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Due
Class Book
Topic Assignment Video(s)
Date # Section(s)
1
I. Rotational vs Translational (9.1)
2
3
II. Torque on Rigid Bodies (9.1)
(9.1)
Direction: The torque is positive when the force tends to produce a counterclockwise
rotation about the axis, and negative when the force tends to produce a clockwise
rotation.
SI Unit of Torque:
Equation 9.1 indicates that forces of the same magnitude can produce different torques,
depending on the value of the lever arm.
In this top view, the hinges of a door appear as a black dot (•) and define the axis of rotation. The line of action and lever
arm are illustrated for a force applied to the door (a) perpendicularly and (b) at an angle. (c) The lever arm is zero because
the line of action passes through the axis of rotation
Note: The lever arm (l) is perpendicular to the Force (line of action)
4
III. Equilibrium of a Rigid Body (9.2)
A rigid body is in equilibrium if it has zero translational acceleration and zero angular
acceleration. In equilibrium, the sum of the externally applied forces is zero, and the sum
of the externally applied torques is zero:
(9.2)
The reasoning strategy for analyzing the forces and torques acting on a body in
equilibrium is given below. The first four steps of the strategy are essentially the same as
those outlined in Section 4.11, where only forces are considered. Steps 5 and 6 have been
added to account for any external torques that may be present. Example 3 illustrates how
this reasoning strategy is applied to a diving board.
5
Physics Web Quest: Torque Name ________________________
Part I: Torque
6
21. Eventually the disc stops and the net torque is zero. This is because the breaking
torque changed as you can see in the graph. Why did it change?
7. Hold the mouse over the disk so the mouse finger is pointing anywhere between
the green and pink circles.
8. Hold down the left mouse button. Move your mouse to apply a force.
9. Look at the graph and try to apply a force that creates a torque of 10.
10. Use the ruler to determine the radius at any point between the green and pink
circles. r = ___________m
11. Calculate what the applied force must have been.
12. Calculate the angular acceleration of the disk. Work in SI units, and then convert
to degrees / s2. Compare to the graph to check your answer.
7
13. Predict what will happen to the moment of inertia if you keep the mass of the
platform the same, but you create a hole in the middle (increase inner radius).
__________________________________________________________________
14. Set the inner radius equal to 2. Calculate the moment of inertia for this shape.
Set the disk in motion and check your answer by looking at the moment of inertia
graph.
15. Even when the force on the platform changes, the moment of inertia graph
remains constant. Why? _____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
16. Fill in the blanks: When the mass of an object increases, the moment of inertia
________________. When the distance of the mass from the axis of rotation
increases, the moment of inertia ___________________.
Part III
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IV. Definition of Center of Gravity (9.3)
(Recall center of mass stuff from last unit? Similar concepts)
The center of gravity of a rigid body is the point at which its weight can be
considered to act when the torque due to the weight is being calculated.
Figure 9.9
A thin, uniform, horizontal rod of length L is attached to a vertical wall by a hinge. The center of
gravity of the rod is at its geometrical center.
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V. Center of Gravity for a Group of Objects (9.3)
Suppose we have a group of objects, with known weights and centers of gravity, and it is
necessary to know the center of gravity for the group as a whole. As an example, Figure
9.10a shows a group composed of two parts: a horizontal uniform
board and a uniform box near the left end of the board. The
center of gravity can be determined by calculating the net torque created by the board and
box about an axis that is picked arbitrarily to be at the right end of the board. Part a of the
figure shows the weights and and their corresponding lever arms and .
The net torque is . It is also possible to calculate the net torque by
treating the total weight as if it were located at the center of gravity and had
the lever arm , as part b of the drawing indicates: . The two
values for the net torque must be the same, so that
Figure 9.10
(a) A box rests near the left end of a horizontal board.
(b) The total
(9.3)
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11
VI. Newton’s Second Law for Rotation (9.4)
Toy Plane… The plane's engine produces a net external tangential force that gives the
plane a tangential acceleration . So… . The torque produced by this force
is , where the radius r of the circular path is also the lever arm. As a result, the
torque is . However, the tangential acceleration is related to the angular
acceleration according to (from unit 3), where must be expressed in .
