EWAH - Guidelines To NZ Building Regulations, Edition 1

1st Edition, Sept.
2016
Energy efficient +
Weathertight +
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Housing
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Guidelines to
NZ Building regulations
------------------------------
Health & Safety Plan
Editor: Andreas Hofer
Kopua, New Zealand, July 2016
Overview
1.0 Site Analysis
Understanding the site is the first step towards designing or substantially renovating a house that
will minimise its impact on the environment, minimise the use of resources and be comfortable
and healthier to live in.
2.0 Site Use

The positioning of a house on a site is a crucial part of the preliminary design of the building
project.
3.0 Passive Design

Passive design is the key to sustainable building.
4.0 Water
By minimising water use, and making good materials choices, you can reduce running
costs, cut demand on community infrastructure, and reduce harm to the environment.
5.0 Material Use

Building materials account for a significant proportion of all material use worldwide, and
construction and demolition waste accounts for over a third of all solid waste generated.
6.0 Energy
A typical New Zealand home consumes 10,500 kWh of energy per year. All energy
consumption has environmental impacts, ranging from the production of greenhouse
gases in burning fossil fuels to direct effects on landscapes from dams and other sources
of generation. However, by 2015 almost 40% of New Zealand’s primary energy was
coming from renewable resources.
7.0 Wet Areas

Wet areas are the rooms or spaces containing sanitary fixtures and appliances –
including bathrooms and en suites, toilets, laundries, kitchens, entries and garages.
8.1 Health and Safety

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INDEX Pages
1.0 Site Analysis
1.1 New Zealand climate and environmental zones 001
1.2 Sun 003
1.3 Wind 006
1.4 Rain 009
1.5 Plants, Trees and landscape features 010
1.6 Hazards 012
1.6.1 Chemical contamination and pollution 013
1.6.2 Earthquake risk 015
1.6.3 Tsunami Hazard 017
1.6.4 Flood risk 018
1.6.5 Landslides, slumps and erosion 019
1.7 Services and infrastructure 020
1.8 Site conditions and ground stability 022
1.9 Culture and heritage 026
1.10 Site Analysis checklist 027+
2.0 Site Use

2.1 Resource Management Act (RMA) 028
2.2 District Plan requirements 030
2.3 Positioning a house on the site 032
2.3.1 Wind effect/microclimate 032
2.3.2 Topography 034
2.3.3 Adjacent buildings 034
2.3.4 Views 035
2.3.5 Existing vegetation 036
2.3.6 Location of services 037
2.4 Locating outdoor site features 038
2.4.1 Indoor/outdoor flow 038
2.4.2 Garages and driveways 040
3.0 Passive Design 042

3.1 Controlling temperature with passive design: intro 044
3.2 Thermal simulation 048
3.3 Location, orientation and layout 050
3.3.1 Room layout 056
3.4 Insulation 059
3.4.1 How insulation works 060
3.4.2 Determining insulation requirements 064
3.4.3 Options for roof insulation 066
3.4.4 Options for wall insulation 067
3.4.5 Options for floor insulation 071
3.4.6 Installing insulation 076
3.4.7 Insulation options for existing homes 078
3.5 Thermal mass 083
3.5.1 How thermal mass works 083
3.5.2 Thermal mass design 086
3.6 Shading 092
3.6.1 External shading 093
3.6.2 Internal shading 097
3.7 Ventilation 098
3.7.1 Design of passive ventilation 100
3.8 Daylighting 102
3.9 Glazing and glazing units 106
3.9.1 Measuring glazing performance: key concepts 108
3.9.2 Glazing options for temperature control 109
3.10 Controlling indoor air quality 116
3.10.1 Humidity and condensation 116
3.10.2 Controlling airborne contaminants 120
3.11 Controlling noise 124

3.11.1 Noise: basic concepts 125
3.11.2 Controlling noise through design and layout 128
3.11.2.1 Noise control in the building envelope 131
3.11.2.2 Noise control in interior partitions 136
3.11.2.3 Fences, walls and earth mounds as barriers 139
3.12 Climate change 140
3.12.1 Designing for climate change 143
3.12 Passiv House 145
3.13.1 International passiv house standard 146
3.13.2 Austrian passiv house regulations as role model 146+
4.0 Water 147

