08-Presentation Distance Protection

Distance Protection
J. Royle
> Distance Protection - January 2004

Distance Protection
X Popular, widely used on Sub-Transmission and

Transmission Systems
X Virtually independent of Fault Current Level
(ZS/ZL ratios)
X Fast Discriminative Protection:- Zone 1 or
‘Aided’ Distance Scheme
X Time Delayed Remote Back-Up:- Incorporated
at little extra cost

Advantages of Distance Protection
X Measures Z, X or R correctly irrespective of

System Conditions
X Compare this with Instantaneous Overcurrent

Protection:-

ZS = 10 Ω
ZL = 4 Ω
ZS = 10 Ω
IF1 F1
115kV 50
IF1 = 115kV/√3(5+4) = 7380A

∴ Is > 7380A

X Consider with one source out of service:-
ZS = 10 Ω
F2
IF2
50
IF2 = 115kV/√3 x 10 = 6640A

∴ Is <6640A
>7380A - IMPRACTICAL
Simplified Line Diagram
L R L L L R
R R
C C C
XL = jWL XC = -j
WC
at FN (50Hz) XC = large :-
L R

Basic Principle of Distance Protection
ZS ZL
Generation IR
Distance
Relay 21 VR

Impedance Seen By Measuring Element
jX
ZL

Relay
ZS PT.
IR ZL
Normal
VS VR ZLOAD
Load
VR
Impedance measured ZR = = Z L + Z LOAD
ΙR

ZL
ZS IR ZF
VS VR ZLOAD Fault
X Impedance Measured ZR = VR/IR = ZF

X Relay Operates if ZF < Z where Z = setting
X Increasing VR has a Restraining Effect ∴VR
called Restraining Voltage
X Increasing IR has an Operating Effect

Plain Impedance Characteristic
jX ZL Impedance Seen At
Measuring Location
For Line Faults
TRIP STABLE

Impedance Characteristic Generation
jIX
IF zF
IZ
V2 V1
VF V3
IR
Trip TRIP STABLE
Spring
Restrain Voltage to Relay = V

Operate
Current to Relay = I
Replica Impedance = Z
Ampere Turns : VF IZ
Trip Condition : S2 < S1
Trip Conditions : VF < IFZ
where : S1 = IZ ≈ Z
S2 = V ≈ ZF

I1/I2 ZP
IR
V1
21 VR VFP
V2
X Relays are calibrated in secondary ohms :-
VFP x V2 /V 1 VFP Ι1/ Ι 2

Z R = VR/ ΙR = = x
ΙFP x Ι 2 / Ι1 ΙFP V1/V 2
C.T. RATIO
ZR = Z P x
V.T. RATIO
Example
ZP = 4Ω; V1/V2 = 115kV/115V; I1/I2 = 600/5A
C.T. RATIO
ZR = ZP x
V.T. RATIO
ZR(5) = 4 x 600/5 x 115/115x103 = 0.48Ω -5A Relay

ZR(1) = 2.4 Ω - 1A Relay

Input Quantities for ∅-∅ Faults
FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

A-B VA - VB IA - IB
B-C VB - VC IB - IC
C-A VC - VA IC - IA
X VRESTRAINT & IOPERATE are selected inside the relay

X No setting adjustments are required apart from
Z1 = Phase Replica Impedance

Input Quantities for Phase to Earth Faults
FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

A-E VA ? IA ?
B-E
C-E

Neutral Impedance Replica Vectorial Compensation
Replica impedance circuit :-
IRA Z1
∑IZN Z1 = Phase replica impedance
Z1 ZN = Neutral replica impedance
Z1
IRA passes through Z1
IRN passes through ZN
IRN ZN
N ZT = Z1 + ZN

Neutral Impedance Compensation
For a single phase to ground fault the total earth

loop impedance is given by :- (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 = ZT
ZT = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 = Z1 + ZN
ZN = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 - Z1
= (2Z1 + Z0)/3 - Z1
= - Z1 + Z0
3 3
= KN Z1
where KN = (Z0 - Z1)

3Z1
Neutral Impedance Vectorial Replica Compensation
Line CT’s
A
ZPH IAZPH
B
ZPH IBZPH
C
ZPH ICZPH
ZN INZN
Set Z PH = Z F1
Set Z N = (Z F0 - Z F1 )
3
Usually ∠ Z N = ∠ Z PH for OHL’s

Neutral Impedance Replica Compensation
For cables ∠Z0 ≠ ∠Z1

∴ VECTORIAL COMPENSATION MUST BE USED
KN = Z0 - Z1 = ⏐KN⏐ ∠∅N
3Z1

Characteristics

Distance Characteristics
jX
jX
jX jX
Zn
Zn Zn Zn
R R R R
MHO OFFSE
Zs Zn′
IMPEDANC T
E CROSS- MHO
POLARISED
MHO
jX
Zn Zn
Zn
R R R
LENTICULA QUADRILATERAL POLYGON
R

