During the early 1900's, a Russian physiologist by the name of Ivan Pavlov was studying the

digestive tracks of dogs. Pavlov was interested in saliva's role in the digestive process, and dogs
proved to be quite effective subjects for the study of this topic.

To get his dogs to salivate, Pavlov would present them with food, placing the target morsel on the
canine's tongue. After working with a given dog for a few days, Pavlov noticed that the dog would
salivate before being presented with food. The dogs drooled when Pavlov entered the room. They
slobbered at the sound of his approaching footsteps!

Now, what do Russian scientists and drooling dogs have to do with fetishists? We'll get to that in
a moment.

You dog owners reading this page might be thinking, "Yeah, dogs slobber when you feed them;
so what?" I'm sure you've noticed that you don't have to show your dog food, just hint that food
might be a possible event in the near future, and you'll find Fido ensconced in the kitchen,
happily wagging his tail in a puddle of anticipatory precipitation. Dogs drool when they think
they're going to eat. And that's of major importance to psychology?

It was to Pavlov. What got Pavlov's attention was the fact that salivation is a reflex and the dogs
were displaying that reflex in the absence of a natural stimulus. This idea, that a natural reflex
could be affected by learning, so interested Pavlov that he abandoned his studies of digestion
and spent the next 30 years -- the remainder of his career and life -- investigating this
phenomenon.

Pavlov's Classical Conditioning was the first model of learning to be studied in psychology.
Classical Conditioning investigated the capacity of animals to learn new stimuli and connect them
to natural reflexes; allowing non - natural cues to elicit a natural reflex. Pavlov developed
categories and terminology to study and describe the results of his experiments.

In one set of experiments, Pavlov would ring a bell, what he referred to as a neutral stimulus.
The dogs could care less about the bell and nothing happened. Then Pavlov would feed his dogs,
food being the unconditioned stimulus, and the dogs would drool, presenting the
unconditioned response, salivation. Nothing unusual here, just a framework in which to
describe change. But after this procedure was repeated, the dogs would start to salivate at the
sound of the bell alone. At this point, Pavlov referred to the dogs as being classically
conditioned to salivate to the bell. Pavlov's bell now became a conditioned stimulus because it
elicited salivation, the conditioned response.

The point here is that the dogs had learned to display a reflexive behavior to a new association,
one that need have no connection to the original stimulus. Any fetishist who doesn't see the
connection here should stop right now and go get coffee.

After conditioning his dogs, Pavlov would study how long the new associations would persist and
what might modify them. Pavlov noticed many factors that affected the conditioned stimulus and
response relationship.

Frequency of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus pairings.

Timing of stimulus presentation.
Similarities between one type of conditioned stimulus and another.

Pavlov noticed a phenomena he dubbed stimulus generalization. If a dog became conditioned

to slobber to the sound of a bell, then just about any bell might do. Doorbells. Telephones. Why
not the cat's cute little ringy collar?
Pavlov also studied stimulus discrimination, when the dog would learn that not any bell would
do. Certainly not when fluffy became a chew-toy.

And something of particular importance that Pavlov studied; once learned, could a conditioned
response be eliminated? Pavlov found that conditioned responses could be eliminated gradually;
a process he referred to as extinction. If Pavlov rang his bell repeatedly and failed to feed his
dogs, they eventually learned the free lunch was over and would once again only salivate in the
presence of food.

However, Pavlov also noticed that extinct conditioned responses could also reappear after a rest
period if the conditioned stimulus was again presented some hours later; a process he dubbed
spontaneous recovery.

Does this information have any bearing on someone who may have made an unusual connection
between -- say quicksand and sex, as a young person -- and finds that years later that stimulus
still produces an unexpected reflexive response -- an erection -- whenever he sporadically
encounters this stimulus; either in the media or real life?

I think so.

Classical Conditioning (also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of

associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov[1] . The typical procedure
for inducing classical conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with
a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus could be any event that does not
result in an overt behavioral response from the organism under investigation. Pavlov
referred to this as a Conditioned Stimulus (CS). Conversely, presentation of the
significant stimulus necessarily evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. Pavlov called
these the Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR), respectively.
If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated
and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov called this
the Conditioned Response (CR).

Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in only three species using a variety of
methodologies. Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neural
structures and functions that underlie learning and memory include fear conditioning,
eyeblink conditioning, and Classical Conditioning of Aplysia gill and siphon withdrawal
reflex.