With this substitution for , the torque becomes
Where I = mr2…
The constant of proportionality is , which is called the moment of inertia of the
particle. The SI unit for moment of inertia is kg m2. (analogous to linear mass)
If all objects were single particles, it would be just as convenient to use the second law in
the form as in the form . The advantage in using is that it can be
applied to any rigid body rotating about a fixed axis, and not just to a particle.
Newton’s 3rd Law tells us that each mass has the same α, so…
In this equation, r is the perpendicular radial distance of each particle from the axis of
rotation. Combining Equation 9.6 with Equation 9.5 gives the following result:
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(9.7)
The version of Newton's second law given in Equation 9.7 applies only for rigid bodies.
The word “rigid” means that the distances , , , etc. that locate each particle ,
, , etc. (see Figure 9.16a) do not change during the rotational motion. In other words, a
rigid body is one that does not change its shape while undergoing an angular acceleration
in response to an applied net external torque.
The form of the second law for rotational motion, , is similar to the equation for
translational (linear) motion, , and is valid only in an inertial frame. The
moment of inertia I plays the same role for rotational motion that the mass m does for
translational motion. Thus, I is a measure of the rotational inertia of a body. When using
Equation 9.7, must be expressed in , because the relation (which
requires radian measure) was used in the derivation.
It can be seen from Equation 9.6 that the moment of inertia depends on both the mass of
each particle and its distance from the axis of rotation. The farther a particle is from the
axis, the greater is its contribution to the moment of inertia.
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14
VII. Rotational Work and Energy (9.5)
We know…
To see how this expression can be rewritten using angular variables, consider Figure.
Here a rope is wrapped around a wheel and is under a constant tension F. If the rope is
pulled out a distance s, the wheel rotates through an angle , where r is the radius
of the wheel and is in radians. Thus, , and the work done by the tension force in
turning the wheel is . However, is the torque applied to the wheel by
the tension, so the rotational work can be written as follows:
is . The kinetic energy of the entire rotating body, then, is the sum of the
kinetic energies of the particles:
The rotational kinetic energy of a rigid object rotating with an angular speed about
a fixed axis and having a moment of inertia I is
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Kinetic energy is one part of an object's total mechanical energy. The total mechanical
energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies and obeys the principle of
conservation of mechanical energy (see Section ). Specifically, we need to remember that
translational and rotational motion can occur simultaneously. When a bicycle coasts
down a hill, for instance, its tires are both translating and rotating. An object such as a
rolling bicycle tire has both translational and rotational kinetic energies, so that the total
mechanical energy is
Here m is the mass of the object, is the translational speed of its center of mass, I is its
moment of inertia about an axis through the center of mass, is its angular speed,
and h is the height of the object's center of mass relative to an arbitrary zero level.
Mechanical energy is conserved if , the net work done by external nonconservative
forces and external torques, is zero. If the total mechanical energy is conserved as an
object moves, its final total mechanical energy equals its initial total mechanical
energy .
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VIII. Angular Momentum (9.6)
The angular momentum L of a body rotating about a fixed axis is the product of the body's moment of
inertia I and its angular velocity with respect to that axis:
(9.10)
Linear momentum is an important concept in physics because the total linear momentum of a system
is conserved when the sum of the average external forces acting on the system is zero. Then, the final
total linear momentum and the initial total linear momentum are the same: . In the
case of angular momentum, a similar line of reasoning indicates that when the sum of the average
external torques is zero, the final and initial angular momenta are the same: , which is
the principle of conservation of angular momentum.