Self Polarised Mho Relays
X Very popular characteristic jX
X Simple
RESTRAIN
X Less sensitive to power swings
Z
X Inherently directional
X Operates for F1, but not for F2 OPERATE
X Mho = 1/OHM F1
ϕ
R
Settings :-
Z = reach setting F2
ϕ = characteristic angle

Neutral Impedance Replica Vectorial Compensation
Vectorial compensation allows for ∠ZN ≠ ∠ZPH which is

especially important for cable distance protection
where ∠ZN < ∠ZPH and ∠ZN is sometimes negative.
jX
ZPH
ZN
ZE ZE = Earth-loop impedance
for ∅ - earth fault on a
R
cable

Offset Mho Characteristic
jX
Z
X Normally used as
backup protection
X Operates for zero
faults (close up
faults)
R
-Z’ X Generally time
delayed (as not
discriminative)

Mho Relays
Directional circular characteristic obtained by

introducing VPOLARISING
X VF → self polarised
X VSOUND PHASE → fully cross-polarised
X VF + xVS.F. → partially cross-polarised
X VPRE-FAULT → ‘memory’ polarised
Purpose for this is to ensure operation for close up

faults where measured fault voltage collapses

Quadrilateral Characteristic
jX
ZL
Z1 Load
RF
R
RS

Lenticular Load Avoidance Characteristic
jIX
Lenticular
characteristic created
from two offset Mho
comparators
Aspect ratio = a/b

b
a
IR

Lenticular Characteristic
X Aspect ratios a/b

Z3
0.41
0.67
a 1.00
b
Load impedance
area
R
Z3 reverse

Forward Offset Characteristic
Z3
X
Rf
Z2
Forward blinder
Z1
Load area
X Enhanced resistive coverage for remote faults

Zones of Protection

Zones of Protection
Time
Z3A Z3C
T3
Z2A Z2C
T2
Z1A Z1C
A Z1B B C D
T2
Z2B
Z1A = 80% of ZAB

Z2A = 120% of ZAB
Z3A(FORWARD) = 120% of {ZAB + ZCD}

Zones of Protection
jX
D Z3A
C Z2A
B
Z1A
A
R

Zone 1
X FAST OPERATION
Trips circuit breaker without delay as soon as
fault within Zone 1 reach is detected.
X REACH SETTING
Cannot be set to 100% of protected line or may
overreach into next section.
Overreach caused by possible errors in :-
CTs
VTs
ZLINE information
Relay Measurement

Zone 1
Possible
Overreach
ZONE 1 = ZL
ZL
F
Possible incorrect tripping for fault at ‘F’
∴ Zone 1 set to ∼ 0.8ZL
ZONE 1 = 0.8ZL
ZL

Zone 1 Settings for Teed Feeders
Z1C = 0.8ZAC
A
Z1A = 0.8ZAB
Z1B = 0.8ZBA
Z1C
Z1A
Z1B

Zone 1 Settings for Direct Intertrip Schemes
Z1A
A ZL
Z1B B
Z1A
Send Receive
Trip ‘B’
Z1B
Receive Send

Zone 1 Settings for Direct Intertrip Schemes
Effective Zone 1 reaches at A and B must overlap.

Otherwise :- No trip for fault at ‘F’
Z1A
A
Z1B B
F
∴ Effective Z1A and Z1B must be > 0.5ZL
Settings for Zone 1 > 0.8ZL are o.k.

Minimum Zone 1 Reach Setting
Dictated by :-
Minimum relay voltage for fault at Zone 1

reach point to ensure accurate measurement.
Minimum voltage depends on relay design typically

1 → 3 volts.

System Impedance Ratio :- SIR
SIR = ZS/Zn
where :- ZS = Source impedance behind relay

Zn = Reach setting
VRPA = Minimum voltage for reach point accuracy
Can be expressed in terms of an equivalent value

of SIRMAX
SIRMAX = ZS MAX
Zn MIN
∴ Zn MIN ≡ ZS MAX
SIRMAX
Zone 2
X Covers last 20% of line not covered by Zone 1.

X Provides back-up protection for remote busbars.
Z2G
TIME
Z1G Z1H
G H
F
To allow for errors :-

Z2G > 1.2 ZGH
Zone 2 is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 1 on

next section for faults in first 20% of next section.

Zone 2
Zone 2 on adjacent line sections are not normally time
graded with each other
Z2G Z2H
Z1G Z1H
‘G’ ‘H’
F
X Overlap only occurs for faults in first 20% of following line.

