded if both the main
and auxiliary pumps are working normally and have been selected simultaneously.
Light Twin Engine Aircraft Fuel Flow / Pressure Gauge
pressure indication can be combined with indications of fuel flow, as for any given temperature the
higher the fuel delivery pressure the greater the fuel flow. Diagram 10.13 above show the type of gauge
that can be used with twin engine aircraft where a single gauge can have two needles, if both engines
are set up to run equally one needle will be superimposed on the other, any split between the needles
shows a miss match in conditions. The upper and lower supply pressures are depicted with red radials as
in figure above. The outer green arc, calibrated in gallons per hour shows the normal operating range,
the amber arc depicts the cautionary range between the green arc and the upper radial. The inner green
arcs show the ranges of fuel flow that can be set when percentages of power are used for example 75%
power and fully rich will have a greater fuel flow than 75% power and fully lean.
Vapour Lock
Any fuel system that uses aviation gasoline is considered conducive to vapour formation. However a fuel
system having a fuel pump with suction lift is more critical with respect to vapour formation than a
gravity feed system, refer to diagrams 10.9 and 10.11.
The most likely times for vapour locks forming are:
 High fuel temperature
 The ‘critical fuel level’ - normally a low fuel level
 Low ambient pressure
 High angles of attack
These can be termed the ‘critical operating conditions’ and each fuel system conducive to vapour
formation must be free from vapour lock when using fuel at a temperature of 43°C (110°F) under critical
operating conditions. One of the causes of a low fuel pressure reading is the formation of a vapour lock.
The formation of such a vapour lock at the same pressure as the fuel, has collected in a bend of the fuel
pipe and will greatly reduce or completely stop the flow of fuel. Selecting the auxiliary pump will
increase the pressure in the fuel line, which should suppress the formation of the vapour and force the
fuel pass through the fuel lines.
Fuel System for a Light Twin Engine Aircraft:

For light twin engine aircraft it is normal for the engine to be supplied with fuel taken from the
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tank(s) on the same wing. However the system is designed for the fuel from one wing to supply the
engine on the opposite wing this is termed ‘cross feed’ and is often abbreviated to ‘X feed’. In the
event of a single engine failure the remaining engine can draw the fuel from the dead engine’s tank.
This is used to control the lateral imbalance, increase endurance and range.
For aircraft that have fuel injector systems or carburetor systems that have a vapour return facility
the mechanical fuel pumps draw more fuel from the tanks than the engines use except when set at
full power and fully rich. The excess fuel is returned to the first tank to be used on the same side as
the engine. The aircraft’s hand book will specify how much fuel *normal specified as a length of time
that must elapse] must be used from the working engine’s tanks before the engine can be cross fed
from the dead engine’s tanks, failure to observe this will result in the live engine’s tanks filling to
capacity and the returned fuel being lost overboard via the tank vent.
Venting of Light Aircraft Tanks:

For light aircraft with un-pressurised fuel tanks, there has to be an expansion space above the fuel of not
less than 2% of the tanks total volume and the tank is to be vented to atmosphere via a vent pipe or in
some designs, vented filler caps are also used.
Under Wing Vent Pipes
The above diagram depicts an under wing vent pipe system. As the vent pipe protrudes from
beneath the wing it will be clear of any ice accumulations building up on the under surface of the
wing and the pipe will drain any moisture that collects in it to atmosphere. By terminating the vent
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pipe with a forward facing chamfer the air space above the fuel will be slightly above ambient
pressure due to the ram effect into the vent pipe, this will reduce the loss of fuel through
evaporation and apply a slight head of pressure into the fuel pipe aiding the pump and reducing the
likelihood of vapour locks.
Light Aircraft Fuel Fillers and Caps
Light aircraft use the same system of refuelling that is currently used on cars, a filler cap is removed
from an aperture at the top of the fuel tank and the fuel is delivered via a nozzle connected to a flexible
hose. This is termed ‘open line refuelling’, the safety issues regarding open line refuelling are covered
later in this chapter.
A fuel tank filler cap must provide a fuel-tight seal and the fuel tank filler connection must prevent the
entry of fuel into any part of the aeroplane other than the tank itself. If the filler point is recessed, the
recess must have a drain that discharges clear of the aeroplane. Each fuel filling point must have a
provision for electrically bonding the aeroplane to the ground fuelling equipment.
Light Aircraft Fuel Quantity Indications
Light Aircraft Fuel Quantity Indications
Each separate tank that feeds an engine must have a fuel gauge, where two tanks are interconnected.
they will count as a single tank and only require one gauge. The gauge must be calibrated with a red
line or red radial showing that the tank is empty of ‘usable’ fuel when in straight and level flight. The
majority of modern gauges are operated electrically and when power is failed the gauge needle moves
to a point below the empty mark shows a power off pot, the needle would park here when power is
turned off.
11.7. Large Aircraft Fuel Systems:
The majority of air transport aircraft use integral fuel tanks where areas of the wing’s structure
have been converted into fuel tanks. However, to increase the aircraft’s fuel capacity for long haul
flights, large air transport aircraft are fitted with a centre tank as shown in diagram below. Additional
tanks termed auxiliaries can be mounted within the fuselage. Large transonic and supersonic aircraft
often have an auxiliary tank mounted within the tailplane to allow fuel to be transferred and assist in
trimming the aircraft.
DRY BAYS
To prevent fuel tanks butting up against structures that could be subjected to flames, termed fire
zones, a void is left between the fuel tank structure and the firewall structure.
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Fuel Tank Layout for a Twin Jet
This is termed a drybay. Refer diagram 10.24. Dry bays and structural voids around fuel tanks must have
open drainage holes, not only to ensure that any fuel leakage drains but also to ventilate them Integral
fuel tanks must have facilities for interior inspection. This requires access hatches. These are normally
located in the under side of the wing (see diagram 10.25). Fuel tank access covers have failed due to
impact with high speed objects, such as failed tyre tread material and engine debris following engine
failures.
FUEL TANK SUMPS

Fuel tanks must have a sump with an effective capacity, in the normal ground attitude, of not less than
the greater of 0.10% of the tank capacity or one-quarter of a litre. This collects any hazardous quantity
of water from any part of the tank when the aircraft is in the ground attitude. Each sump must have an
accessible drain that allows complete drainage of the sump on the ground and has manual or automatic
means for positive locking in the closed position. The drain must be designed to prevent fuel spillage in
the event of a landing with landing gear retracted.
CENTRE TANK
As aircraft have a maximum structural take-off mass and a maximum structural landing mass, operators
try to reduce the fuel load within the legal requirements to enable them to carry the maximum payload
possible. As seen in the Mass and Balance subject, adding fuel into fuselage tanks has the disadvantage
of increasing the fuselage mass and, in many cases, there is a maximum fuel load limit for the centre
tank, unless the wing tanks have been filled.
Therefore, many aircraft take off either with the centre tank full or with a minimum fuel load within it.
The crew controls the fuel feed to the engines to ensure that the fuselage centre fuel tank and auxiliary
tanks are used first, thus lightening the fuselage and maintaining the mass within the wings.
TANK PRESSURISATION AND VENTING

To prevent fuel loss through evaporation at high altitude flight levels, and to assist in preventing vapour
locks by ensuring a positive head of fluid pressure into the inlet of the tank-mounted booster pumps,
the aircraft’s fuel tanks are slightly pressurised using bleed air taken from the
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compression stage of the aircraft’s gas turbine engines. This bleed air is pressure regulated to
ensure that an increase of engine rpm does not create pressure fluctuations within the fuel tanks.
The tanks are vented to atmosphere via relief valves. These ensure that if the air pressure within
the tank increases above a set level, the air and fuel vapour are relieved to atmosphere. In the
event of a greater fuel draw off than the bleed air regulation can cope with, an inward relief valve
allows ambient air into the tanks so that the fuel tank is not subjected to a negative pressure that
could damage the tank’s structure and stop or reduce fuel flow. It is normal for the bleed air
regulation to cope with all normal fuel draw off, transfers, etc.
VENT-SURGE TANKS
Vent - Surge Tank Banked Turn
Vent-surge tanks are an integral part of the fuel system on large aircraft. These are normally located
between the main fuel tanks and the wing tips as shown above. They are not filled as part of the
aircraft’s Take-Off Fuel (TOF) load but act as the vent link between the main tank and atmosphere. In
the event of the fuel volume increasing through thermal expansion after refuelling, the fuel can expand
into the vent-surge tank. During flight when the aircraft banks, the surge of fuel toward the wing tip is
stopped from venting to atmosphere via draining into the vent-surge tank.
As the venting from pressurised fuel tanks can include droplets of fuel, the vent-surge tanks are
designed to minimise the loss of fuel. Each vent-surge tank has a method of returning the liquid fuel to
the main tanks. A float switch operated electrical pump to transfer the fuel to wing tanks. Other
methods can be a jet pump or a simple flapper valve for aircraft with a large dihedral.
Fuel System for a Twin Jet Aircraft:

The purpose of the engine fuel supply from the tanks are as follows:
 Each fuel system is able to supply at least 100% of the fuel flow required under each intended
operating condition and manoeuvre.
 The fuel is delivered to each engine at a pressure within the tolerance specified for the engine
fuel system.
 Fuel systems other than gravity feed must be fitted with a main pump. Where a main pump is
required, a back up main pump or emergency pump must be fitted. An
emergency pump must capable of providing the 100% fuel flow.
 Each engine, in addition to having appropriate manual switching capability, must be designed to
prevent interruption of fuel flow to that engine without attention by the flight crew, when any
tank supplying fuel to that engine is depleted of usable fuel during normal operation, and any
other tank that normally supplies fuel to that engine alone contains usable fuel.
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Fuel Supply System Schematic for a Twin Jet is shown below with all electric driven pumps, High and Low
pressure fuel shut off valves, engine driven pumps and fuel selector valves etc.
Fuel Supply System Schematic for a Twin Jet
Booster Pumps
Booster Pump
Booster pumps are normally centrifugal pumps powered by intrinsically safe electrical motors. Mounting
the motors within the fuel tank, or passing some of the pumped fuel around galleries within the body of
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the motor, allows the motor and its bearings to be cooled. To prevent any
ingress of large debris, a coarse mesh filter screen is fitted across the booster pump’s inlet. This
inlet must be five times larger than the outlet to ensure that fuel starvation does not occur.
BOOSTER PUMP BOX- DRYBAY
Booster Pump Location
The booster box is located at the lowest point of the wing, by the wing root close to the rear of the tank.
The function of the box is to keep a supply of fuel around the pump inlets at all normal flight conditions.
Scavenge pumps are used to ensure that the box is kept filled when the aircraft’s tanks effectively
become lower than the box e.g. during a turn and bank.
LOW PRESSURE FUEL COCK — LP COCK

The LP Cock is designed to isolate the fuel tanks from the engine. It should be located as close to the fuel
tanks as practicably possible and must be located so that the valve’s operation is not affected by the
engine’s mountings suffering a structural failure. If there is any risk that the LP Cock is subjected to
flame, it must be either fire resistant or protected from the flames. In some aircraft manuals refer to
them as spar shut-off valves.
Closing of any fuel shut-off valve (FSOV) for any engine must not stop the fuel flow to any other engine.
Operation of a FSOV must not prevent the operation of other equipment in an emergency, such as the
means for feathering the propeller for a turboprop. The system must allow the crew to reopen the shut-
off means in flight after it has been closed.
HIGH PRESSURE FUEL COCK — HP FUEL COCK

The HP cock is designed to isolate a gas turbine’s combustion section from the engine’s high pressure
fuel system and is located downstream of the HP EDP. The LP Cock’s controls also cover the HP Cock and
their installation and operation are listed below:
 Each control must be located so that persons entering, leaving, or moving normally in
the cockpit cannot inadvertently operate it.
 For manual valves, positive stops, or in the case of fuel valves, suitable index provisions must
exist in the open and closed positions.
 Control must be able to maintain any set position without constant attention by fligh crew
members and without creep due to control loads or vibration.
 The knob of these control levers must be coloured red. For electrical or electronic fuel selector:
 Digital controls or electrical switches must be properly labelled.
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 If the fuel valve selector handle or electrical or digital selection is also a fuel shut-off selector,
the ‘off’ position marking must be coloured red.
 Means must be provided to indicate to the flight crew the tank or function selected. Selector
switch position is not acceptable as a means of indication. The ‘off’ or ‘closed’ position must be
indicated in red.
 Electrically operated valves must have a valve position indicator, which senses directly that the
valve has attained the position selected.
 If a separate emergency shut-off means is provided, it also must be coloured red.
FUEL FILTER
Referring to diagram 10.28, apart from the finger screens fitted around the tank outlets, each fuel
system requires a fuel filter or strainer unit fitted as close to the fuel tank outlet as practicable. This unit
must have a sump to trap any free water that entered the system and a drain.
11.7.1. Flight Deck Control Panel:

Flight deck fuel control panel is shown below:
Flight Deck Fuel Control Panel For Twin Jet
This is mounted on the captain’s overhead panel in modern aircraft. The need for this type of panel by
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the induction of the two crew cockpit. The panel is a schematic representation of the aircraft’s fuel
system, which allows the crew to monitor and control the fuel system.
FUEL TEMPERATURE GAUGE

The fuel temp gauge is linked to the fuel probe in the No. 1 tank. This indicates the overall temperature
of the fuel to the crew and warns the pilots of the need to increase the heat required for conditioning
the fuel.
AUXILIARY POWER UNIT FUEL SUPPLY

Fuel can be supplied to APU from the No. 1 tank by either LP pump, or drawn from the No. 1 tank by the
APU’s HP pump, via a dedicated suction valve (75% power). The unit can also be supplied from the
centre tank by running the left LP pump, or from either LP pump in the right tank when the cross feed
cock is opened.
For ground operations, it is normal for the APU to be supplied with fuel from the centre tank, as
this prevents the aircraft from gaining a fuel imbalance with prolonged operation. The APU has its
own dedicated control panel. The controls and indications alter depending on whether the APU
can only be operated on the ground, whether it can be started and operated in flight, or operated
in flight if started prior to take-off.
11.8. Under wing Single Point Pressurised Refuel System:

Large aircraft make use of single point pressurised refuelling systems. As the name implies, all the tanks
can be filled from a single connection point. This is normally accessible via a panel on the underside of
the wing on the opposite side of the aircraft to the main entrance doors. Diagram above shows a digital
refuel panel. First generation systems used analogue gauges. These systems operate using fuel mass,
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not volume, and utilise the aircraft’s fuel tank sender units to display the actual fuel tank contents in
Kilograms or pounds.
The system is designed to evenly fill the wing tanks and ensure that the centre tank is not filled beyond
the mass specified before the wing tanks are filled. When the fuel load is correct (the actual and the
selected values are the same), the valves are automatically shut off. The switches return to the closed
position and the valve open lights extinguish. The power on light remains illuminated. As the
refuel/defuel circuit draws power without making the battery master switch, many aircraft refuelling
point access panels are designed to either move the power switch to the ‘off’ position or prevent the
panel from closing until the switch is placed in the ‘off’ position. This is to ensure that the circuit is
isolated after refuelling.
Defuelling of large aircraft is also carried out via a single hose connection. This is normally located
alongside the refuelling panel but accessed through a separate panel. Standard refuelling connections
must be able to withstand a pressure of 50 psi and the defuel system, a suction pressure of minus 5 psi.
11.9. Flight Deck Contents Indications:

Older aircraft used individual analogue gauges on the flight engineer’s panel to indicate fuel contents.
To reduce the number of gauges required for two-crew operation, the totaliser system was used. In this
system, all the inputs from the various tanks feed to a single amplifier, which combines them and gives a
single output, allowing one gauge to show the total fuel contents of the aircraft. To comply with the
regulation, which requires the pilot to be able to ascertain the contents of each fuel tank, a momentary
selector switch adjacent to the gauge allows the crew to check the contents of each tank. After releasing
the selector, the gauging system defaults back to total.
It is easier to give a quick visual indication as to a position or value with an analogue dial, but is more
accurate to read a digital indication. A hybrid system was used in which the quantity of fuel was
indicated by both digital and analogue methods on the same gauge.
Fuel Contents Indication on Modern Flight Deck
The advent of the glass cockpit has updated and enhanced the hybrid system of a typical aircraft. In this
system, the fuel content is indicated by three analogue/digital displays on a CRT screen. The gauges are
set out as per the tank numbering system. The digital readout and a white arc show the mass of each
tank.
Abnormal Fuel Indication on Modern Flight Deck

In flight to warn the crew of an abnormal condition (e.g. a fuel imbalance, low quantity, or greater fuel
quantity in the centre tank than the wings) the white arcs turn amber on the affected tank and the
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Abnormal Fuel Indication on Modern Flight Deck
condition is noted in text. The master caution amber would flash, drawing the crew’s attention to the
central warning panel and a fuel warning. The master caution and the central warning can be cancelled
by depressing the master caution light, but the indication on the gauge remains until the situation is
corrected. Any other fuel condition results in the illumination of the master warning and the central
warning panel
11.10. Fuel Reconciliation on the Ground:

A physical check of the fuel quantity be carried out on the ground without applying power. This can be
accomplished by dipstick from the top of the tanks, but in most cases, large aircraft
use under wing units. The drip stick is a hollow tube with a very small hole in its side, which passes
through a gland let into the lower skin of the wing tank. When not in use, a tap mounted at the lower
section of the drip stick ensures that fuel is not lost, the unit is locked up, and a panel covers its exterior.
Drip Stick
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When a reading is to be taken, the tap is opened, and any fuel in the stick is allowed to drain out.
With the tap open, the stick is slowly pulled down until a steady drip of fluid comes from the
bottom of the stick. This indicates that the orifice is at the same level as the fuel’s surface. If the
orifice is lower than the fuel’s meniscus, it results in a steady trickle, increasing to a steady run.
When the surface level has been found, the quantity of fuel in that compartment can be read off
from the contents graduations marked on the tube referenced to the junction of the fitting. There
are several drip sticks per wing tank. The total quantity of fuel is the sum of all the readings.
11.11. FUEL DUMP OR JETTISONING

Most air transport aircraft have a maximum take-off mass much greater than their maximum landing
mass. In an emergency, if they require to land shortly after take-off, they would be grossly overweight.
This is likely to result in structural failure, which could compound the problem of safely evacuating the
passengers and crew. Fuel dump or Jettisoning system diagram is shown below:
Fuel Jettison System
A twin-engine aircraft may requires a jettison system that is able to jettison enough fuel to bring the
aircraft’s mass down from the MTOW to the MLW. The minimum time for jettisoning excess fuel does
not have to be less than 10 minutes.
The system must automatically stop jettisoning fuel when the level in the tanks is equal to the quantity
of fuel needed for a climb from sea level to 10 000 ft and cruise for 45 minutes at the aircraft’s speed for
maximum range. However, the fuel jettisoning system must be designed to allow the flight crew to stop
the jettisoning of fuel at any time in the operation.
The control for jettisoning fuel must be coloured red to denote that it is an emergency system. It must
not be co-located to normal controls where it could be operated inadvertently. If an auxiliary control
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independent of the main jettisoning control is fitted (also coloured red), the system can be designed to
jettison all the usable fuel.
These systems have to be designed so that any single failure does not result in a hazardous condition
due to unsymmetrical jettisoning of or inability to jettison fuel. If the operation of slots, slats, or flaps
alters the airflow to such an extent that it affects fuel jettisoning, a placard must be placed adjacent to
the jettisoning control to warn the flight crew against jettisoning, while they are in use.
To meet these requirements, the control’s levers are detented. Push button or toggle switches are
normally under a guard to prevent inadvertent operation. In older aircraft fuel systems, a dedicated
float switch is used to close the jettison valve when the minimum fuel quantity is reached.
Modern systems use the fuel capacitance system and the Flight Management System to determine the
amount of fuel to remain. This system takes the ambient conditions and engine performance into
account. Please note that the LP pumps supply the jettison system.
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12. POWER PLANT
12.1. Introduction
The propulsive force is obtained by the displacement of a working fluid (again, atmospheric air). This air
is not necessarily the same air used within the engine. By displacing air in a direction opposite to that in
which the aircraft is propelled, thrust can be developed. This is an application of Newton’s third law of
motion. It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. So, as air is being
displaced to the rear of the aircraft the aircraft is moved forward by this principle.
One misinterpretation of this principle is air is pushing against the air behind the aircraft making it move
forward. This is not true. Rockets in space have no air to push against, yet, they can produce thrust by
using Newton’s third law. Atmospheric air is the principal fluid used for propulsion in every type of
aircraft power plant except the rocket, in which the total combustion gases are accelerated and
displaced. The rocket must provide all the fuel and oxygen for combustion and does not depend on
atmospheric air. A rocket carries its own oxidizer rather than using ambient air for combustion. It
discharges the gaseous byproducts of combustion through the exhaust nozzle at an extremely high
velocity (action) and it is propelled in the other direction (reaction).
The propellers of aircraft powered by reciprocating or turboprop engines accelerate a large mass of air
at a relatively lower velocity by turning a propeller. The same amount of thrust can be generated by
accelerating a small mass of air to a very high velocity. The working fluid (air) used for the propulsive
force is a different quantity of air than that used within the engine to produce the mechanical energy to
turn the propeller. Turbojets, ramjets, and pulse jets are examples of engines that accelerate a smaller
quantity of air through a large velocity change. They use the same working fluid for propulsive force
that is used within the engine. One problem with these types of engines is the noise made by the high
velocity air exiting the engine. The term turbojet was used to describe any gas turbine engine, but with
the differences in gas turbines used in aircraft, this term is used to describe a type of gas turbine that
passes all the gases through the core of the engine directly. Turbojets, ramjets, and pulse jets have very
little to no use in modern aircraft due to noise and fuel consumption. Small general aviation aircraft use
mostly horizontally opposed reciprocating piston engines. While some aircraft still use radial
reciprocating piston engines. Many aircraft use a form of the gas turbine engine to produce power for
thrust. These engines are normally the turboprop, turbo-shaft, turbofan, and a few turbojet engines.
“Turbojet” is the former term for any turbine engine. Now that there are so many different types of
turbine engine, the term used to describe most turbine engines is “gas turbine engine.” All four of the
previously mentioned engines belong to the gas turbine family.
All aircraft engines must meet certain general requirements of efficiency, economy, and reliability.
Besides being economical in fuel consumption, an aircraft engine must be economical in the cost of
original procurement and the cost of maintenance; and it must meet exacting requirements of efficiency
and low weight-to-horsepower ratio. It must be capable of sustained high-power output with no
sacrifice in reliability; it must also have the durability to operate for long periods of time between
overhauls. It needs to be as compact as possible, yet have easy accessibility for maintenance. It is
required to be as vibration free as possible and be able to cover a wide range of power output at various
speeds and altitudes. These requirements dictate the use of ignition systems that deliver the firing
impulse to the spark plugs at the proper time in all kinds of weather and under other adverse
conditions. Engine fuel delivery systems provide metered fuel at the correct proportion of fuel/air
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ingested by the engine regardless of the attitude, altitude, or type of weather in which the engine is
operated. The engine needs a type of oil system that delivers oil under the proper pressure to lubricate
and cool all of the operating parts of the engine when it is running. Also, it must have a system of
damping units to damp out the vibrations of the engine when it is operating.
12.2. Power and Weight

The useful output of all aircraft powerplants is thrust, the force which propels the aircraft. Since the
reciprocating engine is rated in brake horsepower (bhp), the gas turbine engine is rated in thrust
horsepower (thp):
Thp = thrust × aircraft speed (mph)/ 375 mile-pounds per hour
The value of 375 mile-pounds per hour is derived from the basic horsepower formula as follows:
1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb per minute
33,000 × 60 = 1,980,000 ft-lb per hour
1,980,000/ 5,280 ft in a mile = 375 mile-pounds per hour
One horsepower equals 33,000 ft-lb per minute or 375 mile pounds per hour.
Under static conditions, thrust is figured as equivalent to approximately 2.6 pounds per hour.
If a gas turbine is producing 4,000 pounds of thrust and the aircraft in which the engine is installed is
traveling at 500 mph, the thp is:
4,000 × 500/ 375 = 5,333.33 thp
12.3. Types of Engines

Aircraft engines can be classified by several methods. They can be classed by operating cycles, cylinder
arrangement, or the method of thrust production. All are heat engines that convert fuel into heat
energy that is converted to mechanical energy to produce thrust. Most of the current aircraft engines
are of the internal combustion type because the combustion process takes place inside the engine.
Aircraft engines come in many different types, such as gas turbine based, reciprocating piston, rotary
engine. Reciprocating and gas turbine engines are also have subdivided based on the type of cylinder
arrangement in piston and speed range, type of compressor and air flow through the gas turbine.
12.4. Piston Engine

12.4.1. Principle of Operation
The purpose of the piston engine is to convert heat energy into mechanical energy. The working
medium is air, which is capable of changes in volume and pressure when subjected to an increase in
temperature caused by the burning fuel.
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Pressure Volume Diagram
The working cycle consists of four strokes or movements of the piston, which are completed in two
revolutions of the crankshaft. This cycle is called the Four Stroke Cycle and was devised by Dr Otto in
1876 and is also referred to as the Otto Cycle. The four stroke cycle can be illustrated by the Ideal
Pressure Volume indicator diagram below that shows the relationship between the pressure in the
cylinder and the cylinder volume during the cycle.
Knowledge of cylinder terminology is required in order to understand engine operation. Listed below
are some of the basic terminologies.
Top Dead Centre (TDC) The position of the piston at the highest point in the cylinder
Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) The position of the piston at the lowest point in the cylinder
Stroke The distance between TDC and BDC
Swept Volume The cylinder volume contained between TDC and BDC
Clearance Volume The cylinder volume contained between the top of the cylinder and piston crown at
TDC
12.4.2. Four Stroke Cycle

The four stroke cycle consists of the following strokes, Induction, Compression, Power and Exhaust.
Induction Stroke
The cycle commences with the piston at top dead centre with the inlet valve opening. As the piston
descends the volume of the cylinder above the piston increases and the pressure in the cylinder
decreases. Atmospheric pressure acting on the air intake forces air through the inlet manifold and fuel is
added in the correct proportions at the carburettor. The mixture enters the cylinder through the open
inlet valve.
Compression Stroke
At bottom dead centre the inlet valve closes and the piston rises towards top dead centre with both
valves closed, decreasing the cylinder volume and increasing both pressure and temperature of the
mixture. Towards the end of the compression stroke just before to dead centre the mixture is ignited by
two spark plugs.
Power Stroke
The burning mixture expands, causing a rapid rise in pressure, which acts on the piston, forcing it
downwards towards bottom dead centre, cylinder volume increasing and gas pressure and temperature
decreasing.
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Exhaust Stroke
Finally the piston rises from bottom dead centre to top dead centre with the exhaust valve opening,
decreasing cylinder volume and displacing the burnt gases to atmosphere through the open exhaust
valve. The process of displacing the exhaust gases is referred to as Scavenging. The cycle is now
repeated.
12.4.3. Valve Timing

With the valves opening and closing at dead centre positions the engine is not efficient. Therefore to
increase engine efficiency valve timing must be altered. The diagram below illustrates the valve timing
position and shows that the valves open and close either before or after the centre positions.
Valve operation before top dead centre and bottom dead centre positions is called lead, whilst valve
operation after top dead centre and bottom dead centre is called lag. The inlet valve opens before top
dead centre on the exhaust stroke, whilst the exhaust valve closes after top dead centre during the
induction stroke. This means that the valves are open at the same time around top dead centre and is
called valve overlap. Using top dead centre and bottom dead centre as a reference the angular positions
are related to crankshaft movement in degrees.
Inlet Valve Inlet valve lead ensures that the valve is fully open at top dead centre, giving a free entry
and consequently a reduced time lag between the piston moving down and the mixture flowing into the
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cylinder. Some lag will occur as the mixture will be stationary in the inlet manifold whilst the valve is
closed and, when the valve opens, has to accelerate to the speed of the piston. The mixture momentum
will increase as the piston approaches the bottom of its stroke and still has the energy to continue to
flow into the cylinder, even after the piston has passed bottom dead centre and the piston has traveled
a small distance up the cylinder. Inlet valve closing is therefore delayed until after bottom dead centre,
when cylinder mixture pressure is nearly equal to the inlet manifold mixture pressure.
Exhaust Valve Near the end of the power stroke due to the decreasing gas pressure and the acute
angle of the connecting rod to the crank, then very little useful work is being achieved. Rather than
turning the crankshaft, force acting through the centreline of the connecting rod applies a load on the
crankweb and the main bearings of the crankshaft. Opening the exhaust valve before bottom dead
centre relieves the bearing load and residual gas pressure is used to start exhaust gas scavenging before
the piston begins to ascend. It is essential that efficient scavenging of the cylinder takes place in order
for a full charge of mixture to be induced. This is achieved by closing the valve after top dead centre and
allowing the exhaust gases to discharge due to their own momentum, even after the piston has started
to descend.
Valve Overlap During valve overlap the depression in the cylinder left by the discharging exhaust gases
is used to overcome the inertia of the fresh mixture in the induction system. Inducing it into the cylinder
before the piston begins its downward movement takes advantage of the outgoing exhaust gases
inertia, and provides a more complete scavenging allowing the mixture to flow into the combustion
chamber as early as possible. The exhaust valve opens before bottom dead centre (lead) enabling the
exhaust gases to scavenge from the cylinder more readily, since the gas pressure is higher than ambient.
This would seem to cause a loss of pressure energy however vertical piston travel over 30° around top
dead centre and bottom dead centre is very small and is called ineffective crank angle. Inlet valve lag
allows time for the mixture pressure time to approach the ideal, which is ambient.
12.4.4. Ignition Timing

The timing diagram above shows that the spark igniting the mixture occurs before top dead centre to
ensure that the maximum pressure occurs approximately 60 to 120 after top dead
centre. This ensures maximum conversion of pressure energy into mechanical energy by occurring when
the piston is near the beginning of the power stroke. To ensure maximum pressure occurs after TDC,
ignition timing should ideally be varied with engine speed, however since aircraft engines operate over
small RPM range, variable ignition is not necessary and light aircraft have a fixed ignition. When ignition
takes place before TDC it is advanced, and when it takes place after TDC it is retarded and is only
retarded during engine start. After ignition the mixture burns in a controlled fashion and the flame rate,
depending on the mixture ratio, is approximately 60-100 ft/sec. Since maximum pressure cannot be
reached until the fuel has been completely burned ignition is required to take place well before the
maximum pressure is required. Therefore ignition usually takes place approximately 20°-30° before TDC
Power
Provided that the engine is in good mechanical order the power output of a single cylinder engine is
dependent upon three factors:
Weight of fuel/air mixture induced
Amount of compression of the mixture
Number of working/power strokes per minute
Where the weight of mixture induced depends on the size of the cylinder and detonation limits the
amount of compression. Also the crankshaft speed is limited by the strength of the materials used in
engine construction, and because the weight of the moving parts increases out of proportion to an
increase in engine size, the larger the cylinder employed the lower will be the maximum safe engine
speed.
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Power is measured in Horsepower and is described below.
Indicated Horsepower (IHP)
This is the theoretical total power developed within the combustion chambers, without frictional losses
being taken into account and is found by calculation.
Friction Horsepower (FHP)
This is the frictional and power losses due to engine driven accessories.
Brake Horsepower (BHP)
This is the horsepower actually available at the propeller shaft and is always less than IHP due to FHP
and is normally found by practical methods. Where:
BHP = IHP – FHP
12.4.5. Cylinder Arrangements
There are various cylinder arrangements that can be employed on piston engine i.e. V, H, Radial and
Horizontally Opposed. A brief description of the radial and the horizontally opposed is given below. It is
impractible to obtain much more than approximately100 BHP per cylinder; therefore aircraft engines
have a number of cylinders, called multi-cylinder engines. Small light aircraft engines have a minimum of
four; not only for more power but also to obtain smoother power. They also present a smaller frontal
area therefore reducing drag. Engines can also be classified as a:
Long Stroke Engine where the stroke is greater than the piston bore (diameter)
Overstroke or Short Engine where the stroke is less than the bore
Square Engine where the stroke is equal to the bore
Radial
Because of the air-cooling difficulties associated with in-line engines in the early days of aviation, the
radial engine was developed. In its simplest form this arrangement has all the cylinders mounted radially
in a single bank about the crankcase, this ensures that each cylinder obtains maximum cooling benefit
from the aircraft forward motion and the propeller slipstream. Increased power demands resulted in an
increase in the number of banks; with a maximum of four.
Double Row Radial
Horizontally Opposed
A horizontally opposed engine has cylinders mounted opposite each other or offset i.e. nearly opposite
one another on either side of the crankcase. This arrangement shortens the length of the crankshaft. A
modern mass produced aircraft engine is of this design.
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Cylinder arrangement of horizontal opposed
A Four Cylinder Cranks shaft arrangement
12.4.6. Engine Efficiency
Engine Efficiencies
The efficiencies affecting engine operation are identified below.
Thermal Efficiency
This is the percent of total heat generated that is converted into useful power. Should two engines
produce the same horsepower, but one burns less fuel than the other, then the engine using less fuel
converts a greater portion of the available energy into useful work, so has a higher thermal efficiency.
Thermal efficiency of piston engines is approximately 30% and can be increased by increasing the
compression ratio.
Mechanical Efficiency
This is the ratio of the brake horse power to indicated horse power, and gives the percentage of power
developed in the cylinders to that turning the propeller.
Volumetric Efficiency
This is the ability of an engine to fill its cylinders with air compared to their capacity for air under static
conditions. A normally aspirated engine will always have a volumetric efficiency of less than 100%,
whereas superchargers/turbochargers permit volumetric efficiencies in excess of 100%. Various factors
have a detrimental effect on volumetric efficiency:
 High RPM - owing to frictional losses in the induction system as RPM increases, volumetric
efficiency reduces
 Induction system bends, obstructions and internal surface roughness
 Throttle and venturi restrictions
 As altitude is gained, because of the reducing exhaust back pressure, better scavenging of the gas is
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 achieved, therefore volumetric efficiency is increased. Maximum volumetric efficiency is achieved
with the throttle fully open and the RPM as low as possible (naturally aspirated).
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

This is directly related to overall engine efficiency in terms of thermal and propulsive efficiency, and is
the amount of fuel burnt per hour per unit of power.
Compression Ratio
This is a ratio of the volume of an engine cylinder with the piston at BDC to the volume with the piston
at TDC and is directly related to internal cylinder pressures. The more compression given to the fuel/air
mixture before ignition, then the higher the pressure and temperature will be after combustion. The
compression ratio for piston engines is normally between 8 to 1 and 10 to 1. The ratio can be expressed
as follows:
Also, the higher the temperature for a given amount of fuel and air, the lower will be the specific fuel
consumption (SFC). There is an upper limit to which the pressure and temperature in a cylinder can be
raised. This upper limit is Detonation. Detonation is described in the Carburation section.
12.4.7. Engine Major Component

A typical list of light aircraft engine major mechanical components is:
Crankcase
Crankshaft
Connecting Rod
Piston
Cylinder Barrel and Head
Valve Mechanism
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12.4.8. Carburetion
12.4.8.1. Aviation Fuels

The fuel that is used for spark ignition piston engines is a refined petroleum distillate, and is one of the
hydrocarbon families that consists of approximately 85% carbon and 15% hydrogen. When mixed with
air and then burnt, the carbon and hydrogen combine with the oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide
and water vapour.
AVGAS
Aviation Gasoline is different from motor vehicle fuel since it is subject to a more rigid control of quality
assurance; it also has a much higher resistance to detonation. On piston engine aircraft it is important
that the correct type of fuel is used, since using the incorrect type of fuel can lead to low engine
performance, detonation and engine failure. There are at present three basic types of gasoline, which
are dyed different colours for identification.
Grade 80 This fuel has a low lead content and is only suitable for low compression engines, and is red in
colour.
Grade 100 This fuel has a high lead content, and is used on high compression engines, and is green in
colour.
Grade 100LL (Low Lead 100 Octane) This fuel is a compromise between the Grade 80 and the Grade 100
and contains a medium lead content, and is blue in colour. This is the fuel in general use.
Mogas (Automobile Fuel) This fuel has a lower vapour pressure than AVGAS. Therefore it tends to
cause vapour locks in pipelines at high temperature and altitudes. Carburetor engines using this fuel are
more susceptible to carburetor fuel icing. Also it has a low lead content, which can lead to detonation
and pre-ignition. Before using MOGAS consideration should be taken as to all its disadvantages by first
consulting Airworthiness Notice No. 98, and CAA General Aviation Safety Sense leaflet No. 4.
Octane Rating
This is a measure of the fuel’s resistance to detonation, the higher the octane number, the higher will be
its resistance. The aircraft flight manual or equivalent will state the minimum octane rating. A fuel with
an octane number lower than that recommended should never be used. As we have seen fuel octane
ratings are colour coded (eg, 100 LL BLUE).
Fuel Contamination
Fuel should be examined on a regular basis for signs of contamination listed below. This is achieved by
taking a sample of fuel from the fuel drain points situated at the bottom of each fuel tank, fuel filter and
where applicable, cross feed lines.
Globules of water
More than a trace of sediment
Cloudiness
Positive reaction to water finding paste, paper or chemical detector
Density Of Fuels
Specific gravity (SG) or relative density is the mass for unit volume of a fuel and is compared with water
at 15.5°C. When determining fuel loading variation of fuel density must be taken into account, for the
accuracy of the fuel contents, and fuel flow. Temperature also has a marked effect on fuel density. As
temperature increases, the density decreases. AVGAS has typically an SG of 0.72.
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12.4.8.2. Mixture Ratio
During the combustion process a chemical reaction takes place that requires a precise ratio of oxygen to
gasoline. The by weight ratio of air to gasoline that is required to ensure complete combustion of the
fuel, is 15 to 1, where 15 refers to air and 1 to fuel and is the Chemically Correct or Stoichiometric Ratio
and is the theoretical ratio. Mixture ratios are varied between approximately 8 to 1 and 20 to 1 to cater
for various engine requirements. Where 8 to 1 is a Rich mixture and there is an excessive amount of fuel
and 20 to 1 is a Weak mixture and there is an excessive amount of air. The Best Power Ratio actually
occurs at a richer mixture ratio of approximately 12 to 1 and is the mixture ratio that at a particular
power setting allows the engine to develop maximum power. Both rich and weak mixtures will lower the
burning gas temperatures as excess fuel and air will absorb a proportion of the heat resulting from
combustion.
Due to imbalances that exist in the mixture ratio as a result of inefficient mixing and distribution, then a
variation of mixture strength can exist between cylinders and a slightly richer mixture strength is used
since the engine can function better on a slightly rich mixture rather than a weak mixture. This is
because a rich mixture has less of an effect on power than a weak mixture. At low engine speeds then
some exhaust gases are left in the cylinder due to inefficient scavenging and results in the mixture being
diluted, therefore as engine speed is reduced the mixture should be enriched. A rich mixture is used for
high power settings to use the excess fuel to aid cylinder cooling.
A weak mixture not only burns at a lower temperature than the chemically correct ratio, but it also
burns slower therefore power output will be reduced as will fuel consumption. The weaker the mixture,
the greater the reduction in power. For range and economy a weak mixture ratio is used. The Best
Economy Ratio is the ratio that gives the lowest specific fuel consumption and occurs at approximately
16 – 18 to 1 as illustrated in the diagrams below.
The diagram below illustrates typical mixture ratios that, depending on engine power, are used during
engine operation. It can be seen that in this case the maximum power is obtained at a mixture ratio of
10 to 1 and for maximum economy the mixture ratio of 17.5 to 1 is used.
Mixture ratios are however dependant on engine speed and power output and the diagram below
illustrates the specific fuel consumption and power relationship. It can be seen that the SFC reduces as
the mixture strength is weakened.
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Exhaust Gas Temperature
An EGT gauge is used to make accurate adjustments to the mixture ratio since a rich mixture will reduce
the engine exhaust gas temperature, whilst a weak mixture will increase it. Mixture adjustments using
the exhaust gas temperature should only be carried out below 75% power and in the cruise.
EGT is measured using the thermo-couple principle and does not require power to operate. Two
dissimilar metals are welded together at the ends, and when heated the voltage induced is proportional
to the temperature difference between the two ends; the voltage is in millivolts and varies with the
metals used. One end known as the hot end is fitted where the temperature is to be sensed; the other is
known as the cold end and is exposed to normal temperature.
Flame Rate
This is the rate at which the flame front moves through the fuel and air mixture and is most rapid at the
best power setting, falling off substantially either side of this setting. A too weak a mixture results in a
slow flame rate therefore the mixture will still be burning when the inlet valve opens. This will ignite the
mixture in the inlet manifold and result in a backfire.
Detonation
The flame spread across the cylinder should be even and uniform. If the fuel is not sufficiently resistant
to detonation, then at a temperature and pressure critical to the fuel, spontaneous combustion occurs
with a very high flame rate of approximately 1000 ft/sec as opposed to the normal flame rate of
approximately 60-80 ft/sec. Since this occurs with such rapidity there is an audible explosion referred to
as “knock” or “pinking”, which due to engine noise is not normally heard inside the aircraft. When
detonation occurs then excessive cylinder temperatures result causing a loss of power and possible
engine damage, such as burning of the piston crown, valves and valve seats, seizing of the piston rings in
piston grooves which, if allowed to continue, would result in engine failure. Therefore when adjusting
power and/or mixture, laid down procedures must be followed in order to prevent engine limitations
being exceeded, especially the cylinder head temperature.
Detonation takes place after the spark ignition has occurred, and never before spark ignition affecting
the whole engine. Recognition is by a rise in cylinder head temperature and loss of power; rough
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running may also occur. Should detonation be suspected then the mixture should be enrichened and
power reduced. Increasing engine rpm will reduce the effect of detonation. Additionally additives such
as Tetraethyl Lead (TEL) are added to fuel to combat detonation.
Some likely causes of detonation are:
Incorrect mixture strength
Incorrect fuel grade
Combinations of high pressure and temperature
Time expired fuel
Ignition too far advanced
12.4.9. Carburetors
12.4.9.1. Introduction
In order to develop power a carburetion system must provide fuel and mix it with air in correct
proportions under all engine operating conditions irrespective of altitude and attitude. The mixture
must be delivered evenly to the cylinders in the correct state for efficient combustion. This is achieved
by a carburetor, pressure carburetor or direct fuel injection system.
12.4.9.2. Simple Float Carburetor

The constituent parts of a simple float carburetor are the float chamber, main jet, venturi also referred
to as the choke, and throttle valve. The suction created during the induction stroke draws air from the
air intake, through the carburetor venturi, and on to the inlet manifold to the cylinder. As the air flows
Float Type Carburetor

through the venturi it accelerates and causes a reduction in static pressure thus creating a pressure
difference between the float chamber and the venturi. The float chamber contains fuel that is supplied
from the aircraft fuel tanks by gravity, an electric booster pump or engine driven pump and the float
needle valve maintains a constant level.
The float chamber is subjected to air intake pressure or atmospheric pressure that acts on the fuel. The
float chamber is connected to a fuel discharge nozzle that is located in the venture throat. The pressure
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differential that exists between the float chamber and the venturi causes the fuel to flow from the float
chamber to the discharge nozzle and via the main jet into the airstream.
Opening the throttle will increase the airflow through the venturi therefore resulting in an increased
pressure drop at the venturi throat that increases the pressure differential and more fuel will flow. This
causes the fuel level in the float chamber to fall, allowing the float to lower and open the float valve to
admit more fuel into the float chamber.
At steady running conditions the float takes up a sensitive position, matching inflow to outflow for that
condition and the fuel level in the float chamber remains constant. Conversely closing the throttle will
reduce the pressure differential, fuel flow will reduce and the float will rise. The float needle valve will
reduce the amount of fuel flowing into the float chamber until it reaches its sensitive position once
more. A simple float carburetor is illustrated above.
12.4.9.3. Limitations
The simple float carburettor only provides a suitable air/fuel mixture over a very limited range,
therefore a number of additions to the simple float carburettor are necessary for aircraft engine
requirements, such as changes in engine speed, forward speed, aircraft altitude and power
requirements. These additions are necessary to overcome the following limitations:
 When increasing RPM the mixture progressively becomes rich, this is due to the different
responses of fuel and air
 At low engine speed a very low differential pressure exists between the float chamber and the
venturi. Therefore there is not enough suction to draw fuel from the float chamber
 As the float chamber is open to atmosphere this results in uneven fuel flow due to small air
pressure changes within the float chamber. Therefore the source of air to the float chamber
must be at constant pressure, or increase with mass flow within the induction system
 Whilst maintaining constant RPM with increasing altitude, the same volume of air enters the
cylinders. However, the weight of air is reducing, resulting in the mixture becoming rich
 Rapid engine acceleration causes the mixture to weaken due to the physical differences
between air and fuel, causing a temporary loss of power
 To prevent overheating there is a requirement for the mixture to be rich at high power Settings
12.4.9.4. Diffuser
This is a device to prevent the mixture from becoming rich with increasing RPM and is illustrated in the
diagram below. When the engine is at rest the fuel level in the diffuser is the same as the float chamber.
When the engine is running at idle then the fuel level in the diffuser well reduces and uncovers some of
the air holes, allowing air into the discharge tube. As the engine RPM is increased above idle the fuel
level within the diffuser well drops progressively uncovering an increasing amount of air holes and more
air enters the discharge tube thereby reducing the pressure differential and preventing mixture
enrichment. As a result of this, the fuel is vapourised more readily especially at low engine RPMs thus
aiding the combustion process
Alternatively an air bleed system as shown below may be installed and has the same function as the
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diffuser. Where air at atmospheric pressure is bled into the fuel discharge nozzle via the air bleed line,
the resulting additional air opposes the enrichening effect, therefore maintaining a constant air/fuel
ratio.
Idle or Slow Running System