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IX. Simple Harmonic Motion & Unit Circle (10.2)Elasticity
Simple harmonic motion can be described in terms of displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
Displacement
The Figure above shows the reference circle and indicates how to determine the
displacement of the shadow on the film. The ball starts on the x axis at and moves through
the angle in a time t. The circular motion is uniform, so the ball moves with a constant angular
speed (in rad/s), and the angle has a value (in rad) of . The displacement x of the shadow is
just the projection of the radius A onto the x axis:
& &
aldfkj
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Velocity
The reference circle model can also be used to determine the velocity of an object in simple harmonic
motion. The figure below shows the tangential velocity of the ball on the reference circle. The
drawing indicates that the velocity of the shadow is just the x component of the vector ;
that is, , where . The minus sign is necessary because points to the left,
in the direction of the negative x axis. Since the tangential speed is related to the angular
speed by and since , it follows that . Therefore, the velocity in simple
harmonic motion is given by
This velocity is not constant, but varies between maximum and minimum values as time passes. When
the shadow changes direction at either end of the oscillatory motion, the velocity is momentarily zero.
When the shadow passes through the position, the velocity has a maximum magnitude of
, since the sine of an angle is between and :
Both the amplitude A and the angular frequency determine the maximum velocity, as
Example 3 emphasizes.
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Acceleration (recall… even with uniform circular mo… there is an accel)
In simple harmonic motion, the velocity is not constant; consequently, there must be an acceleration.
This acceleration can also be determined with the aid of the reference-circle model. As the
figure shows, the ball on the reference circle moves in uniform circular motion, and, therefore, has a
centripetal acceleration that points toward the center of the circle. The acceleration of the
shadow is the x component of the centripetal acceleration; . The minus sign is
needed because the acceleration of the shadow points to the left. Recalling that the centripetal
acceleration is related to the angular speed by (Equation 8.11) and using , we find
that . With this substitution and the fact that , the acceleration in simple harmonic
motion becomes
(10.9)
The acceleration, like the velocity, does not have a constant value as time passes. The maximum
magnitude of the acceleration is
(10.10)
Although both the amplitude A and the angular frequency determine the maximum value, the
frequency has a particularly strong effect, because it is squared. Example 5 shows that the acceleration
can be remarkably large in a practical situation.
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Frequency of Vibration
With the aid of Newton's second law , it is possible to determine the frequency at
which an object of mass m vibrates on a spring. We assume that the mass of the spring itself is
negligible and that the only force acting on the object in the horizontal direction is due to the spring—
that is, the Hooke's law restoring force. Thus, the net force is , and Newton's second
law becomes , where is the acceleration of the object. The displacement and
acceleration of an oscillating spring are, respectively, (Equation 10.3)
and (Equation 10.9). Substituting these expressions for x and into the
relation , we find that
which yields
(10.11)
In this expression, the angular frequency must be in radians per second. Larger spring
constants k and smaller masses m result in larger frequencies.
A spring also has potential energy when the spring is stretched or compressed, which we refer to
as elastic potential energy. Because of elastic potential energy, a stretched or compressed spring can
do work on an object that is attached to the spring, as seen in the screen door spring mechanism.
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Definition of Elastic Potential Energy
The elastic potential energy is the energy that a spring has by virtue of being stretched or
compressed. For an ideal spring that has a spring constant k and is stretched or compressed by an
amount x relative to its unstrained length, the elastic potential energy is
(10.13)
The total mechanical energy E is a familiar idea that we originally defined to be the sum of the
translational kinetic energy and the gravitational potential energy. Then, we included the rotational
kinetic energy. We now expand the total mechanical energy to include the elastic potential energy...
We get…
As Section 6.5 discusses, the total mechanical energy is conserved when external nonconservative
forces (such as friction) do no net work; that is, when . Then, the final and initial values
ofE are the same: . The principle of conservation of total mechanical energy is the subject of
the next example.
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Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
We can describe an oscillating mass in terms of its position, velocity, and acceleration as
a function of time. We can also describe the system from an energy perspective. In this
experiment, you will measure the position and velocity as a function of time for an
oscillating mass and spring system, and from those data, plot the kinetic and potential
energies of the system.
Energy is present in three forms for the mass and spring system. The mass m, with
velocity v, can have kinetic energy KE
KE 21 mv 2
The spring can hold elastic potential energy, or PEelastic. We calculate PEelastic by using
PE elastic 21 ky 2
where k is the spring constant and y is the extension or compression of the spring
measured from the equilibrium position.
The mass and spring system also has gravitational potential energy (PEgravitational = mgy),
but we do not have to include the gravitational potential energy term if we measure the
spring length from the hanging equilibrium position. We can then concentrate on the
exchange of energy between kinetic energy and elastic potential energy.