History
Pavlov's experiment

One of Pavlov’s dogs with a surgically implanted cannula to measure salivation, Pavlov
Museum, 2005
The original and most famous example of classical conditioning involved the salivary
conditioning of Pavlov's dogs. During his research on the physiology of digestion in
dogs, Pavlov noticed that, rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat powder
(an innate response to food that he called the unconditioned response), the dogs began
to salivate in the presence of the lab technician who normally fed them. Pavlov called
these psychic secretions. From this observation he predicted that, if a particular stimulus
in the dog’s surroundings were present when the dog was presented with meat powder,
then this stimulus would become associated with food and cause salivation on its own. In
his initial experiment, Pavlov used bells to call the dogs to their food and, after a few
repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the bell. Thus, a neutral stimulus
(bell) became a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a result of consistent pairing with the
unconditioned stimulus (US - meat powder in this example). Pavlov referred to this
learned relationship as a conditional reflex (now called Conditioned Response).

Types
Forward conditioning

Diagram representing forward conditioning. The time interval increases from left to right.

During forward conditioning the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US. Two
common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.

Delay conditioning

The start of the US is delayed relative to the start of the CS. In this procedure, the US is
present during a shorter interval in the duration of the CS, terminating at the same time as
the CS. The delay refers to the interstimulus interval (ISI), and is determined by the type
of classical conditioning. During eyeblink conditioning, ISIs in the range of 100 to 750
msec are considered short while in taste aversion conditioning, ISIs in the range of
minutes to hours are considered short.

Trace conditioning

During trace conditioning the CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS is presented, a
period of time is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli are presented, and then the
US is presented. The stimulus free period is called the trace interval. It may also be
called the "conditioning interval"
Simultaneous conditioning

During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminate at the
same time.

Backward conditioning

Backward conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus immediately follows an

unconditioned stimulus. Unlike traditional conditioning models, in which the conditioned
stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response tends to be
inhibitory. This is because the conditioned stimulus serves as a signal that the
unconditioned stimulus has ended, rather than a reliable method of predicting the future
occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus.

The onset of the US precedes the onset of the CS. Rather than being a reliable predictor
of an impending US (such as in Forward Conditioning), the CS actually serves as a signal
that the US has ended. As a result, the CR is said to be inhibitory.

Temporal conditioning

The US is presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR acquisition is dependent upon

correct timing of the interval between US presentations. The background, or context, can
serve as the CS in this example.

Unpaired conditioning

The CS and US are not presented together. Usually they are presented as independent
trials that are separated by a variable, or pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is used
to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as sensitization.

CS-alone extinction

Main article: Extinction (psychology)

The CS is presented in the absence of the US. This procedure is usually done after the CR
has been acquired through Forward conditioning training. Eventually, the CR frequency
is reduced to pre-training levels.

Procedure variations
In addition to the simple procedures described above, some classical conditioning studies
are designed to tap into more complex learning processes. Some common variations are
discussed below.

Classical discrimination/reversal conditioning

In this procedure, two CSs and one US are typically used. The CSs may be the same
modality (such as lights of different intensity), or they may be different modalities (such
as auditory CS and visual CS). In this procedure, one of the CSs is designated CS+ and
its presentation is always followed by the US. The other CS is designated CS- and its
presentation is never followed by the US. After a number of trials, the organism learns to
discriminate CS+ trials and CS- trials such that CRs are only observed on CS+ trials.

During Reversal Training, the CS+ and CS- are reversed and subjects learn to suppress
responding to the previous CS+ and show CRs to the previous CS-.

Classical ISI discrimination conditioning

This is a discrimination procedure in which two different CSs are used to signal two
different interstimulus intervals. For example, a dim light may be presented 30 seconds
before a US, while a very bright light is presented 2 minutes before the US. Using this
technique, organisms can learn to perform CRs that are appropriately timed for the two
distinct CSs.

Latent inhibition conditioning

In this procedure, a CS is presented several times before paired CS-US training

commences. The pre-exposure of the subject to the CS before paired training slows the
rate of CR acquisition relative to organisms that are not CS pre-exposed. Also see Latent
inhibition for applications.

Conditioned inhibition conditioning

Three phases of conditioning are typically used:

Phase 1:
A CS (CS+) is paired with a US until asymptotic CR levels are reached.
Phase 2:
CS+/US trials are continued, but interspersed with trials on which the CS+ in
compound with a second CS, but not with the US (i.e., CS+/CS- trials). Typically,
organisms show CRs on CS+/US trials, but suppress responding on CS+/CS-
trials.
Phase 3:
In this retention test, the previous CS- is paired with the US. If conditioned
inhibition has occurred, the rate of acquisition to the previous CS- should be
impaired relative to organisms that did not experience Phase 2.

Blocking

Main article: Blocking effect

This form of classical conditioning also involves three phases.