At idle or slow running the engine speed is too low resulting in an insufficient airflow through the
venturi to provide a satisfactory discharge of fuel. Fuel for slow running enters the inlet manifold via a
slow running jet located near the edge of the throttle valve where the static pressure is low. This is due
to air being accelerated through the gap between the wall of the induction system and the throttle
valve. The float chamber is linked to the discharge ports and slow running jet. The air bleed provides a
mixture of air and fuel to the slow running jet. To overcome the effects of mixing exhaust gas with fresh
mixture during valve overlap the mixture is rich. As the engine RPM is increased above the idle or slow
running values the system no longer operates and fuel is now discharged in the normal manner.
Air Pressure Balance

Float chamber air pressure is essential for the float carburetor to operate satisfactorily. To have the float
chamber vented to atmosphere is unsatisfactory due to varying static pressure surrounding the
carburetor. Therefore air to the float chamber is normally taken from the rear of the venturi, and the
leading edge of the venturi is open to receive impact airflow pressure. A restrictor is fitted in the air
pressure balance line in an effort to maintain a constant or, with increased speed a slightly increased
float chamber pressure.
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Accelerator Pump
If the throttle valve is opened rapidly, the airflow responds almost instantaneously and a larger volume
of air flows through the carburetor. The fuel flow however responds slowly to the changing conditions
and a temporary weakening of the mixture will occur causing a flat spot (loss of power). An accelerator
pump injecting fuel into the induction system overcomes this weakening effect when the throttle is
opened quickly and a direct link between the accelerator pump and the throttle forces fuel into the
venturi whenever the throttle is opened. Some accelerator pumps allow the throttle to be opened
slowly without discharging fuel into the inlet manifold by a controlled bleed of fuel past the pump
piston. Other accelerator pumps incorporate a delayed action plunger; this type of pump is described
below.
The system illustrated below consists of a cylinder and a piston that is connected to the throttle valve
linkage. As the throttle is closed, the piston moves up, thus charging the cylinder with fuel from the float
chamber via a non-return valve. As the throttle is opened the accelerator pump piston moves down,
closing the non-return valve, forcing the fuel out past
the discharge non-return valve, through the accelerator delivery tube and into the airflow. Some
accelerator pumps have a delayed action plunger to continue the fuel flow for a few seconds after
throttle movement has ceased. By fitting a restrictor below the delayed action plunger it causes a spring
to be compressed as the accelerator pump piston moves down. Once the initial acceleration has taken
place the spring expands forcing down the delayed action piston and a subsequent fuel flow through the
restrictor, into the delivery tube and airflow.
Mixture Control
For accurate adjustment of the mixture ratio both for cruise power settings and for high altitudes a
manual mixture control is required. During the climb the air density decreases, and the mixture
progressively enriches. Fuel flow must therefore be reduced to maintain the correct ratio. Some large
engine carburetors have an automatic mixture control for altitude. There are two basic types of manual
mixture control and are described below.
Needle Type Mixture Control
This type of mixture control consists of a cockpit control lever connected to a needle valve situated in
the float chamber. Movement of the lever either raises or lowers the needle thus varying fuel flow
through an orifice to the main jet. Therefore the mixture strength is controlled by the position of the
needle. Moving the lever fully rearwards positions the needle fully down and fuel flow through the
orifice to the main jet is stopped thereby providing a means of stopping the engine. When the lever is in
this position it is in the Idle Cut Off position and is used for engine shut down. When the lever is fully
forward the needle is fully up allowing the maximum fuel flow to the main jet resulting in a fully rich
mixture. Intermediate positions of the lever will therefore adjust mixture ratio for all operating
requirements.
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Needle Valve Mixture Control Needle Pump
Some sophisticated carburetors use an automatic mixture control device that adjusts the fuel/ air ratio
automatically as ambient atmospheric pressure changes, alleviating the pilot of the need to adjust
mixture ratio during climb or descent. Such a system is illustrated at Figure below. A bleed from the
venturi is connected to the carburetor float chamber and an aneroid capsule is connected to a valve
situated in the float chamber vent to atmosphere.
Automatic Mixture Control
At sea level the aneroid capsule is fully compressed and the atmospheric vent valve is fully open, so
pressure difference across the main jet is maximum for any given airflow through the venturi. This is the
rich mixture setting. As altitude increases and atmospheric pressure decreases the aneroid capsule
expands, moving the vent valve towards closed. Meanwhile the suction bleed from the venturi to the
float chamber is causing a pressure reduction in the chamber, which the restricted vent cannot equalise.
The pressure difference across the main jet, and the fuel flow through it, is reduced thus reducing
(leaning) the fuel/air mixture ratio.
12.4.9.5. Economiser
Economisers, or power enrichment systems are often fitted to deliberately enrich the mixture whilst the
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engine is operating towards the top of its permissible power range. The valve, or valves, are cam-
operated and may come into operation when the throttle is advanced beyond a pre-set point, or when
the manifold air pressure control mechanism is set to deliver take-off power. Because these systems
ensure that enrichment does not occur in the cruise regime, they are sometimes referred to as
economiser systems.
The enrichment system shown at Figure below feeds fuel directly into the venturi, adding to the fuel
already being discharged from the main nozzle, when the throttle setting approaches the full throttle
position. A cam attached to the throttle operating linkage rotates sufficiently at full throttle selection to
force down the upper piston, closing off an air connection to the economiser nozzle. As the upper piston
moves down further it contacts the shaft of the lower piston and forces that down, uncovering a jet
orifice connected to the float chamber. The differential pressure across the jet then forces fuel to the
economiser nozzle. Thus the normal nozzle supply to the engine is supplemented, or enriched, at high
power settings.
Economiser
12.4.9.6. Alternate Air
The principal elements of a carburetor induction system are shown at figure below.
Carburetor Induction System
An air filter is situated near the air scoop in order to prevent dust, sand or large foreign objects entering
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the engine by way of the induction system. The air filter may be of the dry paper type, polyurethane
foam or wetted mesh. Dry paper filters are made of pleated layers of porous paper and are similar to
those found on most automotive power units. Polyurethane foam filters are a relatively new innovation,
using wetted foam as the filtration element. Wetted mesh filters comprise a mat of wire mesh elements
wetted with oil, through which the intake air must pass.
In some engine induction systems unfiltered ram air is led directly from the intake scoop to the
carburetor. When the aircraft is operating on the ground or in dusty/sandy conditions an alternate,
filtered air supply is selected by the pilot. In flight the carburetor receives an uninterrupted air supply.
For flight in known or forecast icing conditions the pilot is able to select an alternate, heated air supply
by operating the alternate air valve, shown in above figure, to shut off the main air duct, opening the air
supply from the exhaust-heated air muff pipe. The alternate air valve is often sprung to the ‘normal’
position, thus requiring positive action by the pilot to select alternate heated air. This is because the use
of heated intake air will reduce charge density/mass and therefore limit maximum available power.
The exhaust heater muff is an open-ended pipe surrounding the engine exhaust pipe. Air from inside the
engine compartment enters this pipe and, when the alternate air valve is set to HOT, flows around the
hot exhaust before passing through the alternate air duct to the main air duct.
Air Intake Blockage
Clearly, if the air supply to the carburetor is restricted the mass of the induced charge will be reduced
and the engine will be incapable of achieving full power. The more the intake is blocked the less power
available until eventually the engine would stop altogether.
The effect of a partial blockage of the air intake system will be to reduce the manifold air pressure. The
indication to the pilot that this has occurred will depend upon the power plant arrangement of the
aircraft.
A normally aspirated engine driving a fixed pitch propeller is not usually fitted with a manifold air
pressure (MAP) gauge. The loss of engine power associated with the partial blockage will result in a
reduction of rpm and this is likely to be the first indication that the pilot has.
A normally aspirated or a supercharged engine driving a constant speed propeller must be equipped
with a MAP gauge. This is because the first indication to the pilot of intake system blockage will be a
reduction of manifold air pressure. Engine/propeller rpm will not change since the propeller governor
will adjust propeller pitch to maintain constant rpm.
Blockage of the induction system of a stationary piston engine will almost certainly prevent it from
starting, since there will be insufficient airflow through the carburetor to initiate fuel flow.
Carburetor Disadvantages
The venturi, or choke carburetor has a number of disadvantages, which were appreciated early in the
development of aircraft piston engines. In the main, these disadvantages affect the maximum power
available from the engine. In summary they are:
• The fuel in the float chamber of the carburetor is subject to gravity and inertia,
resulting in variations of the mixture strength during manoeuvres and an
inability to function in inverted flight.
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• The choke, or venturi tube, has a tendency to icing in certain conditions. This must be countered with
heating, which reduces engine power by reducing inlet
air density.
• The choke and the protruding fuel nozzles from the carburetor jets impede the flow of air through the
intake and therefore reduce the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
Consequently, the float chamber type of carburetor has been largely superseded, particularly in high-
powered engines, by systems in which fuel is injected under pressure directly into the inlet manifold.
12.4.10. Fuel Injection Systems
12.4.10.1. Fuel Injection Pumps
The fundamental difference between a fuel injector system and a carburetor system (whether float-
chamber or fuel injection carburetor) is that the intake airflow is not measured by a venturi. Instead,
fuel is supplied to the cylinders by an engine-driven pump and the quantity is metered to suit engine
requirements. A diagram of a fuel injection pump that will meter fuel to match MAP and engine speed
conditions is shown below.
Fuel Injection Pump
Engine air supply is controlled in the usual manner, by means of a throttle butterfly valve in the intake.
The fuel injector pump unit controls fuel supply.
A vane type fuel pump pressurises the governor chamber, pressure in this chamber is controlled by the
pressure relief valve. The governor consists of flyweights, mounted on the same shaft as the engine-
driven pump, which move outwards under the centrifugal force of rotation. In so doing they open a
needle valve allowing fuel to flow into the governed fuel chamber and thence, via variable jets, to the
metered fuel chamber and the engine.
A diaphragm attached to the governor needle valve separates the governed and metered fuel chambers.
Thus, the differential pressure between the two chambers acts in opposition to the action of the
centrifugal governor and this has the effect of matching fuel flow to engine rpm. The thrust exerted by a
centrifugal governor is proportional to the square of the governor rpm and the
diaphragm balances that thrust. Consequently the pressure difference across the diaphragm is also
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proportional to the square of the rpm. The pressure difference across a jet is proportional to the square
of the fuel flow through it, so fuel flow past the governor needle valve is matched directly to engine
rpm. The flow of fuel through the main jet is controlled by the main metering needle, the position of
which compensates for changes in MAP and exhaust back pressure.
If MAP increases, the evacuated capsules will be compressed, causing the main metering needle valve to
open and increase fuel flow to match the increased MAP. The profile of the needle valve is shaped to
ensure that the mixture strength is correctly maintained over the whole range of manifold air pressures
from idling to maximum power. As ambient air pressure decreases with altitude the exhaust back
pressure decreases and scavenging of the cylinders improves. Consequently volumetric efficiency
increases. This means that more of the air available in the manifold is drawn into the cylinders, which
tends to weaken the mixture. In a float-chamber carburetor the extra airflow through the venturi
compensates for this by drawing more fuel through the jets, but there is no choke with a fuel injector.
To overcome this problem the back pressure capsule, attached to the evacuated MAP capsule, is
connected internally to atmospheric pressure. Thus, as altitude increases the back pressure capsule is
progressively compressed (by the progressively greater difference between MAP and atmospheric
pressure) causing it to progressively open the main metering needle valve, maintaining the mixture
strength. To compensate for the reduction in density of the inlet charge, which results from an increase
in charge temperature, a thermometer bulb in the inlet manifold is used to control the position of a
second capsule-controlled metering needle valve. The capsule chamber is connected to the
thermometer bulb by a liquid-filled capillary tube. An increased manifold air temperature causes the
liquid to expand, compressing the capsule and closing the needle valve to reduce fuel flow, matching the
reduced density of the charge air.
12.4.11. Carburetor and Intake Icing

Awareness of icing in the carburetor and intake is very important for safe operation and knowledge of
the current Aeronautical Information Circular on induction system icing is of importance.
When liquid evaporates it absorbs heat from its surroundings. Therefore, when fuel is sprayed into the
induction system, it extracts heat from its surroundings. This causes the water vapour to condense and it
will freeze if the temperature is low enough. Six evaporation factors have an influence on the rate of
formation of ice in carburetors, and these are:
* Temperature increases
* Surface area of the liquid increases
* Atmospheric pressure decreases
* Humidity of the air decreases
* A direct function of the volatility of the exposed liquid
* Air flow across the surface of the liquid increases
Carburetor Ice Formation

As fuel is sprayed into the low pressure area of the carburetor venturi it rapidly evaporates cooling the
air, the wall of the induction system, and the water vapour. If the air humidity is high and the metal of
the carburetor is cooled to below 0°C, ice will form and operation of the engine will be affected this is
due to the size and shape of passages being changed by a coating of ice.
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Carburetor ice formation may occur by any one of three processes:
a. The freezing of the condensed water vapour of the air at or near the throttle forms ice known
as throttle ice or expansion ice and is the most likely form of icing
b. The cooling effect of the evaporation of the fuel after being introduced into the airstream may
produce what is known as fuel ice or fuel evaporation ice
Water in suspension in the atmosphere coming into contact with engine parts at a temperature below
0°C, may produce impact ice or atmospheric ice
Throttle Ice With the throttle in a partially closed position, such as when descending then throttle icing
is most likely. In this position the air velocity at the edge of the throttle valve will be increased, thus a
pressure and temperature drop will occur, causing ice formation at the throttle. It is important to
remove throttle ice as quickly as possible as, due to ice build up on the throttle, the venturi effect
between the throttle and the wall of the inlet manifold will increase causing an even greater pressure
and temperature drop, therefore making the situation worse.
Impact Icing When water droplets impact with the intake and throttle body wall they freeze, which is
most likely to occur at temperatures of between 0°C and -7°C. The ice builds up around the air intake
disturbing the airflow, and alters the fuel/air ratio, causing a loss of power or engine failure.
Carburetor Hot Air Check.

This check should be carried out immediately before take-off; it should be noted that if this check is
carried out some distance from the runway requiring extensive taxiing, then ice can re-form in the
induction system. The procedure in the flight manual or other approved document should be followed.
Generally the procedure is as follows:
* Select the required RPM and select HOT on the hot air lever, noting the RPM decrease.
* If there is no decrease apparent in RPM, then hot air is not entering the induction system.
Should rough running occur, then this indicates ice formation in the induction system, therefore
continue in the hot selection until rough running ceases. COLD should then be selected noting
the increase in RPM. Decreased RPM is due to the reduction of air density of the heated air.
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* Take-off should not be attempted with hot air selected since power will be reduced and the
likelihood of detonation will be increased.
Carburetor Intake Heating

In order to remove ice or to prevent ice formation during flight induction heating must be provided.
Intake heating is achieved by hot air being supplied from a jacket around the exhaust system. Cold air is
heated by the hot exhaust then flows into the induction system. An adjustable valve operated by a heat
control lever located in the cockpit controls the hot air entering the system. Normally the selection is
either fully hot or fully cold with no intermediate position. When hot air is selected it is not filtered, and
abrasive material can enter the cylinders increasing the rate of wear of the cylinder barrels. Also hot air
reduces density and hence power; this also increases the risk of detonation. Some installations route the
induction system through the oil sump to pre-heat the induction system that helps in vaporisation and
also reduces the risk of ice formation. Injection systems require very little or no hot air supply; however
they do require alternate air supply to bypass the air filter should it become blocked.
Effect of Induction System Icing on Engine Performance

Recognition of carburetor icing and the weather conditions associated with icing is very important. One
or more of the following can indicate carburetor icing:
 Low cylinder head temperature
 Rough running
 Loss of power
 Loss of altitude
 Loss of airspeed
Cylinder head temperature reduction is caused by the enrichening effect, and is followed by rough
running and power loss, and a complete power loss in the most serious cases. A drop in engine speed
indicates this power loss with fixed pitch propellers, whilst with constant speed propellers a drop in
manifold pressure, with the RPM remaining constant, indicates a reduction in power.
The normal procedures to prevent icing are:
 Check the carburetor hot air system before take off
 Select carburetor heat during descent
 Select heat whenever icing conditions are suspected
It is a misconception that carburetor icing does not take place when the ambient air temperature is
above 0°C when in fact it can occur at temperatures as high as 300C under the right conditions, and can
occur under combinations of humidity and temperature as indicated in the graph below. Should ice be
present and carburetor hot air selected, then engine roughness is initially likely to get worse before it
disappears. This is due to the dramatic cooling effect of water or water vapour flooding into the cylinder.
Instructions concerning the use of carburetor heat or alternate air control that appear in the aircraft's
flight manual or equivalent document should be strictly adhered to.
12.4.12. Lubrication And Cooling
12.4.12.1. Lubrication Introduction

The primary purpose of lubrication is to reduce friction that is created between the moving parts of the
engine. By good lubrication then engine wear can be substantially reduced therefore prolonging engine
life. Friction is reduced by placing a film of oil between the moving parts, which covers the surfaces
preventing contact of the metal surfaces. Therefore movement is between the layers of oil, and not the
metal surfaces.
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Oil also seals between moving parts, an example of which is by applying an oil film on the cylinder walls
and piston that forms a seal in the cylinder preventing gas leaks from the combustion chamber. Also oil
protects against shocks between engine components such as the crankshaft, connecting rods and valve
operating mechanism by applying a film of oil that cushions the shocks.
Another important function of the oil as it circulates around the engine is to absorb heat from the
internal engine components. This heat is removed by passing the oil through an oil cooler; where air
passing through the oil cooler absorbs heat from the oil. As the oil circulates it collects contamination in
the form of dirt, dust and carbon that have been introduced into the engine by the atmosphere and the
combustion process. Finally the oil must provide protection from corrosion of the internal metal parts by
ensuring a film of oil on them.
Lubricating Oil Types
There are various types of oils available to fulfill the requirements of engine operation.
Straight Mineral Oil or straight oil as it is commonly called, is normally used after maintenance or when
running in a new engine where it is used for the first 50 hours of engine life. This type of oil can cause
sludge to form that may result in clogging of oil ways and filters. This oil can be used for engines that do
not require ashless dispersant oil.
Ashless Dispersant Oil contains a dispersant that holds contamination in suspension therefore
preventing the formation of sludge that can occur with the straight mineral oil and is deposited safely in
the filter rather than the engine. This oil cannot be mixed with straight mineral oil, therefore it is
essential that a check be carried out to ascertain what type of oil is being used in an engine.
Synthetic Oil It is superior to the other oils mentioned above in all aspects but due to expense and
limited service experience, few piston engine manufacturers approve it. It is, however, used exclusively
in gas turbine engines.
12.4.12.2. Oil Grades
Oil grades are determined according to their Viscosity, where viscosity is defined as the fluid friction, or
the resistance to flow and is very important in engine operation. High viscosity oil is thick so therefore
flows slowly, whilst low viscosity oil is thin and will flow freely. Therefore the oil is required to maintain
viscosity in order to withstand high bearing pressures and temperatures. The viscosity of an oil is
affected by changes in temperature where temperature increase will thin the oil allowing it to flow more
freely i.e. lower its viscosity and vice versa. Therefore at high ambient temperatures high viscosity oil is
used and at low ambient temperatures low viscosity oil is used. The oil selected for use will therefore
depend on the average ambient temperature and it is essential that the correct oil grade is used for
efficient lubrication.
Oils are grades by numbers that indicate their viscosity, where the higher the number the higher the
viscosity, the slower the oil flows and vice versa. The numbers are obtained by using the Saybolt
Universal Viscometer where a measured amount of oil at a particular temperature is timed as it flows
through a calibrated orifice. If it takes 20 seconds to flow
through the viscometer then it is given the grade SAE 20, where SAE stands for the Society of
Automotive Engineers. For commercial aviation using a number double that of the SAE number i.e. SAE
20 equals commercial aviation grade 40 identifies the grades. The letter W may be used when grading
oil, when the W is after the number this indicates that the oil is satisfactory oil for winter use e.g.40W.
Alternatively a W before the number indicates that it is an ashless dispersant oil e.g. W80.
12.4.12.3. Dry Sump System

With this system the oil is stored in an externally mounted oil tank and supplied to the engine under
pressure and is returned to the tank by a scavenge pump. The dry sump system is used on larger radial
engines and may be fitted to engines on aerobatic aircraft. It also is the type of system used on gas
turbine engines. There is not much difference between the dry sump system
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and the forced feed wet sump system. These differences are that the oil is stored in a tank external to
the engine, therefore in order to return the oil to the tank a scavenge pump is fitted and an oil cooler
may be fitted in the scavenge line. The schematic diagram below illustrates a typical system.
12.4.12.4. Wet Sump System

The wet sump system is the type now used on modern light aircraft and the oil is contained in the sump
located on the bottom of the crankcase. This system normally incorporates splash and pressure
lubrication and oil return to the sump is by gravity, therefore a scavenge pump is not required. However
on engines fitted with a turbocharger then a scavenge pump is usually fitted to scavenge the
turbocharger bearing that is lubricated by the engine oil system. In the schematic system shown below
the pump draws the oil via a strainer from the sump, the oil then flows to a pressure filter, which is
fitted with a bypass in case of a filter blockage, then onto the oil cooler via a thermostatic bypass and on
to a spring loaded pressure relief valve. Oil then enters the engine and flows through drilled passages to
provide lubrication for all the engine internal components. For an engine fitted with a variable pitch
propeller oil is also supplied for operation of the propeller governor.
Filters
Filters are fitted to remove small particles of contamination passing through the lubricating system that
can result in damage to the pump and bearings. Most piston engines use the full flow oil system, where
all the oil passes through a pressure filter located downstream of the pressure pump. In a dry sump
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system scavenge filters are normally located in the scavenge lines from the bearings and pumps. If the
filter become blocked then engine failure is likely so the filter is fitted with a bypass to allow unfiltered
oil to be supplied to the engine. A strainer is fitted in the oil sump of a wet sump engine and is usually a
coarse mesh type filter to prevent contamination entering the system.
Pressure Gauge
This is the most important gauge for satisfactory engine operation. Should the oil pressure fail then
bearing failure will occur very quickly. A green arc on the face of the gauge shows the normal pressure
range, a yellow arc for the caution range and a red line for maximum oil pressure. Oil pressure should
register on the gauge within 30 seconds of the engine starting or slightly longer on a cold day. Should
the oil pressure not register within this time then the engine must be shut down.
Temperature Gauge
This gauge is normally fitted after the oil cooler and has a green arc for the normal temperature range
and a red line for maximum temperature. Temperature gauges on light aircraft are really pressure
gauges, since liquid is sealed in the line to the gauge; as the temperature increases then expansion of
the liquid occurs, which causes the pressure to rise, which in turn results in the pointer moving over a
temperature scale.
Oil Tank
This is only fitted to dry sump systems and is an external tank, which contains the correct amount of oil
in order to provide proper circulation and cooling. Engines with constant speed propellers feed the
pressure pump through a stack pipe in the tank with the propeller feathering pump outlet at the bottom
of the tank, therefore should fault occur resulting in a loss of oil, a reserve of oil will be retained in the
tank for propeller feathering.
12.4.13. Cooling
Since only 30% approximately of the heat energy released during combustion is available for power the
remainder of heat has to be removed to prevent engine damage. The majority of the excess heat
escapes via the exhaust whilst the engine absorbs the remainder. The circulating oil absorbs some of this
heat, transferring it to air passing through the oil cooler; whilst the engine cooling system removes the
remainder.
Air cooling is the method employed on modern light aircraft and is achieved by passing air over the
engine. To improve the cooling effect the cylinder barrels and cylinder heads are fitted with fins to
increase the surface area for efficient heat transfer to the airflow. It is a pressure cooling system where
air from the propeller and the aircrafts forward speed is forced through the cowling air inlets to the
upper part of the engine creating a high pressure region. The air is then directed by baffles over the
cylinders to the lower part of the engine, which is the low pressure region, and exits via a fixed outlet or
variable cowl flaps. To direct jets of cooling air over various accessories such as magnetos, alternators
and fuel pumps blast tubes can be built into the baffles.
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Cowl Flaps
Apart from operating the aircraft within its operating limits the pilot has no direct control over the
amount of cooling of most small light aircraft. However on most large single engine aircraft and normally
on all twin-engine aircraft by the use of cowl flaps the pilot is able to control the airflow through the
engine as shown above. When open they allow the maximum amount of air to flow over the engine, and
minimum flow when closed, are normally fully open at take-off and climb, and partially or fully closed
during the cruise. The cylinder head temperature gauge records the cylinder temperature, and the cowl
flaps are adjusted to maintain the correct cylinder head temperature.
Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge

A temperature measuring probe can either be located in the cylinder head or in the spark plug washer. It
operates using the thermo-couple principle, previously described for the exhaust gas temperature
gauge. The probe is fitted to the hottest cylinder, which is normally one of the rear cylinders.
Comparison Between Liquid and Air-cooling Systems

The major advantage of a liquid cooled system is that the engine is kept more at a more constant
temperature therefore providing more even cooling. Additionally, the disadvantages are that the system
is more complicated and difficult to service, also the engines require water jackets around the cylinders
that increase weight. Whilst the air-cooled system is simpler it contains baffles and deflectors to give
very efficient cooling and these systems are fitted to the vast majority of engines.
12.4.14. Ignition System
If the engine ignition system was part of the aircraft main electrical system, then the engine would stop
should a complete electrical failure occur, therefore an independent aircraft ignition system is required.
Not only is it independent of the aircraft electrical system, but also for safety it is duplicated. The
ignition system commonly employed on modern light aircraft employed is the high tension magneto
system where each magneto is a self contained generator to supply independent electrical energy,
transformer to transform low tension (primary voltage) into high tension (secondary voltage) and a
spark distribution system to deliver the high tension to the correct spark plug at the correct time.
This system consists of a magneto that is a self contained generator to generate the required electrical
energy, electrical spark plug leads to connect the magnetos to the spark plugs that ignite the mixture
and to isolate the magnetos, an ignition switch in the cockpit. Each magneto supplies a spark plug in
each cylinder therefore each cylinder contains two spark plugs.
12.4.14.2. Magneto Operation

There are various types of magneto available, the rotating magnet type being the one in common use on
current engines and may consist of two, four or eight pole, with the two pole magnet being the most
popular. The magneto is driven by the engine crankshaft and rotates a magnet, cam and distributor. The
magneto contains two electrical circuits; these are the primary and secondary circuits.
Primary Circuit
This consists of several hundred turns of relatively heavy wire, which is wound directly over an iron core;
the circuit is earthed to the iron core at one end, whilst the other is earthed via the ignition switch.
Breaker points and a capacitor are in parallel with the primary coil. The breaker
points are held closed by a spring and opened by a cam, which allows the points to close when the cam
rotates to its low point.
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When the breaker points open the primary current stops flowing. As the contact breaker interrupts the
flow of current, it will create arcing across the points, which causes pitting and erosion, therefore to
prevent this a capacitor is fitted in parallel with the points. As the points begin to open this causes the
resistance across them to increase, resulting in the current taking the least line of resistance into the
capacitor. In the time it takes the capacitor to charge, the points are open far enough to prevent arcing.
Turning the engine with the ignition switch in the OFF position causes the primary current to flow to
earth via the switch, therefore bypassing the contact breaker and preventing the current from being
switched off and on by its operation. When the switch is in the ON position the circuit is broken and the
current flows via the contact breaker points. This arrangement has the advantage that if the switch lead
breaks, the magneto remains ON. However should a lead break and touch the aircraft structure then it
will be earthed and the magneto will be OFF.
Secondary Circuit
This consists of a coil, distributor, plug leads and spark plugs. The coil consists of thousands of turns of
very small wire, which are wound around the primary coil; the coil is earthed at one end with the
primary circuit and the other terminates at the spark plug, earthing at the spark plug electrodes. The
rotor arm of the distributor distributes the high voltage pulses from the secondary coil to the respective
plug lead segment inside the distributor. This results in approximately 12,000 Volts being induced in the
secondary coil, terminating as a high intensity spark at the spark plug gap. Turbocharged engine
magnetos are usually pressurised from the outlet side of the turbocharger compressor to prevent arcing
in the body of the magneto at high altitudes that can occur due to low ambient pressure.
Auxiliary Systems for Starting

When the starter is turning the engine during start, the magneto does not produce high voltage required
by the spark plugs. Also to prevent kickback the spark is required to be retarded. There are various
starting devices to accomplish a satisfactory start.
Pre-Take Off Checks

Before take-off checks are carried out on the ignition system to ensure that the magnetos are
functioning correctly.
Magneto Checks - Dead Cut Check

This check is carried out with the engine running at an intermediate RPM in accordance with the flight
manual. The ignition switch is moved from BOTH to L, back to BOTH, then to R and back to
BOTH. When the switch is moved, to L and R the RPM reduction should be observed. A reduction in RPM
shows that the magnetos are switching OFF and ON. The purpose of this check is to prevent the
possibility of engine damage when carrying out the single ignition check at a higher RPM. Because if the
L magneto is not operating, then switching to L will cause the engine to stop and if the switch is turned
to BOTH, then mixture that has entered the exhaust system will explode and may cause damage to the
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exhaust system. The term dead cut check comes from the practice of actually turning OFF both
magnetos, however this procedure is not normally carried out due to the problem identified above in
terms of exploding mixture in the exhaust system.
Single Ignition Check

This is carried at a higher engine speed than the dead cut check out to ensure that the ignition system is
functioning satisfactorily. Engine speed is increased to the laid down figure in accordance with the flight
manual, typically 1700 to 2000 RPM. With the magnetos ON, the switch is moved from BOTH to L, and
note the engine RPM. The switch is now moved back to BOTH to clear the spark plugs. The switch is
moved to R and the engine RPM noted. Now the switch is returned to BOTH. The difference between
the two magnetos operated individually should not differ more than a laid down figure, typically 50
RPM, with the maximum allowable drop for either magneto as laid down in the flight manual, typically
150 RPM. The engine should be observed for excessive roughness during this check. If no drop in RPM is
noted when operating on either magneto alone then it may indicate a malfunction in the ignition circuit.
Also it is very important that magneto performance falls within these limitations for safe operation.
12.4.15. Piston Engine Power Augmentation and Performance
The internal combustion engine is a heat engine. That is to say, it converts heat energy created by
burning fuel in its cylinders into mechanical energy by means of the moving pistons and crankshaft. The
power delivered by the engine is the function of the work done by these moving parts over a period of
time.
Thus, the power output of the engine is directly proportional to the quantity of fuel burned in the
cylinders. The fuel will only burn if it is mixed with air in the correct ratio, which for efficient combustion
must be 15 parts of air to every one part of fuel by weight. This mixture of fuel and air, when supplied to
the engine cylinders is known as the fuel/air charge. Consequently, the statement at the beginning of
this paragraph can be expanded to say that the power output of the engine is
directly proportional to the weight of the fuel/air charge.
Charge Induction
In a normally aspirated engine, for air at ambient atmospheric pressure to enter the cylinder, the
pressure in the cylinder must be less than the ambient atmospheric pressure. This reduced pressure is
created in the cylinder by the movement of the piston during the induction stroke. Hence, the charge in
the cylinder at the end of the induction stroke is always at a pressure lower than ambient atmospheric
pressure, even when operating with the throttle valve wide open.
The weight of the charge is directly proportional to its density, which is in turn directly proportional to
its pressure. Therefore, the power output of a piston engine is directly proportional to the charge
pressure. The charge pressure is, by definition, the pressure in the induction system during the
induction stroke. The induction system is otherwise known as the inlet air manifold and so the induction
system pressure is more commonly referred to as Manifold Air Pressure (MAP).
The manifold pressure gauge is of particular importance in supercharged engines. We have already
established that MAP is directly proportional to engine power, since it has direct effect upon the mean
effective pressure in the cylinders. This, in turn, directly affects the cylinder operating temperature and
high cylinder temperature leads to pre-ignition and detonation.
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With a fixed-pitch propeller installation the power output of the engine is indicated by the engine rpm.
However, when an engine is driving a constant speed (variable-pitch) propeller the engine rpm reamains
constant and power increases or decreases according to the propeller pitch setting. It is therefore
important that the pilot is aware of the manifold pressure, and thus the power output of the engine, to
ensure that the engine is not producing excessive torque.
12.4.15.2. Super Charging

Increasing the weight of the charge beyond that possible by normal aspiration is known as super
charging. It is achieved by forcing air into the induction system with some sort of air pump, or
compressor, instead of sucking it in with the pistons. The more air forced in, the higher the MAP and
therefore the greater the power output of the engine. By this means it is possible to increase the power
developed by a piston engine so that the same power is available at altitude as at sea level, significantly
improving both the climb performance and the operational ceiling of the aircraft. This is known as an
altitude-boosted engine. Further, the power available at sea level can be increased, giving improved
take-off performance. This is known as a ground-boosted engine.
The supercharger is a blower, or compressor, that draws in atmospheric air and discharges it to the
engine induction system thereby increasing the pressure, density and consequently the mass of air in
the induction system. Maintaining the MAP and density (mass) of the air-fuel charge at a constant value
during the climb will, of itself, maintain engine power constant. Because of the decrease in ambient
atmospheric pressure, scavenging of the exhaust gases improves. A greater proportion of the charge is
able to enter the cylinders and the engine need do less pumping work in expelling the exhaust gas. The
result is that, if constant MAP is maintained in the climb, there is a power increase at the rate of about
one per cent per 1000 feet of altitude gained.
With an altitude-boosted system, the throttle will have been less than fully open on take-off, in order to
avoid over-boosting. In the climb, as ambient air pressure decreases, the throttle is gradually opened to
maintain the required power (either manually or automatically), and consequently throttling losses are
reduced. Throttling losses occur when the throttle butterfly valve is other than fully open, since the air
has to accelerate around this obstruction and suffers a reduction in pressure (and density) in
consequence. As the aircraft continues climbing it will eventually reach an altitude at which, in order for
the supercharger to maintain MAP constant, the throttle valve will have to be wide open. This is known
as the full throttle altitude for that MAP/power. Any further increase in altitude must result in a fall in
MAP and power unless the supercharger can be made to pump more air (by increasing its speed).
When an aircraft is climbing at rated power (the maximum continuous power for the engine) and it
reaches full throttle altitude this is also known as the rated altitude. Rated altitude is the greatest
altitude at which a supercharged engine can maintain rated power. In a turbo-charged engine this same
condition is usually referred to as the critical altitude, but more of that later.
Supercharging or turbo-charging of a piston engine provides a means of achieving a greater power

output from a given engine without an undue increase in the weight and size of the power unit
concerned.
The basic difference between a supercharger and a turbocharger is that the former is driven directly by
the engine, with an ancillary drive much like that driving the fuel pump, and the latter is driven by the
exhaust gases. The basic layout of a mechanically driven, or internal-type supercharger system is shown
at figure below.
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Internal Supercharger
Since the power output of a piston engine is dependent upon the weight of the induced charge, and this
is in turn dependent upon the density of the air, it follows that the power output of a normally aspirated
engine must fall as altitude increases. This is shown in curve (A) at Figure below. A ground-boosted,
internally supercharged, engine will produce greater power at any given altitude than a similar
unsupercharged engine, but will exhibit loss of power with altitude in the same manner, as shown in
curve (B). An altitude-boosted engine is able to maintain sea level full power to a given altitude, but
thereafter power will decline with increasing altitude as shown at curve (C). A turbo-charger is capable
not only of increasing power at sea level, but also of maintaining that power to a significant altitude as
shown in curve (D) of Figure below.
Curves of Maximum Power vs. Altitude
12.4.15.3. Turbochargers or External Superchargers
The Turbocharger
When the impeller of the supercharger is driven by exhaust gas flow, rather than by direct drive from
the engine, it is known either as a turbocharger or as an external-type supercharger.
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As with an internal-type supercharger the ratio of compressor outlet pressure to compressor inlet
pressure is the supercharger/turbocharger ratio and, for a unit of given dimensions, this ratio will
depend upon the speed of the compressor.
The output of a turbocharger remains essentially constant in the climb, since its speed is
increased to match decreasing atmospheric pressure. Hence, scavenging improves as the exhaust back
pressure decreases, so the volumetric efficiency of the engine increases with altitude up to the critical
altitude (discussed shortly).
A turbocharger arrangement is illustrated below.
Turbocharger gas Flow
If all of the exhaust gases were used to drive the turbocharger its speed of rotation, and the consequent
compressor output pressure, would be too high, as would the back pressure in the exhaust manifold.
It is therefore necessary to control the speed of rotation by directing the exhaust gases through a Y
junction, whereby one arm of the plumbing diverts the exhaust gases to the turbocharger turbine, whilst
the other arm directs the gases to atmosphere through a valve known as a waste gate. This principle is
illustrated at figure below.
From above figure it can be seen that the position of the waste gate governs the amount of exhaust gas
available to drive the turbocharger turbine, and therefore governs the manifold air pressure
downstream of the turbocharger compressor. The range of waste gate movement is limited, to ensure
that some gas is always routed through the turbine, to prevent stalling.
The waste gate position is set by a hydraulic actuator, within which engine oil pressure opposes a spring
to operate the waste gate linkage. Oil is supplied to the actuator through a fixed orifice, and is allowed
to return to the engine sump through a variable orifice valve, operated by the absolute pressure
controller.
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Turbocharger Control
The absolute pressure controller consists of an aneroid capsule connected to the variable orifice needle
valve. The capsule is mounted in a chamber connected to the induction manifold on the outlet side of
the turbocharger compressor, and is therefore sensitive to compressor discharge pressure.
The function of the absolute pressure controller is to maintain a constant absolute pressure (i.e.
pressure above absolute zero) between compressor and throttle valve. This is known as the compressor
discharge pressure. Manifold air pressure (MAP), between throttle valve and engine inlet valves, is
controlled by the throttle valve setting.
36. Let us assume that the throttle lever has been advanced, increasing the throttle butterfly valve
opening. As the valve opens, admitting more charge air to the inlet manifold, MAP will increase.
However, the greater demand on the compressor causes compressor discharge pressure to fall and this
will cause the aneroid capsule in the absolute pressure controller to expand, partially closing the
variable orifice (oil outlet) needle valve.
Oil flow through the fixed inlet restriction will now exceed outflow through the variable orifice needle
valve, and oil pressure on the waste gate actuator piston will increase. Overcoming spring pressure, the
increased oil pressure will move the actuator piston to the right above figure, closing the waste gate to
direct more gas through the turbine.
Turbine, and therefore compressor speed will increase, increasing compressor discharge pressure to
maintain the higher MAP required by the original throttle advance. As compressor discharge pressure
rises the absolute pressure controller capsule will be progressively compressed, opening the variable
orifice valve until oil outflow just matches oil inflow through the fixed restriction. At this point a new
steady-state condition is reached, with the throttle butterfly valve open wider, waste gate further
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closed, turbocharger rotating faster to maintain constant compressor discharge pressure and MAP
higher to match the new power setting.
A decrease in MAP, whether due to closing the throttle valve or under-speeding of the turbocharger, will
have the reverse effect to that described above. When the engine is stopped there is no engine oil
pressure acting on the waste gate actuator piston, so the spring will move the actuator to the waste
gate full open position. The main exhaust gas path is therefore direct to atmosphere to minimise
exhaust back pressure during starting.
Once the engine is idling, or at low power, the manifold air pressure will be low and the absolute
pressure controller capsule will only be partially compressed. Consequently, the variable orifice needle
valve will be almost closed and oil pressure will build up in the waste gate actuator, moving the waste
gate towards the closed position. Because, at low rpm, the oil pressure will also be low the actuator
spring will not be fully compressed and the waste gate will probably not reach the fully closed position.
However, most of the available exhaust gas will be directed to the turbine, maintaining an adequate
flow of induction air through the compressor.
For every possible power setting selected by the pilot there is an altitude at which the waste gate will
have to be fully closed in order to maintain the MAP required for that power. Above that altitude, power
will fall since the turbocharger can no longer increase speed to match the falling atmospheric pressure.
When a higher power setting cannot be selected (the throttle is fully open), the turbocharger's critical
altitude has been reached.
Absolute Pressure Controller. This controls the supercharger discharge pressure below critical
altitude in exactly the same way as the absolute pressure controller.
Rate Controller. The rate controller controls the rate at which supercharger discharge pressure can
increase, in order to prevent a surge of boost pressure, which might cause interim overboosting of the
engine when the throttle is opened.
Supercharger discharge pressure is led to both sides of the bleed valve diaphragm, but supply to one
side is restricted. Thus, if the throttle valve is opened supercharger discharge pressure will fall and the
restricted orifice will ensure a temporary differential pressure across the diaphragm, closing the bleed
valve, increasing servo pressure and moving the waste gate towards CLOSE until pressure on either side
of the diaphragm has equalised.
This will increase turbocharger speed to restore supercharger discharge pressure. However, if discharge
pressure rises too rapidly the restrictor will ensure that pressure rises more on one side of the
diaphragm than the other. The diaphragm will therefore flex, opening the bleed valve and moving the
waste gate temporarily towards OPEN to limit the rate of increase of supercharger discharge
pressure.
Once pressures on either side of the diaphragm have equalised, the spring will return the bleed valve to
the closed position, returning primary control to the Absolute Pressure Controller.
Pressure Ratio Controller. As aircraft altitude increases, and ambient atmospheric pressure
decreases, the supercharger has to rotate faster and compress more air in order to maintain constant
manifold air pressure, and therefore engine power. The additional work done by the supercharger
compressor increases the temperature of the air delivered to the engine. This could, if continued to
sufficient altitude, lead to detonation. In order to prevent this, a limit is placed upon maximum manifold
air pressure above a specified altitude (often 16,000 feet). The pressure ratio controller automatically
limits supercharger discharge pressure above the specified altitude by progressively opening a bleed
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valve and reducing waste gate actuator servo pressure, thereby progressively reducing turbocharger
speed. This results in a controlled progressive reduction of supercharger discharge pressure.
Ambient atmospheric pressure is supplied to a chamber containing an aneroid capsule. At the specified
altitude the capsule will have expanded sufficiently to contact the bleed valve stem. If altitude is
increased further the capsule expands further, opening the bleed valve to reduce servo pressure and
adjust the waste gate so as to allow more exhaust gas to atmosphere and less to drive the turbocharger
turbine. The Pressure Ratio Controller is set to reduce the waste gate actuator servo pressure so as to
maintain a ratio between supercharger discharge pressure and atmospheric pressure of, typically, 2.2: 1.
Finally, a pressure relief device, in the form of a simple poppet valve, is normally fitted to the inlet
manifold to bleed off excess pressure (over boosting) in the event of failure of the boost pressure
limiting devices, or failure of the waste gate.
Over boosting would cause excess power and could lead to serious structural damage to the
engine.
12.4.16. Engine Operation
12.4.16.1. Propeller Inspection
It is very important to inspect the propeller spinner and back plate for security, damage and cracks prior
to flight. Propeller blades must be free from nicks and other damage, which could lead to propeller
failure.
Basic Starting Procedure

After the pre-start checks have been carried out engine start should be carried out in accordance with
the procedures detailed in the flight manual. The following procedure is of a general nature, and does
not apply to any particular aircraft.
Starting
Check fuel selector ON appropriate tank
Throttle - ¼" to ½" open
Battery switch - ON
Electric Booster Fuel Pump - ON if fitted
Mixture - RICH
Magneto/Start switch – START position ensuring starter engage light is ON
Release the Magneto/Start switch to BOTH position as soon as the engine starts
After the engine starts, check that the starter engage light is OUT if it remains ON the engine must be
shut down immediately. Also Oil pressure must register within 30 secs or slightly longer in cold weather.
If the oil pressure fails to register within the prescribed time the engine must be stopped immediately.
Once started, the engine must be allowed to reach its normal operating temperature by running the
engine at approximately 1000 to 1200 RPM. It should be noted that prolonged idling or single magneto
operation could cause fouling of the spark plugs.
Power Changes
On engines fitted with fixed pitch propellers, apart from mixture control, the throttle valve is the only
means of controlling power. Additionally constant speed propellers have an RPM lever. Power is a
function of RPM and manifold pressure, when making power changes on an engine fitted with a
constant speed propeller both the RPM and the manifold pressure are required to be adjusted.
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When increasing power, the sequence is to adjust the RPM lever first, then the throttle lever. When
decreasing power, adjust the throttle lever first, then the RPM lever. Ensuring the mixture lever is set to
rich before increasing power.
In order to avoid detonation and unnecessary stress on the engine this correct sequence of power
adjustments is required.
Engine Priming Systems
In order to avoid unnecessary engine cranking when starting a cold engine, a quantity of neat fuel may
be supplied to the induction manifold, so that a rich fuel/air mixture is drawn into the cylinders when
the engine starts to rotate. Depending upon the type of carburetor the fuel may be supplied by one of
the following methods.
a. Some float carburetors are fitted with a carburetor tickler. This is a manually operated plunger
which may be used to force down the carburetor float. This action allows the fuel level in the
float chamber to rise, and eventually fuel will
flow from the discharge nozzle into the induction manifold.
b. Where carburetors are fitted with a throttle-operated accelerator pump, the action of opening
the throttle will result in fuel being sprayed into the induction manifold.
c. Where a seperate fuel primer is installed, a priming pump (manually or electrically operated)
will draw fuel from a fuel tank and discharge it to various points in the induction manifold via a
system of priming pipes and nozzles. To operate a manual priming pump it is usually necessary
to twist the plunger in order to release it. It then springs outward, opening the supply
valve. Failure to re-lock the plunger will result in the engine drawing excess fuel through the
open supply valve on start-up. The engine will stall after a short period due to over-enrichment
(flooding).
d. With fuel injected engines priming is usually accomplished by operating the fuel booster, or
auxillary, pump for a brief period with the mixture control set so as to permit a flow of fuel to
the injector nozzles.
In order to avoid flooding the engine with neat fuel, a drain is fitted to the lowest point in the induction
or supercharger casing so that any surplus fuel that may have collected will pass through this drain.
Power Settings
There are various power settings associated with engine operation and are as follows:
Take Off Power This is the maximum amount of power that the engine can deliver for take off and is
typically limited to a period of one to five minutes
Rated Power or Maximum Continuous Power This is the maximum horsepower that can be
obtained from an engine at specified manifold pressure and RPM as safe for continuous operation
Climb Power Climb Power may have a time restriction placed upon it, typically 30 Minutes
RPM Limitations There is also a maximum and minimum rpm limits imposed during Flight
Critical RPM This is a critical RPM range where continuous operation is not allowed and transit through
it should be as quick as possible since it is an area where there is possibly a resonance or vibration
problem. Should an engine be operated in this range then possible component failure may ensue
12.4.17. Engine Instruments