If there are no other forces experienced by the system, then the principle of conservation
of energy tells us that the sum KE + PEelastic = 0, which we can test experimentally.
OBJECTIVES
Examine the energies involved in simple harmonic motion.
Test the principle of conservation of energy.
MATERIALS
computer slotted mass set, 50 g to 300 g in 50 g steps
Vernier computer interface slotted mass hanger
Logger Pro spring, 1-10 N/m
Vernier Motion Detector ring stand
wire basket
PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS
1. Sketch a graph of the height vs. time for the mass on the spring as it oscillates up and
down through one cycle. Mark on the graph the times where the mass moves the
fastest and therefore has the greatest kinetic energy. Also mark the times when it
moves most slowly and has the least kinetic energy.
2. On your sketch, label the times when the spring has its greatest elastic potential
energy. Then mark the times when it has the least elastic potential energy.
3. From your graph of height vs. time, sketch velocity vs. time.
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4. Sketch graphs of kinetic energy vs. time and elastic potential energy vs. time.
PROCEDURE
1. Mount the 200 g mass and spring as shown in
Figure 1. Connect the Motion Detector to the
DIG/SONIC 1 channel of the interface. Position
the Motion Detector directly below the
hanging mass, taking care that no extraneous
objects could send echoes back to the
detector. Protect the Motion Detector by
placing a wire basket over the detector. The
mass should be about 60 cm above the
detector when it is at rest. Using amplitudes of
10 cm or less will then keep the mass outside
of the 40 cm minimum distance of the Motion
Detector.
5. Click to begin data collection. Hang a 50 g mass from the spring and allow
the mass to hang motionless. Click and enter 0.49, the weight of the mass in
newtons (N). Press ENTER to complete the entry. Now hang 100, 150, 200, 250, and
300 g from the spring, recording the position and entering the weights in N. When
you are done, click to end data collection.
6. Click on the Linear Fit button, , to fit a straight line to your data. The magnitude of
the slope is the spring constant k in N/m. Record the value in the data table below.
7. Remove the 300 g mass and replace it with a 200 g mass for the following
experiments.
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8. Open the experiment file “17c Energy in SHM.” In addition to plotting position and
velocity, three new data columns have been set up in this experiment file (kinetic
energy, elastic potential energy, and the sum of these two individual energies). You
may need to modify the calculations for the energies. If necessary, choose Column
Options Kinetic Energy from the Data menu and click on the Column Definition
tab. Substitute the mass of your hanging mass in kilograms for the value 0.20 in the
definition, then click . Similarly, change the spring constant you determined
above for the value 5.0 in the potential energy column.
9. With the mass hanging from the spring and at rest, click to zero the Motion
Detector. From now on, all distances will be measured relative to this position. When
the mass moves closer to the detector, the position reported will be negative.
10. Start the mass oscillating in a vertical direction only, with an amplitude of about
10 cm. Click to gather position, velocity, and energy data.
DATA TABLE
Spring constant N/m
ANALYSIS
1. Click on the y-axis label of the velocity graph to choose another column for plotting.
Click on More to see all of the columns. Uncheck the velocity column and select the
kinetic energy and potential energy columns. Click to draw the new plot.
2. Compare your two energy plots to the sketches you made earlier. Be sure you
compare to a single cycle beginning at the same point in the motion as your
predictions. Comment on any differences.
3. If mechanical energy is conserved in this system, how should the sum of the kinetic
and potential energies vary with time? Choose Draw Prediction from the Analyze
menu and draw your prediction of this sum as a function of time.
4. Check your prediction. Click on the y-axis label of the energy graph to choose
another column for plotting. Click on More and select the total energy column in
addition to the other energy columns. Click to draw the new plot.
5. From the shape of the total energy vs. time plot, what can you conclude about the
conservation of mechanical energy in your mass and spring system?