4.1 Water supply 148
4.1.1 Mains or rainwater? 149
4.1.1.1 Harvesting rainwater 151
4.1.1.2 Storing rainwater 156
4.1.1.3 Filtration and treatment 162
4.1.2 System layout and pipework 163
4.1.2.1 Pipe materials 167
4.1.2.2 Pipe jointing systems 170
4.1.2.3 Pipework installation 171
4.1.2.4 Noise and air locks in pipework 176
4.1.2.5 Backflow prevention 177
4.1.2.6 Valves and controls 187
4.1.3 Hot water supply 190
4.1.3.1 Storage cylinders 193
4.1.3.2 Controlling pressure in storage cylinders 197
4.1.3.3 Hot water pipes 203
4.1.4 Appliances and fixtures 205
4.2 Waste water 208

4.2.1 Building design considerations 209
4.2.2 Sanitary plumbing systems 211
4.2.2.1 Discharges and vents 215
4.2.3 Drainage systems 228
4.2.3.1 Access for maintenance 234
4.2.4 On-site wastewater treatment 242
4.2.4.1 Designing an on-site wastewater treatment system 243
4.2.4.1.1 Design Checklist 247
4.2.4.2 Septic tanks 249
4.2.4.3 Aerated wastewater treatment systems (new 2015) 252
4.2.4.4 Land-application disposal system 254
4.2.4.5 Maintenance and problems 258
4.2.4.6 Greywater recycling 260
4.2.4.6.1 Greywater systems 261
4.2.4.6.2 Irrigating with greywater 268
4.2.4.7 Composting toilets 271
4.2.4.7.1 Types of composting toilet 273
4.2.5 Stormwater control and landscaping 275
5.0 Material Use 282

5.1 Construction systems 283
5.2 Life cycle assessment 285
5.2.1 Environmental Product Declarations 287
5.2.2 Ecolabels 288
5.2.3 Eco-hierarchy Tool 289
5.3 Choosing materials 291
5.4 Embodied energy 295
5.4.1 Embodied energy case study 297
5.5 Minimising waste 299
5.5.1 Implementing waste management 300
5.5.2 Reuse and recyclingTool 304
6.0 Energy 308

6.1 Space heating 309
6.1.1 Space heating – energy sources 311
6.1.2 Space heating options by room 317
6.1.3 Heat pumps 320
6.1.3.1 Heat pump configuration and installation 325
6.1.4 Convection heaters 328
6.1.5 Radiant heaters 330
6.1.6 Combined convection and radiant heaters 332
6.1.7 Central heating systems 334
6.2 Cooling 336

6.3 Lighting design 340
6.3.1 Appropriate lighting levels 341
6.3.2 Lamp selection 342
6.3.3 Switches, sensors, dimmers and timers 345
6.4 Water heating 347
6.4.1 Energy sources 348
6.4.1.1 Wetbacks 350
6.4.2 Storage and continuous flow systems 351
6.4.2.2 Continuous flow systems 356
6.4.3 Heat pump water heating 361
6.4.4 Solar water heating 365
6.4.4.1 Collector panels 367
6.4.4.2 Heat transfer systems 371
6.4.4.4 Installation 377
6.4.5 Appliances 381
6.4.5.1 Selecting energy-efficient appliances 382
6.4.5.2 Standby mode 386
6.4.6 Active ventilation 387
6.4.6.1 Air extraction systems 388
6.4.6.2 Air supply ventilation systems 390
6.4.6.2.1 Heat and energy recovery vent systems 392
6.4.7 Electrical design 397
6.4.7.1 Statutory requirements 398
6.4.7.2 Electrical supply options 401
6.4.7.2.1 Mains or grid supply 402
6.4.7.3 Internal electrical power services 409
6.4.7.4 Wiring 412
6.4.7.4.1 Wiring materials 412
6.4.7.4.2 Fixed wire for electr. systems a. appliance 414
6.4.7.4.3 Wiring installation 420
6.4.7.5 Internal and external extra low voltage services 423
6.4.7.6 Additional on-site electrical demand 425
6.4.8 Renewable electricity generation 427
6.4.8.1 Stand-alone generation 430
6.4.8.2 Distributed generation (DG) 433
6.4.8.3 Photovoltaic (PV) systems 437
6.4.8.4 Wind turbine systems 442
6.4.8.5 Micro-hydro systems 449
6.4.8.6 Micro-combo heat a. power (micro-CHP) 458
6.4.8.7 Additional components 460
6.4.8.7.1 Batteries 461
6.4.8.7.2 Inverters 463
6.4.8.8 Back-up power generation 465
6.4.9 Bioenergy and Biofuels 467
7.0 Wet Areas 470