Piston engine speed is indicated by a RPM gauge and displays the revolutions per minute of the
crankshaft. It is an indication of engine power and is normally the only indication when operating with a
fixed pitch propeller. The instrument shows the RPM, divided by 100, and the numbers are normally
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white on a black background. A green arc, with the maximum RPM indicated as a red line, shows the
normal operating RPM range. There are two main types of RPM gauge in use,
Mechanical Tachometer
Electrical Tachometer
Mechanical Tachometer This has a flexible drive from the engine, which is driven at half engine speed
and turns a magnet inside a drag cup. The pointer is connected to the drag cup and the magnetic field
induced rotates the drag cup and the pointer.
Engine r.p.m. is indicated on the tachometer
Electric Tachometer A 3 phase AC generator driven by the engine is the most common type
of electric tachometer where the generator voltage output varies with speed, as well as the frequency.
The instrument consists of a synchronous motor that turns at exactly the same speed as the generator,
driving a magnet that operates a drag cup in the same way as in the mechanical type.
Manifold Absolute Pressure Gauge (MAP)

The MAP gauge indicates the absolute pressure of the fuel/ air mixture between the throttle and the
inlet valve and has a sealed capsule and a capsule that is exposed to manifold pressure. The MAP gauge
is calibrated in inches of mercury where 29.92 "Hg is the standard pressure and in the case of a normally
aspirated engine then the highest pressure is at sea level with the throttle fully open. In this condition
then the indicated MAP will be less than ambient due to losses within the induction system. On a
turbocharged engine then MAP above ambient is achieved.
If moisture forms in the MAP gauge line then it could result in erratic operation of the gauge, therefore a
means to drain the moisture is required. This takes the form of a purge valve situated near the
instrument inside the cockpit and with the engine running it is opened
Engine power output is indicated on the manifold pressure gauge
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forcing air at atmospheric pressure through the instrument drain line into the engine thereby removing
any moisture. For a multi engine aircraft then there is a purge valve for each engine. The purge valve(s)
is operated during engine run up checks prior to take off. On engines fitted with a constant speed
propeller it is used as an indication of power.
This displacement is then converted into an electrical signal for the instrument in the cockpit and can be
calibrated either individually in gallons per hour, lbs per hour, pounds per square inch, or a combination
of all of them.
12.4.18. Engine Performance
Introduction
The weight of fuel/air mixture that is consumed by an engine determines the power output. The weight
of mixture is controlled by the throttle position, which in turn determines the manifold pressure (MAP),
and with a constant speed propeller an RPM lever to control engine speed. Therefore, power output is a
result of RPM and MAP.
Normally Aspirated
This is an engine that breathes normally taking in air, which has not been subjected to supercharging.
The Effects Of Altitude On Performance

Since air density affects the power output of an engine at a specified MAP and RPM, consideration
needs to be taken on the effects of pressure, temperature and humidity on the air density. There are
some terms relating to altitude that need to be considered:
Pressure Altitude This is the pressure at standard temperature and requires no correction
unless humidity is a factor
Density Altitude This is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature
Critical Altitude This is the maximum altitude at which an engine will maintain a given
horsepower output. In other words, an engine may be rated at a particular altitude which is the highest
level rated power output can be obtained. Superchargers and Turbochargers increase the critical
altitude
Since power depends on air density, pressure altitude must be converted to density altitude. If the
temperature at a particular altitude is the same as standard, then no correction for density is required
and a typical correction chart is illustrated below.
It can also be calculated by using the formula:

Density Altitude = Pressure Altitude + (Temperature Deviation % 118.8)
Pressure, temperature and humidity affect the density of air and hence power output in the following
ways. A reduction in pressure will reduce the density and therefore power output, a temperature
reduction will increase density and therefore power output and an increase in humidity will reduce
density, hence power output. The main factors that are considered in engine performance are effects of
pressure and temperature.
With altitude the pressure and temperature decrease, where the pressure reduction reduces density
and the temperature drop increases density. This interrelationship results in the temperature reduction
offsetting the pressure drop, however the effect of pressure is greater than the effect of temperature
resulting in a drop in power with altitude.
When climbing at constant MAP and RPM then, since the pressure is held constant, the reduction in
temperature will increase the density of the air, resulting in an increase in power. Constant MAP is
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maintained by opening the throttle during the climb until the throttle is fully open, after which any
further increase in altitude results in a reduction in power.
When the throttle is fully open it corresponds to a particular height for that power setting and is called
the Full Throttle Height (FTH). Each power setting in terms of MAP and RPM will have their own FTH.
The lower the power, the higher the FTH and vice versa as illustrated in the diagram below.
Also as altitude is gained then the reduction in pressure causes a reduction in Exhaust
Backpressure and is the resistance to the exhaust gases leaving the exhaust. Therefore the reduction in
exhaust backpressure results in the exhaust gases leaving the exhaust more freely. This results in
improved scavenging of the exhaust gases and induction of the mixture, improving volumetric efficiency.
The combined effect of reducing temperature and increasing volumetric efficiency increases power
whilst climbing at constant MAP and RPM. However climbing at full throttle and constant RPM a
reduction of MAP and power will result due to the decreasing density. It should be noted that
maintaining constant RPM is effected by a constant speed propeller that has its blade angle varied by a
propeller governor, the operation of which is described in the propeller chapter. The effect of this is
illustrated below.
Performance charts used to determine power output use standard ISA conditions, therefore corrections
should be made to power output by subtracting 1% for every 60C above standard and vice versa.
Additional Factors That Affect Engine Performance

There are various factors that affect engine performance which are not normally considered in engine
performance charts and need to be taken into account. Some of which are described below.
Ram Air Pressure

This is the pressure at the carburettor intake due to forward speed of the aircraft and has the effect of
supercharging the air. This has the effect of increasing engine power over that achieved under standard
conditions of pressure, temperature and RPM.
Humidity
High humidity lowers air density, however it is not considered in engine performance charts. But it is
advisable that consideration is given to the effect humidity has on engine power if other factors were
critical when taking off from a short field.
Carburettor Air Temperature

If air temperature is increased then a reduction in density will result and subsequently the amount of air
taken into the engine, and if it is too high detonation will occur. With a turbo-charger or super-charger,
rather than the intake temperature, compressor outlet temperature should be observed.
Cruise Control
This is the adjustment of engine controls to obtain the desired results in economy, range or flight time.
Because an engine uses more fuel at high power settings than at low settings, maximum speed and
maximum range or economy cannot be achieved with the same power settings. Should a maximum
distance flight be required then fuel needs to be conserved by operating at a low power setting.
Conversely, if maximum speed is required, then maximum power settings should be used which
decreases the range capability.
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12.5. Propellers
12.5.1. Introduction
This chapter does not cover propeller terminology or aerodynamics of the propeller as they are covered
in Principles of Flight. A propeller is a means of converting engine power into propulsive force. Rotating
a propeller results in the rearward Acceleration of a Mass of air, the reaction to this rearward motion is
a forward force, called Thrust, on the propeller blades, where:
THRUST = MASS AIRFLOW % ACCELERATION
The propeller accelerates a large mass of air rearwards at a relatively low velocity. The reaction to this is
thrust force acting in a forward direction, propelling an aircraft along its flight path. When a propeller is
fitted in front of an engine it is called a Tractor, whereas when fitted at the rear it is called a Pusher.
Propeller Efficiency
The efficiency of a system can be measured from the ratio:
Power Out + Power In
Where power out is Thrust Horsepower and the power in is Brake Horsepower. Thus:
Propeller Efficiency = Thrust Horsepower + Brake Horsepower
The power extracted from this system is the product of Force x Velocity, or Thrust x TAS. The power put
into the system that is necessary to overcome the rotational drag force is the product of Propeller
Torque x Rotational velocity. Propeller efficiency can be expressed as:
Propeller Efficiency = (Thrust x TAS) + (Propeller Torque x RPM)
When the aircraft is stationary on the ground with the engine running, the propeller is 0% effective,
since although it may be developing a lot of thrust, it is not doing any work. As the forward speed of the
aircraft increases then the efficiency increases, and when the optimum airspeed for that propeller is
achieved, a level of up to 88% may be expected.
12.5.2. Blade Geometry

A Propeller consists of two or more aerodynamically shaped blades attached to a central hub. This hub is
mounted onto a propeller shaft driven the engine. The whole assembly is rotated by the propeller shaft,
rather like rotating wings.
Like a wing a propeller blade has a root and a tip, a leading and trailing edges and cambered cross
section whose chord line passes from the centre of the leading edge radius to the trailing edge. The
forward, cambered side is called the Back of the blade, while the flat, rearward facing side is termed the
pressure or thrust Face. At the root area, where the section of the blade becomes round, this is termed
the blade Shank, while the base of the blade, where any pitch-change mechanism would have to be
attached, is called the blade Butt.
Blade Geometry
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Fixed Pitch Propellers
The diagram below illustrates a fixed pitch propeller travelling at different forward speeds and at a
constant RPM. For a fixed blade angle, with variations in forward speed the angle of attack will alter. As
the forward speed increases, the angle of attack decreases and with it thrust.
Fixed Pitch Propeller Disadvantages
Fixed pitch propellers in common with most aerofoils, will operate at their best efficiency only under
one set of conditions usually at the cruise, but until this condition is reached the angle of attack of the
propeller blades will be comparatively large, and will therefore suffer a loss of efficiency. During take-off
the angle of attack of the blades of such a propeller would be extremely large, and result in poor
acceleration, and hence a longer take off run. In the cruise condition the angle of attack is at its
optimum that is small, therefore limiting forward speed to prevent engine overspeed. Therefore should
a fixed pitch propeller be designed to give an improved take off then its forward speed in the cruise will
be reduced.
These disadvantages have led to the development of variable pitch or constant speed
propellers. The diagram below illustrates the characteristics of various fixed pitch propeller angle
versus a constant speed propeller at various airspeeds.
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Therefore in order for the propeller to be efficient over the whole operating range then the blade angle
needs to vary to maintain the optimum angle of attack of the blade, which is approximately 2 to 40. As
forward speed is increased the blade angle needs to increase to maintain the same angle of attack as
illustrated below.
Blade Twist
Since each blade is of aerofoil cross section, thrust will be produced most efficiently at a particular angle
of attack. This angle varies both with operating conditions and with the design camber of the blade
sections. The rotational speed of a particular cross section of a blade will increase with its distance from
the axis of rotation, and since the forward speed of all parts of the blades is the same, the relative
airflow will vary along the blade. It is therefore necessary to provide a decreasing blade angle from root
to tip.
The blade angle is also an excellent method of adjusting the angle of attack of the propeller. On
constant- speed propellers, the blade angle must be adjusted to provide the most efficient angle of
attack at all engine and airplane speeds. Lift versus drag curves, which are drawn for propellers as well
as wings, indicate that the most efficient angle of attack is a small one varying from 2° to 4° positive. The
actual blade angle necessary to maintain this small angle of attack varies with the forward speed of the
airplane.
Fixed-pitch and ground-adjustable propellers are designed for best efficiency at one rotation
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and forward speed. They are designed for a given airplane and engine combination. A propeller may be
used that provides the maximum propeller efficiency for takeoff, climb, cruise, or high-speed flight.
Any change in these conditions results in lowering the efficiency of both the propeller and the engine.
Since the efficiency of any machine is the ratio of the useful power output to the actual power input,
propeller efficiency is the ratio of thrust horsepower to brake horsepower. Propeller efficiency varies
from 50 to 87 percent, depending on how much the propeller “slips.” Propeller slip is the difference
between the geometric pitch of the propeller and its effective pitch. Geometric pitch is the theoretical
distance a propeller should advance in one revolution; effective pitch is the distance it actually
advances. Thus, geometric or theoretical pitch is based on no slippage, but actual or effective pitch
includes propeller slippage in the air.
The reason a propeller is “twisted” is that the outer parts of the propeller blades, like all things that turn
about a central point, travel faster than the portions near the hub.
If the blades had the same geometric pitch throughout their lengths, at cruise speed the
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portions near the hub could have negative angles of attack while the propeller tips would be
stalled. “Twisting,” or variations in the geometric pitch of the blades, permits the propeller to operate
with a relatively constant angle of attack along its length when in cruising flight.
To put it another way, propeller blades are twisted to change the blade angle in proportion to the
differences in speed of rotation along the length of the propeller and thereby keep thrust more nearly
equalized along this length. Usually 1° to 4° provides the most efficient lift/drag ratio, but in flight the
propeller angle of attack of a fixed-pitch propeller will vary—normally from 0° to 15°. This variation is
caused by changes in the relative airstream which in turn results from changes in airplane speed. In
short, propeller angle of attack is the product of two motions: propeller rotation about its axis and its
forward motion.
A constant-speed propeller, however, automatically keeps the blade angle adjusted for maximum
efficiency for most conditions encountered in flight. During takeoff, when maximum power and thrust
are required, the constant-speed propeller is at a low propeller blade angle or pitch. The low blade angle
keeps the angle of attack small and efficient with respect to the relative wind. At the same time, it
allows the propeller to handle a smaller mass of air per revolution. This light load allows the engine to
turn at high r.p.m. and to convert the maximum amount of fuel into heat energy in a given time. The
high r.p.m. also creates maximum thrust;
for, although the mass of air handled per revolution is small, the number of revolutions per
minute is many, the slipstream velocity is high, and with the low airplane speed, the thrust is maximum.
After liftoff, as the speed of the airplane increases, the constant-speed propeller automatically changes
to a higher angle (or pitch). Again, the higher blade angle keeps the angle of attack small and efficient
with respect to the relative wind. The higher blade angle increases the mass of air handled per
revolution. This decreases the engine r.p.m., reducing fuel consumption and engine wear, and keeps
thrust at a maximum.
After the takeoff climb is established in an airplane having a controllable-pitch propeller, the pilot
reduces the power output of the engine to climb power by first decreasing the manifold pressure and
then increasing the blade angle to lower the r.p.m. At cruising altitude, when the airplane is in level
flight and less power is required than is used in takeoff or climb, the pilot
again reduces engine power by reducing the manifold pressure and then increasing the blade angle to
decrease the r.p.m. Again, this provides a torque requirement to match the reduced engine power; for,
although the mass of air handled per revolution is greater, it is more than offset by a decrease in
slipstream velocity and an increase in airspeed. The angle of attack is still small because the blade angle
has been increased with an increase in airspeed.
12.5.3. Constant Speed Propeller Blade Positions
There are various blade pitch positions that are associated with different constant speed propeller
assemblies and are illustrated below:
Feathered This is when the chord line of the blade is parallel to the airflow therefore preventing
wind milling.
Coarse Pitch This is the maximum cruising pitch in normal operation
Flight Fine Pitch This is the minimum pitch obtainable in flight
Ground Fine Pitch This is the minimum torque position for ground operation and is sometimes
referred to as Superfine Pitch
Reverse Pitch This is an aerodynamic brake position used for braking and sometimes ground
manoeuvring and is achieved by accelerating air forwards by the blade going into a negative angle
Alpha Range This is from Flight Fine Pitch to Coarse Pitch and is the flight operating range .
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Factors Affecting the Blade Angle of Attack
Propeller blades are of aerofoil section and when they are rotated through the air they behave
like an aircraft wing. Each blade section produces a total reaction force whose magnitude is
determined by the speed and direction at which the relative airflow meets it. This depends on
the rotational velocity of each blade section (RPM), and the aircraft's forward airspeed (TAS).
The two components interact to produce an overall resultant velocity of each blade section
through the air. For any given blade section the forward velocity remains constant but the rotational
velocity increases with distance from the blade hub, i.e. the closer to the tip the greater the rotational
velocity. As the blade rotates the air will oppose its movement, and each blade section will experience a
different relative airflow
The angle between the relative airflow and the blade section chord line is the angle of attack.
This angle consequently varies if either the rotational velocity, or the forward airspeed changes. The
propeller blades are thus twisted from the hub to the tip, i.e. the blade angle reduces towards the tip, so
that all blade sections along the entire length operate at the same angle of attack.
Factors Affecting the Blade Thrust Distribution

When the propeller is rotating aerodynamic losses occur near the hub and also at the blade tips.
The airflow is disrupted near the hub where the propeller blade sections are thicker, to give
them adequate structural strength, and also near the engine. At the propeller blade tips vortices form in
a similar manner to that associated with a wing, resulting in induced drag and a reduction in the actual
amount of thrust being developed in this region. In practice only a small part of the propeller blade is
effective in producing thrust at normal operating angles of attack. This is generally between 60% and
90% of the tip radius out from the blade hub.
At positive angles of attack the greatest useful thrust is produced at 75% of the tip radius, and
is consequently where the blade angle of a propeller is referenced to.
Single Acting Propeller

This is the type of propeller that is normally fitted to a light piston engine aircraft and consists of a
piston housed in a cylinder. The piston is connected to the propeller blade via an operating link.
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One side of the piston is subjected to boosted engine oil pressure whilst the other side is subjected
to spring force. On a constant speed feathering propeller that is fitted to light twin piston engine
aircraft the boosted oil pressure plus blade Centrifugal Turning Moment (CTM) turns the propeller
to fine pitch. Movement to coarse pitch and feather is achieved by the spring and Counterweights
attached to the blades once the oil pressure has been relieved through the CSU. On a single engine
non-feathering propeller there are no counterweights fitted so boosted oil pressure is used to turn
the blades to coarse and blade CTM plus a light spring to fine.
Double Acting Propeller

The double acting propeller is the type usually fitted to larger engines. In this arrangement there are
no counterweights fitted and the piston is subjected to oil pressure on both sides, turning the propeller
to fine, coarse and feather. In the case of a turboprop the flow of oil is controlled through a PCU.
Double Acting Propeller Feathering

Since a double acting propeller operates by directing oil pressure to either side of the piston in the
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pitch change mechanism then oil pressure is required in order to feather. This is achieved by fitting
an electrical oil pump in the system that takes oil from the bottom of the oil tank below a stack
pipe. A simplified typical feathering circuit is shown above. Pushing in the feathering button
energises a holding coil that holds in the feathering button, which is normally illuminated. The
electrical pump is activated to supply oil pressure. A valve lift solenoid is activated allowing oil
pressure to hydraulically lift the control valve allowing oil pressure into the pitch change mechanism
to feather the propeller. Once the full feather position has been reached a pressure cut out switch
turns off the feathering pump.
pressure fuel cock to the feather position mechanically lifting the control valve. If insufficient oil
pressure is available from the engine driven PCU pump to move the propeller to feather then
operation of the electrical feather pump will be required.
12.5.4. Double Acting Propeller Unfeathering

In a double acting propeller the electrical feathering pump oil pressure being directed to the pitch
change mechanism achieves unfeathering with the power levers closed and the high pressure fuel
cock open. The RPM lever is moved to normal operating range and the control valve is lowered
under the action of the governor spring. The electrical feathering pump is switched on and oil
pressure is delivered to the PCU turning the propeller from feather towards coarse and the propeller
will windmill and rotate the engine. Once the engine has started and is on speed the oil pressure from
the feathering pump rises and a cut out switch turns the pump off. Operation of the pump can either
be by manual selection of a switch or automatically by a micro switch in high pressure fuel cock
lever.
Pitch Stops
These are fitted to control the propeller angle for ground and flight operations and are listed
below:
Ground Fine Pitch Stop This ensures fine pitch on the ground during engine start and
ground running
Flight Fine Pitch Stop This limits the minimum pitch in flight to prevent overspeed and
resulting high drag and must be removed to allow selection of ground fine pitch for ground operation
Beta Range
Some gas turbine engines use a form of control known as Beta Control. Beta is blade angle, and
during ground operations only, direct control of the propeller pitch by the power levers is achieved in
the ground idle and reverse pitch range. To operate in the beta range then the aircraft has to be on the
ground and the flight fine pitch stops have to be removed. This gives better control for ground
manoeuvring.
Reverse Pitch
In ground fine pitch the blade position is 00 and provides high wind milling drag to aid aircraft
retardation on the ground to a low forward speed. To improve this on slippery or short runways some
engine installations are fitted with reverse pitch propellers. With this system then removable ground
fine pitch stops are installed. With the ground fine pitch stop removed and reverse selected, by
moving the power levers rearwards beyond ground idle the blades move to a negative pitch and the
correct amount of engine power is applied to produce
reverse thrust.
Pitch Locks
These lock the blades at whatever angle they are at should there be a propeller mechanism or PCU
failure, which would cause the propeller to run to fine due to CTM. There are various types of lock,
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two of which are listed below:
Hydraulic Lock. This responds to fine pitch oil pressure failure to create a hydraulic lock
Mechanical Lock. Again this responds to fine pitch oil pressure failure and mechanically
locks the blade
Automatic Feathering
An automatic feathering system is sometimes provided to automatically feather the propeller in the
event that engine power and hence indicated torque pressure falls to a pre-determined value, a low
torque switch will operate, completing the circuit to the piston lift solenoid on the PCU, and
feathering pump. The relevant feathering button will be pulled in and a red light illuminates. The
control valve is raised hydraulically so enabling the propeller to be feathered. A switch on the flight
deck arms the system, which is indicated by an amber light, and the throttles need to be advanced
to approximately 45 to 75% of lever movement to close the throttle micro switch. Normally this
system is only used during take-off and landing. To prevent the system operating as a result of
momentary loss of torque pressure a time delay unit will prevent completion of the circuit until a
pre-determined time has elapsed, typically one or two seconds.
To prevent more than one engine from auto-feathering a blocking relay is usually fitted either
between the master switch and the throttle switch or incorporated in the feathering button circuit.
Sometimes it can be reset to re-arm the auto-feather system in the event of another engine failure. By
activating the feather button regardless of whether or not the propeller has been auto-feathered, any
engine can be feathered at any time. Some engines incorporate an Automatic Drag Limiting (ADL)
system or Negative Torque Sensing (NTS) system that do not feather the propeller in the event of
engine failure but turn the blades to coarse to limit wind-milling.
13. Gas Turbine Engine

13.1. Engine
An engine can e defined as a device which convert one form of energy into another; especially for
converting other form of energy into mechanical (Kinetic) energy. Gas turbine engines of all types are
belongs to the class of reaction engine.
A simple Jet Engine:
All jet engines, including Rocket, Pulse jets, Ram jets are belongs to this class of power plant known as
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reaction engine. Gas turbine is also reaction engines. A toy balloon can be used to illustrate how
Newton’s law of motion enables a turbojet or any other reaction engine to develop thrust. When the
balloon is inflated with air at room temperature and the stem is held closed so no air can escape, the
balloon will remain motionless because the air pressure inside the balloon is pressing equally on the
balloon skin in all direction. When the stem of the balloon is released, the air escapes through the open
stem because there is no longer a surface to hold the air inside the balloon. This removal of a small
section of the balloon surface are produces unbalance force pressed on the skin of the balloon by taking
away the force which pressed on the area that was closed by the stem. The force applied to all the rest
of the skin of the balloon remains as it was before. Consequently, the resulting pressure imbalance
makes the balloon move in the direction away from the stem.
It is the internal imbalance force within the balloon ( gas turbine engine, rocket, pulse jet or ram jet) to
produce thrust in all reaction engines.
Ram Jet Pulse Jet
Rocket
This is also the reason why reaction engines are able to produce thrust without actually pushing on the
air outside their exhaust nozzle. Both the action and reaction forces occur inside the engine. The toy
balloon would travel across the room even if the room had been a large vacuum chamber. Rockets can
operate in the airless realm of space due to this reason.
Difference between Piston Engine and Jet Engines:

Both the piston engine and gas turbine engine develop power or thrust by burning a combustible
mixture of fuel and air. Both convert the energy of the expanding gases into propulsive forces. The
piston engine does this by changing the energy of combustion into mechanical energy which is used to
turn a propeller. Aircraft propulsion is obtained as the propeller imparts a relatively small acceleration to
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a large amount of air. The gas turbine, in its basic turbojet configuration, imparts a relatively large
acceleration to a smaller mass of air and thus produces thrust or propulsive force directly.
13.2. Gas Turbine Working Cycle

The working cycle of a gas turbine is basically the same as that of a piston engine - induction,
compression, combustion power and exhaust, as shown in figure below.
The major differences are that in jet engines combustion takes place at constant pressure, whereas in
the piston engine it takes place at constant volume, and the processes of the cycle are continuous in the
gas turbine. Often in jet engines the power extraction process links places both in the turbine and the
propelling nozzle. In the piston engine the processes are sequential and power is only produced during
the power stoke. In the gas turbine the processes are continuous and so greater power can be produced
for a given size of engine.
It will be seen from the above figure that the combustion chamber is not an enclosed space and,
consequently, there is no pressure increase due to heating of the air during combustion. Instead, the hot
air expands through the turbine, causing the turbine and its attached compressor to rotate. The rotating
compressor draws air in through the air intake to replace that expanding through the combustion
chamber.
As indicated in above figure, the highest gas temperatures occur in the combustion and turbine sections
of the engine. In the case of the turbines, these high temperatures coupled with high centrifugal loading
mean that the turbine discs and blades operate very close to the limit of their physical capabilities. It is
therefore these materials that ultimately limit the maximum operating
temperature and power output of the engine.
Within the temperature limits of the turbine and combustion chamber materials, the greater the heat,
the greater the expansion, the faster the speed of rotation, the greater the air mass flow. The air mass
flow through the engine is given a large acceleration by the propelling nozzle, and it is this acceleration
that produces reaction thrust. The greater the air mass flow, and the more it is
accelerated, the greater the reaction thrust.
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The changes in pressure, velocity and temperature that take place through the gas turbine engine are
shown graphically in above figure. During compression, pressure energy is added to the intake air. Total
energy is further increased during combustion, with the addition of heat energy. Through the turbine
expansion results in conversion of some of the total energy of the gas into useful
work, the remainder of the energy conversion, into kinetic energy for propulsive thrust, takes place in
the propelling nozzle.
13.3. Engine Efficiencies:

The efficiency of any engine is the ratio of output to input. One of the most important
measures of the efficiency of a jet engine is the amount of thrust produced, divided by the fuel
consumption. This is known as the thrust specific fuel consumption. The major factors that affect
specific fuel consumption are propulsive efficiency and overall efficiency.
20. Propulsive efficiency is the ratio of the amount of thrust developed by the propelling nozzle to
the energy supplied to the nozzle in a usable form. Another way of expressing this is:
Propulsive Work Done on Aircraft

Propulsive Efficiency = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
Propulsive Work Done in Aircraft + Work Wasted in the Exhaust Gas
A comparison of the propulsive efficiencies of various types of gas turbine engine is shown below.
Propulsive Efficiencies
Overall efficiency is the ratio of the amount of energy produced by the engine in usable form to the total
amount of energy available in the fuel. It is a combination of combustion efficiency, thermal efficiency,
mechanical efficiency, compressor efficiency and so on. It is dependent upon the efficiency of each of
the working cycle processes, whose function is to convert the energy in the fuel into a form that the
propelling nozzle can turn into thrust (kinetic energy).
Thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the mechanical energy output of the engine to the heat
energy available in the fuel consumed. It increases as the turbine inlet temperature increases. The
thermal efficiency of a jet engine also increases with increased airspeed, due to ram effect at the
compressor inlet. Under static sea level conditions the thermal efficiency of a jet engine is 20% - 25%,
compared to 25% - 30% for a piston engine. However, the thermal efficiency of the piston engine
decreases with increasing airspeed, becoming significantly lower than that of the jet engine at higher
airspeeds.
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13.4. Main Components and Their Functions of Gas Turbine Engine:
The Main sections of a gas turbine engine are air intake, compressor, combustion chamber, turbine,
exhaust and propelling nozzle.
13.4.1. Air Intakes Duct:

Normally the air inlet duct is considered to be an airframe component. Nevertheless, it contributes to
efficient engine performance. The functions of the air intake are threefold. Firstly it is required to admit
the maximum amount of air from the free stream to the engine. Secondly, it should diffuse the airflow,
with minimum loss, so as to deliver the air to the compressor at the maximum total pressure with
minimum disturbance (turbulence). Ideally, this delivered pressure should be as close as possible to total
free stream pressure. Thirdly it must contribute as little as possible to aerodynamic drag. In subsonic
aircraft the inlet ducts are divergent and therefore act as diffusers, decreasing the velocity and thus
raising the static pressure of the incoming air. With supersonic aircraft the problem is complicated by
the fact that a divergent passage is required at subsonic speeds, to create an increase in static pressure,
whereas at supersonic speeds a convergent duct is needed for the same effect. Inlet ducts on supersonic
aircraft often have variable geometry.
Pitot Type Intakes:

The optimum design of air intake for subsonic aircraft is the pitot type that is typically used in
conjunction with podded engines mounted on wing pylons or on stub wings on the side of the rear
fuselage. By minimising the diameter of such intakes, drag is reduced but this can result in unacceptable
restrictions to airflow to the engines when running at high power setting on the ground. This problem
can be overcome by the use of secondary air inlet doors around the periphery of the intake.
Engine Air Intake Duct

At high power settings when stationary on the ground the engines demand for high airflow causes
airflow to accelerate into the intake. This reduces static pressure in the intake causing the secondary
doors to open to increase inlet area. At low to moderate (sub-sonic) speeds, the intake acts as a
divergent duct, converting some of the dynamic pressure of the incoming air into static pressure. This
causes a reduction in air velocity and an increase in air temperature. At high subsonic and transonic
speeds there is a marked tendency for shock waves to form at the lip of such intakes, seriously reducing
their efficiency.
Multi-Shock and Variable Area Intake Ducts

Aircraft that operate in the transonic and supersonic range require a type of air intake that reduce the
shock waves and, in the case of high Mach numbers, permit some of the excess air due to ram effect to
be spilled back to atmosphere before it reaches the compressor inlet. Control of the shock waves can be
achieved with the use of a variable area intake, and spilling of excess air can be achieved with secondary
inlet doors fitted in the intake casing. These secondary doors often perform two functions, acting as a
scoop in subsonic conditions to augment the airflow to the compressors and as a spill valve in
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supersonic flight to dump excess air. Figure shown below a variable area intake with secondary doors of
the type fitted to Concorde.
Variable Area Air Intake Duct
The purpose of the variable area intake is to position the shock wave in such a way as to decrease the
velocity of the airflow at the compressor inlet, whilst maintaining the total pressure within the duct as
close as possible to ambient. Many modern military supersonic aircraft use specially designed intake
ducts with secondary doors that are controlled in all stages of flight to achieve shock wave and duct
pressure control without the need for variable geometry intakes.
13.4.2. Hazards and Factors Affecting Intake Efficiency
Inlet Damage. Distortion or damage to the air intake, especially at the lip, will disrupt the airflow into
the inlet and adversely effect the duct pressure and velocity, resulting in loss of intake efficiency and
possibly disturbed airflow at the compressor entry. At transonic and supersonic speeds such damage will
disrupt the shock wave pattern and cause serious disruption of the airflow into the intake duct.
Heavy In-Flight Turbulence. Flight in heavy turbulence may give rise to airflow separation at the intake
and cause significant disruption of the airflow to the compressor inlet, possibly to the extent of causing
compressor stall or surge. Flameout of the engine is a possibility in such circumstances. If flight in heavy
turbulence cannot be avoided it is a wise precaution to select engine ignition on (continuous).
Foreign Object Ingestion. Gas turbine engines, and particularly the compressor or fan, are highly prone
to damage through the ingestion of foreign objects. The carefully profiled fan or compressor blades are
easily damaged or broken if solid objects, such as stones from the ground surface or carelessly discarded
tools or loose material in the intake duct, are drawn into the engine when it is rotating at high speed.
More importantly, even minor damage to the highly stressed fan and compressor blades is likely to lead
to fatigue failure as fatigue cracks grow from minor nicks and scratches. From the foregoing text on
intake design, it is clearly impractical to mount protective mesh screens in the intake, and so great care
must be taken to ensure that no loose material can enter the highly vulnerable intake. Careful pre-flight
inspection of the intakes and the avoidance of jet/propeller wash from other taxiing aircraft will help to
prevent foreign object ingestion during ground operations. Such precautions are particularly important
when operating at high power settings on the ground.
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13.5. Compressors:
Compressors in gas turbine engines are designed to achieve the following functions:
a. Increase the air mass flow.
b. Improve combustion characteristics.
c. Increase the efficiency of the operating cycle.
d. Increase the thrust produced by the engine.
e. Improve fuel economy.
f. Assist in the provision of a small and compact engine.
The purpose of the compressor is to increase the total energy of the air received from the inlet duct,
compress it and discharge it into the combustion chamber in the right quantity and at the required
pressure. In the compressor work is done upon the air to compress it adiabatically, and so the
temperature of the air increases in direct proportion to the pressure. The amount of air passing through
the engine depends upon compressor rpm, the atmospheric conditions at the engine inlet, such as the
air pressure, density and temperature and the aircraft speed. The pressure ratio of a compressor is the
ratio of its outlet static pressure to its inlet static pressure. Most gas turbines use continuous flow rotary
compressors, and two types are currently in use. They are centrifugal compressors (radial flow), and
axial compressors (straight through flow). Both types of compressor work on the same general principle
of imparting kinetic energy to the air in a high speed rotor and converting this energy into pressure in a
set of divergent flow passages. Of the energy available in the gas after the combustion process,
approximately 60 per cent is needed to drive the compressor and the engine accessories (generators,
hydraulic pumps, etc).
13.5.1. Centrifugal Compressors:

The centrifugal compressor consists of three main components, as shown below.
The rotating assembly is called the impeller, which draws in air and discharges it through stationary
divergent passages called a diffuser. The diffuser is mounted in an outer casing, which collects the
diffuser discharge and delivers it to the combustion chambers through a manifold. The impeller may be
single sided or double sided as shown below.
A simplified diagram of a centrifugal compressor, showing the airflow through it, is shown below. The
impeller is rotated at high speed by the turbine. Centrifugal force causes the air in the radial passages
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formed by the impeller vanes to be thrown outwards to the impeller tip, or circumference. Air is drawn
into the centre, or ‘eye’, of the impeller to replace that thrown outwards. The radiating vanes on the
face of the impeller form divergent passages, which cause a rise in pressure as air is thrown outwards
through them.
Simplified Centrifugal Compressor
On leaving the impeller the air enters stationary divergent passages (diffuser ducts) in the casing of the
compressor. These convert the kinetic energy of the air, due to its velocity, into pressure energy. The
total pressure rise achieved by a centrifugal compressor is shared approximately equally between
impeller and diffuser. Typical compression ratio (outlet pressure to inlet pressure) for a centrifugal
compressor is about 4:1. The overall effect of the compression process is an increase in static pressure
and temperature with little or no change in velocity. As air flows through the radial passages between
impeller and casing its velocity increases due to centrifugal action and its pressure increases due to the
divergent passages formed by the impeller vanes. As the air flows through the stationary diffusers its
velocity decreases and its pressure increases due to diffusion. From the diffusers the air is ducted to the
combustion chambers.
The engine designer has the choice of either single entry or double entry centrifugal compressors. The
single entry compressor is claimed to give the best all-round efficiency with less risk of surging (to be
discussed shortly) at altitude. The double entry compressor achieves greater mass air flow for less
diameter, and therefore less frontal area. This is an advantage to the airframe designer, but the air to
the rear side of the impeller tends to be preheated as it passes the discharge from the front side and this
is a disadvantage as far as the engine designer is concerned. In some engines two single sided
compressors in series (one after the other) are used, the Rolls Royce Dart is an example.
Centrifugal compressors suffer from a number of disadvantages that have rendered them unsuitable for
use in aircraft propulsion engines in all but a very few cases.
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The principal disadvantages of centrifugal compressors are:
a Low compression ratio (typically about 4:1) and therefore low air mass flow.
b. Larger frontal area (increased aerodynamic drag).
c. Impeller tip clearance is critical. If the tip clearance is too great the pressure losses will be
excessive, if it is too small aerodynamic buffeting results.
However, centrifugal compressors have certain advantages, which have resulted in their continued use
in smaller engines, such as auxiliary power units (APU) and helicopter turbo-shaft engines. The
advantages of centrifugal compressors are:
a. They are more robust and less prone to ingestion damage.
b. They are less prone to stall and surge (lower pressure rise).
c. They are much less expensive to produce than axial compressors.
d. They are shorter and therefore occupy less space longitudinally. Consequently they are
sometimes used as the final stage compressor in a multi-spool engine to reduce its overall
length.
13.5.2. Axial Compressors:

An axial flow compressor consists of a rotating assembly upon which aerofoil section blades are
mounted. As the compressor rotor is spun at high speed by the turbine, the aerofoil blades induce
airflow in the same way that a propeller blade or the wing of an aircraft induces airflow. An axial flow
compressor is shown below.
Axial-Flow Compressor
The rotating assembly is mounted within a stationary casing so that the induced airflow is ducted to the
combustion chambers, turbine, and so on, as shown above. Adding further rows, or stages, of
compressor blades, increases the air pressure ratio. In order to ensure that air enters the rotating blades
at the optimum angle of attack, inlet guide vanes are often fitted in the air intake. These are attached to
the stationary casing (stator) of the compressor and angled to direct the incoming air into the blades.
A multi-stage fan by pass engine with Inlet guide is shown below. The gas turbine engine is divided in
different sections. The diagram has shown below with engine station numbers, section wise pressure
and temperature variations.
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13.5.3. Compressor Stall and Surge:
Compressor Stall:
The natural tendency of any fluid when acted upon by a pressure gradient is to flow from the high
pressure area to the lower pressure area. Diagram shown below illustrates the changes in air pressure
through an axial flow compressor and from this it can be seen that the air is required to flow against an
Pressure / Velocity Changes through Axial-Flow Compressor
adverse pressure gradient, from an area of low pressure to one of higher pressure. For this flow to be
possible it is necessary that the sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure acting downstream is
greater than that acting upstream. This will be the case provided the air mass flow and compressor RPM
are within the design specification for the compressor. Any factor that restricts the airflow into the
compressor, causes an excessive increase in the adverse pressure gradient through it, or results in an
unacceptable mass flow/RPM combination will cause the airflow to break down. Such break downs take
one of two forms, compressor stall and compressor surge.
The blades of axial flow compressors are like all other aerofoils in that the airflow over them varies with
angle of attack, and will detach and break down when their stalling angle is exceeded. In the case of
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compressors this phenomenon is termed compressor stall. Stall is brought about by any factor that
causes the airflow to approach any single blade or group of blades at an angle greater than the stalling
angle of those blades. Stall can therefore affect a single blade or stage or a group of blades or stages.
When the entire compressor stalls the resulting total breakdown of airflow is termed a compressor
surge. Compressor stall is illustrated below.
Compressor Aerodynamic Stall
Factors that are likely to promote compressor stall include the following:
a. Low engine RPM during starting and idling.
b. Strong crosswinds on the ground.
c. Engine inlet icing.
d. Contaminated or damaged compressor blades.
e. Damaged air intake.
f. High angle of attack at the air intake caused by aircraft manoeuvring.
g. Excessive increases in combustion chamber pressure caused by rapid opening of the throttle
particularly at low engine RPM.
Compressor Surge:
The term compressor surge is generally taken to refer to the phenomenon in which a total breakdown of
airflow through the compressor occurs. In some cases a surge also results in intermittent reversal of
airflow through the compressor. In all cases the result is a loss of thrust often coupled with vibration,
loud banging, rumbling or popping noises and rapidly increasing EGT.
Although a great many scenarios might result in surge, most fall into one of three categories, all of which
involve the creation of an unacceptably adverse pressure gradient through the compressor. The three
common causes are aerodynamic stall of the compressor, unacceptable RPM/mass flow combination at
low RPM, and unacceptable increases in combustion chamber pressure. Whilst the efficiency of the
compression process varies with RPM and air mass flow, the rate of reduction of cross-sectional area of
the compressor annulus is fixed and can be perfectly matched to only one RPM/mass flow combination.
When operating outside this combination, inefficiencies occur due to the air being either over
compressed or under compressed to match the reducing cross section. When operating at low RPM
inadequate compression causes the volume of the airflow to be reduced insufficiently, causing the rear
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section of the compressor to choke. In effect the air is too big to pass through the casing at the intended
uniform velocity. Under these circumstances airflow breaks down causing the blades in the upstream
stages of the compressor to suffer aerodynamic stall. This further decreases the efficiency of the
compression process exacerbating the choking of the rear stages.
For any given combination of engine RPM and air mass flow there will be a pressure ratio above which
the compressor will surge. If these points are plotted for all practicable combinations it is possible to
produce a map of the surge envelope of the engine. An example of a surge envelope map indicating the
effects of rapid throttle opening at high and low RPM is illustrated in
Diagram below. The surge line indicates the pressure ratio above which surge will occur. The working
line indicates the point at which the engine will lie when operating in any steady state combination of
RPM, air mass flow, and compression ratio. The distance between the working line and the surge line at
any given RPM is a measure of the engines resistance to surge. In order to provide an adequate margin
between normal operating conditions and the surge line a working line defining normal engine steady
state operating conditions is set. In order to increase the speed of the engine the throttle is opened
increasing fuel flow to the burners. This increases combustion chamber pressure which eventually
causes the turbine and compressor to accelerate to a higher point on the working. Because the
combustion chamber pressure rise occurs before the increase in RPM and mass flow, the engine initially
moves closer to the surge line before returning to the working line at a higher RPM. Because the margin
between the working line and the surge line increases with RPM, surge is particularly likely when
starting or accelerating from low RPM. To overcome this problem a number of stall and surge
prevention devices are employed.
N1 Compressor surge N2 Compressor Surge
Variable Inlet Guide Vanes:
These vanes are located prior to the first stage rotor and they are automatically adjusted to redirect the
airflow into the compressor as compressor speed falls off. Thus, the incoming airflow continues to meet
the first stage rotors at the correct angle of attack. The variable angle inlet guide vanes give a “whirl” to
the air entering the front of the compressor, and the amount of whirl is adjusted to suit engine running
conditions. An actuator and suitable linkage alter the angle of the inlet guide vanes mechanically. The
actuator control is sensitive to engine rpm, and inlet temperature and the actuator are operated
hydraulically by fuel pressure from the engine fuel system. Some engine designs also incorporate a
number of variable stators that work in conjunction with variable inlet guide vanes. Such an
arrangement is illustrated below.
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Variable Inlet guide and Stator vanes in Axial Flow Compressor
Anti-Surge Bleed Valves and Surge Bleed Valve:

The effects of low compressor efficiency at low RPM and the resulting surge are often relieved or
prevented by means of anti-surge bleed valves. These are situated in the compressor casing towards the
mid-section of the compressor. At low RPM they are open allowing excess air to exhaust to atmosphere
thereby preventing the choking of the rear stages of the compressor. As RPM increases they
automatically close off to increase mass flow through the engine and improve engine efficiency.
In multi-spool engines the speed of spools can vary independently to ensure that each is matched to the
prevailing mass flow conditions. Also high pressure spools tend to be relatively small and because of
their low inertia, are able to react very quickly to increases in throttle angle, accelerating rapidly to the
required higher RPM. This tends to prevent the creation of unacceptably high adverse pressure
gradients in the low pressure and intermediate pressure spools. In this way the need for variable inlet
guide vanes and anti-surge valves is reduced (but not eliminated) in such engines.
Causes and Indications of Stall:

The following conditions are causes for stall and surge:
Rapid increase in fuel flow during increase of rpm
Low engine rpm, e.g. idle
Strong crosswind on the ground
Engine inlet icing
Contaminated or damaged compressor blades
Damaged engine air inlet
Visual and audible indications of Surging are as follows:

Thrust loss
Erratic rpm
Vibration
Inability of the engine to accelerate
Fluctuating and a rapid rise in Exhaust Gas temperature.
Banging and/or rumbling from the compressor
In extreme cases burning gas coming out of the inlet and exhaust.
Care must be taken during operation to control the conditions that can result in engine stall or surge,
and the pilot must carry out the correct procedures to counter any adverse operating conditions. The
most common action is to reduce fuel flow by retarding the throttle, and should the problem persist
then it may be necessary to shut down the engine.
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13.5.4. Pilot Actions to Prevent and Correct Compressor Stall and Surge:
The principal actions to be taken by pilots to prevent stall are as follows:

a. Ensure that all engine blanks and covers are removed before attempting to start the engine.
b. Ensure that the aircraft is facing into wind before starting to avoid intake airflow disturbance
and the ingestion of exhaust gas.
c. Avoid following too close behind other aircraft when taxiing to avoid ingestion of exhaust gas.
d. Avoid air turbulence and harsh flight manoeuvres whenever possible.
e. Allow the engine to stabilise at idle RPM after start up before attempting to accelerate to
higher speeds.
f. Anticipate the need for power changes in order to avoid or minimise rapid throttle movements.
g. Ensure that the appropriate power setting is used for all stages of flight
The following actions should be taken by the pilot in the event of compressor stall or surge:
a. Reduce the rate of throttle opening if stall/surge occur during engine acceleration.
b. If stall/surge persists reduce throttle setting as soon as other safety considerations permit.
c. Terminate the start cycle immediately if stall/surge occur during starting.
d. Reduce flying control deflections as soon as it is safe to do so if stall/surge occur during flight
manoeuvres.
13.5.5. Multi-Spool Compressors