EXTENSIONS
1. In the introduction, we claimed that the gravitational potential energy could be
ignored if the displacement used in the elastic potential energy was measured from
the hanging equilibrium position. First write the total mechanical energy (kinetic,
gravitational potential, and elastic potential energy) in terms of a coordinate system,
position measured upward and labeled y, whose origin is located at the bottom of the
relaxed spring of constant k (no force applied). Then determine the equilibrium
position s when a mass m is suspended from the spring. This will be the new origin
for a coordinate system with position labeled h. Write a new expression for total
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energy in terms of h. Show that when the energy is written in terms of h rather than y,
the gravitational potential energy term cancels out.
4. Set up a laboratory cart or a glider on an air track so it oscillates back and forth
horizontally between two springs. Record its position as a function of time with a
Motion Detector. Investigate the conservation of energy in this system. Be sure you
consider the elastic potential energy in both springs.
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Simple Harmonic Motion
Lots of things vibrate or oscillate. A vibrating tuning fork, a moving child’s playground
swing, and the loudspeaker in a radio are all examples of physical vibrations. There are
also electrical and acoustical vibrations, such as radio signals and the sound you get when
blowing across the top of an open bottle.
One simple system that vibrates is a mass hanging from a spring. The force applied by an
ideal spring is proportional to how much it is stretched or compressed. Given this force
behavior, the up and down motion of the mass is called simple harmonic and the position
can be modeled with
y Asin 2ft
In this equation, y is the vertical displacement from the equilibrium position, A is the
amplitude of the motion, f is the frequency of the oscillation, t is the time, and is a
phase constant. This experiment will clarify each of these terms.
Figure 1
OBJECTIVES
Measure the position and velocity as a function of time for an oscillating mass and
spring system.
Compare the observed motion of a mass and spring system to a mathematical model
of simple harmonic motion.
Determine the amplitude, period, and phase constant of the observed simple
harmonic motion.
MATERIALS
computer ring stand, rod, and clamp
Vernier computer interface spring, with a spring constant of
Logger Pro approximately 10 N/m
Vernier Motion Detector twist ties
200 g and 300 g masses wire basket
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PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS
1. Attach the 200 g mass to the spring and hold the free end of the spring in your hand,
so the mass and spring hang down with the mass at rest. Lift the mass about 10 cm
and release. Observe the motion. Sketch a graph of position vs. time for the mass.
2. Just below the graph of position vs. time, and using the same length time scale, sketch
a graph of velocity vs. time for the mass.
PROCEDURE
1. Attach the spring to a horizontal rod connected to the ring stand and hang the mass
from the spring as shown in Figure 1. Securely fasten the 200 g mass to the spring
and the spring to the rod, using twist ties so the mass cannot fall.
2. Connect the Motion Detector to the DIG/SONIC 1 channel of the interface.
3. Place the Motion Detector at least 75 cm below the mass. Make sure there are no
objects near the path between the detector and mass, such as a table edge. Place the
wire basket over the Motion Detector to protect it.
4. Open the file “15 Simple Harmonic Motion” from the Physics with Computers folder.
5. Make a preliminary run to make sure things are set up correctly. Lift the mass upward
a few centimeters and release. The mass should oscillate along a vertical line only.
Click to begin data collection.
6. After 10 s, data collection will stop. The position graph should show a clean
sinusoidal curve. If it has flat regions or spikes, reposition the Motion Detector and
try again.
7. Compare the position graph to your sketched prediction in the Preliminary Questions.
How are the graphs similar? How are they different? Also, compare the velocity
graph to your prediction.
8. Measure the equilibrium position of the 200 g mass. Do this by allowing the mass to
hang free and at rest. Click to begin data collection. After collection stops,
click the statistics button, , to determine the average distance from the detector.
Record this distance (y0) in your data table.
9. Now lift the mass upward about 5 cm and release it. The mass should oscillate along
a vertical line only. Click to collect data. Examine the graphs. The pattern
you are observing is characteristic of simple harmonic motion.
10. Using the position graph, measure the time interval between maximum positions.
This is the period, T, of the motion. The frequency, f, is the reciprocal of the period, f
= 1/T. Based on your period measurement, calculate the frequency. Record the period
and frequency of this motion in your data table.
11. The amplitude, A, of simple harmonic motion is the maximum distance from the
equilibrium position. Estimate values for the amplitude from your position graph.