X Faults at ‘F’ should result in operation of Z1H and tripping of circuit breaker ‘H’.
If ‘H’ fails to trip possible causes are :-
Î Z1H operates but trip relays fail.
Z2H may operate but will not trip if followed by the same trip relays.
Fault must be cleared at ‘G’ by Z2G.
Z1H and trip relays operate but circuit breaker fails to trip.

Zone 2
No advantage in time grading Z2G with

Z2H
Ð
Unless Z2H + trip relays energise a 2nd circuit
breaker trip coil.

Zone 2
Î Z1H fails to operate.
Ð
Results in race between breakers ‘G’ and ‘H’ if Z2H and Z2G
have the same time setting.
Ð
Can only be overcome by time grading Z2G with Z2H.
Z2G
Z2H
Z1G Z1H
‘G’ ‘H’
Problem with this :-
Zone 2 time delays near source on systems with several line
sections will be large.
End zone faults on lines nearest the infeed source point will be
cleared very slowly.
Maximum Allowable Zone 2 Reach to Allow for
Equal Zone 2 Time Settings
Z2A (EFF) MAX
Z1B (EFF) MIN
ZL1 ZL2
A B
Z2A must not reach beyond Z1B
i.e. Z2A(EFF) MAX must not reach further than Z1B(EFF) MIN
Z1BSETTING = 0.8ZL2
Z1B(EFF) MIN = 0.8 x 0.8ZL2 = 0.64ZL2
∴ Z2A(EFF) MAX < ZL1 + 0.64ZL2
∴ 1.2 Z2ASETTING < ZL1 + 0.64ZL2
Z2ASETTING < 0.83ZL1 + 0.53ZL2

Zone 2 Time Settings on Long Line Followed by
Several Short Lines
Z2G
Z3H
Z3J
Z2H
Z2J
Z1G Z1H Z1J
‘G’ ‘H’ ‘J’

F
Z2G reaches into 3rd line section.
To limit remote back-up clearance for a fault at

‘F’, the time setting of Z2G must discriminate
with Z3H.
Zone 3
X Provides back-up for next adjacent line.

X Provides back-up protection for busbars (reverse offset).
X Actual Zone 3 settings will be scheme specified, i.e.
permissive or blocking schemes.
X Many modern relays have more than 3 Zones to allow the use
of three forward and an independent reverse zone.
Z3G
REV Z3G FWD
Z2G
Time Z1G Z1H
G H K
Typical settings : Z3FWD > 1.2 x (ZGH + ZHK)

Z3REV 0.1 to 0.25 of Z1G

Zone Time Coordination - Ideal Situation
Zone 1 :- tZ1 = instantaneous (typically 15 - 35mS)
Zone 2 :- tZ2 = tZ1(down) + CB(down) + Z2(reset) + Margin

e.g. tZ2 = 35 + 100 + 40 + 100 = 275mS
Zone 3 :- tZ3 = tZ2(down) + CB(down) + Z3(reset) + Margin

e.g. tZ3 = 275 + 100 + 40 + 100 = 515mS
Note: Where upper and lower zones overlap, e.g.

Zone 2 up sees beyond Zone 1 down, the
upper and lower zone time delays will need to
be coordinated, e.g. tZ2(up) to exceed
tZ2(down).

Under / Overreach

Under-Reach
Impedance presented > apparent impedance
%age Underreach = ZR - ZF x 100%

ZR
where ZR = Reach setting

ZF = Effective reach

Underreaching Due to Busbar Infeed between
Relay and Fault
ZA ZB
IA IA+IB
IB
Relay Location
VR = IAZA + (IA + IB) ZB
IR = IA
ZR = ZA + ZB + IB . ZB
IA

Underreaching Due to Busbar Infeed between
Relay and Fault
∴ Relay with setting ZA + ZB will underreach with

infeed.
Relay with setting ZA + ZB + IB . ZB will measure

IA
correctly with infeed present but if infeed is removed
the relay will overreach.
Maximum allowable setting dictated by load

impedance

Under-Reach
IP
ZK
IG+IP F
ZG
IG
RELAY
What relay reach setting is required to ensure fault at F is at

boundary of operation ?
Impedance seen for fault at F
= ZG + IG + IP . ZK
IG
Limit of operation is when Impedance Seen = Reach Setting
∴ Reach setting required
= ZG + IG + IP . ZK
IG
Over-Reach
Impedance seen < apparent impedance
%age Overreach = ZF - ZR x 100%

ZR
where ZR = Reach setting

ZF = Effective reach

Mutual Coupling

Mutual Coupling
X Mutual coupling causes distance relays to either

underreach or overreach.
X Positive and negative sequence has no impact.
X Zero sequence mutual coupling can have a

significant influence on the relay.
X Only affects ground fault distance.