7.1 Statutory requirements 471
7.2 Wet area design 475
7.2.1 Managing water overflow and splashing 478
7.2.2 Managing temperature and condensation 479
7.2.3 Accessibility 483
7.2.4 Wet area floor structure 486
7.2.4.1 Minimising noise and odours 488
7.2.5 Wet area flooring and floor finishes 489
7.1.5.1 Quick reference guide for wet area floor finishes 497
7.2.6 Wet area wall structure 501
7.2.7 Wet area wall and ceiling linings and finishes 502
7.2.7.1 Quick reference guide for wet area wall finishes 507
7.2.8 Waterproofing tiled showers 511
8.0 Health and Safety 515

8.1 Health and Safety at Work Act 515
8.2 Personal protective equipment 516
8.3 Airborne and other pollutants 518
8.3.1 Asbestos 520
8.3.2 Silica dust 523
8.3.3 Lead paint 524
8.3.4 Solvents 525
8.3.5 Sediment and run-off 527
8.4 Electrical safety 529
8.5 Construction noise 532
8.6 Working at height 534
8.6.1 Guard rails 535
8.6.2 Ladders 536
8.6.3 Scaffolds 537
8.6.4 Excavations and trenches 538
8.6.5 Working on roofs 538
8.7 Tools and machinery 539
8.8 Mould 540
8.9 Fire safety 542
8.9.1 Smoke alarms 534
8.9.2 Heat detectors 547
8.9.3 Automatic fire sprinklers 548
8.10 Materials handling 548
8.10.1 Manual and mechanical lifting 549
8.10.2 Working with treated timber 551
8.10.3 Handling hazardous materials 554
1.0 Site Analysis
Understanding the site is the first step towards designing or substantially renovating a house that will
minimise its impact on the environment, minimise the use of resources and be comfortable and
healthier to live in.
You will need to distinguish between regional or large-scale effects and site-specific effects.
You will need to understand site characteristics that are specific to the site (such as topography and
landscape features) and broader local or regional effects such as regional climate.
In addition, it will be necessary to understand relevant Resource Management Act and District Plan
requirements.
1.1 New Zealand climate and environmental zones
Climate should influence building form and location on site, material choices, window/door
size and placement, and loading and bracing requirements.
On this page:
 climate zones for energy efficiency
 wind, earthquake, snow and exposure zones
 specific design standards.
Climate zones for energy efficiency

New Zealand is divided into three zones, based on average temperature data, for NZ Building Code
compliance document H1/AS1 Energy efficiency.
Zone boundaries are aligned with those of territorial authorities.

 Zone 1: Northland, Auckland Franklin District and the Coromandel Peninsula
 Zone 2: The North Island except the Central Plateau
 Zone 3: The Central Plateau of the North Island and all of the South Island
Climate zones are used to determine the required thermal performance (if using specific design) or
minimum R-value requirements (if using the schedule or calculation method of NZS 4218:2004 Energy
efficiency – Small building envelope) for new construction and renovation work.
The online tool BRANZ Maps identifies a range of features for a specific location, including climate zone,
exposure zone and earthquake zone.
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Wind, earthquake, snow and exposure zones
Under NZS 3604:2011 Timber framed buildings, New Zealand is also divided into zones based on other
environmental features including wind, earthquake, snow load and exposure.
Wind regions and lee zone Snow zones

Earthquake zones
Exposure zones – North Island Exposure zones – South Island
Design standards
Design factor Map NZ standard Design for…
Bracing Wind zone NZS 3604: Bracing requirements