Single spool compressors are used in pure jet engines, that is to say engines with no by-pass air, in which
all the air mass flow is heated by combustion, expanded to power the turbine and accelerated by the
Twin Spool High Bypass Engine
propelling nozzle. Low by-pass engines are of the twin-spool type in which the first, or LP compressor
creates an air mass flow greater than that required by the second HP compressor. The excess airflow
passes around the HP compressor and mixes with the hot turbine exhaust gas, to be accelerated in the
propelling nozzle. The result is that the jet velocity is more closely matched to the aircraft speed
requirements, giving much greater propulsive efficiency, and lower fuel consumption, than the single
spool pure jet. The latter type of engine is rarely found in modern aircraft. An example of a twin spool
compressor engine is shown above.
The high by-pass turbo-fan engine takes this concept a stage further. The single or multi-stage fan at the
front of the engine delivers only about one-fifth of its output to the core of the engine, known as the gas
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generator. The remainder of the fan output is ducted to a ‘cold’ propelling nozzle to produce most of the
engine thrust. The ‘core’ airflow then passes, typically, through two further compressors before entering
the combustion chambers, turbines and exhaust system. In a triple-spool engine the rearmost turbine
drives the fan. An example of a triple-spool compressor is shown below.
Triple Spool High Bypass Engine
Twin-spool and triple-spool compressors offer the following advantages over single spool systems.
a. Because the spools are not physically connected each is able to operate at the RPM which best
match the prevailing air mass flow and pressure ratios thereby increasing overall efficiency and
reducing the danger of compressor stall and surge.
b. Because the HP spool is required to handle only a small proportion of the total air flow, its
diameter and mass can be greatly reduced. The resulting low inertia enables it to react very
quickly to throttle increases rapidly accelerating to the required higher RPM, mass flow, and
pressure ratio. This greatly reduces the probability of compressor stall and surge during rapid
throttle increases.
c. Because only a small proportion of the air mass flow passes through the HP spool, and the
remainder passes at a much lower velocity around the outside, friction losses are greatly
reduced thereby improving the thermal and mechanical efficiency of the engine.
d. Because the velocity of the by-pass air is more closely matched to that of the aircraft, propulsive
efficiency is improved at low to moderate airspeeds.
Diffusers:
On exit from the compressor the air passes through a diffuser casing, which forms a divergent passage.
This casing prepares the air for entry into the combustion chamber at a low velocity, by converting some
of its kinetic energy into pressure energy further increasing static pressure.
13.6. Combustion Chambers:

The combustion chamber (or burner section) is a region where fuel is burned to increase the
temperature of the gas (air), adding heat energy. The purposes of the combustion chamber are as
follows:
a. To provide a suitable environment in terms of pressure, velocity and airflow pattern for
efficient sustained combustion.
b. To mix fuel and air in the required proportions for efficient combustion.
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c. To mix the hot gasses resulting from combustion with the remainder of the airflow to produce a
uniform temperature gas flow.
d. To deliver the hot gasses to the turbine nozzle guide vanes at the optimum velocity, pressure
and temperature with the minimum losses.
The following conditions are required for sustained efficient combustion:

a An air to fuel ratio within the range 8:1 to 30:1.
b. Thorough mixing of the fuel and air by atomisation and/or vaporisation.
c. An airflow velocity not exceeding that of the flame front which is typically between 60 and 80
feet per second.
Diagram shown below an early type of combustion chamber. Airflow from the compressor outlet enters
through the snout of the chamber from where the flow is divided. Some is directed through swirl vanes
to the combustion zone within the flame tube, or combustion liner, and the remainder flows along an
annular passage between the outer casing of the chamber and the flame tube. This annular airflow
assists with heat insulation, whilst progressively mixing with the combustion gases through holes in the
wall of the flame tube. Interconnector pipes from the flame tube serve to connect adjacent combustion
chambers and maintain similar conditions in each. The corrugated joints in the flame tube permit
expansion.
Early Combustion Chamber Can type
The total airflow through the hot section of the engine, as a ratio to fuel flow, may vary from 45:1 to as
much as 130:1. This is obviously far too high for the optimum combustion ratio of 15:1. The combustion
chamber is therefore designed to introduce a small proportion of the airflow (up to about 20%) into the
primary or combustion zone of the chamber. Here it will mix with the fuel at a ratio of about 15:1. This
proportion of the airflow is called the primary air. Downstream of this area of the combustion chamber
is the dilution zone, where the remaining 80% (called the secondary air) mixes with the combustion
products.
Since the temperature of the combustion gases is in the region of 1800°C to 2000°C, the secondary air
serves to cool the gases to a level which the nozzle guide vanes of the turbine can withstand. The
temperature of the gas is raised by the combustion gases to between 1000°C and 1500°C or even higher,
the limit of acceptable temperature being determined by the materials from
which the turbine guide vanes and first stage blades are made. Because of steady diffusion through the
chamber, and virtually unimpeded exit, the gas velocity and pressure both fall slightly across the
combustion chamber. The airflow and flame stabilisation in a typical combustion chamber is shown
below.
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Aviation fuel Jet A1 (Kerosene) burns at a relatively slow rate of 60 to 80 feet per second, so the velocity
of the air entering the combustion zone of the combustion chamber must be kept low, otherwise the
burning fuel will simply be blown away. The diffuser section reduces the air velocity from the
compressor to a lower value and further diffusion in the entry section of the combustion chamber
reduces it still further, to about 60 feet per second. This is still too high for stable burning and so the
airflow is given a swirling motion to further reduce its axial velocity. Immediately downstream of the
snout or entry section of the combustion chamber, primary air passes through swirl vanes, which impart
a rotational airflow. This combines with air entering
through the primary air holes to produce a low velocity re-circulatory airflow called a torroidal vortex
(something like a smoke ring) which has the effect of stabilising and anchoring the flame, Diagram
shown below..
Flame Stabilisation
It is important that the combustion process remains stable, to ensure efficient burning of the fuel/air
mixture, and to further ensure that the flame remains alight over a wide operating range. For any
particular type of combustion chamber there are rich and a weak limits to the fuel/air ratio, beyond
which combustion cannot be sustained and the flame will be extinguished. Flame-out is perhaps most
likely to occur during a high speed descent with the engines at idle power, since in this situation there is
a high mass airflow and a low fuel flow, resulting in a very weak mixture. There are weak and rich limits
beyond which ignition (as opposed to combustion) of the fuel will not be achieved, since it is always
more difficult to establish combustion than it is to maintain it.
13.6.1. Types of Combustion Chamber:

Combustion chamber design varies considerably according to the power plant requirements of the
aircraft. The main types of combustion chamber layout are described below. They are namely: Can type,
Can annular or Turbo annular type and Annular type.
Multiple or Can-Type Combustion Chambers: The early layout, typical of centrifugal and early
Multiple or Can-Type Combustion Chambers
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axial flow compressor fitted engines. Individual chambers, like as shown below, are disposed around the
engine and interconnected only for purposes of pressure equalisation and to assist flame spread during
initial start.Each chamber comprises an inner flame tube around which there is a cooling air casing.
Cooling air comprises some 80% of the total airflow supplied to the entry section of the chamber as
shown below.
The principal advantage of this type of combustion chamber is its high resistance to distortion when
heated. The main disadvantages lie in the amount of material needed for their construction and their
uneconomical use of the available space. The layout of can-type, or multiple combustion chambers
around the engine shaft is illustrated.
Tubo-Annular or Can-Annular: The layout is similar to that of the multiple combustion chamber, but
the individual flame tubes are mounted within a common annular air casing. This simplifies construction,
easing maintenance and inspection procedures. The diameter of the casing can be significantly reduced
for the same mass airflow and there is a considerable saving in materials and weight, compared to the
multiple combustion chamber arrangement. A typical layout is illustrated below.
Can-Annular Combustion Chamber Layout
The Annular type of combustion chamber: this type of combustion chamber are found on most
modern turbo-fan engines. It comprises a single combustion chamber annularly disposed around the
engine (forming an ‘annulus’, or sleeve, encompassing the engine). It is open at the front to admit air
from the compressor discharge diffusers, and at the rear to deliver hot, expanding gas to the turbine
inlet nozzle guide vanes. Fuel spray nozzles are disposed around the annulus near the front end. Since
the whole of the area encompassing the engine is used for combustion, the combustion chamber can be
shorter for the same overall diameter as the previous two layouts. Construction is both lighter and
simpler. Flame propagation is more efficient, so there is less likelihood of local ‘hot spots’ or of
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flameout. Total surface area is significantly reduced with the consequence that less cooling air is
required, giving greater combustion efficiency. The annular combustion chamber virtually eliminates
unburned fuel, reducing air pollution and increasing thermal efficiency. A typical example is illustrated
below.
Annular Combustion Layout
The high temperatures in the combustion chamber, and the great temperature differences between it
and the surrounding parts of the engine, places significant thermal loads upon the chamber itself and
expansion loads upon the adjacent structure. The joint between combustion chamber and turbine inlet
is often designed to allow for expansion and combustion chamber cooling is very carefully designed to
minimise thermal loads.
13.7. Fuel Burners:

Burners (Atomisers):
The purpose of the burners, or fuel injectors, is to supply a continuous spray of finely atomised fuel that
Stages of Fuel Atomisation
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will readily mix with air to form an easily combustible mixture. In order to achieve this the burner nozzle
orifice, through which the fuel is sprayed, must be supplied with fuel at sufficient pressure and must be
designed to produce a cone-shaped spray pattern. If the fuel supply pressure is too low the fuel will be
discharged as a film, rather than a spray, as shown below. If supply pressure is too high the nozzle is
liable to produce a solid jet of fuel.
13.7.1. Types of Burners:.
Simplex Burners. The early gas turbine engines used a simple spray nozzle with a single discharge
orifice.. Fuel is supplied through tangential holes to a chamber, before being discharged. The swirling
motion imparted to the fuel assists with atomization and varying its supply pressure varies the quantity
of fuel discharged. Because the flow of a liquid through an orifice is proportional to the square root of
the pressure drop across it, the range of pressures needed to create the range of fuel flows required
ranged from about 30 psi for minimum engine rpm to about 3000 psi at maximum rpm. Fuel pumps of
the time could not produce such high pressures, and maintenance of the required spray pattern proved
impossible over such a wide range of pressures. Consequently, alternative spray nozzles were developed
in which the fuel flow range could be achieved with a narrower fuel supply pressure range.
Duplex (Duple) Burners. The Duplex (or Duple) burner has two nozzle orifices, as illustrated below with
a pray nozzles. At low supply pressure (small throttle openings), fuel flows only to the primary orifice. As
the throttle valve is progressively opened, and fuel supply pressure to the burner increases, the spring-
loaded pressurising valve progressively opens to admit fuel to the main nozzle orifices. Hence, for a
relatively narrow supply pressure range, fuel flow can be varied over a wide range and
pressure remains adequate for efficient atomisation
Air Spray Nozzles. Many modern gas turbine engines use air spray nozzles. Some of the primary air for
combustion mixes with the fuel supply in the spray nozzle. This aeration of the fuel spray achieves more
efficient combustion of the fuel and requires lower fuel supply pressures than other burner type
Duplex burner with Air spray
Duplex Nozzle
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13.8. Turbines:
The function of the turbine is to transform some of the energy of the hot gases into shaft horsepower
(SHP). The expanding gas does work and this process is, ideally, one of adiabatic expansion, in which
there is no loss of energy to the surroundings. In turbojet engines the turbine extracts sufficient energy
to drive the compressor and accessories (fuel pumps, generators, hydraulic
pumps, etc), the remaining energy providing propulsive thrust. In a turbo-prop or turbo-fan engine, the
turbine also has to drive the propeller or fan, and consequently much less energy is available to provide
thrust in the jet pipe. In many turbo-props the thrust remaining is negligible. In turbo-shaft engines,
virtually all of the useful energy is extracted by the turbines and output shaft. In effect, a turbine is a
compressor in reverse, since it serves to reduce the pressure and increase the velocity of the gas passing
through it. Turbines used in aircraft gas turbine engines are of the axial flow type and the number of
turbine stages (rotor/stator sets) varies according to engine power and type.
Single Spool Turbines:

In its simplest form the turbine consists of a ring of blades mounted upon a wheel, or disc, attached to
the rotor (rotating assembly). High velocity gas from the combustion process is directed onto the
turbine blades and the force exerted (mass x acceleration) causes the turbine wheel to rotate. The
velocity of the combustion gas is increased (accelerated) by passing it through a convergent passage, or
nozzle, thus increasing the force it exerts upon the turbine blades. A simple turbine is shown below.
Single –Stage Turbine Rotor
The energy transfer in the turbine is achieved by accelerating the combustion gases, by forcing them to
pass through a convergent passage (a nozzle), to approximately sonic velocity. The kinetic energy added
to the gas during the velocity increase is absorbed upon impact with the turbine blades, causing the
turbine to rotate at high speed, providing the power needed to drive the compressor. In a practical gas
turbine the nozzling of the combustion gases is achieved by a ring of stationary, aerofoil shaped nozzle
guide vanes attached to the engine casing between the combustion chamber outlet and the turbine
inlet. The passage between each pair of adjacent vanes forms a convergent duct, and the vanes are
angled so as to direct the accelerated gas onto the turbine blades at the appropriate angle.
Three forms of turbine are possible. These are impulse, reaction, and combined impulse/ reaction. In the
pure impulse type of turbine the nozzle guide vanes form convergent ducts through which the direction
of the gas flow is accelerated and deflected in the direction of rotation of the engine. The rotor blades
are of bucket shaped section such that the space between adjacent blades is constant. Gas passing
between the blades is therefore subjected to a change of direction whilst its speed and static pressure
remain constant. This change of direction equates to a change in momentum and it is the impulse of this
change of momentum that drives the turbine. The impulse type turbine is illustrated below.
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Impulse Turbine Blades
In the reaction type turbine this series of events is reversed. The cross sectional area of the spaces
between the nozzle guide vanes is constant and so gas passing through them is subject to a change of
direct whilst its speed and static pressure remain constant. The rotor blades are of aerofoil section such
that the spaces between them forms convergent ducts. Gas passing through these ducts is accelerated
causing its static pressure and temperature to reduce. It is the reaction to this acceleration that drives
the turbine as illustrated below.
Reaction Turbine Blades

When employed in isolation both the impulse and reaction systems are inefficient and so most practical
turbines employ a combination of the two. In the impulse/reaction turbine illustrated below the blade
root sections are predominantly of impulse-type bucket section, gradually changing to reaction-type
aerofoil section towards the tip. In the nozzle guide vanes this change of cross section is reversed such
that the greatest acceleration occurs close to the roots of the vanes, whilst the greatest deflection in the
direction of engine rotation occurs close to the tips. In the rotors the changing cross section of the
blades results in mainly impulse-type energy extraction at the roots gradually changing into a mainly
reaction-type process at the tips. Gas passing through the rotors is accelerated and deflected such that
the rotational velocity imparted by the preceding nozzle guide vanes is negated, leaving a more-or-less
axial flow out of the turbine. The general gas flow through an impulse/reaction turbine is illustrated
below.
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Impulse / Reaction Turbine
13.8.1. Twin Spool Turbine:
In a single rotor (single spool) engine, power is developed by one turbine rotor, which drives the
compressor and the engine accessories. The turbine rotor may have one or more stages, or turbine
wheels, depending upon the power requirements for the engine. In a multi-spool engine power is
developed by two or three independent turbine rotors connected by co-axial, mechanically independent
shafts to their respective compressors. Again each turbine rotor may have one or more stages. The first
turbine in the sequence (the one into which the combustion chamber outlet is first directed) is called
the HP turbine and usually drives the HP compressor and the accessory gearbox. In a twin-spool unit,
exhaust gas from the HP turbine is led to the second (LP) turbine. The LP turbine drives the LP
compressor. In twin-spool turbo-props, the LP turbine also drives the propeller.
A triple-spool engine has a third turbine situated between the HP and LP, known as the intermediate (IP)
turbine, which drives the IP compressor. In some turbo-prop and turbo-shaft layouts a free turbine
rotor, independent of the HP or LP compressors is used to drive the propeller or shaft. This is called a
free/power turbine engine. A twin-spool layout is shown below.
Twin-Spool Turbine
In above diagram 1st stage drive the HP Compressor and the 2nd, 3rd and 4th stages of Turbine drives
the LP compressor and the Fan stage.
The LP section runs more slowly than the HP section. Due to the variations in rpm between the two
turbine assemblies, the practice is to control and limit the rpm of the HP section through the fuel control
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unit (FCU). It is also to the HP rotor that the starter is connected. Multi-spool engines are capable of high
compression ratios and are much less susceptible to compressor surge and stall than single-spool
engines, especially during acceleration. Their improved power-to-weight ratio makes for much-improved
specific fuel consumption (sfc). With turbo-prop and turbo-fan engines starting is easier because the HP
spool does not drive the power unit (propeller or fan).
13.9. Exhaust and Jet Nozzles:

The exhaust system of a typical jet engine comprises two parts. These are the exhaust unit and the
propelling nozzle. In cases where these parts are a significant distance apart, they are joined by a jet
pipe. The functions of the exhaust unit are as follows:
a. To support the turbine rear bearing.
b. To provide a streamlined fairing for the rear face of the rear turbine disc.
c. To remove any residual swirling motion from the gas emerging from the turbine.
d. To diffuse the exhaust gas, reducing its velocity to reduce friction losses within the jetpipe.
The functions of the jet pipe are as follows:

a. To transfer the exhaust gas from the exhaust unit to the propelling nozzle will minimum energy
losses.
b. To house the reheat system if fitted.
c. To house temperature and pressure sensors.
The functions of the propelling nozzle are as follows:

a. To increase the velocity of the exhaust gas converting to kinetic energy as much of the
residual pressure energy in the gas as is practicable.
b. In the case of engines employing reheat systems the cross sectional area of the propelling nozzle
must be automatically varied in order to match prevailing mass flow to maximise gas flow
acceleration without exceeding the pressure ratio capabilities of the engine.
c. To house (and comprise part of) reverse thrust systems where appropriate.
Basic Exhaust Nozzle
13.10. Reverse Thrust
Reverse thrust is a means of slowing down an aeroplane to reduce its landing run on both dry and
contaminated runways. Also it reduces the high loads that the braking system is subjected to, therefore
reducing brake wear, tyre wear and the associated risks of brake failure, fire, fade and tyre burst. It can
also be used in an emergency to abort a take-off.
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Reverse thrust systems reverse the direction of the hot exhaust gas for a turbojet and the cold air
stream and/or the hot exhaust gas of a high by-pass engine. The angle at which these are reversed is
approximately 45 degree up to 60 degree as a complete reversal of flow is not practicable mainly due to
aerodynamic reasons. Less thrust than normal is available in reverse thrust and for a given rpm is
approximately half that of forward thrust.
In the case of a turboprop then the propeller pitch is reversed to a negative angle, which results in the
air being accelerated forwards.
Operational Problems
Although the system has the advantages described above there are some disadvantages associated with
reverse thrust. Due to the stresses created during acceleration of the engine it counts towards the
ultimate engine life. The reverse flow can impinge on parts of the airframe and there is a danger of re-
ingestion of the reverse flow, which can cause unstable engine operation and debris ingestion that can
damage the engine. This situation is more likely at low speed, therefore reverse thrust is normally
cancelled below 60 kts. In some cases, especially turboprops, ground manoeuvring in reverse thrust may
be allowed. Noise restrictions may restrict the use of reverse thrust in certain circumstances. Therefore
the pilot should ensure the correct procedures are adhered to at all times.
Reverse Thrust Systems
There are several methods by which reverse thrust is achieved. The most common are:
Clamshell Doors
External/Bucket Target Doors
Blocker Doors
13.10.2. Clamshell Doors

These are pneumatically operated and normal engine operation is unaffected as they form part of
exhaust system whilst closed. When reverse thrust is selected the doors rotate into the hot gas stream
blocking the normal exit path of the gas stream, at the same time uncovering outlet ducts that contain
cascade vanes. The cascade vanes at the correct angle now direct the gas stream forward.
13.10.3. External/Bucket Target Doors

These are hydraulically operated via a conventional push rod system. During normal engine operation
they form the propelling nozzle for the engine. On selecting reverse thrust the doors rotate into the gas
stream redirecting it forward.
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Blocker Doors
This system is used on high by-pass turbofan engines to either reverse the cold air stream only or cold
air steam and the hot gas stream together. In latter arrangement the hot gas stream reverser acts like
the external door system in conjunction with the cold air stream reverser.
The cold airstream reverser can be operated hydraulically or mechanically via an air motor. The reverser
consists of a translating cowl, which in normal engine operation forms the cold air stream final nozzle,
and cascade vanes that are internally covered by blocker doors. Selecting reverse thrust causes the
translating cowl to move rearwards, uncovering the cascade vanes and positioning the blocker doors in
the air stream, thus redirecting the cold air stream through the cascade vanes.
13.10.4. Operation and Indication

The reverse thrust control levers are situated on the engine thrust lever quadrant. It can either be a
separate lever, incorporated with the thrust lever or attached to its respective forward thrust lever . To
operate the control lever the engines must be at idle and the aeroplane on the ground to activate the
undercarriage ground sensing switch to activate the system. As long as the operating criteria are met
then operating the control lever will activate the system, deploying the reverser and applying the
correct fuel flow corresponding to the lever position giving the correct level of reverse thrust.
Depending on the system then the fuel flow for reverse thrust may be controlled by the thrust control
lever or limited movement of the normal thrust lever.
System operation will be indicated on the flight deck by a warning light or lights. A warning light
indicates that the system is unlocked.
No Indication: Means the reverser is fully stowed and locks are fully engaged
REV (Amber): Means the locks are disengaged and the reverser is between fully stowed and fully
engaged i.e. unlocked and in transit
REV (Green): Means thrust reverser is fully deployed
13.11.Lubrication Systems
The lubrication requirements of gas turbine engines are generally not to difficult to meet. This is
because the oil does not lubricate any parts that are directly heated by combustion However, for
satisfactory operation, an engine requires an adequate supply of oil at all bearings, gears and driving
splines. This supply must be a continuous flow of clean oil at an acceptable temperature, pressure and
viscosity, suitable for the particular application.
Lubricating Oils
The requirements of lubricating oil are to: Lubricate, Cool, Clean, Prevent Corrosion, Resist oxidation at
high temperatures and Possess suitable viscosity at all operating temperatures. Gas turbine engines use
a low viscosity synthetic oil that does not originate from mineral oil. However, some early gas turbines
did use a light mineral oil. The turbojet engine is able to use low viscosity oil, due to the absence of
reciprocating parts; whilst the turbo-propeller engine requires slightly higher viscosity oil, due to the
heavily loaded propeller reduction gears and the need for a high pressure oil supply to operate pitch
control mechanism. These oils reduce the power requirements for starting, particularly at low
temperatures; normal starts being possible at –400C.
13.11.2. Types of System

Most gas turbines use a self-contained re-circulatory oil system of the dry sump type, where the oil is
distributed and returned to the oil tank by pumps. There are two basic re-circulatory systems, the
Pressure Relief Valve and Full Flow systems, the major difference between them being in the control of
the oil flow to the bearings.
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13.11.3. Oil System Components
Oil Tank
The oil tank is normally mounted on the engine; it may be a separate unit or part of an external gearbox.
It has provision for filling and draining, and will have a sight glass or dipstick to allow the contents to be
checked. The tank can be replenished by gravity or pressure filling. To assist in removing air from the oil,
the return oil passes over a de-aerator tray in the top of the tank.
Filters
Filters are fitted in the pressure and scavenge paths of the system. The pressure filter consists of one or
more wire-wound elements to give edge filtration and has a differential pressure switch that activates
an amber filter blockage warning light on the flight deck. The scavenge strainers are normally of wire
mesh construction. A fine scavenge filter is fitted after the scavenge pumps and incorporates a
differential pressure switch and a by-pass should the filter become blocked. Very fine thread type filters,
sometimes referred to as last chance filters, are usually fitted immediately upstream of the oil jets.
Typical Engine Lubricating System

Oil Pumps
The oil pump assembly consists of spur gear type pressure and scavenge pumps, usually fitted to a
common shaft, and driven from an engine gear train. The scavenge pumps are of a larger capacity than
the pressure pumps to ensure that oil is drawn from the bearing chambers also because of the
expansion of the oil.
Valves
The relief and by-pass valves are nearly always spring-loaded plate valves and are not usually provided
with any form of pressure adjustment.
Oil Coolers
Consists of a matrix that is divided into sections by baffle plates; a large number of tubes convey the
cooling medium through the matrix, with the oil being directed by the baffle plates in a series of passes
across the tubes.
The cooling medium can either be ram air or fuel. On some air cooled coolers, the airflow through the
cooler can be controlled by a flap valve that is operated automatically by the oil temperature.
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In some oil systems using a low pressure fuel cooled oil cooler, a pressure maintaining valve is fitted.
This will ensure that the oil pressure through the cooler is always higher than the fuel pressure. In the
event of an internal leak in the cooler, oil will leak into the fuel system rather than fuel leaking into the
oil system. Some oil systems also incorporate a high pressure fuel cooled oil cooler. In either case it
should be noted that it is the fuel temperature that is the controlling parameter.
Centrifugal Breather
Air is introduced into the bearing housings from the sealing system; the oil and air mixture flows over
the de-aerator tray in the oil tank, where partial separation takes place. The remaining air/oil mist is
then passed into the centrifugal breather, which is located on the external gearbox, for final separation.
The rotating vanes of the breather centrifuge the oil from the mist, and the air is vented overboard
through the hollow drive shaft.
Bearings
The most common bearings in use in gas turbines are the ball/roller type. To minimise the effects of the
dynamic loads transmitted from the rotating assembly to the bearing housings, “squeeze film” type
bearings are used.
Magnetic Chip Detectors
To give early warning of bearing failure, magnetic chip detectors are fitted in the system and are located
in the scavenge oil lines and gearboxes, collecting any ferrous metal particles in the oil as it returns to
the oil tank. They are normally of the bayonet type fitting and can be removed, inspected and replaced
very quickly, with no oil spillage. The magnetic plugs are inspected at regular intervals for a build up of
debris for indications of an impending failure.
Instrumentation
Temperature and oil pressure are critical to both systems, so these readings will be indicated on the
flight deck. Additional indications can include oil contents, low content warning, a red oil pressure
warning light, an amber oil filter blockage warning light and in some cases magnetic chip detector
contamination warning.
13.12. Fuel Systems

13.12.1. Engine Fuels
Fuels for aeroplane gas turbines must conform to strict requirements, to give optimum engine
performance, economy, safety and overhaul life. Fuels are classed under two headings, kerosene type
fuel and wide cut gasoline.
The commercial fuels used are:
Jet A-1 with a freezing point as low as –50 deg C, a flash point of 38 deg C and a specific gravity at 15.5
deg C of 0.807. This is the normal fuel used for commercial aeroplanes
Unlike aviation gasoline turbine fuels are not dyed and can vary in appearance from water white to
straw yellow in colour.
Low freezing points are essential due to the high altitudes modern aeroplanes fly at. Most fuels contain
additives to combat the problem of fuel icing. Should the temperature fall to that where fuel icing is
present, then ice crystals or a gel can form blocking filters and components. Fuel must also be checked
for dissolved water, which takes on the appearance as haze or cloud in the fuel.
13.12.2. Typical Fuel System

The fuel system of a gas turbine engine consists basically of an engine driven pump, delivering a
continuous flow of fuel to the burners in the combustion chambers, with the output of the pump varied
by flow control components, to correct the flow for varying mass airflows. There are various types of
fuel control systems fitted to a wide range of engine types that will differ tremendously in their design.
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However whatever type of fuel control system is employed they all have the same basic fundamental
operational requirements. A fuel system consists of two sub systems:
Low Pressure Fuel System (LP)
High Pressure Fuel System (HP)
A typical schematic fuel system is illustrated below.

Low Pressure Fuel System
This system is supplied with fuel from the aeroplane tanks and conditions it prior to being passed to the
HP system.
Low Pressure Pump
This pump receives fuel from the aeroplane fuel system and ensures satisfactory pressure to the high
pressure pump whilst suppressing cavitation. They are usually of the scroll type impeller that works on
the induction and centrifugal principle.
Typical Engine Fuel System
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Fuel Heater
This is a heat exchanger that uses hot air tapped from the later stages of the compressor or hot oil from
the engine lubrication system, ensuring that particles of water held in suspension in the fuel do not
freeze, causing ice crystals that would lead to a filter blockage. If the heater
employs hot air then it is usually controlled automatically via a LP fuel temperature sensor to prevent
too high a fuel temperature.
Fuel Filter
The LP filter is normally a paper or felt element providing filtration of the fuel before it passes to the HP
system. The filter may incorporate a by-pass should the filter become blocked and a differential pressure
switch providing a flight deck indication.
High Pressure Fuel System

The function of this system is to take the conditioned fuel and schedule it for use.
High Pressure Pump

This pump supplies fuel at high pressure to the fuel injector nozzles to ensure good atomisation, its
output being controlled, via a spill valve, by the fuel control unit. They are either of the multi-plunger
variable swash plate or gear type. The diagram below shows a typical multi-plunger type pump. It has a
rotor that contains several inclined cylinders containing pistons that are spring loaded against a non-
rotating swash plate. A spring acting on the servo piston will ensure that for start the swash plate is at its
maximum angle, therefore ensuring maximum fuel flow.
In the diagram above the barometric control varies the servo pressure for altitude changes by varying
the position of a half ball spill valve, where with increasing altitude the half ball spill valve is lifted from
its seat thus reducing servo pressure by increasing the flow through the spill valve, which in turn reduces
the pump stroke and vice versa. Control for acceleration, deceleration and engine speed governor is
achieved in a similar manner. It should be noted that various types of spill valves exist but they all
achieve the same aim in controlling pump output for varying conditions.
Fuel Control Unit

Controls the output of the HP pump in response to varying conditions such as acceleration, deceleration,
altitude, forward speed and engine limiting parameters.
High Pressure Shut Off Valve

Is fitted between the throttle valve and the burners and is used to stop the engine by cutting off the fuel
to the burners. Normally electrically actuated this valve is usually a two position valve, CLOSED/OPEN,
but in some systems it has an intermediate (ENRICH) position which will supply extra fuel for start-up.
To prevent an excessive build up of fuel pressure in the system when the valve is closed, an idling circuit
returns the HP fuel output to the LP side of the system during engine run down.
Fuel Flowmeter
The flowmeter electrically measures the flow of fuel and indicates the weight of the fuel actually being
supplied to the combustion chamber on an indicator on the flight deck in gallons/hour, pounds/hour or
kilograms/hour.
Pressurisation and Dump Valve

Ensures that there is sufficient fuel pressure before opening the high pressure shut off valve.
Fuel Control Systems

Varying the fuel flow to the combustion chamber controls the thrust of a gas turbine; this in turn varies
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engine speed, airflow and thrust. The thrust requirement is set initially by the pilot through his flight
deck mounted control lever, but in order to achieve and maintain the required thrust, without damage
to the engine, over a wide range of operating conditions, a very complex engine mounted automatic fuel
control system is needed.
There are numerous types of fuel control units, some of which are listed below
 Pressure Control System
 Proportional Flow Control System
 Combined Acceleration and Speed Control System
 Pressure Ratio Control System
 FAFC Full Authority Fuel Control
 FADEC Full Authority Digital Engine Control
The general requirements of a system are that it must be designed to operate efficiently and place
minimum workload on the pilot. Thus it must respond to:
 Movement of the throttle

 Air pressure and temperature
 Rapid acceleration and deceleration
 Engine gas temperature, engine speed signals and compressor delivery pressure, ensuring that
engine limitations are not exceeded
In the case of a FADEC system then a closed loop system establishes engine power to control Engine
Pressure Ratio (EPR), which is computed as a function of throttle lever angle, total air temperature,
altitude and Mach number. The Air Data Computer supplies total air temperature, altitude and Mach
number to the control. Positioning the throttle aligns the control EPR command with the thrust
management computer reference indicator, thus setting thrust.
Controls and Indications

The engine fuel control system has separate controls for starting, forward thrust and reverse thrust with
indications to monitor the engine fuel system that take the form of lights and gauges. The controls and
indications are located on the flight deck control quadrant and instrument panels. Some typical
indications that are provided are, dependant on the actual system, as follows:
LP Fuel Filter. If the filter becomes clogged then a differential pressure switch will illuminate a warning
light
Fuel Pressure. A warning light illuminates when fuel pressure to the HP pump falls below a
predetermined value or when the pressure drop across the filter
Fuel Temperature. Indicates fuel temperature at the filter outlet
Fuel Flow. Sensors measure the fuel flow to the engine in gallons, pounds or kilograms per hour .
13.13. Starting and Ignition Systems
In order to start a gas turbine engine, it is necessary to:
 Rotate the engine shaft up to a speed that provides an adequate airflow. This is achieved by
using a starter motor of some description.
 Provide fuel to mix with the airflow to provide a correct mixture for combustion.
 Ignite the air/fuel mixture. A high energy ignition system is used to provide this.
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To facilitate various situations then it is necessary for the above to be independently controlled or
operate simultaneously during engine start. The starter motor can be operated independently for
maintenance purposes, and engine dry out. The ignition system can be operated independently for
maintenance purposes and in-flight relight. Similarly the fuel can be independently controlled.
13.13.2. Starter
Before it is safe to ignite fuel in the combustion chamber, the engine main shaft must be revolving at a
speed, which enables the compressor to provide an adequate airflow through the engine. The airflow
must be sufficient to mix with the atomised fuel at the nozzles and, to sustain combustion; it must also
provide adequate cooling to protect the engine during “light up”. Some form of starter motor is
necessary to rotate the engine shaft up to the required self-sustaining speed. Self-sustaining speed is
when the engine is able to support itself and accelerate without assistance from the starter motor and
ignition and occurs at approximately 30% N2. The type of starter motor used will vary depending on
engine and aeroplane requirements. Large commercial aeroplanes normally use an air starter, whilst
smaller aeroplanes usually employ an electrical starter.
Air supply for the air starter can be obtained from the following sources:
External ground supply
An auxiliary power unit
A cross-feed from a running engine
Electric Starter
This is usually a Direct Current (DC) electric motor that is coupled to the engine via a reduction gear and
clutch mechanism. After the engine has reached a self-sustaining speed the clutch automatically
disengages.
Air Starter (Pneumatic)
This type of starter is a pneumatically driven turbine unit that accelerates the HP compressor shaft to
the required speed for engine starting. It comprises of a single stage turbine, a reduction gear train, a
clutch and an output drive shaft, all housed within a case incorporating an air inlet and exhaust.
Compressed air enters the starter, impinges on the turbine blades rotating the turbine, and leaves
through the exhaust. The reduction train converts the high speed, low torque rotation of the turbine to
low speed, high torque rotation. The clutch engages and drives the output drive shaft, which accelerates
the HP compressor shaft. When the air supply to the starter is turned off the engine overruns the starter
and the clutch disengages and the starter comes to rest.
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.
Starting Controls
On the start control panel are located various control switches and indications. Depending on type they
may include such controls and indications as:
 Start Lever/Engine Master Switch
 Start Switch/Engine Start Selector/Ignition Selector
 Pneumatic Valve Operation Indicator Light
 Fire/Fault Indicator Lights
Typical Twin-Spool Turbofan Starting Cycle

The following is a typical staring cycle for a twin spool turbofan:
 Engine Master Switch to Start. This arms the starting system

 Engine Starter Switch to Start. Starter switch engagement causes the pneumatically actuated
start valve to open, which is indicated by a light, allowing air to flow to the starter, which rotates
the engine
 Ignition to ON. This energises the igniters
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 HP Fuel Cock. At the predetermined indicated N2 the HP fuel cock is placed in the ON position.
The time to light up is observed, which is signified by a rise in exhaust gas temperature, where
the time is normally 17seconds. As the engine accelerates to self-sustaining speed that occurs at
approximately 35% N2 the starter and ignition are de-energised at approximately 37%. The
Engine Starter Switch is selected to OFF
 Acceleration. Once self-sustaining speed has been reached then the engine should continue to
accelerate up to idle. During acceleration to idle, all engine instrumentation must be monitored
to determine that no stipulated limits are being exceeded and that a satisfactory start has been
achieved
 Idle Speeds. These are approximately 60% N1 and 25% N2
It should be noted that most modern starting systems incorporate automatic ignition, whereby the fuel
and ignition are automatically selected during the starting cycle.
13.13.3. Ignition
Two independent high energy ignition systems are provided, each system comprising of:
 High Energy Ignition Unit (HEIU)
 Igniter Plug
Low voltage is supplied to each High Energy Ignition Unit (HEIU) and is controlled by the aeroplane’s
starting system electrical circuit. At a predetermined value the stored electrical energy is dissipated as a
high voltage, high amperage discharge across the igniter plug.
Ignition units are rated in joules and give outputs that may vary according to requirements. A high value
output of approximately 8 to 10 joules is used for satisfactory relight at altitudes and starting. A low
value output of approximately 4 to 6 joules is used for continuous ignition for automatic relight should
flame extinction occur due to certain-flight conditions, such as icing or take off or landing in heavy rain
slush or snow.
Igniter Plugs
The igniter plug comes in two forms, the air gap and the surface discharge. The air gap type is similar to
the conventional piston engine spark plug, but due to the lower operating pressures in the combustion
chambers has a larger air gap between the electrode and body for
the spark to cross. The surface discharge plug has no air gap and the central electrode is separated from
the plug body by a semi-conductive material. When the HEIU discharges energy to the igniter plug a
flash over occurs from the central electrode across the surface of the plug to the plug body. A functional
check for the igniter plugs is to press the re-light switch and listen for a crack as the spark occurs. The
diagram below illustrates a surface discharge plug.
Ignition Modes of Operation

The ignition system is required to satisfy various operating conditions, such as:
 Ground Start
 In-Flight Start
 Continuous Ignition
 Automatic Ignition
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Ground Start
This is the normal mode for engine start. On selecting start the igniters operate discharging at a rate of
normally approximately 60 to 100 sparks per minute at the high energy level of approximately 8 to 10
joules.
In-Flight Start
Should the engine require to be relit in-flight due to combustion being extinguished, then provision for
relight must be available. To ensure an in-flight relight then the aeroplane may have to descend to a
specified altitude and airspeed. An in-flight relight normally does not require the assistance of the
starter motor as wind milling of the compressor will give the required rotation, however under certain
circumstances the starter motor may be required. Once the correct conditions are met with fuel
available the relight switch can be activated turning on the ignition. A typical relight envelope is
illustrated below.
Continuous Ignition
Continuous ignition is used when there is a danger of flame extinction in the event of icing, takeoff or
landing in heavy rain slush or snow and can be selected either manually or, on some installations such as
the V2500 fitted to the Airbus A320, automatically. The manual operation requires the system to be
switch to ON and it will remain so until switched off. Automatic selection will occur when the engine
anti-ice system is ON or when the aeroplane flaps are extended for takeoff, approach and landing.
Continuous ignition operates at the low energy level of approximately 4 to 6 joules.
Automatic Ignition
On some installations fitted with electronic engine control, automatic ignition can be used for a normal
engine start where the electronic engine control monitors the engine speed and exhaust gas
temperature and if a hung or a hot start are detected the fuel, ignition and start air are automatically
shut off. Automatic selection of continuous ignition as described above is the normal run position after
engine start in automatic ignition. In other installations the automatic ignition may be linked to the stall
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warning system of an aeroplane and will activate the ignition system as the stall is approached,
deactivating the system as the aeroplane goes away from the stall.
Engine Start Malfunctions

During an engine starting cycle various start malfunctions can occur that would prevent a satisfactory
start. It is essential that the engine instruments are monitored throughout the cycle in order to prevent
a potentially dangerous situation developing resulting in engine or aeroplane damage. Should an
unsuccessful start occur then restart attempts are usually limited to three over a specific period of time
with a rest period between each attempt.
Wet Start
This is when the engine does not light up within the specified period with no indication of a rise of
exhaust gas temperature, no increase in rpm, no sound indicating that the fuel being sprayed into the
combustion chamber has ignited or an abnormally low fuel flow. The causes of a wet start maybe:
 Faulty High Energy Ignition Unit
 Faulty igniter plug
 Premature opening of the HP fuel cock
After a wet start it is important to dry out the engine before attempting another start. It may be
necessary for the engine to be motored over by the starter motor only without fuel or ignition to
remove the excess fuel in the combustion chamber, turbine and jet pipe. Depending on the specific type
of system the motoring selection can be identified on the starter control panel as Vent Run, Dry Run,
13.13.4. Blow Out or Motoring Run.
Hot Start
This occurs after light up and the exhaust gas temperature exceeds the maximum allowable starting
temperature. The primary causes of a hot start are:
 Low electrical powers supply that which cannot bring the engine up to the self sustaining speed
quickly enough.
 Low air pressure to the air starter
 Failure to allow complete draining and drying of the engine after a wet start
 A strong tail wind into the jet pipe.
As soon as a hot start becomes apparent the HP fuel cock should be CLOSED and the starting cycle
terminated.
Hung Start
This occurs after light up has been achieved but the rpm does not increase to that of idle, but
remains at some lower rpm with the exhaust gas temperature at some value below or equal to the
starting limit, which is high for that rpm. The possible causes of a hung start are:
 Fuel control malfunction
 Premature starter disengagement
As in the case of a hot start the HP fuel cock should be CLOSED and the starting cycle terminated.
13.13.5. Effects of Damage

a. Compressor damage usually occurs to the blades as a result of ingestion of foreign objects.
Turbine damage, however, is almost invariably the result of the high gas temperatures, and the
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b. stresses arising from high rotational velocity. One of the effects is permanent extension of the
turbine blades, or creep. This is only acceptable within certain limits, after which blade rub
occurs as already discussed. Another effect is for the turbine blades to untwist due to the forces
of the high velocity gas flow acting on the heated blades. The result is reduction of stagger
angle, which reduces the efficiency of the blades.
c. Because of the stresses to which turbine blades are subjected, no cracks are acceptable in any
part of them and small nicks or indentations are only permitted provided they are well away
from the root area of the blade. Burning or distortion is unacceptable in any part of the blades.
d. Engine manufacturers place very stringent limits on the maximum acceptable turbine inlet gas
temperature, because of the marked reduction in tensile strength of blade material with
increased temperature. The ultimate effect of overheating turbine blades is to cause them to
fracture at the shank, where the root joins the blade, due to centrifugal loading.
Centrifugal force ensures that the fractured blades leave the wheel radially at high velocity, and possibly
with sufficient force to penetrate the turbine casing. This is known as an un-contained turbine failure
and the departing blades can cause serious damage to adjacent parts of the aircraft structure and
systems. Even if the fractured blades are contained within the turbine casing, the damage they cause to
the remaining blades is usually sufficient to ruin the engine.
13.13.6. Engine Performance
Static Thrust:
Static thrust is the product of mass airflow through the engine and rate of acceleration of the mass of air
with the aeroplane stationary. The following formula applies:
Thrust= W/g x ( V2-V1)
Where, W/g= mass of airflow in lb/sec or kg/sec

V1 = initial velocity of a mass of air in ft/sec or m/s
V2 = final velocity of a mass of air in ft/sec or m/s
Thrust: thrust of a gas turbine can be written as:
The above formula can be re written as:
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Net Thrust Formula
Gross Thrust Formula
13.13.7. Variations of Thrust with Speed, Altitude and Temperature.