Mutual Coupling Example Under Reach
Z2 ‘Boost’ G/F
Z2 PH
Zmo

Mutual Coupling Example Over Reach
Z2 ‘reduced’ G/F
Z2 PH

Mutual Coupling Example Over Reach
Z1 G/F (optional)
Z1 G/F (normal)
Zmo

Ancilliary Functions

Switch on to Fault (SOTF)
X
X
X
X Fast tripping for faults on line

energisation, even where line VTs
provide no prefault voltage memory

Voltage Transformer Supervision
X A VT fault and subsequent operation of VT fuses

or MCB’s results in misrepresentation of primary
voltages
X Relay will remain stable as the current phase
selector will not pick up
X Subsequent system fault may cause unwanted /
incorrect tripping
X VTS operating from presence of V0 with no I0 or
V2 with no I2 is used to block relay if required

VT Supervision
X Under load conditions

Loss of 1 or 2 phase voltages
Loss of all 3 phase voltages
X Upon line energisation

Loss of 1 or 2 phase voltages
Loss of all 3 phase voltages
X Digital input to monitor MCB
X Set to block voltage dependent functions

Zone 1 Mho Relay
K X Will not operate for load

ZS or stable power swing
HH X Ø1, Ø2, Ø3, = Angles
between system
voltages at ‘K’ and ‘L’
Z1
Ø3 Ø increases as power
J Ø L swing
2
O approaches relay at G
G Ø1 A X ‘J’ is point where power
ZS D swing enters relay
characteristic
G
X At ‘J’ the angle between
Power Swing Locus
L voltages at ‘G’ & ‘H’ is
90°
X Normal limit of angle
between voltages at ‘G’
& ‘H’ for load is of the
order of 30°

Comparison between Stability of Mho and Quadrilateral
Impedance Elements during a Power Swing
jX
Power
Swing
Locus

Illustration of Basic Power Swing
Blocking System
jX
Power Swing
Locus
ZP
Z3

Power Swing Blocking
X A power swing will result in continuous change of

current
X Continuous output from the relay superimposed

current element can be used to block for a power
swing
X Using this method the relay is able to operate for

faults occurring during a power swing

Directional Earth Fault Protection (DEF)
O High resistance ground faults

O Instantaneous or time delayed
O IEC and IEEE curves
O Single or shared signalling channel

Transformer Feeders

Transformer Feeders
ZT
ZL
21
Zone 1 = ZL + 0.5ZT
T1 = Instantaneous
Zone 2 = 1.2 (ZL +ZT)

T2 = Co-ordinate with downstream protection
Zone 3
- Back-up use as appropriate
T3

Low Voltage VT, High Voltage CT
ZT
ZL
21
* 1 VT may be required to account for phase shift.

Example 1
ZT = 10Ω , ZL = 1Ω
Set relay Z1 = 0.8 x (ZT + ZL) = 8.8Ω
∴ Z1 does not reach through transformer.
Example 2
ZT = 10Ω , ZL = 1Ω
Z1 = ZT + 0.8ZL = 10.8Ω
with 20% error = 12.96Ω - overreach problem

08-Presentation Distance Protection

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Distance Protection

> Distance Protection - January 2004

X Popular, widely used on Sub-Transmission and

> Distance Protection - January 2004

X Measures Z, X or R correctly irrespective of

X Compare this with Instantaneous Overcurrent

> Distance Protection - January 2004

IF1 = 115kV/√3(5+4) = 7380A

> Distance Protection - January 2004

X Consider with one source out of service:-

IF2 = 115kV/√3 x 10 = 6640A

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

X Impedance Measured ZR = VR/IR = ZF

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

Restrain Voltage to Relay = V

> Distance Protection - January 2004

X Relays are calibrated in secondary ohms :-

VFP x V2 /V 1 VFP Ι1/ Ι 2

ZP = 4Ω; V1/V2 = 115kV/115V; I1/I2 = 600/5A

ZR(5) = 4 x 600/5 x 115/115x103 = 0.48Ω -5A Relay

> Distance Protection - January 2004

FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

X VRESTRAINT & IOPERATE are selected inside the relay

> Distance Protection - January 2004

FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

> Distance Protection - January 2004

Replica impedance circuit :-

> Distance Protection - January 2004

For a single phase to ground fault the total earth

where KN = (Z0 - Z1)

> Distance Protection - January 2004

For cables ∠Z0 ≠ ∠Z1

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

X Very popular characteristic jX

> Distance Protection - January 2004

Vectorial compensation allows for ∠ZN ≠ ∠ZPH which is

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

Directional circular characteristic obtained by

Purpose for this is to ensure operation for close up

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

Aspect ratio = a/b

> Distance Protection - January 2004

X Aspect ratios a/b

> Distance Protection - January 2004

X Enhanced resistive coverage for remote faults

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

Z1A = 80% of ZAB

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

∴ Zone 1 set to ∼ 0.8ZL

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004

> Distance Protection - January 2004