Section 5
Earthquake zone NZS 3604: Bracing requirements

Section 5
Durability Corrosion zone NZS 3604: Timber treatment levels

Table 4.1 Claddings selection
Fastenings selection
Flashings selection
The zones given in NZS 3604 are general classifications only. Specific design can result in more economically designed structures.
More building code resources for engineers: AS/NZS 1170 Structural designs , NZS 3101 Concrete structures
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1.2 Sun
By analysing the impact of the sun on a site, as well as the building’s location, the spatial arrangement,
orientation, window placement, daylight access and other design features, the designer can take full advantage
of passive solar design features and increase the energy efficiency and comfort of the building.
On this page:
 assessing a site for sun
 altitude and azimuth
 solar radiation
 building material durability
 shade
 sites with limited solar gain
 locating information
Assessing a site for sun

When assessing a site for sun, consider:
 the time during the day that the site receives sunlight
 the sun's path at different times of the day and year
 how the site’s shape, slope and orientation affect solar access
 how obstructions such as adjacent buildings, trees and landforms will impact on the site and the potential design
 the owners' lifestyle – for example, when they want to have sun or shade.
Sun paths
Assessing the passage of sun across a site is important. There are a number of locally-produced tools that
can help, but a site visit is still necessary to identify site-specific conditions such as the impact of a large
tree.
Sun path diagrams provide a broader overview of sun on a site as they map the path of the sun across the
sky at different times during the day throughout the year. They can help establish the position of the sun
relative to a site and can be used to determine the effect of shadows cast by buildings, trees and landforms
on and around the site.
NIWA’s online tool SolarView can provide information quickly and accurately. However, it only accounts for
geographic (land) features. Foliage and fences may also need to be considered. Be aware that if the site is
shaded for more than 40% of the time compared to a clear site, then this has significant implications for the
thermal performance of the house.
SketchUp’s shading feature can also help with establishing shadow length.
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Altitude and azimuth
The position of the sun with respect to an observer is commonly represented by two angles – altitude and
azimuth.
Altitude is the angle of the sun’s rays compared with the horizon. At sunrise and sunset, the altitude is zero,
and in the southern hemisphere, the maximum altitude of the sun at any specific location occurs at solar
noon on 21/22 December (longest days of the year).
Azimuth (sometimes known as bearing) is the direction of the sun as shown on a compass. Sun bearings at
sunrise and sunset at different New Zealand latitudes are available from Land Information NZ’s astronomical
information.
Solar radiation
Solar or ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the energy from the sun. The amount of solar radiation available on a
site depends on the latitude and the sunlight hours received.
Information about UV levels can be obtained from NIWA’s UV Atlas which provides information about UV
levels around New Zealand since 1960.
NIWA’s online SolarView tool estimates the available solar energy at a particular location for people
considering installing a solar energy system.
Building material durability
UV radiation affects the durability of many materials. Colours fade, plastic-based materials may become
brittle, timber moves and twists, and expansion and contraction from heating and cooling places stress on
many materials, so the effect of UV radiation over a building’s lifetime must be considered.
Select materials with a higher UV index number (when available) as they are more resistant to UV
degradation (such as fading).
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Shade
Shade is often required in the summer, but in most parts of the country, winter sun is desirable.
Obstructions on a site may block sunlight access at times when it is required.
When considering sunlight and building design, assess the impact of obstructions in the future as well as the
present. For example, a small tree on an adjacent site may grow into a large one that blocks sun, a building
may be erected on a currently vacant site or an existing building may be demolished and replaced by a
larger one.
Alternatively, existing trees may be retained for summer shade.
Sites with limited solar access
South and east-facing, sloping sites have limited solar access. It is difficult to utilise effective passive solar
design features on these sites, and they should generally be avoided. Where it is not possible to avoid or the
site is an otherwise desirable one (e.g. if it has excellent views), careful consideration of design including
building location (e.g. locate as high as possible on the site), orientation and use of skylights/clerestories
can maximise the benefits of solar access.
Locating information
The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) provides climate station data for its 30
climate stations throughout New Zealand, including information about sunshine hours and mean
temperatures.
Aerial photographs can provide information about the buildings and vegetation on adjacent sites and may
provide some limited information about the impact of sun on a site. This will depend on the age of the photo
as in older photos, trees may have grown. Aerial images can be obtained from local councils, Google
Earth andTerranet.
Sun impact information is also available:
 by carrying out an on-site survey to establish levels of adjacent buildings and site features.
 obtaining plans of neighbouring buildings from local councils.
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1.3 Wind
Wind direction, speed and frequency will influence the building design including bracing
requirements, roof and wall cladding selection, weathertightness detailing, building entry
locations, window size and placement and provision of shelter for outdoor spaces.
On this page:
 designing for wind
 wind regions and zones
 specific design
 gathering information about local wind conditions.
Designing for wind
Generally, designing for wind will require providing shelter but in hot or humid climates, the building design
may deliberately incorporate features or shapes to provide cooling breezes for a passive cooling effect.
In remote locations, wind speed and frequency may also be a factor in selecting wind as a power generation
source.
Make your assessment of wind effects early in the design process. This should include the speed (average
and peak) and direction of wind, and how it affects the site at different times of year.
Factors influencing wind speed on a specific site are shown in the following table.
Regional and site Comments