Enter the values in your data table. If you drag the mouse from one peak to another
you can read the dx time interval.
12. Repeat Steps 8 – 11 with the same 200 g mass, moving with a larger amplitude than
in the first run.
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13. Change the mass to 300 g and repeat Steps 8 – 11. Use an amplitude of about 5 cm.
Keep a good run made with this 300 g mass on the screen. You will use it for several
of the Analysis questions.
DATA TABLE
Run Mass y0 A T f
(g) (cm) (cm) (s) (Hz)
ANALYSIS
1. View the graphs of the last run on the screen. Compare the position vs. time and the
velocity vs. time graphs. How are they the same? How are they different?
2. Turn on the Examine mode by clicking the Examine button, . Move the mouse
cursor back and forth across the graph to view the data values for the last run on the
screen. Where is the mass when the velocity is zero? Where is the mass when the
velocity is greatest?
3. Does the frequency, f, appear to depend on the amplitude of the motion? Do you have
enough data to draw a firm conclusion?
4. Does the frequency, f, appear to depend on the mass used? Did it change much in
your tests?
5. You can compare your experimental data to the sinusoidal function model using the
Manual Curve Fit feature of Logger Pro. Try it with your 300 g data. The model
equation in the introduction, which is similar to the one in many textbooks, gives the
displacement from equilibrium. However, your Motion Detector reports the distance
from the detector. To compare the model to your data, add the equilibrium distance to
the model; that is, use
y A sin 2ft y0
where y0 represents the equilibrium distance.
a. Click once on the position graph to select it.
b. Choose Curve Fit from the Analyze menu.
c. Select Manual as the Fit Type.
d. Select the Sine function from the General Equation list.
e. The Sine equation is of the form y=A*sin(Bt +C) + D. Compare this to the form of
the equation above to match variables; e.g., corresponds to C, and 2f
corresponds to B.
f. Adjust the values for A, B and D to reflect your values for A, f and y0. You can
either enter the values directly in the dialog box or you can use the up and down
arrows to adjust the values.
g. The phase parameter is called the phase constant and is used to adjust the y value
reported by the model at t = 0 so that it matches your data. Since data collection
31
did not necessarily begin when the mass was at the equilibrium position, is
needed to achieve a good match.
h. The optimum value for will be between 0 and 2. find a value for that makes
the model come as close as possible to the data of your 300 g experiment. You
may also want to adjust y0, A, and f to improve the fit. Write down the equation
that best matches your data.
6. Predict what would happen to the plot of the model if you doubled the parameter for
A by sketching both the current model and the new model with doubled A. Now
double the parameter for A in the manual fit dialog box to compare to your prediction.
7. Similarly, predict how the model plot would change if you doubled f, and then check
by modifying the model definition.
EXTENSIONS
1. Investigate how changing the spring amplitude changes the period of the motion.
Take care not to use too large an amplitude so that the mass does not come closer
than 40 cm to the detector or fall from the spring.
2. How will damping change the data? Tape an index card to the bottom of the mass and
collect additional data. You may want to take data for more than 10 seconds. Does the
model still fit well in this case?
3. Do additional experiments to discover the relationship between the mass and the
period of this motion.
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XI. The Pendulum (10.4)
In the equation above, the term has a constant value , independent of . For small angles,
then, the torque that restores the pendulum to its vertical equilibrium position is proportional to the
angular displacement . The expression has the same form as the Hooke's law restoring
force for an ideal spring, . Therefore, we expect the frequency of the back-and-forth
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The moment of inertia of a particle of mass m, rotating at a radius about an axis, is given
by . Substituting this expression for I into the above Equation reveals that for a simple
pendulum
The mass of the particle has been eliminated algebraically from this expression, so only the
length L and the magnitude g of the acceleration due to gravity determine the frequency of a simple
pendulum. If the angle of oscillation is large, the pendulum does not exhibit simple harmonic motion,
and the above Equation does not apply. The above Equation provides the basis for using a pendulum
to keep time.