There are a number of conditions that affect the performance of gas turbine engines. In general if a
specific amount of fuel is supplied to the engine, the thrust of the engine will vary depending on the
temperature and the pressure of the air that enters the air inlet.
Speed
As forward speed increases the thrust will reduce due to a combination of:
 Inlet Momentum Drag
 Decreased acceleration of the airflow i.e. the jet velocity remaining relatively constant with
increasing inlet velocity
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However, due to the Ram Effect obtained from increasing forward speed, additional air is forced into
the engine, increasing the mass airflow and air velocity. The effect of theseincreases tends to offset the
increased inlet momentum drag that occurs with increased forward speed, therefore the resultant
decrease in net thrust is partially recovered as aeroplane speed increases.
Thus, it can be seen that Ram Effect is of great importance to gas turbine engine performance,
especially at high speed.
Temperature
Cold air increases the density of the air, which results in an increased mass of air entering the
compressor for a specific engine speed, therefore the thrust or SHP is increased. However, the increased
density of the air will require more power to drive the compressor. To maintain the same RPM then the
fuel flow must be increased otherwise a fall in RPM will occur. Therefore with a reduction in air inlet
temperature, the engine will either:
Run at reduced RPM but maintain the thrust
If RPM is maintained constant, there will be an increase in thrust
Alternatively hot air will reduce the density of the air, which results in a reduction of the air entering the
compressor, and the reverse will occur. When encountering high temperatures of typically 450C then up
to a 20% thrust loss can occur. In this situation it may be necessary to employ some form of thrust
augmentation e.g. water or water/methanol injection this is described later.
Altitude
As altitude increases, the ambient air pressure and temperature are reduced. For a given engine speed
this has the following effects:
The decreased atmospheric pressure reduces the density and hence the mass airflow into the
engine, causing the thrust or shaft horsepower to fall
The reduction in the ambient temperature at altitude will result in an increase in air density. This
will partially offset the reduction in thrust caused by the fall in atmospheric pressure
At an altitude of 36,089 feet the temperature of the atmosphere is –560C. Above this altitude the
temperature of the air remains constant until altitudes above 65,617 feet is reached. When an altitude
of 36,089 feet is reached, the rate of decrease in thrust falls off more rapidly. This is because the
counteracting effect of the temperature decreases no longer balances the effects of decreasing pressure
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)

This is the ratio between the exhaust pressure to the compressor inlet pressure. It can be measured in a
number of ways; turbine discharge pressure to compressor inlet pressure, on a fan engine it may be fan
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outlet pressure to compressor inlet pressure or integrated fan outlet/turbine discharge pressures to
compressor inlet pressure.
Engine Thrust Rating
An engine is rated by the amount of thrust in Pounds or Newton’s it can develop.
Flat Rated Power
This means that the power output is restricted in cold ambient conditions, therefore able to give
constant predictable power up to a specific limit e.g. 29.90C. The fuel control system prevents the
limitations of, shaft speeds, internal pressures and turbine temperatures being exceeded should the
specified limiting temperature be exceeded by reducing fuel flow and power.
Bleed Air
Bleed air is tapped from the engine compressor to supply both internal and external requirements.
Internal Supplies
The heat, transferred from the main gas stream to the nozzle guide vanes, turbine blades, turbine discs,
the bearings of the rotating assemblies and the engine main casings, is absorbed and dispersed by
directing a flow of comparatively cool air over these components.
Due to the high temperature of the gas stream at the turbine inlet, it is necessary to provide internal air
cooling of the nozzle guide vanes, and the turbine blades. Air from the compressors is also used to seal
the bearing housings, so preventing leakage of oil into the engine main casings or into the compressor
inlet. Compressor bleed air can be used as engine
anti-icing of the nose cowl leading edge, inlet struts, nose cone and inlet guide vanes. It may be
necessary to provide accessory cooling during ground operations on items that are cooled in-flight by
ram air such as pumps, motors and generators.
External Supplies
There are aeroplane systems that require engine bleed air to operate them, i.e. hydraulic pumps,
generators and motors. Such systems may involve the supply of an emergency system or the operation
of certain high lift devices. As gas turbine engines usually fly at much higher altitudes where
pressurisation and air conditioning are necessary, another form of engine take off is required. This
involves tapping high pressure from various stages of the compressor; this air is not only for air
conditioning and pressurisation but can be used for anti-icing systems, hydraulic header tank
pressurisation and fuel tank pressurisation. Under certain circumstances then cabin bleed air will need
to be closed e.g. smoke and fumes entering the cabin, also on some smaller engines during phases of
flight where the removal of compressor air is critical to thrust. In some aeroplanes, compressor air is
used for self contained engine starting systems and also for boundary layer control for take-off and
landing.
Effects of Bleed Air Extraction
The bleeding of air from the compressor will reduce the amount of mass airflow, therefore reducing
thrust/rpm, increasing exhaust gas temperature and specific fuel consumption.
13.13.8. Powerplant Operation and Monitoring
Engines are rated to cover all aspects of operation, these are:

Maximum Take off Thrust. This is the maximum thrust certified for take-off and is normally limited to
five minutes
Maximum Go-around Thrust. This is the maximum permissible thrust during go around
Maximum Continuous Thrust. This is the maximum thrust certified for continuous use. This rating
should be used, at the pilot’s discretion, only when required to ensure safe flight (engine failure)
Maximum Climb Thrust. The maximum climb rating is the maximum thrust approved for normal climb
operation.
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Maximum Cruise Thrust. The maximum cruise rating is the maximum thrust approved for normal cruise
operation
Take off
When cleared for take-off, the pilot advances the throttle lever in a smooth and unhesitating way to the
required take off thrust position. As the throttle is advanced, the instruments are monitored to ensure
that the engine is functioning properly. High thrust needs to be obtained whilst the aircraft is stationary
or soon after the aircraft starts to roll. In this way the thrust stabilises well before the aircraft takes off.
Once the throttle is set to take off thrust, no further adjustments are necessary until airborne.
Climb
When climbing, at fixed throttle, as altitude is gained, and the temperature of the outside air decreases,
then the fan speed tends to increase. Normally, only one or two throttle adjustments are required
throughout the climb, depending on whether a high speed or long range climb is being performed.
Exhaust gas temperatures (EGT) must be constantly monitored to stay within engine operating limits..
Cruise
Once thrust is set to obtain the desired cruising speed, the throttle may remain fixed throughout the
cruising portion of the flight. The amount of fuel consumed during a short flight represents only a slight
decrease in aircraft weight. On longer flights where the burning of fuel results in substantial decrease in
aircraft weight compared to take off weight, the speed of the aircraft tends to increase. However,
maintaining constant cruise speed attains optimal economy and operational efficiency. So, periodically
the thrust of the engine is reduced, resulting in lower fuel costs and increased engine life.
Descent
Standard descent procedures for aircraft powered with turbojet engines require relatively high speeds
and rates of descent. This reduces stress on the engine and allows for quick action during an emergency.
During the initial part of the descent, the throttle is typically kept in the cruise position. When lower
altitudes are reached, the throttle is retarded smoothly and slowly. Slow throttle movements reduce
rapid temperature changes in the engine and allow regulating systems in the engine to respond fully.
Approach and Landing
During approach and landing, it is essential that engine response to throttle movements be as quick and
readily available as possible. The use of variable stator vanes allows this rapid response and for stall free
operation. To further reduce engine response time when quick thrust changes are needed, it is
considered good operating technique to keep engine speeds as high as is practical throughout the
approach. In the event that thrust must be applied for a go-around manoeuvre, the throttle is advanced
part way and then held momentarily in an intermediate position to assure proper engine response. Then
the throttle is moved rapidly to the take off thrust position.
Engine Idle RPMs
There are two engine idle values, “Ground Idle” and “Flight Idle”, in some installations the terms
“Minimum Idle” and “Approach Idle” are used, where the ground idle is the engine speed normally used
for ground operation of a gas turbine to produce the minimum amount of thrust, it can be used for all
phases of flight except when anti-icing is ON or during approach and landing. Flight idle is the lowest
recommended operating speed in-flight and is a higher value than ground idle to enable the engine to
produce a short acceleration time, which may be needed in the case of a go around. Also to compensate
for a reduction of airflow through the engine due to engine and aeroplane bleed air requirements.
Turbo propeller engines can have an interconnection of the throttle with a propeller control unit,
therefore ensuring single lever engine operation that controls both fuel flow and RPM, with the overall
controlling factor being the fuel flow to prevent engine operating limitations being exceeded. Some
turbo propeller engines are constant speeding and incorporate a condition lever that selects an RPM for
ground (feather/fuel off and low for taxi) and flight conditions (high for take-off and cruise) and once set
it will only be required to be reset when flight conditions change.
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There are two operating mode ranges for a turbo prop, these are:
Alpha Range. This is the flight operational mode of a turbo prop engine that includes all operation in the
flight range from take off to landing i.e. flight fine pitch to feather.
Beta Range. This is engine ground operational mode when the propeller pitch is hydromechanically
controlled by the flight deck control lever between ground fine pitch and reverse thrust
Engine Monitoring
When a turbojet, turbofan or turboprop engine is installed in an aeroplane, various instruments,
controls and warning devices are necessary for normal control and operation of the engine and are
displayed either conventionally or electronically. Most aeroplanes have the following instrumentation.
Vibration
A vibration indicator indicates the amount of engine vibration, providing information about the overall
mechanical performance of the engine. Vibration is indicated as “Relative Amplitude” and should an
unacceptable level of vibration be detected then a warning light on the flight deck will illuminate. There
will also be a red line warning on the indicator. Monitoring of vibration is effected by engine mounted
transducers, that can be either the electro-magnetic or piezoelectric design, that convert vibration rates
into electrical signals that result in the pointer of the indicator to move in proportion to the level of
vibration, which is proportional to the amount of rotor imbalance. The signals are amplified and
electronically filtered and are sometimes selectable between frequency ranges.
Engine Torque
On turboprop engines a torquemeter is used to indicate power where the torque produced at the
propeller shaft is usually measured since jet thrust is only a small proportion of the engine power. One
type of torquemeter uses helical gear teeth in the reduction gear and consequently an axial thrust is
developed by layshafts, which is proportional to the power transmitted through the reduction gear. An
opposing oil pressure, which is therefore proportional to engine power, balances this axial thrust and
this pressure called Torquemeter Pressure, is indicated as pounds per square inch (PSI) via a transmitter
on a flight deck gauge. On some installations the torquemeter pressure may be taken directly to the
water methanol and automatic feathering systems.
Engine Warning System

These are provided to give an indication of a possible failure or of a dangerous condition that exists, in
order that action can be taken to ensure the integrity of the engine or aeroplane. In the case of
electronic indicating systems then the severity of the warning will dictate the colour being displayed.
13.13.9. Turbine Engine Instruments

Engine instruments that indicate oil pressure, oil temperature, engine speed, exhaust gas temperature,
and fuel flow are common to both turbine and reciprocating engines. However, there are some
instruments that are unique to turbine engines. These instruments provide indications of engine
pressure ratio, turbine discharge pressure, and torque. In addition, most gas turbine engines have
multiple temperature-sensing instruments, called thermocouples, which provide pilots with
temperature readings in and around the turbine section.
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)

An engine pressure ratio (EPR) gauge is used to indicate the power output of a turbojet/turbofan engine.
EPR is the ratio of turbine discharge to compressor inlet pressure. Pressure measurements are recorded
by probes installed in the engine inlet and at the exhaust. Once collected, the data is sent to a
differential pressure transducer, which is indicated on a flight deck EPR gauge.
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EPR system design automatically compensates for the effects of airspeed and altitude. Changes in
ambient temperature require a correction be applied to EPR indications to provide accurate engine
power settings.
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
A limiting factor in a gas turbine engine is the temperature of the turbine section. The temperature of a
turbine section must be monitored closely to prevent overheating the turbine blades and other exhaust
section components. One common way of monitoring the temperature of a turbine section is with an
EGT gauge. EGT is an engine operating limit used to monitor overall engine operating conditions.
Variations of EGT systems bear different names based on the location of the temperature sensors.
Common turbine temperature sensing gauges include the turbine inlet temperature (TIT) gauge, turbine
outlet temperature (TOT) gauge, interstage turbine temperature (ITT) gauge, and turbine gas
temperature (TGT) gauge.
Torquemeter
Turboprop/turboshaft engine power output is measured by the torquemeter. Torque is a twisting force
applied to a shaft. The torquemeter measures power applied to the shaft. Turboprop and turboshaft
engines are designed to produce torque for driving a propeller. Torquemeters are calibrated in
percentage units, foot-pounds, or psi.
N1 Indicator
N1 represents the rotational speed of the low pressure compressor and is presented on the indicator as
a percentage of design rpm. After start the speed of the low pressure compressor is governed by the N1
turbine wheel. The N1 turbine wheel is connected to the low pressure compressor through a concentric
shaft.
N2 Indicator
N2 represents the rotational speed of the high pressure compressor and is presented on the indicator as
a percentage of design rpm. The high pressure compressor is governed by the N2 turbine wheel. The N2
turbine wheel is connected to the high pressure compressor through a concentric shaft. [Figure 6-27]
Compact Display of typical Engine instruments
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14. Auxiliary Power Units
Auxiliary power units (APU’s) are fitted in the majority of transport aircraft to supply electrical power
and compressed air when the aircraft is on the ground with its main engines shut down, in order to
reduce the need for ground support equipment. Normally the APU is operated only when the aircraft is
on the ground, but many modern transport aircraft can utilise the APU in flight as an alternative source
of electrical power, if needed. Operation in flight is usually only possible within specified maximum
airspeed and altitude limitations.
The APU is typically a self-contained unit comprising a constant speed gas turbine coupled to a gearbox,
from which a generator of similar type and rating to the aircraft's main generators is driven. The APU
gearbox also drives the gas turbine accessories (fuel pump, lubricating oil pump, tachometer and a
centrifugal switch controlling the starter, ignition, speed governing and overspeed protection circuits).
A typical Auxiliary Power Unit is illustrated in section is shown below. A load compressor mounted on
the same shaft as the APU power section and sharing the same air supply as the power section
compressor, supplies air to the aircraft pneumatic system. The gearbox containing the generator and
ancillary drives is shown at the end of the APU rotating assembly
14.1. Location
The APU is located in an un-pressurised compartment, usually in the rear fuselage and separated from
the remainder of the aircraft by a firewall. Access to the compartment is external. Figure below shows
the location of the APU in an Aircraft.
Air supply for the gas turbine compressor is admitted via ducted intakes. These normally take the form
of doors, which open automatically at the beginning of the start sequence and close when the APU is
shut down. The APU intake door positions are often indicated at the APU control panel in the flight
compartment.
The APU gas turbine compressor discharges to a plenum chamber, from which air for combustion is
supplied to the combustion chambers of the APU gas turbine. In some units, a regulated supply of bleed
air is ducted from the plenum chamber for the aircraft's cabin air conditioning and main engine air-
starting systems.
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.
14.2. Fuel System
The APU fuel is supplied from one of the aircraft main fuel tanks via a remotely operated (solenoid)
valve. A fuel control unit (FCU) regulates fuel supply. The FCU controls acceleration during starting and
maintains constant speed, under varying load conditions, when the unit is running.
14.3. Starting and Ignition

The APU utilises an electric starter motor, which drives through the unit gearbox and is usually powered
from the aircraft batteries. In some cases a separate APU starter battery is fitted. The ignition unit is of
the high-energy type and the starting sequence is basically the same for all types of APU.
In some systems the APU starter motor is isolated in flight (via one of the landing gear squat switches),
and in-flight starts are achieved using the windmill start principle. The in-flight start envelope for the
APU will be narrower (a lower altitude and a higher airspeed being required than with a motor-assisted
air-start) with this system. Furthermore, the APU inlet duct door arrangement needs to be more
complex in order to provide increased ram air effect to windmill the engine up to an adequate rotational
speed for the introduction of fuel and the energising of the igniter circuits.
However, in the event of a double generator failure (on a two-engined aircraft) the available emergency
source of electrical power (the aircraft batteries) is not depleted by what may be an unsuccessful
attempt to start the APU in order to provide an alternative source of generated electrical power. The
only electrical power required being that involved in sequencing the APU inlet duct doors.
APU’s are notoriously difficult to start following a prolonged period of flight at high altitude, which has
resulted in well and truly cold-soaked lubricating oil.
The main APU control and indication panel is located in the aircraft flight deck. The starting sequence is
initiated by closing the master control switch (toggle or push type). This opens the air intake doors and
the starter motor then motors up the APU. The fuel supply and ignition controls are activated as and
when the appropriate rotational speeds are achieved. A typical APU control panel is shown below.
After light up has taken place the APU engine accelerates, with the continued aid of the starter motor,
typically to between 35% and 50% of governed rpm. At this point the starter motor circuit is de-
energised and the engine accelerates to governed speed under its own turbine power. At about 95%
governed speed the ignition circuit is cancelled by the centrifugal switch and combustion becomes self-
sustaining.
It is good practice to allow the unit to run at no load for a minute or so, to allow all parts to reach
normal working temperatures, before selecting electrical and pneumatic system air loads.
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An overspeed sensing system will automatically shut down the APU if governed speed is exceeded,
typically when speed reaches 110% of governed speed.
During starting the APU must be monitored to ensure that light up and governed speed are achieved
within specified time limits, and that overheating does not occur. The number of re-start attempts
permissible is also specified in the aircraft operating and maintenance manuals.
14.4. Fire Protection and Cooling Systems

16. The APU compartment is fitted with its own continuous-wire fire detection system and its own
single-shot fire extinguishing system. In addition to activating visual and aural warnings, the detection
circuit is normally arranged so that it will automatically activate the APU shut down. The APU fire
extinguisher is activated by manually operated switches on the APU control panel. In some APU’s the
fire extinguisher is discharged automatically when the detection circuit is activated.
A fan, driven from the accessories gearbox, provides cooling and ventilation of the APU compartment
and cooling air for the generator and lubricating oil cooler.
14.5. Shutting Down

The APU is normally shut down by selecting the OFF (or STOP) position on the master control switch,
after first allowing the unit to run on no-load for about two minutes to assist with even cooling of the
engine.
Automatic shut down of the APU will typically occur as a result of any or all of the following conditions:
a. Overspeed (typically 110% of governed rpm).
b. Excess exhaust gas temperature (EGT).
c. Loss of EGT signal to the control system.
d. Low lubricating oil pressure.
e. High lubricating oil temperature.
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f. APU compartment fire detection system operation.
g. Excess APU bleed air outlet temperature.
h. When specified airspeed or altitude limitations are exceeded.
Following an automatic shut down the master control switch should be selected OFF (or
STOP).
Depending upon the complexity of the APU monitoring and automatic shut-down system provided, a
second APU control panel may or may not be provided externally under a panel in the aircraft skin
(normally adjacent to the APU itself), which will permit APU shut-down to be initiated from outside the
aircraft. Associated with this external panel will be an APU fire warning klaxon. Appreciate that it is
common for the APU to be left running when the flight deck is unoccupied.
Operating envelopes for APU’s vary according to type or requirement. Some APU’s have a restriction on
the maximum altitude for starting, which may be governed by associated equipment limitations i.e.
battery or by the starting envelope. The altitude limit may be lower than the aircraft’s maximum ceiling.
Whilst an APU can be operated at higher altitudes its output may be restricted ie. a generator may go
from 100% output at 25,000 ft to 60% at 39,000 ft.
Should the demand on systems provided by the APU (pneumatic/electric or both) exceed the designed
APU load, automatic control devices will be activated to protect the APU from exceeding engine
operating temperature limits (EGT). Higher altitudes could be more critical. In conditions of high
electrical load and air bleed the limiting function of the APU EGT will reduce the bleed air supply but
permit the APU to maintain generator output.
15.Electrical System
15.1. Basic Principles of DC Electricity
All matter is made up of atoms, which consist of a positively charged nucleus and negatively
charged orbiting electrons. The nucleus is formed by an equal number of protons and neutrons, the
protons being positively charged and the neutrons having no charge. An oxygen atom, for example,
comprises eight electrons (negative), eight protons (positive) and eight neutrons (no charge). Hence
such an atom is electrically neutral, since the total negative charge of the electrons is balanced by the
total positive charge of the protons.
An electrical current is quite simply a flow of electrons through a conductor. When matter
gives up electrons it becomes positively charged, and when it gains electrons it becomes negatively
charged.
During the early experiments with electricity the true nature of electrical current flow was not
fully understood and the direction of current flow was arbitrarily assumed to be from positive to
negative. This convention with regard to current flow has persisted, although it was
subsequently proved that a current flow involves the transference of negatively charged electrons to a
positively charged atom (that is, an atom which has a deficiency of electrons).
A substance consisting of atoms that readily give up their electrons is called a conductor, and
will offer little resistance to a flow of electricity. Copper and Gold are both particularly good
conductors. Conversely, a substance consisting of atoms that are reluctant to release electrons is called
an insulator, because it offers a very high resistance to the flow of electrical current. Insulators are used
to protect conductors, insulating them from other conductors. For example, electrical current-carrying
cables are covered with insulating material if they are to be located where other conductors, such as the
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metal case of a device or a human being, might otherwise come into contact with them. Natural rubber
and most thermoplastic materials are good insulators. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a well-known example.
A semiconductor is a material whose resistance is midway between that of a good conductor and that of
a good insulator. Commonly used semiconductor materials include silicon and germanium. (diodes,
transistors and integrated circuits.
Static electricity occurs when an excess of electrons are induced into a body, which then stores this
electrical charge until able to discharge itself to another body. A good example of this occurs with an
aircraft in flight. Since the airframe is used as the earth for all of the aircraft electrical systems it
develops its own static electrical potential. An attempt is made to discharge this potential during flight
to atmosphere via static wick dischargers. On the ground it is discharged to the tarmac via a conducting
bead in the tread of the tyres (usually on the nose wheels).
It is because of static electricity that it is necessary to bond an aircraft and a fuel bowser to
each other during refuelling, and to bond the fuel pipe nozzle to the tank filler pipe. Were this not done,
static electricity could build up and cause a spark with obviously disastrous consequences. For the same
reasons it is necessary to bond together the various parts of the aircraft structure to provide a low
resistance path for static discharge and to dissipate the effects of a lightning strike.
Electricity may be produced by heat or temperature differences, as in thermocouples; by

friction, as in static electricity; by light, as in photo-electric cells; by pressure, as in carbon
microphones; by rotating mechanical forces in magnetic fields, as in generators; and by chemical
action, as in batteries.
15.2. Definitions
As already stated, an electric current is simply a flow of electrons through a conducting element and it is
measured in amperes (amps) by means of an ammeter. The lower the resistance to current flow, the
greater the current flow and vice versa. Maximum current will flow when a short circuit exists (a direct
connection between supply and return), and this causes an overload. No current will flow when an open
circuit exists (when the circuit is broken, for example by opening a switch). The break in the circuit has
created a condition of infinite resistance.
Potential difference (PD) is the way in which the magnitude of the surplus of electrons at one point
in an electrical circuit, when compared with the deficiency of electrons at another point is expressed.
Potential difference is often referred to as electrical pressure, and is measured in volts using a
voltmeter.
Electromotive force (emf) is the force that causes electrons to flow, and is effectively the same as
potential difference. The unit of measurement of emf is the volt. One volt is defined as the emf required
to cause current to flow at the rate of one ampere through a resistance of one ohm.
Resistance is the reluctance of any material, electrical component or electrical machine to
permit the flow of electricity. Resistance is measured in ohms using an ohmmeter. The usual
consequence of a circuit offering resistance to current flow is the generation of heat.
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to temperature and to conductor length and is
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor. As the temperature of a conductor
rises the atoms gain energy and they become ‘excited’. Any electron flow in the circuit will now
experience difficulty in moving through the conductor. That is, increase in temperature causes an
increase in conductor resistance. The change of resistance of the conductor as the temperature changes
expressed as a fraction of its original resistance is called the temperature co-efficient of resistance
referred to the original temperature. If the resistance of a conductor increases with increase in
temperature it has a positive temperature co-efficient and a negative co-efficient if the resistance
decreases with increase in temperature. Positive temperature co-efficient (PTC) and negative
temperature co-efficient (NTC) resistors are used in aircraft systems for measurement of temperature.
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An example of this is a thermistor which is a thermally sensitive resistor with either a positive or
negative temperature co-efficient.
For electrical current to flow there must be a path, or circuit, for it to follow and there must
be a potential difference (voltage/pressure) to cause it to flow. The amount of current flow will
depend upon the resistance of the circuit. The unit of measurement of current flow is the ampere,
usually abbreviated to amp. One ampere is defined as a rate of current flow of one coulomb per second,
the coulomb being the unit of measurement of electrical quantity. Current, or rate of flow of electricity,
is symbolised by the letter I.
15.3. Ohm's Law

Ohm's Law gives the relationship between emf (V), current flow (I) and resistance (R). It
states that the current in an electrical circuit is directly proportional to the voltage (emf) and
inversely proportional to the resistance.
In other words, an emf of 1 volt will cause a current of 1 amp to flow through a circuit having
a total resistance of 1 ohm. Equally, an emf of 25,000 volts will cause a current of 10 amps to flow
through a circuit having a total resistance of 2,500 ohms.
The equation for Ohm's Law is: I =V/R
The simplifies transposition of the Ohm's Law equation viz:
V = IR , or R= V/I
In an electrical circuit, abnormal conditions may arise for a variety of reasons, which can cause over
current or over voltage conditions.
If allowed to persist, these abnormal conditions or faults will lead to damage or destruction of
equipment and in extreme cases, loss of life. Certainly the essential power supplies will fail, and it is
therefore necessary to protect circuits against all such faults, by the use of fuses and circuit
breakers.
15.4. CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES

There is a number of protection devices used in aircraft electrical systems but only 2 basic types are
discussed here:
a. Fuses.
b. Circuit breakers
15.4.1. Fuses
Fuses are thermal devices whose primary function is to protect the distribution cables of a
circuit against excess current flow due to short-circuit or overload. The fuse is placed in series with the
load (component) it protects. If a current that exceeds the rated value of the fuse flows through it, the
fuse wire overheats and melts, resulting in an open circuit. The fuse wire is normally made of a zinc
alloy, which has the desired low melting point.
All fuses are rated in amperes (amps). In general fuses are selected on the basis of the lowest rating
which will ensure reliable operation of the system, given the known thermal characteristics of the
cables, but which will not be prone to ‘nuisance failure’.
In emergency circuits, failure of which may affect safe operation of the aircraft, fuses are of
the highest rating possible consistent with cable protection. When replacing a blown fuse it is
important that the new fuse be of the correct rating. Under no circumstances should a fuse of a
higher value be used, since the rating has already been calculated at a value slightly in excess of the
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normal maximum load of the circuit, to accommodate the surge loads of initial switching on.
Aircraft fuses are of the cartridge variety, consisting of a ceramic tube with the fusible element
(wire) passing through it and connected at either end to conducting caps. The caps fit into the inlet and
outlet terminals of the fuse holder. Examples of typical aircraft cartridge type fuses are shown below:
Heavy Duty (High Rupturing) fuses are often installed at power distribution points. These are of the
cartridge type, but contain a number of fusible elements that rupture successively under overload
conditions. The elements are packed in a medium that absorbs the explosive effects of rupture. These
fuses are fixed in position by means of mounting lugs and bolts, as opposed to the spring-clip
attachment of lighter-duty fuses. In some aircraft the fuse holders incorporate an indicator lamp which
illuminates when the fuse ruptures.
Current Limiting Fuses are also used to protect high power, heavy-duty, circuits. They have a high
melting point and will thus carry a considerable overload current before rupturing. This ensures that
power to the whole circuit is not lost in the event of a surge, or transient, overload. The fusible element
is typically a strip of tinned copper, "waisted" in its centre to the dimension required for the fusing area.
The ends of the strip are formed into attachment lugs. The central, waisted, portion of the fuse is
enclosed in a ceramic housing with an inspection window. Examples are shown below.
After a fuse has first blown it should be replaced once only. Repeated replacement of the fuse could
eventually result in overheating of the circuit.
When replacing fuses, ideally the power to the circuit in question should be switched off. The person
replacing the fuse does not then have to worry about touching the live terminals of the fuse holder.
If a fuse of the correct rating is not available, then a fuse of a lower rating may be tried, but of course it
is likely to blow again. Some spare fuses are carried in an aircraft which can be replaced in flight,
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15.4.2. Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker or thermal trip is designed to isolate a circuit by means of a mechanical trip
that opens a switch whenever a surge of current, or overload, occurs. The advantage of a circuit
breaker over a fuse is that a circuit breaker can be reset once the overload situation has been
remedied. Circuit breakers make use of bimetallic strips, which bend by an increasing amount as the
temperature of the strip increases. At the temperature matched to the rated current flow for that
particular circuit the bimetallic strip bends sufficiently to break the circuit.
The linkage between the bimetal element and the trip mechanism can be adjusted at
manufacture to achieve very close tolerance ‘trip-time’ characteristics. Thus, the circuit breaker can be
matched not just to current, but to a specific maximum time for a given current. The ratings for circuit
breakers are established in much the same way as for fuses.
There are two types of circuit breaker, the trip-free and the non trip-free. In the trip-free
system depressing the reset button will not remake the circuit, nor will it reset the circuit breaker, until
the overload condition has been cleared. It has an internal safety device that ensures that no harm will
be caused if the reset button is held in.
With a non trip-free circuit breaker it is possible to remake the circuit by holding the button
in. Once the button is released the circuit will be broken again, since the circuit breaker cannot be reset
until the overload has been cleared. Some circuit breakers are equipped with manual trip buttons so
that they can be also used as a manually operated switching device.
15.5. Batteries
Chemical action produces electricity in an electric cell. A single cell, or more commonly a number of cells
connected together, is known as a battery. All battery cells produce direct current, because they are of
constant electrical polarity. A cell that cannot be recharged once it has become discharged is known as a
primary cell. Conversely, a cell that is rechargeable is known as a secondary cell.
The principle of any electric cell is simple. The cell consists of two plates made of different
metals and placed in a solution termed the electrolyte. An electrolyte is a solution of water and a
chemical compound that will conduct electricity. It is capable of conducting current because it
contains atoms having a positive or negative charge, known as ions.
The chemical action of the electrolyte acting on the dissimilar plates causes an electron flow
from one plate to the other. Consequently, one plate becomes positively charged (a deficiency of
electrons) and the other negatively charged (a surplus of electrons). There is thus a potential
difference (voltage) between the two plates.
Connecting the two plates via a conductor will allow electrons to flow from the negatively
charged plate to the positive – an electrical current flow. This will eventually balance the charge
between the plates, so that there is no potential difference and current flow ceases – the cell is said to
be discharged and a reversal of the chemical action will be required to restore the differential (or
electrical pressure).
Battery Capacity
The Capacity of a cell is a measure of how much current a cell can provide in a certain time. Capacity is
measured in Ampere Hours (Ah) and is determined by the area of the plates, the bigger the cell the
greater its capacity.
A cell with a capacity of 80 Ah should provide a current of 8A for 10 hrs, or 80 A for 1 hr. A single cell
battery may be used on its own or cells may be connected in Series or in Parallel depending upon the
voltage and capacity required.
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15.5.1. Primary and Secondary Cells
In the case of the conventional primary dry cell the positive core is made of carbon, the negative case is
made of zinc, and the electrolyte is ammonium chloride in paste form, hence the name ‘dry’ cell. Dry
cells are mainly used in flashlights and similar low voltage portable devices. Diagrams of a simple
primary and secondary cell are shown below:
Primary Cell
Secondary Cell
The principal function of the battery or batteries in an aircraft electrical system is to provide
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electrical power when the primary source of electrical power, the engine-driven generators, is not
available. A basic electrical supply system for a single engine aircraft is shown above.
Secondary cells are clearly necessary when a battery is to be used as the emergency source of electrical
power, as is the case in all aircraft electrical systems. It must be possible to recharge the battery after
use, from the aircraft’s primary electrical source (the generators) so that it is available when
subsequently required. Two types of secondary cell batteries are currently in common use in aircraft,
the lead-acid battery and the Nickel-Cadmium battery.
Lead-Acid Batteries
Secondary cells are usually grouped together to form a battery of cells, known as a storage battery. In
the case of the lead-acid battery this consists of positive plates made of lead peroxide and negative
plates made of lead. Each pair of positive and negative plates, comprising a cell, is
connected in series with the next and the whole immersed in an electrolyte of 30% sulphuric acid and
70% water.
As the battery is discharged the chemical action changes both plates to lead sulphate, and the strength
of the electrolyte is reduced. As a consequence the specific gravity of the electrolyte also reduces. As
the battery accepts a charge the plates revert to their original compositions, and the acid of the
electrolyte strengthens. This results in a higher electrolyte specific gravity.
In order to optimise the performance of a lead-acid cell, the plates of dissimilar metals
are sandwiched alternately, to present the greatest possible surface area for a given volume of
electrolyte. Separators, made of insulating material, are fitted between the positive and negative plates
to prevent internal short-circuiting.
A lead-acid cell will produce a maximum of 2.1 volts when in a fully charged state. It is therefore
necessary to connect 6 such cells together in series to produce a battery that has a nominal charge of 12
volts, since cell voltage falls to approximately 2 volts when connected to a substantial load. Aircraft
batteries of the lead acid type are usually rated at 12v (6 cells in series) or 24v (12 cells in series).
Batteries are rated according to their voltage and capacity. Battery capacity is measured in terms of
ampere-hours at a five-hour discharge rate; that is to say the battery was discharged to zero voltage in
five hours to determine its capacity. Battery capacity is checked every 3 months, if it falls below 80% of
its rated capacity the battery is removed from aircraft service.
A 12 volt battery with a capacity rating of 30 ampere-hours (Ah) is capable of supplying 30 amps for 1
hour, 3 amps for 10 hours or any multiple thereof. An alternative capacity rating is often applied to
aircraft storage batteries, known as the 5-minute discharge rate. This is based upon the maximum
current a battery will supply over a 5-minute period at an initial temperature of 26.7°C and a final
average cell voltage of 1.2 volts. This provides a useful indication of a lead-acid batteries engine starting
performance.
The health of a fully charged battery is checked before it is installed by placing a rated, or known, load
across the battery terminals in parallel with a voltmeter. The voltmeter should show the rated voltage of
the battery, and should continue to do so for 15 seconds. If it fails to do so this is a good indication that
the internal condition of the battery has deteriorated and it should not be placed in service. Batteries
are recharged by connecting them to a source of direct current of greater emf than the battery itself.
There following precautions to be observed when charging lead-acid batteries:
a. Charging must be carried out in a well-ventilated area, to disperse vented gas.
b. The battery charger should be switched off before disconnecting the charging leads; to
avoid sparks at the battery terminals.
c. Ensure the battery vents are clean an working correctly.
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d. Remove the battery from the aircraft before charging as the electrolyte tends to
vaporise during charging and it is highly corrosive.
e. When removing the battery from the aircraft disconnect the negative lead first; when
replacing it reconnect the negative lead last. This helps avoid accidental short-circuits between
the airframe and the positive terminal of the battery.
Battery fluid spillage will cause problems, both to the aircraft structure and to human tissue.
Bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) is an effective neutralising agent for dealing with deposits in
leadacid battery compartments. Acid burns to the skin should be First Aid treated with a copious flow of
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
The lead-acid battery is by no means the only type of secondary cell in use. Another common type of cell
in aircraft use is the Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad) battery. In this the positive plates are made of nickel
hydroxide and the negative plates of cadmium hydroxide. The electrolyte is a solution of 70% distilled
water and 30% potassium hydroxide. During charging the negative plates give up oxygen and become
cadmium, whilst the positive plates pick up oxygen to form nickel oxides. During discharge the process is
reversed.
NiCad batteries are lighter and more robust than lead-acid cells, they have a longer life, they are easier
to store and they do not give off gases whilst charging. They also have a greater power-to-weight ratio.
However, they are more expensive and they are only capable of producing 1.2 to 1.25 volts per cell.
Consequently, a nickel-cadmium battery with a rated voltage of 24 volts may have 19 cells or 20 cells
connected in series, depending upon the maximum total voltage required. Construction of NiCad
batteries is fundamentally similar to that of Lead-Acid batteries, in that the cells are made up of
interleaved alternate positive and negative plates immersed in the electrolyte and joined at their upper
ends to the positive and negative terminals. A continuous woven nylon separator insulates the plates
from each other. The cells comprising the battery are assembled within a container made of fibreglass
or steel coated with epoxy resin. A diagram showing the construction of a typical nickel-cadmium cell is
shown below.
A Nickel-Cadmium battery may indicate overcharging by the formation of white crystals on the top of
the battery. This is due to expelled electrolyte vapour reacting with the carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere to produce potassium carbonate.
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The capacity of a nickel-cadmium battery is much greater than that of a lead-acid battery of similar size
and weight and thus it will deliver far more power and for a longer period. The battery voltage remains
essentially constant over almost the whole of the discharge cycle, falling markedly only as the battery
becomes fully discharged. This characteristic makes the NiCad battery particularly suitable for gas
turbine engine starting, where a long start cycle requires protracted battery discharge before the
engine-driven generators can supply power to recharge the battery. The capacity of a NiCad battery is a
direct function of the total plate area within the cells and may be up to 80-ampere hours (Ah) in a typical
24-volt battery. The Ah rating is always determined at a 5-hour discharge rate unless otherwise
specified.
Thermal Runaway
Batteries will perform to their rated capacities so long as temperature conditions and charging rates are
kept within the specified limits. If either is exceeded a condition known as thermal runaway may occur,
which causes boiling of the electrolyte, violent gassing and eventual melting of the plates and battery
casing. Thermal runaway, or vicious cycling, is a condition to which Nickel-Cadmium batteries are
particularly susceptible at high charging rates. During overcharging, oxygen is formed at the positive
plates of the battery. If this oxygen reaches the negative plates it will re-combine with the cadmium and
generate heat as a result. If this process is allowed to continue the battery may be seriously damaged, or
even explode. The condition is avoided by keeping charge rates within safe limits and by monitoring
battery temperature. Some aircraft NiCad batteries incorporate a temperature sensor that activates an
overheat-warning indicator, or a temperature gauge, in the cockpit. If the temperature rises above a
prescribed level the battery must be disconnected from the bus bar by opening the battery master
switch.
15.6 Magnetism and Electricity
Magnetism and electricity are inseparable. When an electrical current flows through a conductor a
magnetic field is created around the current-carrying conductor. The greater the current flow through
the conductor, the greater the strength of the magnetic field surrounding it. This is the principle upon
which electro-magnets work. When an electrical conductor is placed within a magnetic field, providing
that there is relative movement between the two such that the conductor cuts across the lines of
magnetic force, electrical energy is induced in the conductor. This is known as electro-magnetic
induction and is the principle upon which a generator works. Before considering these principles it is
necessary to discuss the basic principles of magnetism.
Magnetism
The name is derived from magnetite, an iron-oxide material that from early times was found to have the
property of attracting iron and similar materials. The early explorers used this "lodestone" as a primitive
compass since, when suspended freely, one end always points in a Northerly direction. When an
external magnetic field is applied to a piece of soft iron the magnetic domains begin to align themselves
with the polarity of the external field. Repeated application of the external magnetic field will result in
more and more of the domains becoming aligned until, ultimately, they are all aligned in the same
direction. A bar of soft iron can be magnetised by stroking it along its length in one direction with one
pole of a permanent magnet. Repeated application of an electro-magnetic field will have the same
effect. At this point the soft iron bar is producing its maximum magnetic field strength and it is said to be
magnetically saturated.
Electro-Magnets
If a soft iron rod, or core, is placed within the current-carrying coil shown at the magnetic flux will
traverse the iron core and its domains will align with the flux direction so that it becomes a magnet with
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polarity the same as the electro-magnetic field. Soft iron is used because of its high permeability, or
ability to become magnetised or demagnetised. That is to say the magnetic domains will readily align
with the external (coil-produced) field, but will take up random alignment when the external field is
removed. Since the external field requires current flow to produce it, the electro-magnet can be
switched on or off by switching the coil current on or off. Furthermore, the strength of the electro-
magnet can be increased (up to saturation level in the soft iron core) by increasing the current flow in
the coil. Thus, the number of turns in the coil and the permeability of the core determine the strength of
an electro magnet.
15.7. Solenoid/Relays
The flux field of the magnetism induced in the core of an electro-magnet may be used to
create mechanical movement, which subsequently can be made to operate a piece of
equipment, such as a switch. An electro-magnet having a fixed core and a magnetically operated
mechanical linkage is called a relay and is often used for the remote operation of low-current switching
devices. The principle is illustrated below:
15.8. Generators, Alternators and Motors
15.8.1. Electro-Magnetic Induction

Induction is the name given to the transference of electrical energy without the aid of
conductors. When this transfer of energy is achieved by means of a magnetic field it is known as
electro-magnetic induction. Electro-magnetic induction occurs when there is relative movement
between a conductor and a magnetic field such that the conductor is cutting across the lines of magnetic
flux. If the conductor moves parallel to the lines of flux, there is no electro-magnetic induction. The
relative movement may be achieved either by a moving conductor in a stationary field or a stationary
conductor in a moving field. The field flux may be made to move by mechanically moving a magnet, as in
some generators, or by varying the strength of the current in an electro-magnet, as in a transformer.
The subject of transformers is discussed in the Power Distribution section of AC Electrics.
15.8.2. Fleming's Right Hand Rule

The direction of the current can be determined by Fleming's Right Hand Rule (Figure 6.4). To do so, align
the first finger with the field from the North Pole to the South Pole. Point the thumb in the direction of
rotation and the second finger will show the current direction. For example, in Figure 6.4 the first finger
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is aligned with the field and the thumb is pointing upward in the direction of rotation of the red half of
the armature. The second finger shows the current coming out of the red (negative) half of the
armature. The blue half of the armature is moving downward therefore with the first finger still aligned
with the field, if the hand is rotated through 180 degrees the second finger will show the current going
into the armature.
If the direction of rotation or the field polarity is reversed, then so will be the direction of the current.
However, if both are reversed the direction of current remains unchanged.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

The magnitude of the induced voltage can be affected in three ways:
a. The rate of cutting of lines of force. (Speed).
b. The strength of the magnetic field. (Flux density).
c. The number of turns of wire. (Larger coil).
The principle of generator action, in which electro-magnetic induction produces power, is

illustrated below.
As the conductor is moved across the magnetic flux field an electromotive force (emf), or
voltage, is induced in it. The voltage will cause current to flow, and thus power to be produced, if the
conductor forms a complete electrical circuit, as diagram shown below. The direction in which the
induced emf acts is determined by Fleming's right hand rule as above.
The Laws of Electro-Magnetic Induction: The important laws concerning electro-magnetic induction are
those laid down by Faraday and Lenz.
Faraday's Laws state that:

1st Law. An induced emf is established in a circuit whenever the magnetic field linked with the
circuit changes. (in intensity or polarity).
2nd Law. The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux
linked with the circuit.
Lenz's Law states that:

The induced emf acts to circulate a current in a direction that opposes the change in flux that causes the
emf.
15.8.3. Simple AC Generators

The movement of a conductor within a magnetic field results in the induction of an emf in the
conductor. It follows that, for continuous generation of emf in the conductor, there must be
continuous relative movement between conductor and magnetic field. This is achieved by rotating a
conducting loop within the flux field between the poles of a magnet.
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Diagram shows a simple generator consisting of a conducting loop, or armature, placed in the field
between the poles of a permanent magnet and rotated by an external mechanical drive (in an aircraft
this drive is from the engine). As the armature loop rotates, the sides of the loop cut through the flux
field and this relative movement between conducting loop and field induces an emf in the loop.
Simple AC generator
The rotating loop is known as the armature.

The magnetic field is termed the field.
In a simple generator the armature rotates in the field.
An EMF is induced in the armature by electromagnetic induction.
The slip rings, brushes and cables complete the closed circuit and current will flow.
This type of generator produces an AC voltage in the armature and therefore an Alternating Current in
the external circuit as shown below below.
AC Generator Voltage Output
15.9. Three Phase Generator/ Alternator:

AC electricity is used to power most of the lighting on an aircraft, plus low-powered AC motors. It is also
converted to DC for battery charging, relay operation, powering DC motors and other DC loads. This
type of equipment operates on a single wire supply and earth-return distribution system from the
alternator and is known as single-phase operation.
However, heavy duty AC motors operate on a rotating magnetic field principle, which requires three AC
supplies at equally spaced time intervals. Many avionic components also operate on similar principles,
so it is normal for the three AC supplies, or phases, to be produced by a three-phase, or poly-phase,
alternator.
Three phase alternators have three equally spaced and independent armature windings in the stator
casing, to give the required outputs at 120° intervals. Each winding operates like a single phase
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alternator, and can be used to supply single-phase loads. Alternatively, the outputs can be used
together for three phase (or two phase) loads.
Output voltage produced by the three-phase AC generator
In practice each of the three phases is not usually brought out to individual pairs of terminals.
The three phases are interconnected by means of either a star or delta connection as shown below.
Star connection
Delta connection
The above diagram illustrates the star or delta connection, which is the norm for aircraft AC generators.
One end of each phase winding is connected to a common junction known as the star, or neutral point.
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Also connected to this point is the common return, or neutral line from the single phase AC loads. The
other end of each phase winding is connected to a distribution, or live line. The live lines supply the
single-phase loads, the single phase loads are connected in parallel with the generator phase windings.
The voltage across these loads is known as the phase voltage and it is the voltage between live line and
neutral. It is typically 115v (rms).
Between any pair of lines there are two generator phase windings connected, but these phase voltages
are in opposition and out-of-phase, so line-to-line, or line voltage is equal to phase voltage x √3. Since √3
= 1.73, if phase voltage were 115v, line voltage would be 115 x 1.73, or 200v. In a star connected or star
wound generator distribution system, line and phase currents are equal, because the current in any
phase load is clearly flowing through the live line connected to it.
The majority of the loads on the generator are single-phase loads, so they are connected between a line
and neutral. In an aircraft system the designer attempts to ensure that, in normal operation, the total
aircraft loads are approximately equally shared between the three-phases. If the three individual phase
loads were always equal, the current flow in the neutral return would always be zero and the return line
could be dispensed with. In an aircraft distribution system however, the loads in the three-phases will
vary as items of equipment are switched on and off, so a neutral return is necessary.
Should an internal break lead to open circuiting of one phase of a star wound three-phase generator
the voltage across that phase will fall to zero and there will be no current flow in that phase. The phasor
sum of the remaining currents will be higher than before, hence there will be an increase of current flow
in the neutral return. This is liable to cause a voltage drop in the two remaining phases, the magnitude
of which will depend upon the magnitude of the phase loads.
Short-circuiting between generator phases (line-to-line) or between a phase and neutral (line to- earth)
will cause very high current flow and the voltage will drop to near zero. The high current flow causes
overheating of the stator windings.
AC Generators /Alternators
There are several advantages of using an alternator (AC system) compared to a DC generator. The
alternator has a much better power/weight ratio and can produce maximum circuit voltage requirement
at low rpm. Because there is no requirement for commutation the problem of brush sparking is
eliminated and in addition a wider range of current supply is available for consumer devices.
AC generators in aircraft conform generally to two basic types, depending upon the system to be served.
These two types are frequency-wild and frequency-controlled generators. In either case the generator is
normally a three-phase machine producing single-phase output voltage at 115v, and three-phase
voltage at 200v.
15.9.1. PRACTICAL AC GENERATORS.
Rotating Armature alternators suffer from various disadvantages :-

a. The rotating coils are heavy and centrifugal forces are high
b. Efficient insulation of the rotating coils is difficult.
c. The resistance across the brushes to the sliprings is high.
d. The rotating coils are difficult to cool.
e. They have a poor power to weight ratio.
Rotating Field alternators make up the majority in use. From the previous sections it will be seen that
in this type of alternator the field is in the rotor and the phase windings form the stator.
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There are two types of rotating field alternator in use on aircraft :-
a. Brushed alternators.
b. Brushless alternators.
15.9.2. BRUSHED ALTERNATORS.