 Phase 1:
A CS (CS1) is paired with a US.
Phase 2:
CS1 is presented in compound with a new CS (CS2), and the compound is paired
with the US.
Phase 3:
CS2 is paired with the US. Blocking is measured as impairment in the rate of
learning to CS2 relative to organisms that did not experience Phase 2. Essentially,
acquisition to CS2 is blocked during compound training because CRs had already
formed to CS1.

Applications
Little Albert

Main article: Little Albert experiment

John B. Watson, founder of behaviourism, demonstrated classical conditioning

empirically through experimentation using the Little Albert experiment in which a child
("Albert") was presented with a white rat to play with, which was later paired with a loud
noise. As the trials progressed, the child began showing signs of distress at the sight of
the rat and other white objects, demonstrating that conditioning had taken place.

Behavioral therapies

Main article: Behaviour therapy

In human psychology, implications for therapies and treatments using classical

conditioning differ from operant conditioning. Therapies associated with classical
conditioning are aversion therapy, flooding and systematic desensitization.

Classical conditioning is short-term, usually requiring less time with therapists and less
effort from patients, unlike humanistic therapies.[citation needed] The therapies mentioned are
designed to cause either aversive feelings toward something, or to reduce unwanted fear
and aversion. Classical conditioning is based on a repetitive behaviour system.

Aversion therapy

Main article: Aversion therapy

Aversion therapy is a form of psychological therapy that is designed to eliminate

unwanted behavior by associating an aversive stimulus with the behavior. Because the
aversive stimulus performs as a US and produces a UR, the association between the
stimulus and behaviour leads to the same consequences each time. Successful treatment
ends in the patient losing the compulsion to engage in the unwanted behaviors.[citation needed]
This sort of treatment has been used to treat alcoholism as well as drug addiction.[citation
needed]

Exposure therapies

Main article: Systematic desensitization

Main article: Flooding (psychology)

Exposure therapy involves systematically exposing individuals to a feared object or

situation until the fear has been extinguished. Generally the therapy will involve the
construction of a fear hierarchy of events that gradually escalate from least anxiety-
evoking, to most anxiety evoking. Through the process of systematic exposure, the
anxiety felt is lessened or eliminated. Various forms of exposure therapy has been shown
to be effective for a variety of psychological diagnoses, including Specific Phobia,
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Systematic
desensitization involves the utilization of exposure therapy, paired with relaxation
techniques, such as diaphragmatic breathing.[citation needed]

Flooding similarly exposes the patient to a feared object or situation, but involves no
hierarchy. Instead, the patient is exposed to their worst possible fear (within realistic
safety limitations) and prevented from escaping the situation until the fear is eliminated.
Evidence suggests that flooding is not the most effective form of exposure therapy.

Though the therapies are frequently used for treatment of anxiety, they can also be used
to treat drug addiction or other unwanted behavior.

Theories of classical conditioning

There are two competing theories of how classical conditioning works. The first,
stimulus-response theory, suggests that an association to the unconditioned stimulus is
made with the conditioned stimulus within the brain, but without involving conscious
thought. The second theory stimulus-stimulus theory involves cognitive activity, in which
the conditioned stimulus is associated to the concept of the unconditioned stimulus, a
subtle but important distinction.

Stimulus-response theory, referred to as S-R theory, is a theoretical model of behavioral

psychology that suggests humans and other animals can learn to associate a new
stimulus- the conditioned stimulus (CS)- with a pre-existing stimulus - the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS), and can think, feel or respond to the CS as if it were actually the UCS.

The opposing theory, put forward by cognitive behaviorists, is stimulus-stimulus theory

(S-S theory). Stimulus-stimulus theory, referred to as S-S theory, is a theoretical model
of classical conditioning that suggests a cognitive component is required to understand
classical conditioning and that stimulus-response theory is an inadequate model. It
proposes that a cognitive component is at play. S-R theory suggests that an animal can
learn to associate a conditioned stimulus (CS) such as a bell, with the impending arrival
of food termed the unconditioned stimulus, resulting in an observable behavior such as
salivation. Stimulus-stimulus theory suggests that instead the animal salivates to the bell
because it is associated with the concept of food, which is a very fine but important
distinction.

To test this theory, psychologist Robert Rescorla undertook the following experiment [2].
Rats learned to associate a loud noise as the unconditioned stimulus, and a light as the
conditioned stimulus. The response of the rats was to freeze and cease movement. What
would happen then if the rats were habituated to the UCS? S-R theory would suggest that
the rats would continue to respond to the UCS, but if S-S theory is correct, they would be
habituated to the concept of a loud sound (danger), and so would not freeze to the CS.
The experimental results suggest that S-S was correct, as the rats no longer froze when
exposed to the signal light.