34
Pendulum Period Lab
A swinging pendulum keeps a very regular beat. It is so regular, in fact, that for many
years the pendulum was the heart of clocks used in astronomical measurements at the
Greenwich Observatory.
There are at least three things you could change about a pendulum that might affect the period
(the time for one complete cycle):
To investigate the pendulum, you need to do a controlled experiment; that is, you need to
make measurements, changing only one variable at a time. Conducting controlled
experiments is a basic principle of scientific investigation.
In this experiment, you will use a simulation (link below) to vary the length of string,
mass of the bob, and amplitude of the pendulum in order to calculate the period of one
complete swing of a pendulum. By conducting a series of controlled experiments with the
pendulum, you can determine how each of these quantities affects the period.
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http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/pendulum-lab
OBJECTIVES
Observe the period of a pendulum as a function of amplitude.
Calculate the period of a pendulum as a function of length.
Observe the period of a pendulum as a function of bob mass.
Construct a pendulum with a period of one second
PROCEDURE
Determine the period (T) of the pendulum for 5 different length () combinations of
your choice. Do the same for 5 different mass (m) combinations of your choice. Use the
simulation to construct a pendulum with a period of exactly one second. To do this, vary
one variable at a time and keep track of which ones affect the period and which ones do
not.
ANALYSIS
1. Plot a graph of pendulum period T vs. length . Scale each axis from the origin (0,0).
Does the period appear to depend on length?
2. Plot the pendulum period vs. mass. Scale each axis from the origin (0,0). Does the period
appear to depend on mass? Do you have enough data to answer conclusively?
3. To examine more carefully how the period T depends on the pendulum length , create
2 2
the following two additional graphs of the same data: T vs. and T vs. . Of the three
period-length graphs, which is closest to a direct proportion; that is, which plot is most
nearly a straight line that goes through the origin?
4. Using Newton’s laws, we could show that for some pendulums, the period T is related to
the length and free-fall acceleration g by
4 2
T 2 , or T 2
g g
Does one of your graphs support this relationship? Explain. (Hint: Can the term in
parentheses be treated as a constant of proportionality?)
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ANALYSIS QUESTIONS
1. What effect, if any, does mass have on the period of the pendulum?
2. What effect, if any, does amplitude have on the period of the pendulum?
3. What effect, if any, does length have on the period of the pendulum?
4. If you set your pendulum up on the top of Mt. Everest, would the period be less than,
the same, or greater than it would be in your lab? Why?
5. If you set up your pendulum aboard an orbiting space station, would the period be less
than, the same, or greater than it would be in your lab? Why?
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Pendulum Periods
A swinging pendulum keeps a very regular beat. It is so regular, in fact, that for many
years the pendulum was the heart of clocks used in astronomical measurements at the
Greenwich Observatory.
There are at least three things you could change about a pendulum that might affect the period
(the time for one complete cycle):
To investigate the pendulum, you need to do a controlled experiment; that is, you need to
make measurements, changing only one variable at a time. Conducting controlled
experiments is a basic principle of scientific investigation.
In this experiment, you will use a Photogate capable of microsecond precision to measure
the period of one complete swing of a pendulum. By conducting a series of controlled
experiments with the pendulum, you can determine how each of these quantities affects
the period.
Figure 1
OBJECTIVES
Measure the period of a pendulum as a function of amplitude.
Measure the period of a pendulum as a function of length.
Measure the period of a pendulum as a function of bob mass.
MATERIALS
computer string
Vernier computer interface 2 ring stands and pendulum clamp
Logger Pro masses of 100 g, 200 g, 300 g
Vernier Photogate meter stick
protractor
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PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS
1. Make a pendulum by tying a 1 m string to a mass. Hold the string in your hand and let
the mass swing. Observing only with your eyes, does the period depend on the length
of the string? Does the period depend on the amplitude of the swing?
2. Try a different mass on your string. Does the period seem to depend on the mass?
PROCEDURE
1. Use the ring stand to hang the 200 g mass from two strings. Attach the strings to a
horizontal rod about 10 cm apart, as shown in Figure 1. This arrangement will let the
mass swing only along a line, and will prevent the mass from striking the Photogate.