The current supply for the excitation of the rotor field can be provided initially from the aircraft DC bus
bar (battery) and then subsequently by rectified AC The DC current is directed through brushes and slip
rings to the rotating field. Control of the excitation current is by the voltage regulator which samples
the alternator output (115v AC) and adjusts the excitation current to maintain the correct voltage
irrespective of the alternator speed. The voltage regulator in its simplest form is a variable resistance
connected in series with the field coil. Figure below shows a block diagram of a Brushed Alternator.
Brushed Alternator
15.9.3. BRUSHLESS ALTERNATORS
Brushless Alternator
Brushless alternator incorporates an exciter generator mounted on the same shaft as the main generator.
The purpose of the exciter generator is to provide a current for the main generator rotating field.
The rotating rectifier converts the AC produced in the exciter armature to DC required for the main rotor
field supply.
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Voltage regulation is effected by controlling the Exciter field strength and thereby the current strength
at the main rotor field coil. Brushless alternators have some advantages over brushed alternators:
a. They are very reliable.
b. There are no brush wear problems.
c. They have a high power to weight ratio.
Modern brushless alternators may have a third generator on the same shaft called a Permanent Magnet
Generator (PMG) which provides excitation current for its exciter generator. Alternator output is usually
200 (line) / 115 (phase) volts @ 400 Hz. There are two basic types of brushless alternator :-
a. Externally excited. (No residual magnetism in the exciter)
b. Self excited. (Some residual magnetism in the exciter)
15.9.4. FREQUENCY WILD ALTERNATORS
If an alternator is driven directly from the engine gearbox , then its speed, and therefore the frequency
of its output will vary directly with engine speed. An output from such a generator is said to be
Frequency Wild.
NB. The connection of two frequency wild generators in parallel is not possible. Frequency wild
alternators are usually used on aircraft to power the electrical de-icing systems, where the resistances
that make up the heater mats are not affected by changing frequencies.
15.9.5. CONSTANT SPEED GENERATOR DRIVE SYSTEMS.
The Constant Speed Drive Unit (C.S.D.U) consists of an engine driven hydraulic pump, the output of
which drives a hydraulic motor which itself in turn drives the alternator.
The oil which forms the medium through which the mechanism operates and also facilitates lubrication
and cooling, is contained within a reservoir, entirely separate from the engine oil system.
The output of the hydraulic pump, and therefore the speed of the hydraulic motor, depends on the
angle of a swashplate within the pump. The angle of the swashplate is controlled by a device called a
speed governor. The speed governor is controlled by the load controller which senses the output
frequency of the alternator and is responsible for increasing or decreasing the torque output of the
C.S.D.U. to the alternator drive. Most C.S.D.U.s are capable of maintaining the alternator output
frequency within 5% of 400 Hz (380 - 420 Hz). In the event of a mechanical failure in the alternator the
C.S.D.U. is protected by a Quill Drive, this is the equivalent of a weak link which will break before any
major damage can be caused. The CSDU operates in one of three modes overdrive, straight through
drive or underdrive.
a. overdrive = engine speed less than generator speed
b. straight through drive = engine speed same as generator speed
c. underdrive = engine speed greater than generator speed
Some constant frequency generators have their CSDU and generator combined in one unit called an
Integrated Drive Unit (IDU) or Integrated Drive Generator (1DG)
15.9.6. C.S.D.U. FAULT INDICATIONS IN THE COCKPIT.

There are several indications in the cockpit associated with the Constant Speed Drive Unit and the
problems which might occur with it. The two main ones are : -
a. Low Oil Pressure Warning Lights. These will illuminate when the oil pressure drops below a
predetermined minimum value.
b. High Oil Temperature warning. Monitors the CSDU oil outlet temperature.
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AC Generator Alternator Cooling
The heat generated in the alternator stator windings due to the current flow through them means that
some form of cooling system is required. Those systems with frequency wild generators or constant
frequency generators with separate CSDU's typically use ram air cooling in flight and some means to
induce an airflow on the ground. IDG's or IDU's use their oil to cool the stators which is then cooled in
its own oil cooler.
15.9.7. GENERATOR FAULT PROTECTION.

When constant frequency alternators are paralleled, then the requirement for other Control and
Protection devices becomes apparent. There follows a non-exhaustive list of some of those devices :-
a. Bus Tie Breakers (B.T.B.․ )
b. Discriminatory circuits.
c. Differential Fault Protection circuits.
d. Synchronising Units.
e. Failure Warning systems.
f. Load meters.
g. Voltage and Frequency meters.
h. Generator Control Units (GCU)
SYNCHRONISING UNITS.
Before the alternator can be connected to a bus bar which is common to another alternator its voltages,
frequency and phase sequence must be within very strict limits and in the same order. The
Synchronising Unit ensures that these values are within limits before it will allow connection to a
common bus bar.
15.9.8. GENERATOR FAILURE WARNING LIGHT.

A Generator Failure Warning Light will illuminate when its associated G.C.B. is tripped. The Centralised
Warning System will operate simultaneously with the Generator Warning Light and in some aircraft
Aural Warnings are generated.
Aircraft with electronic systems management display units will show the failure and the associated
schematic display.
15.9.9. THE RAM AIR TURBINE (R.A.T.)

The Ram Air Turbine (RAT), when lowered into the slipstream of an aircraft in flight will produce an
emergency source of AC power. The output is controlled at a nominal 115/200 volts, three phase 400
Hz. It will give limited operation only of Flight Instrument and Radio services in the event of Total
Alternator Failure. (RAT's driving an electrical generator have been largely superceded by RAT's driving a
hydraulic pump, as modern aircraft are more dependent on hydraulic power)
15.9.10. THE AUXILIARY POWER UNIT A.P.U.

The Auxiliary Power Unit (A.P.U.) is usually a small gas turbine engine mounted in the aircraft tail cone.
This engine runs at a constant speed and has its own protection devices in the event of a Fire, Low Oil
Pressure, High Oil Temperature, Overspeed or Overheat. It can be used, among other things, to
drive a 115/200 volt, three phase alternator for ground servicing supplies, or, in some aircraft, for
emergency supplies in the air. The A.P.U. alternator cannot be paralleled with the engine driven
alternators, and will only supply power to the bus bars when no other source is feeding them.
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15.10. TRANSFORMERS:
One of the biggest advantages that an AC supply has over a DC supply is the ease with which the value
of alternating voltage can be raised or lowered with extreme efficiency by the use of Transformers. A
simple transformer would consist of two electrically separate coils wound over iron laminations to form
a common core. This forms a completely closed magnetic circuit. A simple Transformer is shown below.
The Primary winding is connected to the AC supply and the output is taken from the Secondary winding.
The alternating voltage and current in the primary winding creates an alternating flux which links across
to the secondary winding. The alternating flux in the secondary winding sets up an e.m.f. of mutual
inductance which is available as the output voltage. The out put voltage will be 180° out of phase with
the input voltage. If a load is placed across the terminals of the secondary winding then a current will
flow in the circuit.
A Simple Transformers
TRANSFORMATION RATIO.
The Transformation Ratio of a transformer is the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the secondary
winding (N2) to the number of turns of wire on the primary winding (N1). The transformation ratio will
also allow the determination of input and output voltages and number of turns in Primary and
Secondary coils. If the transformation ratio is greater than one, then the transformer is a Step Up
transformer. If the ratio is less than one, then the transformer is a Step Down transformer.
15.10.1. RECTIFICATION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT.

A Rectifier is a device which will convert Alternating Current into Direct Current. The operation of the
Diode Rectifier is described in the Semiconductor chapter and is a very common device in modern
aircraft solid state circuits. It can be used to convert AC to DC or as a "Blocking Diode" (electrical non
return valve) to prevent reverse current flow in a DC system. A diode has a high resistance in one
direction and a low resistance in the other. The accepted symbol for a diode rectifier and the direction
of conventional current flow is shown in Figure Single phase half wave Rectifier below.
HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION.

A diode inserted in the secondary circuit of a transformer will allow current to flow through the load in
one direction only. This is termed Half Wave Rectification. The bottom half of the AC waveform is
blocked and the frequency of the output is the same as the input, as shown in Figure below.
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Single phase half wave Rectifier
FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION.

To fill in the gaps between pulses that have been left from half wave rectification a Bridge Rectifier can
be used. As can be seen from Figure 4.5 , when one half of the bridge circuit is presenting a high
resistance to current flow, the other half is allowing it to flow relatively easily. This arrangement is
specifically designed to allow the output of the bridge to be of a single polarity. The output can be
smoothed to some extent by the addition of a capacitor placed across it
Single Phase Full Wave Rectifier
THREE PHASES FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:
The aircraft installed with a three phase AC generators for supplying AC power to operate high power
required equipment are also use three phase full wave rectifier to obtain ripple free DC supply. In a
transformer rectifier unit 115 Volt AC is step down to 28 volt AC, which by using a full wave rectifier will
supply required DC power to the aircraft system. A schematic diagram of three phase full wave rectifier
is shown below.
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Three phases full wave rectifier
15.10.2. TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER UNITS (TRU's)
TRU's convert AC at one voltage to DC at another voltage by combining the transformer and rectifier in
one unit (usually 115/200v AC to 28v DC) to supply the DC needs of an AC distribution system.
TRU's are invariably multi phase units to achieve a smooth DC output. Indications of TRU output (amps)
can be shown on the main electrical panel on the flight deck. Cooling is achieved by drawing air through
the unit which may be monitored for temperature with an overheat warning supplied.
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Transformer - Rectifier Unit (T.R.U.)
15.11. INVERTERS:
An inverter converts DC to AC. The inverter in an constant frequency AC equipped aircraft is used as a
source of emergency supply if the AC generators fail, then the inverter is powered by the battery.
Inverters are invariably "solid state" static inverters, (transistorized), in modern aircraft providing
constant frequency AC for operation of flight instruments and other essential AC consumers. Rotary and
Static inverters are described in the DC section.
Aircraft which have frequency wild distribution systems use inverters to supply their normal constant
frequency requirements. Inverter output can be monitored for voltage and frequency in the same
manner as the main generators. Cooling is accomplished in the same manner as the TRU.
15.12. Simple DC Generators:

To produce a DC output from the simple generator it is required to change the AC EMF induced
into the armature to a DC output at the generator terminals. This is done by replacing the slip rings with
a Split ring Commutator. Diagram shown below is a DC generator and DC voltage output.
Simple DC Generator
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DC Generator Voltage Output
15.13. ALTERNATORS:
Most modern light aircraft use an alternator rather than a DC generator to provide constant voltage
electricity for its electrical system because of the advantages an alternator has.
The alternator has a much better power to weight ratio, will produce a stable output at low RPM and
does not suffer with the problems of a commutator as it uses a rectifier to convert AC to DC.
The following table and diagram identify the constructional differences between the DC generator and
the alternator.
DC Generator Alternator
Rotating Armature Stationary Armature
Stationary Field Rotating Field
Converts AC to DC by means of a Converts AC to Dc by means of rectifier
commutator
Suffers from arcing and sparking at the High load current taken from stationary
commutator as the high load current has armature eliminates arcing and sparking.
to flow through the commutator and Small field current only flows through slip
brushes rings.
DC Generator and Alternator
VOLTAGE CONTROL
The output voltage of a generator or alternator is dependent upon: -
a. The speed of rotation of the armature or field.
b. The strength of the magnetic field.
c. The number of turns in the armature.
d. The size and shape of the turns in the armature.
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Most light aircraft DC electrical systems operate at 14 volts and so all the equipment it designed to
operate correctly when supplied with 14 volts. It is therefore necessary for the output of the generator
or alternator to be controlled, or regulated, to ensure that at all times it supplies 14 volts.
As can be seen from the table above, there are four factors which influence the output voltage of a
generator or alternator.
The number and size and shape of the turns is a design factor and therefore the operator cannot alter
them.
The generator or alternator is driven by a drive belt or an engine accessory gearbox and therefore the
speed of rotation of the armature or field is linked to the speed of rotation of the engine. Controlling the
output voltage by controlling the speed of the engine is not a practical solution.
15.14. ELECTRIC MOTORS:

An electric motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. Its function is,
therefore, the reverse of that of a generator. There is little difference between the construction of D.C.
motors and D.C. generators, both have essentially the same parts and they look alike. In fact, in many
cases, a D.C. machine can be used either as a motor or a generator.
Remember back to magnetic principles, a current flowing through a wire placed in a magnetic field
causes the wire to move due to a force acting on the wire; a motor works on this principle.
15.14.1. FLEMINGS LEFT HAND RULE

The direction of rotation of a motor can be determined by Fleming's Left Hand Rule as shown below. To
do so, align the first finger with the field from the North Pole to the South Pole. Point the second finger
in the direction of the current flowing into or out of the armature and the thumb will indicate the
direction of motion.
For example, the first finger is aligned with the field and the second finger is pointing in the direction of
the current coming out of the red (negative) half of the armature. The thumb is
pointing upward indicating that the motion is upwards and therefore anticlockwise. This the blue
(positive) half of the armature the current is flowing into the armature. Therefore, with the first finger
still aligned with the field if the hand rotated through 180 degrees the thumb will now be pointing
downward confirming anticlockwise rotation of the armature.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
If the current or the field polarity is reversed, then so will be the direction of rotation of the motor.
However, if both are reversed the direction of rotation of the motor remains unchanged.
The simple DC generator shown earlier and the DC motor below are not practical and can be improved
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by adding further armature/s and improving the shape of the poles pieces. Generator voltage output
and motor speed can be controlled by the addition of field windings which enable the field strength to
be adjusted.
Simple DC Motor
15.15. Real Load Sharing:

For paralleled generators to equally share real load their rotational speeds must be identical. It is
generator speed that determines output frequency, and paralleled generators must lock together with
respect to frequency.
The higher frequency of a higher speeding generator will establish system frequency and this generator
will take more than its share of the total system load, tending to motor the remaining paralleled
generators.
A Load sharing circuit is used to parallel all AC generator buses and as well as all DC buses to share total
aircraft load required to operate electrically operated system. For emergency in case of AC generator or
normal DC failure Aircraft battery is used to supply electrical power to emergency DC bus and through
an inverter DC is converted to AC and used for emergency AC power. A typical modern aircraft electrical
power supply system is shown below.
The Battery
The battery would normally be a 12 or 24 volt lead-acid or alkaline and can be used to start the engines,
or to supply electrical power in the event of generator or alternator failure.
15.15.1. The Bus Bars:

The bus bars are the collection and distribution centre for a generator or alternator power supply. They
utilise solid copper bars which can be drilled to permit supply and distribution cables to be attached. In
most types of aircraft, the output from the generating sources is coupled to one or more low impedance
conductors referred to as busbars.
Busbars are usually situated in junction boxes or distribution panels located at central points within the
aircraft, and they provide a convenient means for connecting power supplies to the various consumer
circuits; in other words, they perform a 'carry-all' function. Busbars vary in form dependent on the
methods to be adopted in meeting the electrical power requirements of a particular aircraft type.
In its simplest form a bulbar can take the form of a strip of interlinked terminals, while in the more
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complex systems main busbars are thick metal (usually copper) strips or rods to which input and output
supply connections can be made.
The strips or rods are insulated from the main structure and are normally provided with some form of
protective covering. Flat, flexible strips of braided copper wire are also used in some aircraft and serve
as subsidiary busbars.
15.15.2. AC Generator Supply:
Diagram: Load Sharing
The function of a distribution system is primarily a simple one, but it is complicated by having to
meet additional requirements which concern a power source, or a power consumer system operating
either separately or collectively, under abnormal conditions.
The requirements and abnormal conditions may be considered in relation to three main areas, which
are summarized as follows:
a. Power-consuming equipment must not be deprived of power in the event of power
source failures unless the total power demand exceeds the available supply.
b. Faults on the distribution system (e.g. fault currents, grounding or earthing at a busbar) should have
the minimum effect on system functioning and should constitute minimum possible fire risk.
c. Power-consuming equipment faults must not endanger the supply of power to the equipment.
These requirements are met in a combined manner by paralleling generators where appropriate, by
providing adequate circuit protection devices, and by arranging for failed generators to be isolated
from the distribution system.
The operating principle of these methods is concerned with the additional one of arranging busbars and
distribution circuits so that they may be fed from different power sources.
In adopting this arrangement it is usual to categorize all consumer services into their order of
importance and, in general, they fall into three groups;
a. Vital/ Emergency
b. Essential,
c. Non-essential.
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Vital / Emergency services are those which would be required after an emergency wheels-up landing,
e.g. emergency lighting and crash switch operation of fire extinguishers. These services are connected
directly to the battery.
Essential services are those required to ensure safe flight in an in-flight emergency situation.
They are connected to DC and AC busbars, as appropriate, and in such a way that they can always be
supplied from a generator or from batteries.
Non-essential services are those which can be isolated in an in-flight emergency for load shedding
purposes (see below), and are connected to DC and AC busbars, as appropriate, and are supplied from a
generator.
15.15.3. DC Generator Supply:
DC Generators Supply
15.15.4. GENERATOR OR ALTERNATOR FAILURE:

The indications of a generator or alternator failure would consist of a generator or alternator warning
light illuminating and the ammeter or load meter showing either zero, or a discharge if it was the centre
reading type. Typical actions to be carried out in the event of a Generator or Alternator Failure are as
follows;-
a. Switch off all unnecessary electrical loads. Details are given in the aircraft handling notes of the
items to be the subject of load shedding.
b. Isolate the generator or alternator electrically by turning the master switch or alternator switch
"off'. This will break the field circuit and the output voltage will fall to zero or a residual value,
making the failed system 'safe'.
c. Iin most cases a failure of the generator will cause the reverse current relay to operate , isolating
the generator output from the bus bar.
The principle of dividing categorized consumer services between individual busbars, is called a split
busbar system of operation.
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In this example, the power distribution system is one in which the power supplies are 28 volts DC, from
engine-driven generators operating in parallel, 115 volts 400 Hz AC from inverters, and 24 volts DC from
batteries. Each generator has its own busbar to which are connected the nonessential consumer
services.
Both busbars are in turn connected to a single busbar which supplies power to the essential services.
Thus, with both generators operating, all consumers requiring DC power are supplied.
The essential services busbar is also connected to the battery busbar thereby ensuring that the batteries
are maintained in the charged condition.
The battery busbar may be referred to as a 'hot bus' or ' hot battery bus' because it is always connected
to the battery.
In the event that one generator should fail it is automatically isolated from its respective busbar and all
busbar loads are then taken over by the operating generator. Should both generators fail however, non-
essential consumers can no longer be supplied, but the batteries will automatically supply power to the
essential services and keep them operating for a pre-determined period calculated on the basis of
consumer load requirements and battery state of charge. (Normally 30 minutes).
In the case of the system represented above, the DC supply to power the inverters is taken from busbars
appropriate to the importance of the AC operated consumers.
15.16. Ram Air Turbine

Many commercial transport aircraft are fitted with an air-driven turbine that drives an emergency
alternator, for use in the event of failure of all the engine-driven alternators.
A typical unit comprises a single stage turbine with direct drive to the alternator, which is usually of
lower output capacity to the engine driven alternators and capable of meeting essential electrical
requirements. The unit is normally stowed in a compartment closed by a hinged door.
When activated, the door opens and the ram air turbine is deployed into the air stream, where it is
rotated by the airflow passing through the turbine blades. Variable incidence inlet guide vanes control
the airflow into the turbine wheel. Constant rotary speed is maintained by variation of the inlet guide
vanes under the influence of a flyweight type governor.
In some instances a variable pitch two-bladed propeller is used as the driving unit and certain aircraft
have a ram air turbine driving an emergency hydraulic pump.
Typically, the unit is located in the underside of the wing root fairing and is deployed mechanically by
spring action when a release catch is activated from the flight deck.
16. Aircraft Instruments
16.1. Introduction
Since the early days of flying there has been ever increasing requirement for information about the
progress of the flight to be available to the pilot.
Once the aeroplane become capable of moving out of the field from which the collection of bits of
wood, metal and fabric had staggered into the air, it become necessary to know the state of the internal
combustion engine driving the propellers, the direction in which the aeroplane was pointing, and the
speed at which it was travelling.
Instruments giving information about the state of the engine had been in use for some time on motor
cars and trucks and, of course, magnetic campuses had been used on ships for an even longer time.
An instrument to indicate the speed of the aircraft through the air presented a new problem, but within
a few years of the first successful manned flight, quite sophisticated instruments had been produced.
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The Instrument Layout
The rapid advances in aeronautics meant that aeroplane were now capable of flying for hours instead of
minutes and flying for miles instead of yards. Inevitably this meant that aeroplane might find them in
cloud, without a visible horizon, and this posed more problems. The cockpit was being filled with more
and more dials and indicators and it was necessary to create some order out of chaos, to decide which
instruments should have prominence and to achieve some standardization.
The flying instruments which covered the handling of the aircraft were arranged in the layout of the
“Basic Six”. Other instruments tended to scattered around the cockpit in positions most convenient to
the designer and manufacturer, seldom to suit the needs of the pilot.
‘Basic Six’ Instruments Layout
‘Basic T’ Instrument Layout
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Since the instrumentation of the “Basic Six” developments in aircraft instruments and operations led to
the introduction of the “Basic T”. This layout are shown above.
16.2. The Atmosphere:

The atmosphere is a relatively thin layer of gases surrounding the Earth, becoming more diffuse with
increasing height. Water vapour is present in variable amounts, particularly near the surface.
The atmosphere can be divided into a number of layers each with a tendency to a particular
temperature distribution. The names, heights and characteristics of these layers may vary according to
which standard atmosphere is being defined. However, in all cases the lower layer, the troposphere,
extends to a layer known as the tropopause. The significant characteristic of the troposphere is the
fairly regular decrease of temperature with height. The tropopause tends to become lower towards the
Earth's poles (around 25,000 ft) and higher towards the equator (up to 54,000 ft). The region above the
tropopause is known as the stratosphere, extending up to the stratopause. The height of the
stratopause varies depending on which definition is being employed, but can be taken to be about 30
miles (166,000 ft).
Pressure Lapse Rate. As height increases, pressure decreases, but this decrease is not proportional to
the increase in height because the density of air varies with height, as does the value of g, although to a
lesser extent. It is possible to deduce an expression for the pressure lapse rate at a constant
temperature and thus establish a relationship between pressure and height. A practical approximation
for the lower levels of the atmosphere is that a decrease in pressure of one millibar equates to an
increase in height of 30 feet.
Temperature Lapse Rate. Temperature does not remain constant but varies with height in a complex
manner. The temperature lapse rate depends on the humidity of the air, and is itself a
function of height. This variation greatly affects the relationship between pressure and height. To
calibrate an altimeter to indicate barometric height it is necessary to make some
assumptions as to the temperature structure of the atmosphere. The relationship can be expressed in
mathematical form for each of the various layers of the atmosphere and the instrument can then be
calibrated accordingly.
Height Assumptions. Because of the temporal and spatial variations in the real atmosphere, and the
differences between the conditions on any occasion and the assumptions used in altimeter calibration,
there is no real correlation between indicated altitude and actual altitude. A barometrically derived
height must therefore be used with extreme caution as a basis for terrain clearance. However, provided
that all aircraft use the same datum and the same assumptions in the calibration of their altimeters, safe
vertical separation between aircraft can be achieved.
16.2.1. International Standard Atmosphere:
The ICAO standard atmosphere is taken as the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and the
assumed characteristics are:
The air is dry and its chemical composition is the same at all altitudes.
The value of g is constant at 980.665 cm/sec2.
The temperature and pressure at mean sea-level are 15°C and 1013.25 millibars.
The temperature lapse rate is 1.98°C per 1000 ft up to a height of 36,090ft above which the temperature
is assumed to remain constant at – 56.5°C
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WADC Standard Atmosphere
17. Indication Systems
17.1. Introduction
A knowledge of the speed at which an aircraft is travelling through the air, ie the air speed, is essential
both to the pilot for the safe and efficient handling of the aircraft and to the navigator as a basic input to
the navigation calculations. The instrument which displays this information is the air speed indicator
(ASI).
Principles
An aircraft, stationary on the ground, is subject to normal atmospheric or static pressure which acts
equally on all parts of the aircraft structure. In flight the aircraft experiences an additional pressure on
its leading surfaces due to a buildup of the air through which the aircraft is travelling. This additional
pressure due to the aircraft's forward motion is known as dynamic pressure and is dependent upon the
forward speed of the aircraft and the density of the air according to the following formula:
PT=1/2 V2 + PS
where
PT = the pitot pressure, (also known as total head pressure or stagnation pressure)
PS = Static Pressure
 = Air density
V = velocity of the aeroplane
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Rearranging the formula, the difference between the pitot and the static pressures is equal to 1/2V2
(the dynamic pressure). The air speed indicator measures this pressure difference and provides a
display indication graduated in units of speed.
17.2. Pitot Static System

The diagram shown below illustrates the principle of operation of a pitot static and the instruments
normally associated with the system. The ASI is a sensitive differential pressure gauge operated by
pressures picked up by a pressure head, which is mounted in a suitable position on the airframe. The
simplest pressure head consists of an open ended tube, the pitot tube, aligned with the direction of
flight, and static vent installed in the both side of the aircraft fuselage as normal and alternate which
are connected by tube to the instrument like ASI, VSI, Altimeter Mach Airspeed indicators. The static
vents are installed in the area of undisturbed air flow and also perpendicular to the relative air flow.
When moved through the air, the pitot tube will pick up pitot pressure made up of static pressure and
dynamic pressure. The pitot pressure is led through a pipe-line to one side of a sealed chamber, divided
by a thin flexible diaphragm. The static tube is unaffected by dynamic pressure as its end is closed,
however, the small holes will pick up local static pressure. The static pressure is led through a second
pipe-line to the other side of the diaphragm.
Combined Pitot and Static

The diaphragm is subjected to the two opposing pressures. However, the static pressure component of
the pitot pressure is balanced by the static pressure on the other side of the diaphragm so that any
diaphragm movement is determined solely by the dynamic, or pitot excess, pressure. Movement of the
diaphragm is transmitted through a mechanical linkage to a pointer on the face of the ASI where the
pitot excess pressure (pt – p) is indicated in terms of speed.
In some installations the pitot tube and the static tube are combined into a single pressure head with
the pitot tube built inside the static tube. A heater is placed between the pitot and static tubes to
prevent ice forming and causing a blockage. Drain holes in the head allow moisture to escape and
various traps may be used to prevent dirt and water from affecting the instrument. Some of the
installation of Pitot- Static and associated instruments are shown in the following diagram.
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Pitot Static Instruments
17.3. Air Speed Indicator ASI:
17.3.1. Construction and Operation

Most air speed indicators in current use have a capsule instead of a diaphragm, however, the principle
of operation is exactly the same. The capsule, acting as the pressure sensitive element is mounted in an
Functional Diagram of ASI
airtight case. Pitot pressure is fed into the capsule and static pressure is fed to the interior of the case,
which thus contains the lower pressure. A pressure difference will cause the capsule to open out, the
movement being proportional to pressure. A link, quadrant and pinion can be used to transfer this
movement to a pointer and dial calibrated in knots.
As stated in para 16.1, the pitot excess pressure varies with the square of the speed and a linear
pressure/deflection characteristic in the capsule produces an uneven speed/deflection characteristic of
the pointer mechanism, giving unequal pointer movements for equal speed changes. To produce a
linear scale between the capsule and pointer it is necessary to control the characteristics of the capsule
and/or the mechanism. Control of the capsule is difficult due, among other reasons, to the
magnification factor of the mechanism.
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It is more usual to control the mechanism to produce a linear scale shape by changing the lever length
as the pointer advances. Depending on the manufacturer of the ASI, detailed points of construction will
vary, however, the basic principle holds good for all. A typical simple ASI is shown below.
Typical Simple ASI Two Pointer Sensitive ASI
Sensitive and Servo Air Speed Indicators: Sensitive and servo ASIs are identical in principle to the
simple ASI and operate from the normal pitot/static system. Extra sensitivity is achieved by an increase
in the gear train from the capsule, so that two pointers may be moved over an evenly calibrated dial.
Because of this increase in the gear train, more power is required to operate the gears and this is
provided by a stack of capsules. This capsule assembly has a linear pressure/deflection characteristic
Mach / Airspeed Indicator fed from Pitot and Static Source
which is more closely controlled than the single capsule used in the simple ASI. In a servo ASI the
mechanical linkage is replaced by an electrical linkage utilizing error actuation and power amplification.
A typical sensitive ASI display and Mach/ Airspeed indicator are shown above.
Calibration of ASI
Since dynamic pressure varies with air speed and air density, and since air density varies with
temperature and pressure, standard datum values have to be used in the calibration of air speed
indicators. The values used are the sea level values of the standard ICAO atmosphere.
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ASI Errors
The ASI pointer registers the amount of capsule movement due to dynamic pressure. However, the dial
is calibrated according to the formulae mentioned above which assume constant air density (standard
sea level density) and no instrument defects. Any departure from these conditions or disturbance in the
pitot or static pressures being applied to the instrument will result in a difference between the indicated
and the true air speed and thus an error in the display. There are four sources of error:
a. Instrument error.
b. Pressure error.
c. Compressibility error.
d. Density error.
1. Instrument Error. Instrument error is caused by manufacturing tolerances in the construction of the
instrument. The error is determined during calibration and any necessary correction is combined
with that for pressure error.
2. Pressure Error. Pressure error results from disturbances in the static pressure around the aircraft
due to movement through the air. Depending upon aircraft type, the error may be influenced by:
a. The position of the pressure head, pitot head or static vent.
b. The angle of attack of the aircraft.
c. The speed of the aircraft.
d. The configuration of the aircraft (ie ‘clean’/ flaps/gear/airbrakes/etc).
e. The presence of sideslip.
Most of the error results from variations in the local static pressure caused by the airflow over the
pressure head. In lower speed of an aircraft the static vent is often installed where the truest indication
of static pressure is obtained eg on the fuselage midway between nose and tail. In such a case the static
pipeline terminates at a hole in a flat brass plate known as the static vent. It it usual to have two static
vents, one either side of the aircraft to balance out the effects of sideslip which produces an increase of
pressure on one side of the aircraft and a corresponding decrease in pressure on the other side. The use
of static vents eliminates almost all the error caused by the pressure head. Any remaining error is
determined by flight trials. The pressure error correction should be applied to the indicated air speed
(IAS) to obtain calibrated air speed (CAS).
3. Compressibility Error. The calibration formulae contain a factor which is a function of the
compressibility of the air. At higher speeds this factor becomes significant. However the
calibration formulae use standard mean sea level values and an error is introduced at any altitude
where the actual values differ from those used in calibration. At altitude, the less dense air is more
easily compressed than the denser air at sea level, resulting in a greater dynamic pressure which
causes the ASI to over-read. In addition compressibility increases with increase of speed, therefore
compressibility error varies both with speed and altitude. Application of the compressibility error
correction (CEC) to CAS produces equivalent air speed (EAS).
4. Density Error. Dynamic pressure varies with airspeed and density of the air. In calibration,
standard mean sea level pressure is used; thus, for any other condition of air density, the ASI will
be in error. As altitude increases, the density decreases and the indicated airspeed (IAS), and thus
equivalent air speed (EAS) at speeds in excess of 300 KTAS, will become progressively lower than
the true air speed (TAS).
For accuracy, the correction of CAS to TAS is done on a navigational computer using the ambient
temperature (outside air temperature), at the required pressure altitude.
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A useful formula for estimating TAS is:-
TAS = CAS + (1.75% of CAS per 1000 ft of altitude)

For example for a CAS of 100 knots at 10,000 ft:
TAS = 100 + (1.75/100 x100 x 10) = 117.5 knots
The relationship between the various air speeds is as follows:
Air Speed Indicator Reading (ASIR) + Instrument Error Correction=Indicated Air Speed(IAS)
IAS + Pressure Error Correction = Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)
CAS + Compressibility Error Correction = Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)
EAS + Density Error Correction = True Air Speed (TAS)
In practice, the corrections are combined to give:
ASIR + Instrument Error Correction + Pressure Error Correction = CAS
CAS + Compressibility Error Correction + Density Error Correction = TAS
17.3.2. Colour Coding of the ASI

The scale is calibrated in terms of speed, usually knots or miles per hour, but in some caese,kilometers
per hpur. It is essential that you know which terms are displayed on the ASI. On light airplanes, the dial
is normally colour coded as shown below, with the clour segments indicating the following:
White Arc: This arc extends from Vso( stall full flap ) to Vfe ( maximum speed with flaps extended ), and
marks the flap operating speed range.
Green Arc: This arc extends from Vs1 ( stall clean ) to Vno ( normal operating speed ), and is the normal
operating speed.
Yellow Arc: This arc extends from Vno to Vne ( never exceed speed ), and denotes the cautionary speed
range. Operations within this speed range should not be carried out except in smooth air.
Red Radial Line: This line marks Vne (never exceed speed )
Other lines are also used ( e.g. a blue radial line, which is sometimes used to indicate the maximum rate
of climb speed in a twin engine airplane with one engine inoperative. Some ASI’s have adjustable bugs
for use in setting a target speed ( e.g. the threshold speed )
17.3.3 Blocked or Leaking Pressure Systems
Blockages:
Pitot: If the pitot tube is blocked eg by ice, the ASI will not react to changes of air-speed in level flight.
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However, the capsule may act as a barometer producing an indication of increase in speed if the aircraft
climbs or a decrease in speed if the aircraft dives. If the pitot tube contains a small bleed hole for
drainage, partial blockage of the 'nose' of the tube (the most common effect of icing) will result in an
under-reading. More extensive icing will cause the reading to reduce towards zero as the dynamic
pressure leaks away through the bleed hole.
Static: If the static tube is blocked, the ASI will over-read at lower altitudes and under-read at higher
altitudes than that at which the blockage occurred.
Leaks:
Pitot: A leak in the pitot tube causes the ASI to under-read.
Static: A leak in the static tube, where the pressure outside the pipe is lower than static (ie most
unpressurized aircraft), will cause the ASI to over-read. Where the outside air is higher than static (ie in
a pressurized cabin) the ASI will under-read.
Effects: The under- or over-reading of an ASI is potentially dangerous. The former may cause problems
in adverse landing conditions (eg in a strong cross-wind), and the latter condition may result in an
aircraft stall at a higher indicated airspeed than that specified for the aircraft.
Pre-Flight Instrument Cheek:

Prior to takeoff, the ASI should read zero. However, if there is a strong wind blowing directly into the
pitot tube, the ASI may read higher than zero. When beginning the takeff, make sure the airspeed is
increasing at an appropriate rate
17.4. Vertical Speed Indicator:
A vertical speed indicator (VSI), also known as a rate of climb and descent indicator (RCDI), is a sensitive
differential pressure gauge, which displays a rate of change of atmospheric pressure in terms of a rate of
climb or descent.
17.4.2. Principle of Operation

The principle employed is that of measuring the difference of pressure between two chambers, one
within the other. Static atmospheric pressure is fed directly to the inner chamber, or capsule, and
through a metering unit to the outer chamber, which in effect forms the instrument case. The metering
unit restricts the flow of air into and out of the case, whereas the flow to the inside of the capsule is
unrestricted. Therefore, if the static pressure varies due to changing altitude, the pressure change in the
case lags behind that in the capsule. The resultant differential pressure distorts the capsule and this
movement is transmitted to the pointer by means of a mechanical linkage. A bleed valve is fitted in
many VSIs to prevent damage and to improve the instrument's reaction time (by reducing lag) when
leveling off from a high speed descent.
It is important that any given pressure difference between the inside and outside of the capsule should
represent the same rate of climb or descent, regardless of the ambient atmospheric pressure and
temperature variations with altitude. The function of the metering unit, in the manner in which it
restricts the flow into the case, is to compensate for these changes in ambient conditions and a typical
symmetric diagram and display is illustrated below.
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Schematic Construction VSI - Typical Display
In level flight the pressure inside the capsule and the case are the same, and the pointer remains at the
horizontal, zero, position. When the aircraft climbs, the static pressure decreases and the capsule
collapses slightly, causing the pointer to indicate a rate of climb. The fall in pressure in the case lags
behind that in the capsule until level flight is resumed and the pressures equalize. In a descent, the
increase in pressure in the case lags behind the increase in static pressure in the capsule, and the
capsule is expanded..
Errors
The VSI can suffer from the following errors:
Pressure Error. If the static head or vent is subject to a changing pressure error, the VSI may briefly
indicate a wrong rate of climb or descent.
Instrument Error. Instrument error is the result of manufacturing tolerances and is usually
insignificant.
Transonic Jump. Movement of a shock-wave over the static vents results in a rapid change in static
pressure which briefly produces a false reading on the VSI.
Lag. Because of the time required for the pressure difference to develop, when an aircraft is rapidly
manoeuvred into a steady climb or descent there is a few seconds delay before the pointer settles at the
appropriate rate of climb or descent. A similar delay in the pointer indicating zero occurs when the
aircraft is leveled.
Static Line Blockage. If the static line or vent becomes blocked by ice or any other obstruction the VSI
will be rendered unserviceable and the pointer will remain at zero regardless of the vertical speed.
Pre-Flight Instrument Check:

As part of preflight check, proper operation of the VSI must be established. Make sure the VSI indicates
near zero prior leaving the ramp area and again just before takeoff. If the VSI indicates anything other
than zero, that indication can be referenced as the zero mark. Normally, if the needle is not exactly zero,
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it is only slightly above or below the zero line. After takeoff, the VSI should trend upward to indicate a
positive rate of climb and then, once a stabilized climb is established, a rate of climb can be referenced.
17.5. Height
Pressure altimeters are instruments which indicate aircraft height above a selected pressure datum.
They operate on the principle that air pressure decreases with height, and they are in fact aneroid
barometers graduated to indicate height rather than pressure. In order to be calibrated, certain
assumptions must be made concerning the manner in which air pressure decreases with height and this
has given rise to a number of model atmospheres.
Air Pressure Units. The pressure unit which has been used in the field of aviation for many years is the
millibar except for some countries, notably the USA, which have used 'inches of mercury'. Other units of
pressure are: PSI and Hectopascal etc. The hectopascal and the millibar are identical for all practical
purposes.
17.6. Altimeters
17.6.1. Principle of Operation of a Simple Altimeter

The instrument consists of a thin corrugated metal capsule which is partially evacuated, sealed, and
prevented from collapsing completely by means of a leaf spring, or in some cases by its own rigidity.
The capsule is mounted inside a case which is fed with static pressure from the aircraft's static tube or
vent. As the aircraft climbs the static pressure in the case decreases allowing the spring to pull the
capsule faces apart. Conversely a decrease in height compresses the capsule faces. This linear
movement of the capsule face is magnified and transmitted via a system of gears and linkages to a
pointer moving over a scale graduated in feet according to one of the standard atmospheres. A simple
altimeter will normally be calibrated according to the ICAN or ICAO atmosphere and will therefore
normally be set to indicate height above the 1013.2 millibar pressure level. The dial adjusting knob
allows the indicator needle to be moved away from the normal datum. Thus, for example, the altimeter
could be set on the ground to read airfield elevation so that it will thereafter indicate height above
mean sea-level, providing that the prevailing sea-level pressure does not change.
Simple Altimeter-Schematic
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Alternatively by setting zero before take-off the altimeter will indicate height above the airfield, again
providing that the surface pressure at the airfield remains constant.
17.6.2. Sensitive Altimeter

The sensitive altimeter is designed for more accurate height measurement than the simple altimeter
although the principle of operation is the same. The single capsule is replaced by two or more capsules
to give greater sensitivity for small changes in pressure. Typically there will be three pointers; one
rotating every 1,000 ft, one every 10,000 ft and a third every 100,000 ft. Compensation for varying
temperatures within the instrument casing is incorporated in the form of a bi-metallic strip inserted
between the capsule and the transmission shaft.
Sensitive altimeter
A sensitive altimeter has a millibar scale so that it is possible to set whatever datum pressure is desired,
above which height is to be measured. Thus if airfield level pressure (QFE) is set, the altimeter will read
zero on the ground and height above airfield once airborne. If sea-level pressure (QNH) is set, the
altimeter will indicate height above sea-level (ie airfield elevation on the ground). The millibar setting
can be altered in the air to reflect changes of pressure with time, location or required datum level.
Limitation. The chief limitation of the directly operated capsule altimeter is its increasing inaccuracy
and lack of sensitivity with increasing height above approximately 60,000 ft. At these altitudes the
change in height for a given pressure change is very much greater than at ground level. For example, a
change of pressure of 1 mb at sea-level equates to only 30 ft, whereas at 60,000 ft a similar pressure
change relates to a height change of 325 ft. Thus small changes in pressure, which can represent
significant changes in height, have to overcome inertia in the mechanical linkages and therefore tend to
cause the altimeter to lag significantly behind the aircraft's true change of height.
Cabin Altimeters
Cabin altimeters indicate cabin pressure in terms of altitude and are normally of the simple type, having
one pointer moving over a scale graduated in tens of thousands of feet. The static pressure is of course
cabin pressure and a change in this causes the capsules to expand or contract in the normal way. They
do not usually have error compensating devices although they may be compensated to allow for
fluctuations in cabin temperature. Cabin altimeters suffer from the errors outlined below and at cabin
altitudes below 30,000 ft the instrument should be accurate to better than ± 500 ft.
17.6.3. Pressure Altimeter Errors

1. Pressure altimeter errors may be considered under two categories; instrument or installation
errors, and errors caused by non-standard atmospheric conditions.
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2. The errors inherent in the instrument and installation are:
a. Instrument error. Instrument error is caused by manufacturing tolerances. It is usually
insignificant but if necessary a correction card can be provided.
b. Pressure error. Pressure error occurs when the true external static pressure is not
accurately transmitted to the instrument. A false static pressure can be created by the
effect of the air flow passing over the static vent. Although the error is generally negligible
at low speeds and altitudes, it can become significant at high speeds, or when services such
as flaps, airbrakes, or gear are operated.
c. Lag Error. Since the response of the capsule and linkage is not instantaneous, the altimeter
needle lags whenever height is changed rapidly causing an under-read on climbs and an
over-read on descents. Clearly the latter situation could be dangerous and should be
allowed for in rapid descents. The amount of lag varies with the rate of change of height.
d. Hysteresis Loss. A capsule under stress has imperfect elastic properties and will settle to
give a different reading after levelling from a climb compared to that obtained after levelling
from a descent.
e. Transonic Jump. If a shockwave passes over that static source, a rapid change in static
pressure will occur. This gives an error in the altimeter indication for the duration of the
disturbance.
f. Blockages and Leaks. Blockages and leaks are unusual occurrences. Blockages may occur if
water in the pipe work freezes, or there are obstructions such as insects. The effect is to
increase altimeter lag or, with complete blockage, to make the instrument stick at the
reading when the blockage occurred. The effect of leaks varies with the size and location of
the leak; leaks in pressurized compartments cause under-reading, while leaks in
unpressurized compartments usually produce over-reading.
Variations from International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) conditions may be brought about by the
development of weather systems, and local geographic effects. The resulting errors in ISA-calibrated
altimeters are:
Effect of Barometric Error
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a. Barometric error. Barometric error occurs when the actual datum pressure differs from
that to which the altimeter has been set and can be overcome simply by the correct setting
of the millibar scale. The effect of the error on an altimeter which is not reset when flying
from an area of high pressure to one of low pressure at a constant indicated height is
illustrated above. In this case the aircraft flies from an area where the MSL pressure is 1030
mb to one where the MSL pressure is 1010 mb, but the 1030 mb setting is retained on the
altimeter. In effect the datum is lowered during the flight so that the altimeter reads high.
Conversely if the flight was from an area of low pressure to one of high pressure the
altimeter would read low if not corrected. In summary, from HIGH to LOW the altimeter
reads HIGH, and from LOW to HIGH the altimeter reads LOW
b. Temperature Error. Temperature error arises when the atmospheric conditions differ from
those assumed by the standard atmosphere used to calibrate the altimeter. The ICAO
standard atmosphere assumes a temperature lapse rate of 1.98°C per 1,000 ft up to 36,090
ft, with a constant temperature of -56.5°C above that. If the actual temperatures differ
from the assumed ones, as they very often do, then the indicated height will be incorrect.
In a cold air mass the density is greater than in a warm air mass, the pressure levels are
more closely spaced and the altimeter will over-read, the error being zero at sea-level and
increasing with altitude.
c. Orographic Error. When a current of air meets a barrier of hills or mountains there is a
tendency, often marked, for much of the air to sweep round the ends of the barrier, so
avoiding the ascent. This gives rise to areas of low pressure to the lee of the barrier. The
altimeter readings may therefore be affected due to barometric error.
Pre-Flight Instrument Check:

Prior t each flight, a pilot should examine the altimeter for proper indications in order to verify its
validity. To determine the condition of an altimeter, set the barometric scale t the current reported
altimeter setting transmitted by the local automated flight service station ( AFSS) or any other reliable
source, such as ATIS, AWOS, or ASOS. The altimeter pointers should indicate the surveyed field elevation
of the airport. If the indication is off more than 75 feet from the surveyed field elevation, the instrument
should be referred to a certificated instrument repair station for recalibration.
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17.6.4. Radio Altimeters:
A radio altimeter, commonly referred to as a radar altimeter, is a system used for accurately measuring
and displaying the height above the terrain directly beneath the aircraft. It sends a signal to the ground
and processes the timed information. Its primary application is to provide accurate absolute altitude
information to the pilot during approach and landing. In advanced aircraft today, the radar altimeter
also provides its information to other onboard systems such as the autopilot andflight directors while
they are in the glide slope capture mode below 200-300 feet above ground level (AGL). A typical system
consists of a receiver-transmitter (RT) unit, antenna(s) for receiving and transmitting the signal,
and an indicator. Figure below shows a typical radio altimeter, for Category II and III precision approach
procedures require the use of a radar altimeter and specify the exact minimum height above the terrain
as a decision height (DH) or radio altitude (RA)
Typical Radio Altimeter
Basic Radio Principles: A radio wave is an electromagnetic (EM) wave with frequency characteristics
that make it useful. The wave will travel long distances through space (in or out of the atmosphere)
without losing too much strength. An antenna is used to convert electric current into a radio wave so it
can travel through space to the receiving antenna, which converts it back into an electric current for use
by a receiver.
How Radio Waves Propagate: All matter has a varying degree of conductivity or resistance to radio
waves. The Earth itself acts as the greatest resistor to radio waves. Radiated energy that travels near the
ground induces a voltage in the ground that subtracts energy from the wave, decreasing the strength of
the wave as the distance from the antenna becomes greater. Trees, buildings, and mineral deposits
affect the strength to varying degrees. Radiated energy in the upper atmosphere is likewise affected as
the energy of radiation is absorbed by molecules of air, water, and dust. The characteristics of radio
wave propagation vary according to the signal frequency and the design, use, and limitations of the
equipment.
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17.7. Gyroscopes:
17.7.1. INTRODUCTION
A knowledge of higher mathematics is required if the subject of gyro-dynamics is to be fully
comprehended. However, this is unnecessary for an adequate understanding of the basic principles
of the gyroscopic flight instruments. This chapter aims to provide sufficient background knowledge
for the study of the Artificial Horizon, Directional Gyro Indicator, and the Rate of Turn Indicator.
17.7.2. THE PRINCIPLE OF GYROSCOPE

Any rotating body exhibits gyroscopic phenomena. The earth is a gyro, spinning about the
axis between the geographic poles. The road wheel of a car is a gyro when it is turning, and
so is a child's 'top'. The rotor in an aircraft gyro may be little more than an inch in diameter,
spinning at perhaps 25,000 r.p.m.
17.7.3. GIMBAL RINGS

These are the supports for the rotor of a gyroscopic instrument. Gimbal rings, are known briefly as
gimbals, and sometimes spelled gymbals.
The Rotor and Gimbals.
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Diagram shown above a spinning rotor mounted in two gimbal rings, the outer one being
supported by a fixed frame. The rotor itself is a metal disc rotating about the axis indicated as X-X
and usually called the rotor spin axis. The rotor shaft (or spindle) is supported by bearings in a ring
called the inner gimbal.
The inner gimbal is in turn supported by bearings mounted inside the outer gimbal which can
rotate on bearings in the frame (or instrument case).
The arrangement in above diagram allows movement of the gyro in three mutually perpendicular
planes; this gyro is said to have complete freedom of rotation in three planes at right angles to each
other (or freedom of rotation about three axes at right angles to each other).
a. If the frame is rotated about the XX axis, it is being moved either with or against the
direction of the rotor spin, so the position of the XX axis is undisturbed.
b. If the frame is rotated about the YY axis, the inner and outer gimbals will obviously not
remain at 90° to each other, but the XX axis can remain pointing in the same direction.
c. If the frame is rotated about the ZZ axis (by rotating the base) the alignment of the XX
axis will still be unchanged but the frame and the outer gimbal will no longer be at right
angles to each other.
It follows from the above, that the gyro in Figure 10.1. has 'three degrees of freedom in rotation',
that is to say the frame can be rotated in three mutually perpendicular planes without disturbing
the spin axis.
Such a gyro is known as a space gyro and its chief virtue is that it allows the spinning rotor to
exhibit its fundamental property of rigidity.
17.7.4. THE PROPERTIES OF A GYROSCOPE
Rigidity. A spinning rotor maintains its axis pointing in a fixed direction in space, unless subjected
to an external force. This property is called rigidity in space or gyroscopic inertia
Precession. If an external force (or more correctly, torque) is applied to change the direction of
the rotor axis, the gyro resists angular movement in the plane of the torque applied and instead
moves in a plane at right angles to that of the torque, the resulting
movement being called 'precession'. This is the second fundamental property of a gyroscope.
With the space gyro, if the instrument case or frame is turned through 90° about its YY axis, that is,
in the direction of the broad arrow in Figure 10.6.4a., so that the inner and outer gimbals lie in the
same plane, any movement now imparted about the ZZ axis (in the direction of the broad arrows in
Figure 10.46.4b.) can no longer be taken up by a bearing so any torque applied will change the
alignment of the rotor axis.
This condition is known as gimbal lock; we have reduced the number of rotational axes, and the
gyro will presses, about the YY axis until the rotor axis is aligned with the ZZ axis. At this point
precession will cease because the gyro is offering no further resistance to the applied force.
Rule of Precession. The direction of precessional movement can be found by the following rule:-
The gyro will precess in a direction at 90° to the applied force, measured round the circumference
of the rotor in the direction of spin. The force applied appears to have moved 90° in the direction
of spin.
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The application of the rule of precession will be found in the chapters on individual gyroscopic flight
instruments.
Figure 10.6.4a. Figure 10.6.4b.
A gyroscope cannot precess in the direction of rotation. Therefore a gyroscope can only have
freedom to precess in a maximum of two perpendicular planes. This is referred to as "freedom in
precession" - giving a maximum of two degrees of freedom in precession. A gyroscope that is used
to measure changes about one, or more, axes is known as a displacement gyroscope.
17.7.5. WANDER
If the axis of a gyro rotor departs from its chosen direction it is said to wander. If the axis of the
gyro rotor wanders in the horizontal plane it is said to drift.
A weight hung on the gimbal at A in Figure 10.1 thus produces drift. If the rotor axis wanders in the
vertical plane it is said to topple.
17.7.6. TIED GYROS

A space gyro, with its rigidity relative to space, is of limited use as an earth reference because the
rotating earth's horizontal and vertical references are continually changing relative to space.
(Exceptions are the limiting cases of a vertical axis gyro at the pole, or a horizontal axis gyro at the
equator with its axis aligned with the meridian.)
A gyro which relates its rigidity to a particular attitude or direction rather than to a space direction
has more applications. Such a gyro is called a tied gyro.
A tied gyro can be described as one having freedom in three planes mutually at right angles but
with the rotor kept (or 'tied') in some desired position by a control system. As an example, the DGI
rotor axis is maintained in the yawing plane of the aircraft.
An earth gyro (as in the Artificial Horizon) is a tied gyro which utilises the force of gravity to monitor
a control system keeping the rotor axis in the earth's vertical.
17.7.7. RATE GYROS

If a gyro has only one gimbal ring, with consequently only two planes of freedom, it can be adapted
for use as a rate gyro to measure a rate of angular movement. If the gyro frame is rotated in the
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plane in which the gyro has no freedom, the rotor will precess, unless restrained, until its plane of
rotation coincides with the plane in which the frame is being turned. If this precession is restricted
by a spring, as shown below, the resultant tilt of the rotor will be a measure of the rate of angular
movement of the instrument.
A Rate Gyro-A Rate of Turn Indicator
17.7.8. SUMMARY:
The following brief explanations of terms may help to clarify the foregoing paragraphs:-
Gyroscopic Inertia or Rigidity in Space is the property of a spinning body to maintain a fixed
direction in space unless acted on by an outside force.
Precession is the movement of a gyro, resulting from the application of an outside force, about an
axis perpendicular to both the spin axis and the applied force.
Real Wander is a precession caused by mechanical imperfections (such as uneven bearing friction)
or by any applied force.
Apparent Wander is the observed wander of a gyro rotor axis relative to a datum on the earth.
Topple is rotor axis wander - real or apparent - in the vertical plane.
Drift is rotor axis wander - real or apparent - in the horizontal plane.
Space Gyro has complete freedom in three mutually perpendicular planes, and so has gyroscopic
inertia relative to a point in space.
A Tied Gyro has the rotor axis maintained (tied) in a desired position, so having gyroscopic inertia
relative to the reference to which it is tied.
An Earth Gyro is a gravity-controlled tied gyro, so having gyroscopic inertia relative to the earth's
vertical.
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A Rate Gyro has freedom in only two planes at 90° to each other and is constructed to measure
rate of turn in the third plane at 90° to the other two.
17.7.9. THE APPLICATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF A GYRO

The detailed application of the two properties of gyroscopic rigidity and precession are covered in
the chapters devoted to the individual flight instruments. A general summary is given below.
Rigidity. This property is used to provide a directional datum. In the Directional Gyro Indicator
(DGI), the rotor spin axis is horizontal and so provides a reference for the measurement of direction
in azimuth (aircraft heading). The gyro in the DGI is sometimes known as an azimuth gyro. In the
Artificial Horizon(AH), gyroscopic rigidity provides a pitch and roll attitude reference, the spin axis
defining the earth's vertical. Such a gyro may be called a vertical axis gyro or vertical reference
gyro.
Precession. As already explained, the application of an external force to a gyro produces

movement of the rotor axis called precession. This property is used:-
a . In the Rate of Turn Indicator - to measure angular velocities in the yawing plane.
b . In the DGI control system - to maintain the rotor axis in the yawing plane.
c . Additionally, to compensate DGI wander by means of a 'latitude nut'.
d . In the Artificial Horizon control system - to maintain the rotor axis vertical.
17.8. The Turn And Slip Indicator:

17.8.1. THE RATE OF TURN INDICATOR
This instrument incorporates two measuring devices, both indicating on the same instrument face.
One of these, the rate of turn indicator, (commonly shortened to 'turn' indicator), uses a rate gyro
to measure rate of turn about a vertical axis.
Turn and balance indicator

The other, the slip indicator, is a very simple pendulous device which is used mainly to
show whether or not a turn is balanced, (whether the angle of bank is correct for the TAS and
rate of turn), and if not, to indicate the extent of slip or skid.
17.8.2. THE RATE GYRO

The turn indicator employs a rate gyro which, having only one gimbal, has freedom about only two
axes. There is, of course, complete freedom of rotation about one of these - the rotor spin axis -
which in level flight lies athwart ships (laterally). There is restricted freedom about the fore/aft
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(longitudinal) gimbal axis. There is no freedom about the aircraft's vertical axis, so any torque
applied about this axis - as in a turn - will cause the gyro to precess.
17.8.3. Turn Indicators

Aircraft use two types of turn indicators: turn-and-slip indicator and turn coordinator. Because of the
way the gyro is mounted, the turn-and-slip indicator shows only the rate of turn in degrees per second.
The turn coordinator is mounted at an angle, or canted, so it can initially show roll rate. When the roll
stabilizes, it indicates rate of turn. Both instruments indicate turn direction and quality (coordination),
and also serve as a backup source of bank information in the event an attitude indicator fails.
Coordination is achieved by referring to the inclinometer, which consists of a liquid-filled curved tube
with a ball inside.
Diagram 10.7.3 Turn indicators rely on controlled precession for their operation
17.8.4. Turn and Slip Indicator
The gyro in the turn-and-slip indicator rotates in the vertical plane, corresponding to the aircraft’s
longitudinal axis. A single gimbal limits the planes in which the gyro can tilt, and a spring tries to return it
to center. Because of precession, a yawing force causes the gyro to tilt left or right, as viewed from the
pilot seat. The turn-and-slip indicator uses a pointer, called the turn needle, to show the direction and
rate of turn. The turn-and-slip indicator is incapable of “tumbling” off its rotational axis because of the
restraining springs. When extreme forces are applied to a gyro, the gyro is displaced from its normal
plane of rotation, rendering its indications invalid. Certain instruments have specific pitch and bank
limits that induce a tumble of the gyro.
17.8.5. Turn Coordinator

The gimbal in the turn coordinator is canted; therefore, its gyro can sense both rate of roll and rate of
turn. Since turn coordinators are more prevalent in training aircraft, this discussion concentrates on that
instrument. When rolling into or out of a turn, the miniature aircraft banks in the direction the aircraft is
rolled. A rapid roll rate causes the miniature aircraft to bank more steeply than a slow roll rate. The turn
coordinator can be used to establish and maintain a standard-rate turn by aligning the wing of the
miniature aircraft with the turn index. Diagram 10.7.5 shows a picture of a turn coordinator.
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There are two marks on each side (left and right) of the face of the instrument. The first mark is used to
reference a wings level zero rate of turn. The second mark on the left and right side of the instrument
serve to indicate a standard rate of turn. A standard-rate turn is defined as a turn rate of 3° per second.
The turn coordinator indicates only the rate and direction of turn; it does not display a specific angle of
bank.
If inadequate right rudder is applied in a right turn, a slip results. Too much right rudder causes the
aircraft to skid through the turn. Centering the ball results in a coordinated turn
17.8.6. Inclinometer
The inclinometer is used to depict aircraft yaw, which is the side-to-side movement of the aircraft’s
nose. During coordinated, straight-and-level flight, the force of gravity causes the ball to rest in the
lowest part of the tube, centered between the reference lines. Coordinated flight is maintained by
keeping the ball centered. If the ball is not centered, it can be centered by using the rudder.
To center the ball, apply rudder pressure on the side to which the ball is deflected. Use the simple rule,
“step on the ball,” to remember which rudder pedal to press. If aileron and rudder are coordinated
during a turn, the ball remains centered in the tube.
If aerodynamic forces are unbalanced, the ball moves away from the center of the tube. As shown in
Diagram 10.7.5, in a slip, the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank, and the ball moves to the
inside of the turn. In a skid, the rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank, and the ball moves to the
outside of the turn. To correct for these conditions, and improve the quality of the turn, remember to
“step on the ball.” Varying the angle of bank can also help restore coordinated flight from a slip or skid.
To correct for a slip, decrease bank and/or increase the rate of turn. To correct for a skid, increase the
bank and/or decrease the rate of turn.
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Yaw String
One additional tool which can be added to the aircraft is a yaw string. A yaw string is simply a string or
piece of yarn attached to the center of the wind screen. When in coordinated flight, the string trails
straight back over the top of the wind screen. When the aircraft is either slipping or skidding, the yaw
string moves to the right or left depending on the direction of slip or skid.
Needle and Ball display

Pre-Flight Instrument Check
During the preflight, check to see that the inclinometer is full of fluid and has no air bubbles. The ball
should also be resting at its lowest point. When taxiing, the turn coordinator should indicate a turn in
the correct direction while the ball moves opposite the direction of the turn.
17.9. Heading Indicator:

17.9.1. INTRODUCTION
The directional gyro indicator (DGI), often called the 'direction indicator' (DI) provides a stable
directional reference in azimuth for maintaining accurate headings and for executing precise turns.
There is no magnetic element in the DI, so it is not North-seeking and must initially be
synchronised with the magnetic compass. The synchronisation must be checked at regular
intervals because of real and apparent gyro wander (drift).
Two Directional Gyro Indicators.
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The DGI does not therefore replace the compass; its stable, dead-beat indications are
complementary to the North- seeking capability of the compass. Having no magnetic element, the
DGI does not suffer from the compass turning and acceleration errors produced by the vertical
component of the earth's magnetic field Diagram 10.8.1 shows the faces of two types of DGI.
17.9.2. THE PRINCIPLE AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE DGI

The DI employs a tied gyro, that is to say, a gyro having freedom of movement in three planes
mutually at right angles but with the rotor axis maintained in the yawing plane of the aircraft. This
means that the rotor axis is horizontal in level flight, and because of gyroscopic rigidity it provides
the datum from which heading can be measured.
The rotor is mounted in the inner gimbal (on bearings mounted in the outer gimbal) which has
restricted freedom to turn. The outer gimbal can rotate through 360° about the aircraft's vertical
axis, on bearings in the case.
An Air Driven Directional Gyro.

Note that the rotor axis, the inner gimbal axis, and the outer gimbal axis are mutually at right
angles. During a turn, the aircraft and instrument case turn on the vertical axis bearings of the
outer gimbal whilst the gyro rotor, gimbals and indicating scale all remain fixed in azimuth because
of gyroscopic rigidity.
Heading is indicated on the scale by a lubber line painted on a glass window in the instrument case.
Some designs have a circular vertical-card indicating scale geared to the outer gimbal, in place of
the cylindrical scale fixed to the outer gimbal in the earlier type shown in Diagram 10.8.2.
17.9.3. THE CAGING DEVICE

On the front of the instrument there is a caging knob which, when pushed in, moves a caging arm
which locks the inner gimbal at right angles to the outer gimbal so locking the rotor axis in the
yawing plane. At the same time a gear engages with the outer gimbal so that by turning the knob
the gyro can be rotated and the scale reading synchronised with (usually) the compass reading.
The caging device is designed as described in order that:-
a. The DGI can be synchronised with the compass and reset as required.
b. The gyro will not topple during synchronisation.
c. Toppling and possible damage to the instrument can be prevented by caging before
manoeuvres in which pitch and roll limits may be exceeded.
d. The gyro can be instantly re-erected and re-synchronised if it has toppled.
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17.9.4. DGI LIMITATIONS
If the aircraft exceeds the pitch or roll limits of 85° (55°in air driven gyro DI's) the gyro will topple as
the inner gimbal comes up against the stops, the precession causing the outer gimbal and scale to
spin rapidly. Exceptions to this can occur:-
a. If the rotor axis is athwart ships - 360° of aircraft rotation in the looping plane then being
possible without toppling the gyro.
b. If the rotor axis is fore and aft - 360° of roll then being possible without toppling.
The actual indications on the scale at which these two situations can arise depend on the vintage
and manufacture of the instrument.
Pre-Fight Instrument Check

As the gyro spools up, make sure there are no abnormal sounds. While taxiing, the instrument
should indicate turns in the correct direction, and precession should not be abnormal. At idle power
settings, the gyroscopic instruments using the vacuum system might not be up to operating speeds
and precession might occur more rapidly than during flight.
17.10. Attitude Indicator
The artificial horizon (AH) provides the pilot with information in terms of the aircraft's attitude
both in pitch and roll. It is a primary instrument, replacing the natural horizon in poor visibility.
The attitude display consists of a miniature aircraft shape or 'gull-wing' (tail view) painted or
engraved centrally on the inside of the glass face of the instrument, and therefore fixed to the
instrument case and the actual aircraft. Behind this representation of the aircraft is the horizon bar,
linked to the gyro in such a way that the bar is gyro-stabilised parallel to the true horizon. The
artificial horizon may be suction or electrically driven. It is also known as a gyro horizon and
attitude indicator.
17.10.2. Operations
The attitude indicator, with its miniature aircraft and horizon bar, displays a picture of the attitude of the
aircraft. The relationship of the miniature aircraft to the horizon bar is the same as the relationship of the
Attitude Indicator
real aircraft to the actual horizon. The instrument gives an instantaneous indication of even the smallest
changes in attitude.
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The gyro in the attitude indicator is mounted in a horizontal plane and depends upon rigidity in space for
its operation. The horizon bar represents the true horizon. This bar is fixed to the gyro and remains in a
horizontal plane as the aircraft is pitched or banked about its lateral or longitudinal axis, indicating the
attitude of the aircraft relative to the true horizon.
The gyro spins in the horizontal plane and resists deflection of the rotational path. Since the gyro relies on
rigidity in space, the aircraft actually rotates around the spinning gyro.
An adjustment knob is provided with which the pilot may move the miniature aircraft up or down to align
the miniature aircraft with the horizon bar to suit the pilot’s line of vision. Normally, the miniature
aircraft is adjusted so that the wings overlap the horizon bar when the aircraft is in straight-and-level
cruising flight.
The pitch and bank limits depend upon the make and model of the instrument. Limits in the banking plane
are usually from 100° to 110°, and the pitch limits are usually from 60° to 70°. If either limit is exceeded,
the instrument will tumble or spill and will give incorrect indications until realigned. A number of
modern attitude indicators do not tumble.
Attitude representation by the attitude indicator corresponds to the

relation of the aircraft to the real horizon.
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Every pilot should be able to interpret the banking scale illustrated in above diagram. Most banking scale
indicators on the top of the instrument move in the same direction from that in which the aircraft is
actually banked. Some other models move in the opposite direction from that in which the aircraft is
actually banked. This may confuse the pilot if the indicator is used to determine the direction of bank.
This scale should be used only to control the degree of desired bank. The relationship of the miniature
aircraft to the horizon bar should be used for an indication of the direction of bank. The attitude indicator
is reliable and the most realistic flight instrument on the instrument panel. Its indications are very close
approximations of the actual attitude of the aircraft.
17.10.3. LIMITATIONS
The amount the case can move relative to the gyro is controlled by fixed stops. With older designs,
typical limits are ± 60° in pitch and 110° each way in roll. In modern instruments there is complete
freedom in roll and up to 85° (plus or minus) in pitch. If the limits are exceeded, the gyro 'topples',
giving violent and erratic movements of the horizon bar. Unless a fast erection system is
incorporated, accurate indications will not be obtained until the gyro has re-erected itself over a
period of 10 to 15 minutes.
17.11. THE DIRECT INDICATING COMPASS:
17.11.1. Magnetic Compass
One of the oldest and simplest instruments for indicating direction is the magnetic compass. It is also
one of the basic instruments required for both VFR and IFR flight. A magnet is a piece of material,
usually a metal containing iron, which attracts and holds lines of magnetic flux. Regardless of size, every
magnet has two poles: north and south. When one magnet is placed in the field of another, the unlike
poles attract each other, and like poles repel.
RMI indicates the heading of the aircraft opposite the

upper center index mark.
An aircraft magnetic compass, such as the above instrument has two small magnets attached to a metal
float sealed inside a bowl of clear compass fluid similar to kerosene. A graduated scale, called a card, is
wrapped around the float and viewed through a glass window with a lubber line across it. The card is
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marked with letters representing the cardinal directions, north, east, south, and west, and a number for
each 30° between these letters. The final “0” is omitted from these directions. For example, 3 = 30°, 6 =
60°, and 33 = 330°. There are long and short graduation marks between the letters and numbers, each
long mark representing 10° and each short mark representing 5°.
The float and card assembly has a hardened steel pivot in its center that rides inside a special, spring-
loaded, hard glass jewel cup. The buoyancy of the float takes most of the weight off the pivot, and the
fluid damps the oscillation of the float and card. This jewel-and-pivot type mounting allows the float
freedom to rotate and tilt up to approximately 18° angle of bank. At steeper bank angles, the compass
indications are erratic and unpredictable.
The compass housing is entirely full of compass fluid. To prevent damage or leakage when the fluid
expands and contracts with temperature changes, the rear of the compass case is sealed with a flexible
diaphragm, or with a metal bellows in some compasses. The magnets align with the Earth’s magnetic
field and the pilot reads the direction on the scale opposite the lubber line.
A magnetic compass.
The vertical line is called the lubber line
Note that in Diagram 10.9.4.1b, the pilot sees the compass card from its backside. When the pilot is
flying north as the compass shows, east is to the pilot’s right. On the card, “33”, which represents 330°
(west of north), is to the right of north. The reason for this apparent backward graduation is that the
card remains stationary, and the compass housing and the pilot turn around it, always viewing the card
from its backside.
A compensator assembly mounted on the top or bottom of the compass allows an aviation maintenance
technician (AMT) to create a magnetic field inside the compass housing that cancels the influence of
local outside magnetic fields. This is done to correct for deviation error. The compensator assembly has
two shafts whose ends have screwdriver slots accessible from the front of the compass. Each shaft
rotates one or two small compensating magnets. The end of one shaft is marked E-W, and its magnets
affect the compass when the aircraft is pointed east or west. The other shaft is marked N-S and its
magnets affect the compass when the aircraft is pointed north or south.
17.11.2. Magnetic Compass Induced Errors

The magnetic compass is the simplest instrument in the panel, but it is subject to a number of errors
that must be considered.
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Variation:
The Earth rotates about its geographic axis; maps and charts are drawn using meridians of longitude
that pass through the geographic poles. Directions measured from the geographic poles are called true
directions. The magnetic North Pole to which the magnetic compass points is not collocated with the
geographic North Pole, but is some 1,300 miles away; directions measured from the magnetic poles are
called magnetic directions. In aerial navigation, the difference between true and magnetic directions is
called variation. This same angular difference in surveying and land navigation is called declination.
Deviation
The magnets in a compass align with any magnetic field. Local magnetic fields in an aircraft caused by
electrical current flowing in the structure, in nearby wiring or any magnetized part of the structure,
conflict with the Earth’s magnetic field and cause a compass error called deviation. Deviation, unlike
variation, is different on each heading, but it is not affected by the geographic location. Variation error
cannot be reduced or changed, but deviation error can be minimized when an AMT performs the
maintenance task known as “swinging the compass.”
17.11.3. DIRECT INDICATING MAGNETIC COMPASS
This chapter deals with the direct indicating or direct reading magnetic compass, where the pilot
directly reads his heading in relation to the pivoted magnet assembly.
There are two basic types of direct reading magnetic compasses used in aircraft, the vertical card
and, less commonly, the grid ring compass .
A Vertical Card Compass
The Vertical Card Magnetic Compass

The floating magnet type of compass not only has all the errors just described, but also lends itself to
confused reading. It is easy to begin a turn in the wrong direction because its card appears backward.
East is on what the pilot would expect to be the west side. The vertical card magnetic compass
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Vertical card compass
eliminates some of the errors and confusion. The dial of this compass is graduated with letters
representing the cardinal directions, numbers every 30°, and tick marks every 5°. The dial is rotated by a
set of gears from the shaft-mounted magnet, and the nose of the symbolic aircraft on the instrument
glass represents the lubber line for reading the heading of the aircraft from the dial. Eddy currents
induced into an aluminum-damping cup damp, or decrease, oscillation of the magnet. A vertical card
magnetic compass shown above.
Lags or Leads
When starting a turn from a northerly heading, the compass lags behind the turn. When starting a turn from a
southerly heading, the compass leads the turn.
Eddy Current Damping

The decreased amplitude of oscillations by the interaction of magnetic fields. In the case of a vertical card magnetic
compass, flux from the oscillating permanent magnet produces eddy currents in a damping disk or cup. The
magnetic flux produced by the eddy currents opposes the flux from the permanent magnet and decreases the
oscillations.
17.12. Other Instruments:

17.12.1. Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Gauge and Tachometer
Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Gauge: The outside air temperature (OAT) gauge is a simple and
effective device mounted so that the sensing element is exposed to the outside air. The sensing
element consists of a bimetallic-type thermometer in which two dissimilar materials are welded
together in a single strip and twisted into a helix. One end is anchored into protective tube and the
other end is affixed to the pointer, which reads against the calibration on a circular face. OAT gauges are
calibrated in degrees °C, °F, or both. An accurate air temperature provides the pilot with useful
information about temperature lapse rate with altitude change.
The Tachometer: In a fixed-pitch propeller, the tachometer is the indicator of engine power. Diagram
shown below A tachometer is calibrated in hundreds of rpm and gives a direct indication of the
engine and propeller rpm. The instrument is color coded, with a green arc denoting the maximum
continuous operating rpm. Some tachometers have additional markings to reflect engine and/or
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Outside air temperature (OAT) Tachometer
propeller limitations. The manufacturer’s recommendations should be used as a reference to clarify any
misunderstanding of tachometer markings.
The rpm is regulated by the throttle, which controls the fuel/air flow to the engine. At a given altitude,
the higher the tachometer reading, the higher the power output of the engine.
When operating altitude increases, the tachometer may not show correct power output of the engine.
For example, 2,300 rpm at 5,000 feet produces less horsepower than 2,300 rpm at sea level because
power output depends on air density. Air density decreases as altitude increases and a decrease in air
density (higher density altitude) decreases the power output of the engine. As altitude changes, the
position of the throttle must be changed to maintain the same rpm. As altitude is increased, the throttle
must be opened further to indicate the same rpm as at a lower altitude.
17.12.2. Oil pressure and Temperature Gauge
The oil pressure gauge provides a direct indication of the oil system operation. It ensures the pressure
in pounds per square inch (psi) of the oil supplied to the engine. Green indicates the normal operating
range, while red indicates the minimum and maximum pressures. There should be an indication of oil
pressure during engine start. Refer to the AFM/POH for manufacturer limitations.
The oil temperature gauge measures the temperature of oil. A green area shows the normal operating
range and the red line indicates the maximum allowable temperature. Unlike oil pressure, changes in oil
temperature occur more slowly. This is particularly noticeable after starting a cold engine, when it may
take several minutes or longer for the gauge to show any increase in oil temperature.
An Oil Pressure and Temperature Gauge
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17.12.3. Cylinder Head Temperature
A cylinder head temperature gauge may also be installed in the cockpit instrument panel for ready
reference of the piston engine cooling condition.
Although the smaller four cylinder engines of the low compression, low horsepower variety do not
generally use a cylinder head temperature gauge, the higher powered, more complex power
Cylinder Head Temperature
plants require a cylinder head temperature gauge in order to prevent unwitting abuse of the engine by
pilot.
If head temperatures are higher than normal during flight, it should not be ignored. It may be caused by
hot ambient temperatures, a lean fuel metering device at higher than cruise power, bad baffles or
leaking cowling, or malfunctioning of the ignition system. Even old and worn-out engine mounts that
allow the engine to sag slightly may cause a change in the air-flow pattern and an abnormal increase in
CHT. It is also possible that a mechanical problem may be developing in the engine.
When higher than normal cylinder head temperatures are showing on the gauge, the pilot should take
steps to bring the temperatures down to the normal operating range in order to keep the remaining
flight safe. Head temperatures may be reduced by:
1. Enriching the mixture

2. Adjusting cowl flaps
3. Reducing power
4. Any combination of the above
To identify the problem, the pilot should make a written record of the engine instrument readings
during the above flight condition..
17.12.4. Fuel Quantity and Pressure Gauges
The fuel quantity gauges indicate the amount of fuel measured by a sensing unit in each fuel tank and is
displayed in gallons or pounds. Aircraft certification rules require accuracy in fuel gauges only when the
read “empty.” Any reading other than “empty” should be verified.
Do not depend solely on the accuracy of the fuel quantity gauges. Always visually check the fuel level in
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each tank during the preflight inspection, and then compare it with the corresponding fuel quantity
indication. If a fuel pump is installed in the fuel system, a fuel pressure gauge is also included.
Fuel quantity gauge Fuel Pressure gauge
This gauge indicates the pressure in the fuel lines. The normal operating pressure can be found in the
AFM/POH or on the gauge by color coding.
17.12.5. Ammeter and Voltmeter
Ammeters and voltmeters are provided in AC and DC systems and in most cases are of the moving coil
type of instrument shown in the following diagram. The instrument consists of a permanent magnet
Ammeter
with a soft iron core between the poles, inside which fits a former on a spindle which is free to rotate
inside the magnetic field. A coil of wire is wound around the former and current is allowed to flow around
the coil. Two hairsprings are fitted to restrain the movement of the coil, as the coil rotates one spring is
wound up, the other unwound.
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AC Voltmeter Ammeter
The hairsprings allow the current to be fed into and out of the coil. The coil and former carry a pointer
which is arranged to move over a scale as the coil rotates.
When current flows through the coil a magnetic field is created which interacts with the main field and
causes the coil to rotate moving the indicator pointer across the scale until the torque is balanced by the
hairspring. The greater the current flow through the coil, the greater will be the movement of the
pointer. When the current flow reduces the pointer will be returned to its `zero' mark by the hairspring.
So the deflection of the pointer is proportional to the current flowing through the coil, giving rise to an
evenly divided scale.
The meter is likely to be housed inside a case made of soft iron to prevent stray magnetism affecting the
indication.
To enable the range of the instrument to be extended a shunt (resistor of low resistance value) can be
fitted in conjunction with this type of meter when used as an ammeter. When used as a voltmeter, a
multiplier (resistor of high resistance value) is fitted. A shunt or multiplier will allow only a proportion of
the total current to be allowed through the instrument therefore protecting the delicate mechanism but
still allowing it to measure large values.
The number of indicating devices required and the types employed depends on the type of aircraft and
the overall nature of its electrical installation.
One ammeter (or load meter) is normally provided for each possible source of power, and a single
voltmeter with multiple selections for each DC system.
There are basically two types of ammeter;
a. the charge / discharge ammeter (or 'centre zero' ammeter) see Figure 7.5.
b. the generator ammeter or load meter (left zero' ammeter) see Figure 7.5
The charge / discharge or zero-centre type ammeter displays information about current flow into or out
of the battery.
If the needle is to the right of zero, the alternator is working and supplying power to the electrical
system and charging the battery.
If the needle is to the left of zero, then the battery is discharging, indicating that the alternator is not
supplying power to the electrical system.
The loadmeteror left zero type of ammeter displays actual current draw (system demand) from the
alternator.
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If the loadmeter reads zero, then the alternator is not supplying power to the system, leaving the
battery as the sole source of power in a single engine system.
If an alternator fails in flight, all operating electrical equipment begins to deplete the battery. The pilot
must therefore immediately assess the situation to determine what equipment is absolutely essential to
the safety of flight at that moment and turn off everything else to conserve battery power. This
procedure is known as load shedding.
Diagram below shows both how current is measured with an ammeter placed in the current flow so
that it measures the current flowing through it and how emf and pd are measured with a voltmeter
connected to the two points between which the potential difference is to be measured.
Voltmeters have a high internal resistance and are connected in parallel to measure the voltage
between two points. It may have a multiplier fitted in series with the meter to increase the indicating
range of the instrument.
Ammeter and Voltmeter connection
Ammeters have a low internal resistance and are placed in series to measure current through the load
It may have a shunt fitted in parallel with the meter to increase the indicating range of the instrument.
18. Semiconductor
18.1. INTRODUCTION
A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor such as
copper and that of an insulator such as glass. Semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronics,
including transistors, solar cells, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), quantum dots and digital and
analog integrated circuits. The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies
on quantum physics to explain the movement of electrons and holes inside a lattice. An increased
knowledge of semiconductor materials and fabrication processes has made possible continuing
increases in the complexity and speed of integrated semiconductor devices.
The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor material increases with increasing temperature, which is
behaviour opposite to that of a metal. Semiconductor devices can display a range of useful properties
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such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance, and
sensitivity to light or heat. Because the electrical properties of a semiconductor material can be
modified by controlled addition of impurities, or by the application of electrical fields or light, devices
made from semiconductors can be used for amplification, switching, and energy conversion.
Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs through the movement of free electrons and "holes",
collectively known as charge carriers. Adding impurity atoms to a semiconducting material, known as
"doping", greatly increases the number of charge carriers within it. When a doped semiconductor
contains mostly free holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains mostly free electrons it is known as
"n-type". The semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to
control the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can
have many p- and n-type regions; the p–n junctions between these regions are responsible for the
useful electronic behaviour.
Some of the properties of semiconductor materials were observed throughout the mid 19th and first
decades of the 20th century. Development of quantum physics in turn allowed the development of
the transistor in 1948. Although some pure elements and many compounds display semiconductor
properties, silicon, germanium, and compounds of gallium are the most widely used in electronic
devices.
a. Properties
 Variable conductivity
A pure semiconductor is a poor electrical conductor as a consequence of having just the right
number of electrons to completely fill its valence bonds. Through various techniques
(e.g., doping or gating), the semiconductor can be modified to have an excess of electrons
(becoming an n-type semiconductor) or a deficiency of electrons (becoming a p-type
semiconductor). In both cases, the semiconductor becomes much more conductive (the
conductivity can be increased by one million fold or more). Semiconductor devices exploit this
effect to shape electrical current.
 Depletion
 When doped semiconductors are joined to metals, to different semiconductors, and to the same
semiconductor with different doping, the resulting junction often strips the electron excess or
deficiency out from the semiconductor near the junction. This depletion region is rectifying (only
allowing current to flow in one direction), and used to further shape electrical currents in
semiconductor devices.
 Energetic electrons travel far
 Electrons can be excited across the energy band gap (see Physics below) of a semiconductor by
various means. These electrons can carry their excess energy over distance scales
of micrometers before dissipating their energy into heat – a significantly longer distance than is
possible in metals. This property is essential to the operation of, e. g., bipolar junction
transistors and solar cells.
 Light emission
 In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of producing
heat. These semiconductors are used in the construction of light emitting diodes and
fluorescent quantum dots.
 Thermal energy conversion
 Semiconductors have large thermoelectric power factors making them useful in thermoelectric
generators, as well as high thermoelectric figures of merit making them useful in thermoelectric
coolers.
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b. Materials
A large number of elements and compounds have semiconducting properties, including:
 Certain pure elements are found in Group XIV of the periodic table; the most commercially
important of these elements aresilicon and germanium. Silicon and germanium are used here
effectively because they have 4 valence electrons in their outermost shell which gives them the
ability to gain or lose electrons equally at the same time.
 Binary compounds, particularly between elements in Groups III and V, such as gallium arsenide,
Groups II and VI, groups IV and VI, and between different group IV elements, e.g. silicon carbide.
 Certain ternary compounds, oxides and alloys.
 Organic semiconductors, made of organic compounds.
Most common semiconducting materials are crystalline solids, but amorphous and liquid
semiconductors are also known. These include hydrogenated amorphous silicon and mixtures
of arsenic, selenium and tellurium in a variety of proportions. These compounds share with better
known semiconductors the properties of intermediate conductivity and a rapid variation of conductivity
with temperature, as well as occasional negative resistance. Such disordered materials lack the rigid
crystalline structure of conventional semiconductors such as silicon. They are generally used in thin
film structures, which do not require material of higher electronic quality, being relatively insensitive to
impurities and radiation damage
18.2. Digital Logic System

One of the most important and basic phenomenon in designing and processing various data in a very
short time to obtain an accurate output about aircraft attitude, altitude. Navigational information etc
aircraft onboard computer uses a number of logic gates and switches.
Logic gates
Aircraft logic systems follow the same conventions and standards as those used in other electronic
applications. In particular, the MIL/ANSI standard logic symbols are invariably used and the logic
elements
that they represent operate in exactly the same way as those used in non-aircraft applications. MIL/
ANSI standard symbols for the most common logic gates are shown together with their truth tables in
Figure below
Buffers
Buffers do not affect the logical state of a digital signal (i.e. a logic 1 input results in a logic 1 output
whereas a logic 0 input results in a logic 0 output). Buffers are normally used to provide extra current
drive at the output but can also be used to regularize the logic levels present at an interface. Inverters
are used to complement the logical state (i.e. a logic 1 input results in a logic 0 output and vice versa).
Inverters also provide extra current drive and, like buffers, are used in interfacing applications where
they provide a means of regularizing logic levels present at the input or output of a digital system.
AND logic
AND gates will only produce logic 1 output when all inputs are simultaneously at logic 1. Any other input
combination results in a logic 0 output.
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OR logic
OR gates will produce a logic 1 output whenever anyone, or more, inputs are at logic 1. Putting this
another way, an OR gate will only produce a logic 0 output whenever all of its inputs are simultaneously
at logic 0.
Symbols for standard logic gates together with truth tables
NAND logic
NAND (i.e. NOT-AND) gates will only produce a logic 0 output when all inputs are simultaneously at
logic 1. Any other input combination will produce a logic 1 output. A NAND gate, therefore, is nothing
more than an AND gate with its output inverted. The circle shown at the output of the gate denotes this
inversion.
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Logic gates with inverted outputs and inputs
NOR logic
NOR (i.e. NOT-OR) gates will only produce a logic 1 output when all inputs are simultaneously at logic 0.
Any other input combination will produce a logic 0 output. A NOR gate, therefore, is simply an OR gate
with its output inverted. A circle is again used to indicate inversion.
Exclusive-OR logic
Exclusive-OR gates will produce a logic 1 output whenever either one of the two inputs is at logic 1 and
the other is at logic 0. Exclusive-OR gates produce a logic 0 output whenever both inputs have the same
logical state (i.e. when both are at logic 0 or both are at logic 1).
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Exclusive-NOR logic
Exclusive-NOR gates will produce a logic 0 output whenever either one of the two inputs is at logic 1 and
the other is at logic 0. Exclusive-NOR gates produce a logic 1 output whenever both inputs have the
samelogical state (i.e. when both are at logic 0 or both are at logic 1).
Inverted inputs and outputs

The NAND and NOR gates that we have just met are said to have inverted outputs. In other words,
they are respectively equivalent to AND and OR gates with their outputs passed through an inverter (or
NOT gate) as shown in above figure (a) and (b).
As well as inverted outputs, aircraft logic systems also tend to show logic gates in which one or more of
the inputs is inverted. In figure (c) an AND gate is shown with one input inverted. This is equivalent to an
inverter (NOT gate) connected to one input of the AND gate, as shown. In figure(d) an OR gate is shown
with one input inverted. This is equivalent to an inverter (NOT gate) connected to one input of the OR
gate, as shown. Two further circuits with inverted inputs are shown in above figure
In figure (e) both inputs of an AND gate are shown inverted. This arrangement is equivalent to the two-
input NOR gate shown. In figure (f) , both inputs of an OR gate are shown inverted. This arrangement is
equivalent to the two-input NAND gate shown.
Key point
Logic circuits involve signals that can only exist in one of two mutually exclusive states. These two
states are usually denoted by 1 and 0, ‘on’ or ‘off ’, ‘ high’ and ‘low ’, ‘closed’ and ‘open’, etc.
18.3. Combinational logic systems