The length of the pendulum is the distance from the point on the rod halfway between
the strings to the center of the mass. The pendulum length should be at least 1 m.
2. Attach the Photogate to the second ring stand. Position it so that the mass blocks the
Photogate while hanging straight down. Connect the Photogate to DIG/SONIC 1 on the
interface.
3. Open the file “14 Pendulum Periods” in the Physics with Computers folder. A graph
of period vs. time is displayed.
4. Temporarily move the mass out of the center of the Photogate. Notice the reading in
the status bar of Logger Pro at the bottom of the screen, which shows when the
Photogate is blocked. Block the Photogate with your hand; note that the Photogate is
shown as blocked. Remove your hand, and the display should change to unblocked.
Click and move your hand through the Photogate repeatedly. After the first
blocking, Logger Pro reports the time interval between every other block as the
period. Verify that this is so.
5. Now you can perform a trial measurement of the period of your pendulum. Pull the
mass to the side about 10º from vertical and release. Click and measure the
period for five complete swings. Click . Click the Statistics button, , to
calculate the average period. You will use this technique to measure the period under
a variety of conditions.
Part I Amplitude
6. Determine how the period depends on amplitude. Measure the period for five
different amplitudes. Use a range of amplitudes, from just barely enough to unblock
the Photogate, to about 30º. Each time, measure the amplitude using the protractor so
that the mass with the string is released at a known angle. Repeat Step 5 for each
different amplitude. Record the data in your data table.
Part II Length
7. Use the method you learned above to investigate the effect of changing pendulum
length on the period. Use the 200 g mass and a consistent amplitude of 20º for each
trial. Vary the pendulum length in steps of 10 cm, from 1.0 m to 0.50 m. If you have
room, continue to a longer length (up to 2 m). Repeat Step 5 for each length. Record
the data in the second data table below. Measure the pendulum length from the rod to
the middle of the mass.
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Part III Mass
8. Use the three masses to determine if the period is affected by changing the mass.
Measure the period of the pendulum constructed with each mass, taking care to keep
the distance from the ring stand rod to the center of the mass the same each time, as
well as keeping the amplitude the same. Repeat Step 5 for each mass, using an
amplitude of about 20°. Record the data in your data table
DATA TABLE
Part I Amplitude
Part II Length
100
200
300
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ANALYSIS
1. Why is Logger Pro set up to report the time between every other blocking of the
Photogate? Why not the time between every block?
2. Use Logger Pro to plot a graph of pendulum period vs. amplitude in degrees. Scale
each axis from the origin (0,0). Does the period depend on amplitude? Explain.
3. Plot a graph of pendulum period T vs. length . Scale each axis from the origin (0,0).
Does the period appear to depend on length?
4. Plot the pendulum period vs. mass. Scale each axis from the origin (0,0). Does the
period appear to depend on mass? Do you have enough data to answer conclusively?
5. To examine more carefully how the period T depends on the pendulum length , 2
2
create the following two additional graphs of the same data: T vs. and T vs. . Of
the three period-length graphs, which is closest to a direct proportion; that is, which
plot is most nearly a straight line that goes through the origin?
6. Using Newton’s laws, we could show that for some pendulums, the period T is related
to the length and free-fall acceleration g by
4 2
T 2 , or T 2
g g
Does one of your graphs support this relationship? Explain. (Hint: Can the term in
parentheses be treated as a constant of proportionality?)
EXTENSIONS
1. From your graph of T 2 vs. determine a value for g.
2. Given what you observed in this experiment, write a set of rules for constructing a
pendulum clock that is reliable under a variety of temperatures.
3. Try a larger range of amplitudes than you used in Part I. If you did not see a change in
period with amplitude before, you should now. Check a college physics textbook for
an expression for the period of a pendulum at large amplitudes and compare to your
own data.
4. Try a different method to study how the period of a pendulum depends on the
amplitude. Start the pendulum swinging with a fairly large amplitude. Start data
collection and allow data collection to continue for several minutes. The amplitude of
the swing will gradually decrease and you can see how much the period changed.
5. Use an air table and air table puck as your pendulum. Tip the air table to a variety of
angles, , and determine the relationship between the period and the angle.
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