By using a standard range of logic levels (i.e. voltage levels used to represent the logic 1 and logic 0
states)
a. The majority vote logic b. The majority vote truth table
logic circuits can be combined together in order to solve more complex logic functions. As an example,
assume that a logic circuit is to be constructed that will produce a logic 1 output whenever two or
more of its three inputs are at logic 1. This circuit is referred to as a majority vote circuit and its truth
table is shown in above figure (a) and figure (b).
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18.4. Landing gear warning logic
Now let’s look at a more practical example of the use of logic in the typical aircraft system shown in
Figure below. The inputs to this logic system consist of five switches that detect whether or not the
respective landing gear door is open. The output from the logic system is used to drive six warning
indicators. Four of these are located on the overhead display panel and show which door (or doors) are
left open whilst an indicator located on the pilot’s instrument panel provides a master landing gear door
warning. A switch is also provided in order to enable or disable the five door warning indicators.
The landing gear warning logic primary module consists of the following integrated circuit devices:
A1 Regulated power supply for A5
A2 Regulated power supply for A7 and A11
A5 Ten inverting (NOT) gates
A7 Five-input NAND gate
A11 Six inverting (NOT) gates
Note that the power supply for A1 and A2 is derived from the essential services DC bus. This is a
28 V DC bus which is maintained in the event of an aircraft power failure. Note also that the indicators
are active-low devices (in other words, they require a logic 0 input in order to become illuminated)
Landing gear warning logic
Monostable devices
Monostable (or one-shot) devices provide us with a means of generating precise time delays. Such
delays become important in many logic applications where logic states are not static but change with
time. The action of a monostable is quite simple – its output is initially logic 0 until a change of state
occurs at its trigger input. The level change can be from 0 to 1 (positive edge trigger) or 1 to 0 (negative
edge trigger).
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Immediately the trigger pulse arrives, the output of the monostable changes state to logic 1. The output
then remains at logic 1 for a pre-determined period before reverting back to logic 0.
18.5. APU starter logic
An example of the use of a mono-stable is shown in the auxiliary power unit (APU) starter logic shown
in Figure below. This arrangement has three inputs (APU START, APU SHUTDOWN, and APU RUNNING)
and one output (APU STARTER MOTOR). The inputs are all active-high (in other words, a logic 1 is
generated when the pilot operates the APU START switch, and so on). The output of the APU starter
motor control logic goes to logic 1 in order to apply power to the starter motor via a large relay.
There are a few things to note about the logic arrangement shown in Figure below:
1. When the APU runs on its own we need to disengage the starter motor. In this condition the APU
MOTOR signal needs to become inactive (i.e. it needs to revert to logic 0).
2. We need to avoid the situation that might occur if the APU does not start but the starter motor runs
continuously (as this will drain the aircraft batteries). Instead, we should run the starter motor for a
reasonable time (say, 60 seconds) before disengaging the starter motor. The 60\ second timing is
provided by means of a positive edge triggered mono-stable device. This device is triggered from the
APU START signal.
3. Since the pilot is only required to momentarily press the APU START switch, we need to hold the
condition until such time as the engine starts or times out (i.e. at the end of the 60 second period).
APU starter logic
We can achieve this by OR’ing the momentary APU START signal with the APU STARTER MOTOR signal.
4. We need to provide a signal that the pilot can use to shut down the APU (for example, when the
aircraft’s main engines are running or perhaps in the event of a fault condition). In order to understand
the operation of the APU starter motor logic system we can once again trace through the logic system
using 1’s and 0’s to represent the logical condition at each point (just as we did for the landing gear door
warning logic). This results in the output of the AND gate going to logic 0 and the APU STARTER MOTOR
signal is no longer made active. The starter motor is therefore disengaged. If the APU has failed to run
during the 60 second mono stable period. In this timed out condition the output of the AND gate goes to
logic 0 and the APU STARTER MOTOR signal becomes inactive. The system then waits for the pilot to
operate the APU START button for a further attempt at starting!
18.6. Computers
Modern aircraft use increasingly sophisticated avionic systems which involve the use of microprocessor
based computer systems. These systems combine hardware and software and are capable of processing
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large amounts of data in a very small time. The basic components of a computer system are shown in
Figure below.
Basic components of a computer system
The main components are:

a. a central processing unit (CPU)
b. a memory, comprising both ‘ read/write ’ and ‘ read only ’ devices (commonly called RAM and
ROM respectively)
c. a means of providing input and output (I/O). For example, a keypad for input and a display for
output.
In a microprocessor system the functions of the CPU are provided by a single very large scale integrated
(VLSI) microprocessor chip. This chip is equivalent to many thousands of individual transistors.
Semiconductor devices are also used to provide the read/write and read-only memory. Strictly speaking,
both types of memory permit ‘ random access ’ since any item of data can be retrieved with equal ease
regardless of its actual location within the memory. Despite this, the term ‘ RAM ’ has become
synonymous with semiconductor read/write memory. The basic components of the system (CPU, RAM,
ROM and I/O) are linked together using a multiplewire connecting system know as a bus (see Fig. 3.33 ).
Three different buses are present, these are:
a. the address bus used to specify memory locations;
b. the data bus on which data is transferred between devices; and
c. the control bus which provides timing and control signals throughout the system.
The number of individual lines present within the address bus and data bus depends upon the particular
microprocessor employed. Signals on all lines, no matter whether they are used for address, data,
or control, can exist in only two basic states: logic 0 (low ) or logic 1 ( high ). Data and addresses are
represented by binary numbers (a sequence of 1 s and 0 s) that appear respectively on the data and
address bus. Some basic microprocessors designed for control and instrumentation applications have an
8-bit data bus and a 16-bit address bus. More sophisticated processors can operate with as many as 64
or 128 bits at a time. Finally, a locally generated clock signal provides a time reference for controlling the
transfer of synchronous data within the system. The clock signal usually consists of a high-frequency
square wave pulse train derived from an accurate quartz crystal controlled oscillator .
Key point
A computer system consists of a central processing unit (CPU), a read-only memory (ROM), a read/
write (random access) memory (RAM), and one or more input/output (I/O) devices. These elements
are linked together using a local bus system that comprises an address bus, a data bus, and a control
bus.
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Key point
Depending on the size of their internal data bus, avionic computer systems usually manipulate data in
groups of 8, 16 or 32 bits. When this data is obtained from an external serial bus this data must first be
assembled into parallel form in order to facilitate internal processing.
Memories and data storage
The semiconductor read-only memory (ROM) within a microprocessor system provides storage for the
program code as well as any permanent data that requires storage. All of this data is referred to as non-
volatile because it remains intact when the power supply is disconnected. The semiconductor RAM
within a microprocessor system provides storage for the transient data and variables that are used by
programs. Part of the RAM is also used by the microprocessor as a temporary store for data whilst
carrying out its normal processing tasks. It is important to note that any program or data stored in RAM
will be lost when the power supply is switched off or disconnected. The only exception to this is low-
power CMOS RAM that is kept alive by means of a small battery. This battery-backed memory is used to
retain important data, such as the time and date. When expressing the amount of storage provided
by a memory device we usually use kilobytes (Kbyte). It is important to note that a kilobyte of memory is
actually 1024 bytes (not 1000 bytes). The reason for choosing the Kbyte rather than the kbyte (1000
bytes)
A typical aircraft computer system
Key maintenance point
Stray static charges can very easily damage static sensitive devices such as microprocessors and memory
chips. Damage can be prevented by adopting the appropriate ESD procedures which usually involve
using grounded wrist straps when handling chips and boards and using specially treated conductive
packaging for transport and storage of component parts.
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19. Autopilot:
19.1. Introduction
An autopilot is a system used to control the trajectory of aircraft without constant 'hands-on' control by
a human operator being required. Autopilots do not replace a human operator, but assist them in
controlling the aircraft, allowing them to focus on broader aspects of operation, such as monitoring the
trajectory, weather and systems. Now a day Autopilots are used in Aircraft, spacecraft, missiles, and
others. Autopilots have evolved significantly over time, from early autopilots that merely held
an attitude of modern autopilots capable of performing automated landings under the supervision of a
Pilot.
In the early days of aviation, aircraft required the continuous attention of a pilot in order to fly safely. As
aircraft range increased allowing flights of many hours, the constant attention led to serious fatigue. An
autopilot is designed to perform some of the tasks of the pilot.
The first aircraft autopilot was developed in 1912. The autopilot connected a gyroscopic heading
indicator and attitude indicator to hydraulically operated elevator and rudder, aileron were not
connected as wing dihydral was counted upon to produce the necessary roll stability. It permitted the
aircraft to fly straight and level on a compass course without a pilot's attention, greatly reducing the
pilot's workload.
Not all of the passenger aircraft flying today have an autopilot system. Older and smaller general
aviation aircraft especially are still hand-flown, and even small airliners with fewer than twenty seats
may also be without an autopilot as they are used on short-duration flights with two pilots. The
installation of autopilots in aircraft with more than twenty seats is generally made mandatory by
international aviation regulations.
Autopilots in modern complex aircraft are three-axis and generally divide a flight into taxi, takeoff,
climb, cruise (level flight), descent, approach, and landing phases. Autopilots exist that automate all of
these flight phases except taxi and takeoff. An autopilot-controlled landing on a runway and controlling
the aircraft on rollout (i.e. keeping it on the centre of the runway) is known as a CAT IIIb landing or Auto-
land, available on many major airports' runways today, especially at airports subject to adverse weather
phenomena such as fog. Landing, rollout, and taxi control to the aircraft parking position is known as
CAT IIIc. This is not used to date, but may be used in the future. An autopilot is often an integral
component of a Flight Management System (FMS) by injecting data relevant to the planned flight path
such as airspeed, altitude, heading and position relative to ground radio navaids.
19.2. Autopilot for ILS Landing:

Instrument-aided Landing are defined in categories by the ICAO. These are dependent upon the
required visibility level and the degree to which the landing can be conducted automatically without
input by the pilot.
CAT I - This category permits pilots to land with a decision height of 200 ft (61 m) and a forward visibility
or Runway Visual Range (RVR) of 550 m. Autopilots are not required.
CAT II - This category permits pilots to land with a decision height between 200 ft and 100 ft (≈ 30 m)
and a RVR of 300 m. Autopilots have a fail passive requirement.
CAT IIIa -This category permits pilots to land with a decision height as low as 50 ft (15 m) and a RVR of
200 m. It needs a fail-passive autopilot. There must be only a 10−6 probability of landing outside the
prescribed area.
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CAT IIIb - As IIIa but with the addition of automatic roll out after touchdown incorporated with the pilot
taking control some distance along the runway. This category permits pilots to land with a decision
height less than 50 feet or no decision height and a forward visibility of 250 ft (76 m, compare this to
aircraft size, some of which are now over 70 m long) or 300 ft (91 m) in the United States. For a landing-
without-decision aid, a fail-operational autopilot is needed. For this category
some form of runway guidance system is needed: at least fail-passive but it needs to be fail-operational
for landing without decision height or for RVR below 100 m.
CAT IIIc - As IIIb but without decision height or visibility minimums, also known as "zero-zero".
Fail-passive autopilot: in case of failure, the aircraft stays in a controllable position and the pilot can take
control of it to go around or finish landing. It is usually a dual-channel system.
Fail-operational autopilot: in case of a failure below alert height, the approach, flare and landing can still
be completed automatically. It is usually a triple-channel system or dual-dual system.
Autopilots employ closed loop control system which sense deviations from steady flight and apply
corrections via the flying controls proportional to the rate of deviation. The functions og such a system
may be summarized below:
a. An attitude change about one of the principal axes is sensed by a gyroscope.
b. The gyroscope process, and produces an output signal proportional to the rate of change of
attitude.
c. A controller ( comparator) compares the gyro signal with a fixed “reference attitude” signal,
computes the rate and direction of attitude change, and transmits a suitable corrective
signal to a flying control servomotor.
d. The loop is closed as the corrective action is sensed by the gyro, the output signal is
removed and the servomotor returns the flying control to a steady state position.
A rate feedback loop controls the rate at which the aircraft responds to the demand signal, thus
preventing over-controlling and the possible overstressing of the aircraft. A three axis autopilot has
loops for pitch, roll and yaw rate.
19.3. Automatic Throttle Control

Complete automatic control of an aircraft requires an automatic throttle control system so that speed
can be controlled during changes of altitude or whilst manoeuvring. The automatic throttle control
system monitors airspeed and pitch rate against datum parameters set by the pilot or as a product of
auto ILS, TFR, or weapons aiming and attack systems. The system can also control engine power to
achieve ideal range or endurance speeds.
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Autopilot Sensors
The attitude of an aircraft may be defined by its position in pitch, roll and yaw. Datum information for
roll and pitch can be provided by vertical gyros and yaw rate information can be provided by lateral
accelerometers. A heading reference may be a gyro-magnetic compass or an INS. Using these sensors
the autopilot is able to fly the aircraft straight and level on a constant heading.
Manoeuvring the Aircraft
1. Attitude demands may be pilot or autopilot initiated. Pitch, roll and yaw demand signals are
passed directly into the computer/amplifier/servo system. The autopilot responds by operating the
appropriate controls to reduce the error signal as described in para 2.
a. Manual Control Facilities. If the pilot wishes to enter attitude demands manually he can do so
by using switches or potentiometers to produce electrical signals which are fed directly to the
autopilot as pitch, roll and yaw demands. The controls for entering demands manually may be
on a control panel or on the control column of a fast-jet aircraft.
b. Automatic Control Facilities. The outputs of various aircraft systems can be fed into the
autopilot manoeuvring facility by selection. Typically, signals may be derived from:
1. Flight Instrument Systems. The pilot may set a heading or track demand by moving an
index marker on the horizontal situation indicator.
2. Radio Navigation Aids. Inbound or outbound radials can be derived to steer the aircraft
towards or away from VOR, TACAN, or ILS localizers.
3. Air Data Systems. Datum signals can be produced to fly the aircraft at constant
barometric height, airspeed, or Mach number.
4. Terrain Following Radars and Radio Altimeters. Signals can be derived from terrain
following radar or radio altimeters to fly the aircraft automatically at selected heights
above the ground.
5. Navigation Computers. Signals can be derived to steer the aircraft towards a navigation
feature or turning point.
6. Weapon Aiming/Attack/Search Systems. Signals from weapon aiming, attack or search
systems can be used to fly the aircraft in predetermined search and attack patterns.
The ability to use these systems enables the pilot to select the appropriate inputs to the autopilot for a
very wide range of flying activities from a relatively undemanding navigation task to very demanding low
level navigation and attack mission, possibly at night or in bad weather.
Autopilot Safety
2. An autopilot must not be capable of endangering the aircraft or its crew. Autopilot safety is ensured
by a variety of design features and devices to ensure at least a 'fail-safe' capability. Features and
devices vary greatly but typical examples are:
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Design Features. Circuits are designed to be as simple as possible and components are used at a fraction
of their rated values to ensure high reliability. Additionally, switching circuits are given clearly defined
priorities
a. to avoid inadvertent selection of dangerous flight configurations and to avoid selection of

incompatible flight control modes.
b. Safety Devices. The following safety devices are typical:

1. Pilot's Instinctive Cut-out. The instinctive cut-out is positioned on the control column and can
be quickly and easily operated to disengage the autopilot giving full manual control authority to
the pilot.
2. Rate and Angle Limiters. The rate and angle limiters prevent the overstressing of the aircraft by
limiting the rate of response or angle achievable in any channel.
3. Control Limit Switches. Control limit switches are micro switches which operate when a control
reaches the end of its allowable travel. These switches are able to prevent any damage from
servo runaway.
4. Excess Torque Devices. Excess torque devices are used either to prevent overstressing of the
aircraft or to detect excessive current demands such as might occur if an electrical servo was
attempting to overcome a control restriction.
5. Monitoring Facilities. Most autopilot functions are continuously monitored by a built-in test
equipment system which is able to generate warnings and initiate automatic reversionary
modes. Commonly monitored functions are power supplies, the accuracy of datum information
on attitude and heading and the serviceability states of systems which provide inputs to the
autopilot.
Flight Information System
3. Autopilots include a flight information system which provides aircrew with an integrated
presentation of:
a. Primary flight information showing attitude and heading.
b. Flight director information showing indices and markers which indicate the horizontal
and vertical control required to regain a demanded flight path.
Flight information systems range from simple 2 instrument displays to fully processed electronic head-
up or head-down displays. The system enables the pilot to fly the aircraft manually to meet the
autopilot demands, or to check that the autopilot is following the demands correctly.
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20. Electronic Indicating Systems:
Modern day aeroplanes use the glass cockpit in the form of electronic displays to replace the
conventional instruments. There are two systems currently in use:
Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS)
Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM)
20.1. EICAS
This system consists of two display units, one control panel and two computers that are supplied with
analogue and digital signals. Only one computer controls whilst the other is on standby, should a
failure occur then the standby computer can be switched on either automatically or manually. The
displays are cathode ray tubes (CRT) and are mounted one above each other.
The upper display is the Primary Display and displays primary engine parameters e.g. N1, EGT, and
in some installations EPR, it also displays warning and caution messages. The primary engine
parameters are permanently displayed in-flight.
EICAS
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The lower display is the Secondary Display and displays secondary engine parameters e.g. N2, N3
applicable to some Rolls Royce engines, fuel flow, oil quantity, oil pressure, oil temperature and
engine vibration, plus non engine systems status e.g. hydraulic system, electrical system etc. The
secondary display is normally blank in-flight, but will be selected to indicate secondary engine
parameters during start.
Should a display fail then the information will automatically be transferred to the other screen in a
format called compact. If total EICAS display is lost then a standby LCD engine indicator will provide
primary engine information.
20.2. ECAM
ECAM
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This system originally developed for the Airbus, but is now fitted to the MD11, has the same basic
components as the EICAS system, but the processing and display of information differs quite
significantly in that it displays in a checklist and a pictorial or synoptic format.
Depending on the aeroplane, the displays can either be mounted one above each other or side by side.
The upper or left display is the Engine and Warning Display and displays engine parameters, status
of systems, warnings and corrective action in a sequenced checklist format.
The lower or right display is the Systems Status Display and displays associated information in a
pictorial or synoptic format.
ECAM Electrical System

20.3. Warning Systems
These are provided to give an indication of a possible failure or of a dangerous condition
System Warning
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that exists, in order that action can be taken to ensure the integrity of the engine or aeroplane. In
the case of electronic indicating systems then the severity of the warning will dictate the colour
being displayed.
20.4. Integrated Instrument Panel General Aviation Aircraft
Instruments Display General Aviation Aircraft
21. Radio Propagation

21.1. BASIC PRINCIPLES
It is generally agreed that even a partial understanding of radio theory helps in appreciating the
limitations of the various radio aids to navigation. These notes aim to introduce the fundamentals as
simply as possible with a minimum of mathematics.
Alternating Current
In the simple circuit depicted an alternating current flows in the circuit. This simply means that the
direction of current flow is being reversed at regular intervals. At one instant the flow is clockwise, the
next it is anticlockwise round the circuit. A graph of current flow against time would appear of curve that
is a sine curve.
A study of this curve shows that the current starts at zero (point A), increases to a maximum value in
one direction (at B), decreases to zero (at C), increases to maximum again in the opposite direction (at
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D), and then reduces to zero again at point E. This sequence of events is called a Cycle, which could be
defined as one complete oscillation of the alternating current. The + and - signs on the graph simply
indicate the reversing directions of current flow.
It can be seen from the graph that at points B and D the instantaneous current flow has a maximum
value. This peak value (in either direction) is called the Amplitude of the current. Since a similar graph of
alternating voltage in the circuit could be plotted, the term amplitude is defined as the peak value of the
alternating quantity (current or voltage).
The term Frequency is used to state the number of cycles occurring in one second. Frequency F is
measured in Hertz ( Hz ). The time for one complete cycle is called the period or periodic time(T). The
relationship between frequency and periodic time is such that one is the reciprocal of the other; ie
F = 1/T and T = 1/ F
Where, F is the frequency in Hz and T is the periodic time in Sec
RADIO WAVES
If an alternating current of suitably high frequency is fed to a transmitting aerial, the energy is not
confined to the metal of the aerial but radiates out into space in the form of electro-magnetic waves
(radio waves). This radiation of energy through space comprises alternating electrical and magnetic
fields at right angles to each other. The amplitude of each field varies (oscillates) between zero and a
maximum value, at the same frequency as the alternating current in the aerial.
POLARIZATION
Vertical polarization
The term polarization is used to describe the direction or plane of oscillation of the electrical field of an
electro-magnetic wave. For instance a vertical transmitting aerial produces (mainly) a vertically polarized
radio wave, with the electrical field (E) oscillations occurring in the vertical plane and the magnetic field
(H) oscillations in the horizontal plane. For efficient reception, the receiving aerial should also be
vertical. If the transmitting aerial is horizontal, the receiving aerial should also be horizontal.
The electric and magnetic fields oscillate at right angles to each other and both are at right angles to the
direction of propagation (or travel) of the radio wave. Figure shows above the peak values E and H of the
electric and magnetic fields of a vertically polarized wave.
SPEED OF PROPAGATION: Radio waves travel at the speed of light. The speed is virtually constant and
is 300,000,000 metres per second, or 162, 000 nautical miles per second
WAVE LENGTH: The wavelength of a radio wave can be defined as the distance travelled by the radio
signal during the transmission of one cycle. Wavelength is normally expressed in metres unless it is less
than one metre, when centimetres or millimetres are used.
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FREQUENCY UNITS: Frequencies are expressed in Hertz (Hz). One Hertz equals one cycle per second.
Radio frequencies are high and for convenience the following units may be used:-
21.2. WAVE LENGTH, FREQUENCY, AND SPEED OF PROPAGATION
The relationship with these three quantities C=fxλ

This equation can be rewrite as : F = C/ λ or λ = C/ f
Where, C Speed of Propagation ( m/Sec)
f- frequency in Hz
λ-Wave lenght in metres
With these formulae, it is a fairly simple matter to convert between wavelength and frequency. It can be
seen from the formulae that wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency; so that if frequency is
increased, wavelength will decrease. If the frequency were doubled the wavelength would be halved.
Frequency / Wave length conversion

Example No.1 What frequency corresponds to a wavelength of 1,500 m? Speed of Propagation
(metres/sec)
Wavelength (metres) 300,000,000 /1,500 = 200,000 Hz (or cps) = 200 kHz (Answer)
Example No.2 What is the wavelength of a 300 kHz transmission?
Wavelength (metres) = Speed of Propagation (metres/sec)
Frequency (Hz)
300,000,000 /300 x 1,000 = 1,000 m (Answer)
Frequency Hz
Frequency Spectrum
Frequencies Frequency band Wave length Facilities

3-30 Khz VLF Very Low Frequency 100km-10Km Very Long Rang Navigation
30-300 Khz LF Low Frequency 10 Km- 1 km Decca,NDB,Loran-
C,Long/Medium wave
broadcasting station
300- 3000 Khz MF Medium Frequency 1 Km-100 metres NDB,B/S Radio range
3-30 Mhz HF High Frequency 100 m-10 m HF R/T
30 – 300 Mhz VHF Very High 10m -1m VHF R/T, VDF, VOR, Marker
Frequency Beacons, ILS
300- 3000 Mhz UHF Ultra High 1m -10 cm ILS Glide path, DME, Some
Frequency Surveillance radar
Phase
The stage reached in a cycle at a given instant in time is known as the Phase of the current or voltage.
Phase is expressed in degrees (between 0° and 360°). This is illustrated in Figure below:
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Phase
PHASE DIFFERENCE.
Two radio waves at the same frequency can be 'In Phase' or 'Out of Phase' by any number of degrees
from 1° to 359°. It is essential that the two signals are at the same frequency for there to be a fixed
phase difference between them. If they were at different frequencies (and therefore different
wavelengths) the phase difference would be continually changing.
With some radio aids, including VOR and Decca, the phase difference between two signals is measured
in order to establish a position line. Figures below depicted examples of 'in phase' and 'out of phase'
signals.
21.3. ATTENUATION
The term attenuation means the loss in strength of a radio signal as range from the transmitter
increases. The signal strength received is inversely proportional to the distance from the transmitter. A
wave becomes attenuated as range increases because:-
a. The radio energy available is spread over a greater area.
b. Radio energy is lost to the earth, the atmosphere, and sometimes to the ionised layers bove the
earth.
One factor on which the operational range of a radio emission depends is the transmitter power.
The range obtainable is proportional to the square root of the power; in other words if the range
is to be doubled, the transmitter power must be quadrupled.
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21.4. REFRACTION
As a general rule, radio signals travel in straight lines, that is, they follow great circle paths over the
surface of the earth. Under certain circumstances, however, the path of a signal may change direction.
This change of direction is known as refraction. The amount of refraction varies considerably, depending
on conditions. Well-known examples of refraction are:-
Coastal Refraction - where there is a change in direction when a signal crosses a coastline.
Atmospheric Refraction - Where changes in direction occur due to variations in temperature, pressure,
and humidity - particularly at low altitude.
Ionospheric Refraction - where the wave changes direction as it passes through an ionised layer.
21.5. PROPAGATION PATHS

The path of a radio wave from a transmitter to a receiver many miles away is not necessarily direct. The
following paragraphs describe the various paths a radio signal can follow. In many cases, the signal may
be reaching the receiver by more than one path at the same time, and because of the different path
lengths there will be phase differences between the signals. Such phase differences affect the resultant
signal strength.
For instance, if two waves from the same transmitter travel by different paths and arrive 180° out of
phase, as in Figure 1.5(c)., they will cancel each other if their amplitudes are the same. The resultant
signal strength will be zero, so no signal will be received. Changes in phase difference will cause changes
in signal strength so producing the effect known as 'fading'.
21.6. DIRECT AND GROUND-REFLECTED WAVES

A signal which travels in a straight line between transmitter and receiver is called the direct wave. In
addition to this, there is normally a signal arriving at the receiver after reflection at the earth's surface.
This is the ground-reflected wave. These two waves are jointly known as the Space Wave and are
depicted in Figure shown below. (In this and other diagrams, the abbreviation Tx is used for transmitter
and Rx for Receiver.)
Space Wave
Since the direct and reflected waves follow different paths they may arrive at the receiver with large
phase differences. The situation is further complicated by a change in phase which occurs at the point of
reflection of the ground-reflected wave. The net result is that, for instance, an aircraft flying towards a
ground station may suffer fading or temporary loss of VHF communications with that station. The range
at which this occurs depends on ground aerial height above the surface, aircraft altitude, and frequency.
The curvature of the earth limits the use of the direct wave. It can be seen from Figure shown below
that the aircraft 'below the horizon' cannot use the direct wave for communications.
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Line of Sight
The lowest direct wave is just tangential to the surface and is known as the 'horizon ray'. It will be
appreciated that direct wave communications for the aircraft in Figure 1.6(b). could be restored by
either raising the height of the ground aerial or increasing the aircraft's altitude. A formula used for
calculating the maximum range of direct wave receptions is:
Range (nm) = 1.25( √ h1 + √ h2 )

Where, h1 = height of ground aerial ( feet AMSL), h2 = aircraft altitude ( feet AMSL)
This formula allows for a small amount of refraction in the lower layers of the atmosphere, which gives a
slightly better range than would be obtained if the direct wave followed a perfectly straight path
without any downward refraction. Under normal conditions, the space wave provides the only
propagation path for frequencies above about 30 MHz.
Therefore, except on fairly rare occasions, communications in the VHF and higher bands suffer from line
of sight transmission with range limited by the curvature of the earth and any high ground which
interrupts the line of sight. Note that the range limitation imposed by Line of sight transmission is useful
when there is a shortage of available frequencies.
For instance, with VHF R/T, except in freak conditions, the curvature of the earth gives protection from
mutual interference between stations using a common frequency provided they are well-separated
geographically.
21.7. SURFACE WAVE

If the space wave were the only means of propagation, communications could only be 'line of sight'.
However, the phenomenon of diffraction can produce a surface wave, a signal which follows the
curvature of the earth as depicted in Figure shown below.
Diffraction, which occurs for all types of wave motion, allows the wave to pass round an obstacle. With
the surface wave, the obstacle is the earth and the amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength in
relation to the radius of the earth. With longer wavelengths (lower frequencies) the diffraction effect
becomes more pronounced with consequently improved surface wave range.
The type of surface also influences the range - for two reasons:
a. it affects the amount of downward 'bending' of the wave.
b. different surfaces absorb different amounts of radio energy from the wave, so affecting
the rate of attenuation. The latter is always greater over land than over sea so surface wave range is
better over sea than over land.
Frequency is also important, the lower frequencies suffering less attenuation along the surface and
therefore giving better surface wave range.
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Surface Wave
a Greatest at very low frequencies (most diffraction and least attenuation).

b. At frequencies above about 30 MHz, surface wave range is only a few miles (very little
diffraction but rapid attenuation).
c. At very low frequencies, surface wave range is great, and is nearly as great over land as over
sea, but as frequency is increased the range over land (particularly dry land) decreases far more.
GROUND WAVE: The term ground wave is used to describe the combination of direct wave, ground-
reflected wave, and surface wave. Not all these are necessarily present together. For instance, below
the horizon the ground wave consists of the surface wave alone - provided the frequency is low enough
(below about 30 MHz).
SKY WAVE: Yet another mode of propagation is by sky waves. These are waves which have been
reflected or refracted down from ionised layers above the earth and are sometimes known as
ionospheric waves. More details of sky wave propagation are given in the following paragraphs.
Ionospheric Refraction
21.8. THE IONOSPHERE

Ultra-violet light from the sun can cause electrons to become separated from their parent atoms of the
gases in the atmosphere. The atoms are left with resultant positive charges and are then known as ions.
The intensity of this ionisation depends on the strength of the ultra-violet radiation and the density of
the air. The part of the atmosphere in which this process occurs is called the ionosphere, extending from
about 50 km to as high as 500 km above the earth's surface. The ionospere is therefore situated above
the stratosphere (which lies above the troposphere).
Several definite ionised layers exist within it. When a radio wave enters such a layer, refraction occurs
causing the wave to be bent away from its straight path. The amount of refraction depends on the
frequency, the angle at which the wave enters the layer and the intensity of ionisation. Under certain
circumstances the wave may be bent so much that it is returned to earth as a sky wave as illustrated.
21.9. HF SKY WAVES

Sky wave propagation occurs in the HF band (3-30 MHz). However there are many variable factors which
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decide whether or not there is a propagation path open between transmitter and receiver for long range
radio-telephony. For a given frequency, and state of the ionosphere, the amount of refractive 'bending'
of the wave will depend on the angle at which the wave penetrates the layer. From above Figure it can
be seen that waves travelling nearly vertically may escape through a layer (they may be returned to
earth from a higher, more intensely ionised layer).
Critical Angle (HF Band)
For waves ascending with an increased angle with the vertical the amount of bending is greater, and
when the angle with the vertical is increased to the critical angle, the path is bent enough for the wave
to return to earth as the 'first sky wave'. Waves making an angle with the vertical greater than the
critical angle will also produce sky waves, coming down to earth at greater ranges than that of the first
sky wave. The range from the transmitter of the first sky wave for a given frequency and set of
conditions is called the skip distance.
Note that the surface wave from a HF transmitter may become completely attenuated at a shorter
range than that at which the first sky wave returns to earth. This leaves an area in which neither ground
nor sky waves are received and which is known as dead space. illustrates this phenomenon.
Critical angle depends largely on frequency. The higher the frequency, the greater the critical angle.
Therefore, if skip distance is to be reduced, a lower frequency has to be used. This is most significant
when choosing the optimum frequencies for HF communications and ensuring that the skip distance is
less than the range of the distant receiver.
Dead Space and Skip Distance
As frequency is reduced then, the critical angle decreases and skip distance becomes shorter. The
frequency at which the critical angle reaches zero is called the critical frequency. This is the highest
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frequency which will give vertical reflections. With any higher frequency a wave travelling vertically
would escape through the layer.
At and below the critical frequency the intensity of ionisation in the layer is great enough to produce
vertical reflections. Measurements of critical frequency for the E and F layers are made in various parts
of the world and these, together with past records, are used to predict the optimum HF R/T working
frequencies.
It should be noted that for frequencies above about 30 MHz, waves generally escape through the layers
into space - regardless of the angle the wave makes with the vertical. Thus sky waves are relatively rare
in the VHF and higher frequency bands.
For good long-range HF R/T reception a frequency must be chosen which will not suffer too much
attenuation. If a relatively high frequency is used, for example 20 MHz, most of the energy will pass
through the E-layer and be reflected from the more intensely ionised F-layer. (The higher the frequency,
the greater the degree of ionisation required to give reflections
It is worth noting that as frequency is reduced and attenuation of the E-layer reflections increases, a
limit is reached called the 'Lowest Usable High Frequency'. Below this frequency the attenuation is too
great for the signal to be usable.
Single and Double Reflections

Yet another reason for using the higher frequencies is that natural radio noise (static) is worst at low
frequencies, becoming much less significant as the VHF band is approached.
Thus for least attenuation (and so the highest received signal strength for a given transmitter power) a
frequency is chosen which is as high as possible without exceeding the MUF (Maximum Usable
Frequency) for the path between the transmitter and distant receiver. The MUF is that frequency (for
the prevailing conditions) which produces a skip zone extending just short of the distant receiver. Any
higher frequency would give a higher critical angle and a greater skip distance extending beyond the
receiver which would then lose that sky wave contact with the transmitter.
MUF at night is much less than by day because the intensity of ionisation in the layers is less so that
lower frequencies have to be used to produce the same amount of refractive bending and give the same
critical angle and skip distance as by day. However, the signal attenuation in the ionosphere is also much
less at night so the lower frequency needed is still usable. Hence the night frequency for a given path is
about half the day frequency. It can be seen that shorter distances can be 'worked' at night than by day
while still using a single reflection from the F- layer.
Note that the MUF not only varies with path length and between day and night, but also with season,
meteor trails, sunspot state, and sudden ionospheric disturbances produced by eruptions on the sun.
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Because of the variations of MUF, HF transmitting stations have to use frequencies varying widely
between about 2 and 20 MHz. 169
FADING: This is the term given to the repeated variations in received signal strength which are common
with HF communications. Several signals arriving by different paths with varying phase differences cause
'interference' fading.
Polarization fading is caused by changes in polarization of the wave during refraction in a layer.
Absorption fading is caused by variations in the amount of attenuation, while 'skip fading' is caused by
changes in the ionisation of the layer varying the MUF and so the skip distance so that the receiver may
alternately lie inside and outside the skip zone.
FADE-OUTS: Complete loss of HF communications sometimes take place and may last for many hours.
This is caused by eruptions on the sun which produce a high level of radio noise, increased attenuation
in the lower levels, and a reduction in the reflecting efficiency of the F-layer.
HF SKY WAVE RANGES: It must be remembered that sky waves will not be received within the skip
distance - probably several hundred miles from the transmitter. The theoretical maximum range
obtainable by means of a single reflection from the E-layer is about 1 300 nm; from the F-layer about 2
500 nm. This theoretical maximum range is achieved with the transmitted signal leaving the
earth's surface tangentially. Ranges of 8 000 nm or more may be achieved by means of multiple
reflections - mainly from the F-layer - the signal being alternately refracted down from the layer and
reflected up again from the earth's surface until it becomes too weak to use.
FREQUENCY / PROPAGATION TABLE.
The following table summerise the main features of the various frequency bands.
Frequency bands Type of Propagation

VLF ( 3-30 khz) Ground and Sky wave
LF ( 30- 300 khz ) Ground wave by day, Sky & ground wave by
night
MF ( 300-3000 khz ) As for LF band
HF ( 3- 30 Mhz Mainly sky wave- day & night
VHF,UHF,SHF, (30- 30000 Mhz Space wave( line of sight transmission) except
for freak propagation
21.10. 21.10. MODULATION

Intelligence in the form of speech, music, or single audio frequencies cannot be transmitted direct through
space in the form of electro-magnetic waves, because the audio frequencies involved are too low for
efficient transmission. To overcome this difficulty the audio frequency (from, say, a microphone) is
combined with the radio frequency carrier wave at the transmitter. This process is called Modulation.
The resultant waveform (Modulated Carrier Wave or MCW) is transmitted through space. The radio
frequency (RF) carrier wave can be considered to be 'carrying' the audio frequency (AF). The receiver
separates the audio frequency from the carrier frequency, feeding the amplified audio frequency to the
earphones or loudspeaker. Two main types of modulation used are - 'Amplitude' and 'Frequency'
modulation. Pulse modulation is also commonly used.
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21.10.1. Amplitude Modulation
In a real amplitude modulation where the amplitude of the carrier wave consistently varies in sympathy
with the intelligence wave form. The significance of simple amplitude modulation is that the modulating
wave form is constant in amplitude and constant in frequency, as shown below. The intelligence
normally used for this type of transmission would be a simple steady audio frequency tone.
By keying either the modulating signal, or the modulated carrier wave itself, the audio tone can be used
to convey simple morse idents. If you check any short range NDB in the COMS section of the
Aeronautical Information Publication you’ll find that it is given as NONA2A. The NON is the continuous
carrier wave, which occurs between the ident sequences, and which gives the ADF receiver a nice steady
signal for direction finding. The A2A which is tacked onto the end is the NDB identifier, which in this case
is achieved by keyed amplitude modulation, using a steady audio tone.
21.10.2. Frequency Modulation
When pure frequency modulation (FM) techniques are employed the amplitude of the carrier wave
normally remains constant, however the frequency of the carrier wave is made to vary in sympathy with
the modulating wave form (the intelligence), figure shown below. The amplitude of the modulating
waveform is represented by the amount by which the frequency of the carrier wave changes and the
frequency of the modulating waveform by the rate of change of the carrier wave frequency.
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21.11. Bandwidth
We tend to assume that if the published frequency of a transmitter is, for example 123.2 MHz, that the
frequency transmitted is 123.2 MHz and only 123.2 MHz. This is not in fact the case. With a little thought
it should be obvious that a frequency modulated signal must necessarily cover a band of frequencies,
this band being termed the bandwidth of the transmitter. For perfect reproduction of the intelligence
the radio receiver must have the same bandwidth. That is to say that the receiver must possess the
ability to accept the same band of frequencies as that transmitted. The upper and lower limits of the
frequency band are equally spaced above and below the published spot frequency (except in single side
band systems).
With FM signals the bandwidth is quite broad, and consequently the number of channels which can be
fitted into any given part of the radio frequency spectrum, without risk of overlap and consequent
interference, is somewhat limited. With amplitude modulation it would appear at first sight that only
one frequency is transmitted. Unfortunately life is never that simple. The example of simple amplitude
modulation illustrated in previous figure shows a 300 KHz carrier wave modulated with a 2 KHz audible
tone. The range of frequencies actually transmitted in this case would be 298 KHz to 302 KHz, giving a
bandwidth of 4 KHz. The bandwidth of any amplitude modulated signal is twice the value of the highest
frequency of the modulating waveform. The range of frequencies actually transmitted is the basic
carrier wave frequency plus and minus the highest frequency of the modulating waveform.
The bandwidth of an amplitude modulated signal will be narrower than the bandwidth of a
frequency modulated signal conveying the same intelligence. Despite this narrow bandwidth the
situation still arises whereby certain parts of the radio frequency spectrum, particularly the HF band,
have become congested, and that as a result of this, interference from stations on adjacent channels
often occurs. The greater the bandwidth transmitted, and therefore required of the receiver, the
greater the scope for interference. Speech transmission using amplitude modulation requires a 3 KHz
modulating waveform, whilst music requires about 15 KHz. In order to alleviate this problem single
side band (SSB) systems are now widely used.
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21.12. Single Side Band Transmission
With amplitude modulated signals we have established that the frequencies actually
transmitted are equi-spaced about the carrier wave frequency. The intelligence is contained in two
bands of frequencies, one above the carrier wave spot frequency, the upper side band (USB), and one
below the carrier wave spot frequency, the lower side band (LSB). The same information is conveyed
in the USB as in the LSB, and it is therefore possible to suppress one or the other without losing any
of the intelligence. The effect of this is to halve the bandwidth, enabling closer channel spacing
without risk of interference. Furthermore, because the side bands absorb at least 25% of the
transmitter power, suppressing one of the side bands leaves more of the total transmitter power
available for transmission of the carrier wave – significantly increasing the range at which the
transmitted signal can be received.
In summary, the advantage of SSB transmission are that:
a. It occupies less of the available radio spectrum (the bandwidth is halved).
b. Interference from other transmissions is less likely (a better signal to noise ratio).
c. Greater range is achieved for a given power (the same power is concentrated into the
narrower bandwidth).
22. ANTENNAE
22.1 INTRODUCTION
If a wire is fed with an alternating current, some of the power from it will be radiated into space. A
similar wire parallel to and remote from the first will intercept some of the radiated power and as a
consequence an alternating current of the same frequency will be induced into it. This is the basis of
the transmission and reception of radio waves.
The above involves a transfer of energy from one point to another through free space by means of
an electromagnetic wave (EM Wave). This wave consists of two oscillating fields mutually
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. The Electric (E) field will be
parallel to the wire from which the wave was emitted while the Magnetic (H) field will be at right
angles. A snapshot of such a wave is shown in Figure below where the distance between successive
peaks is called the wavelength (A).
An Electromagnetic Wave
22.2 POLARISATION
An electromagnetic wave launched from an antenna may be vertically or horizontally polarised.
Vertical Polarisation: This requires a vertical antenna which launches a vertical electric field and a
horizontal magnetic field. Figure shown below a vertically and horizontal polarised transmission.
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Vertically polarized Transmission Horizontally Polarised Transmission
Note that the Electric field is always in the same plane as the antenna and the transmit and receive
antennas must be in the same plane.
22.3. RADIATION PATTERN OR POLAR DIAGRAM

By far, the most important characteristic of an antenna is its radiation pattern or Polar Diagram. In the
case of a transmitter antenna, the pattern is a graphical plot of the power or field strength radiated in
different angular directions. Or, more simply, a transmitter polar diagram is a line joining points of equal
power.
A wide variety of polar patterns are possible, such as the omnidirectional pattern in which energy is
radiated equally in all directions. The pencil beam pattern in which energy is concentrated mainly in one
direction. The cosecant squared pattern where the radiated energy takes the shape of a fan. Figure
shown below an omnidirectional transmitter polar diagram when radiation takes place from a single
piece of wire.
Omni Directional Transmitter Polar Diagram
22.4. HALF WAVE DIPOLE ANTENNA
Fig 3.5. Half Wave Dipole
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A well known and efficient radiator is the half-wave dipole antenna. It consists of two quarter-
wavelength (of the frequency being transmitted) radiators and is centre fed. Figure 3.5. shows the
current and voltage distribution and relationship in the half wave dipole. Notice the voltage and current
waves are 90° out of phase.
22.5. DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAE

A simple half wave dipole radiates omnidirectionally as shown above. If additional, un-fed elements are
placed near to the dipole it is possible to concentrate the energy into one direction. The smaller
elements placed in front of the dipole (in the direction of propagation) are called directors. The larger
element placed behind the dipole is called a reflector. Together directors and reflectors are referred to
as parasitic elements. Diagram shown below a dipole, folded and fed with a signal, a reflector and three
directors. It produces the beam pattern shown and is often called a yagi array.
Yagi Arry
22.6. ANTENNA DIMENSIONS

A radiating wire, which is what an antenna is, is most efficient when it's length is equal to half a wave
length of the frequency being transmitted. In practice it is not possible to exactly achieve this because of
the prohibitively large size of the antenna at lower frequencies. It is possible however, to increase an
antenna's natural wavelength by the addition of inductance (L) or capacitance (C) or a combination of
both (LC) in series with the radiating dipole. An antenna to which inductance, capacitance or a
combination of both have been added is called a Loaded Antenna. When an antenna is required to
transmit a wide band of frequencies such as an aircraft HF Communications antenna, it may be
necessary to "tune" the antenna after changing frequencies. This involves changing the amounts of L, C,
or both in the antenna feeding circuit.
22.7. ANTENNA FEEDING CABLES (FEEDERS)

Antennae are designed to transfer energy in the form of electromagnetic waves from the element to
free space efficiently. However, the antenna is likely to be remote from the transmitter where the
electromagnetic wave originates. If a simple piece of wire connected the transmitter to the antenna it
would undoubtedly act as an antenna and radiate electromagnetic energy within the aircraft. (Radiation
Losses). This would result in loss of power radiated to free space and also interference with other radio
systems within the aircraft. To prevent these problems specialised feeders are required especially at
higher frequencies.
a. Coaxial Cables. Here the signal is fed along the inner conductor and the outer 189 conductor
(called the screen) is earthed. This stops the signal escaping (Radiation Loss) before it reaches the
antenna and also protects it from unwanted electromagnetic fields within the aircraft. Diagram shown
below a coaxial cable.
Page332
conductor (called the screen) is earthed. This stops the signal escaping (Radiation Loss) before it reaches
the antenna and also protects it from unwanted electromagnetic fields within the aircraft. Figure 3.7.
shows coaxial cable.
Coaxial Cable
b. Waveguide: Coaxial cable becomes unusable at high power levels above about 1 Ghz. Radar
systems use hollow, rectangular metal tubes to convey the electromagnetic energy from the transmitter
to the antenna and also the received signals from the antenna to the receiver. The energy is actually
propagated within the tube much as it would be in free space. The enclosure of the energy within the
tube means that Radiation Loss is almost zero and also the phenomenon of Skin effect is minimised.
c. Skin Effect: This phenomena occurs at the higher frequencies (VHF upwards) where high
frequency currents tend to be confined to a thin layer (skin) of the conductor. Remembering that the
resistance of a conductor is proportional to it's resistivity p, multiplied by it's length 1, and divided by it's
cross sectional area A. Resistance is equal to A It can be seen that skin effect causing current to flow only
in the skin area has effectively reduced the cross sectional area of the conductor (A) and this will cause
the resistance to increase with subsequent attenuation of the signal.To reduce skin effect some
conductors are hollow, like miniature waveguide. Another way of combatting skin effect is to use multi-
stranded wire, each strand being separately insulated. Such wire is known as "Litz" or "Endraht" wire.
22.8. Type of Antennae

a. Simple Antennae
Over the years a wide variety of antenna designs have evolved and broadly speaking they can be divided
into single radiators and multiple radiators. The monopole and dipole antennae have been used
extensively in the past and are still used individually or as components of more complex arrays such as
the Yagi array.
More recently, the Helix and Spiral antennae shown in Figure shows a broadband antenna have evolved
and found a particular use in satellite communications because of their broadband properties. (Their
ability to transmit and receive a wide band of frequencies without retuning).
Single Element Antennae
Page-333
Broadband antennae
b. Radar Antennae
The microwave horn, parabolic reflector and slotted planar array shown a radar antenna, which are used
extensively in radar and satellite systems. Microwave horns are very often used as feeds for large
parabolic reflectors.
Radar Antennae
Airborne Weather Radar Antenna
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c. Aircraft antennae
Aerials in an aircraft appear in the form of wires, whips, probes, rods, blades, monopoles, dipoles or
cavities. They can be external or internal. Diagram shown below some of the antenna on two different
aircraft.
Aerials
Antenna installations on modern aircrafts often include Localizer and glidescope antenna
inside the radome and flush mount VOR and HF communication antennae in the vertical fin.
----- END ----
Page-335
Edited By
MD. AMINUL ISLAM
GROUND INSTRUCTOR (AGK)

Aircraft Structures and Systems Guide

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AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

ARIRANG FLYING SCHOOL

Chapter Number & Topic Page Number

4. Landing Gear – Undercarriages 44

5. Aircraft Pneumatic Systems 67

9. Ice and Rain Protection 99

10. Fire Detection and Protection 109

11. Aircraft Fuel System 128

12. Power plant 148

12.5 Propellers 186

13. Gas Turbine Engine 194

14. Auxiliary Power Units 237

15. Electrical System 240

16. Aircraft Instruments 266

17. Indication Systems 269

17.5. Height 277

17.6. Altimeters 277

17.7. Gyroscopes 282

17.8. The Turn And Slip Indicator 286

17.9. Heading Indicator 289

17.10. Attitude Indicator 291

17.11. The Direct Indicating Compass 293

17.12. Other Instruments 296

18. Semiconductor 301

19. Autopilot 311

20. Electronic Indicating Systems 315

21. Radio Propagation 318

22. Antennae 330

Monocoque Reinforced Frames

Semi- Monocoque Structure

Fuselage Cut Outs:

Modern Aircraft Fuselage Cut Outs View

2.3. Flight Deck and Passenger Cabin Windows

Flight deck windows

Passenger Cabin Windows

This type of design is also used on low speed aircraft.

Braced monoplane Diagram

Cantilever monoplane Diagram

Structure of Modern Wing

Wing Breakdown diagram

2.5. Flight Controls

Primary Flight Controls

Secondary Flight Control

Spoiler Operation with Aeliron

2.6. Flight Control Operations

2.6.1 Primary Controls

2.7. Powered Flight Control

Power Assisted Controls

Fully Powered Controls

Trailing Edge Flaps

Typical Speed Brake/ Lift Dumper/ Spoilers

Spring Feel Unit

Basic Q Feel Unit

Principles of Hydraulic Power Transmission

Synthetic Based Fluids

3.3. Basic Aircraft Hydraulic Systems

Simple Hydraulic system

Basic Close hydraulic system

The Power-Driven Pump

Vane Type Constant Displacement Pump

Vane Type Pump

High Pressure Engine Driven Pumps

Variable Displacement Pump