features
General wind speeds Source from:

in the region • NIWA
• Metservice
Level of site Determine from on-site observation

exposure
Terrain Wind speed will:

• increase as it passes over or between hills
• slow down as it passes over rougher terrain (drag effect)
• accelerate over open and flat expanses of land or water
Large expanse of During the day, solar gain will heat the land mass, resulting in an increase in
water nearby, e.g. temperature relative to an adjacent large body of water. As air warmed by the
sea or a lake land rises, cooler air from over the water will replace the rising air, resulting in the
generation of afternoon, on-shore breezes
Adjacent buildings/ Wind speed:
vegetation • is lower when a site is surrounded by taller buildings
• will increase where it funnels around or between buildings
• is slowed by trees and vegetation
Building height The higher the building, the more exposed it will be to higher winds, particularly
where the building is taller than adjacent buildings or vegetation.
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The prevailing wind direction must be considered in relation to the design of a building, in particular, for
locations of doors and opening windows, and provision of shelter for outdoor areas. Other aspects of wind to
consider include:
 the direction of the strongest wind
 the direction of the coldest wind
 humid/dry winds
 wind that comes off the sea (salt spray issues)
 the wind direction that brings most of the rain.
Wind regions and zones
NZS 3604 Timber framed buildings requires that buildings are designed to withstand the winds that they are
likely to be subjected to. Bracing requirements must be calculated separately for both wind and earthquake
loadings; the bracing must be designed for the greater of the two loads. The amount of bracing required to
resist the lateral wind loads on the building under NZS 3604 is based on the design wind speed.
NZS 3604 divides New Zealand into two wind regions (A and W) and several lee zone areas – these are
areas where the landforms create localised wind acceleration resulting in higher wind speeds than the rest of
the region.
It also classifies wind zones into categories, set out in the following table, according to maximum ultimate
limit state speeds.
Wind zone classifications (from NZS 3604 Timber framed buildings)
Classification Maximum ultimate limit state speed
Low Below 32 m/s
Medium 37 m/s
High 44 m/s
Very high 50 m/s
Extra high 55 m/s
Specific design (SD) Over 55 m/s
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Table 5.1 in NZS 3604 provides steps to determine wind zone. From Table 5.1, determination of the wind
zone for a particular site requires the following steps:
 Determine the wind region.

 Determine whether in a lee zone.
 Determine ground roughness.
 Determine site exposure.
 Determine topographic class.
BRANZ MAPS, a online tool that provides info on wind region and zone for any given address in NZ.
Specific design
The wind zones defined in NZS 3604 are based on a number of simplifying assumptions, such as wind
direction, general topography and shelter. In some situations, the wind zone classifications may under- or
over-estimate the site wind speed. In such cases, employing an engineer to assess the site conditions may
be a more cost-effective design option. It will be required where the wind speed is over 55 m/sec.
Gathering information about local wind conditions
A site visit may give some indication of wind speed and predominant or strongest wind direction. Observe
vegetation and features on the site. Talk to neighbours and observe how neighbouring properties deal with
the effects of wind. Indicators of high wind speeds include:

 a general lack of developed planting
 stunted tree and shrub growth
 wind break fences on adjacent properties
 wind shaping of existing planting.
The local council is able to give advice on the wind zone of any property within its boundaries.
Some local authorities have this information online. A land information memorandum (LIM) may
contain info about the property’s wind zone.
The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) provides climate station
data for its 30 climate stations throughout NZ, which includes wind speeds, number of gale
days per month, wind roses (diagrammatic representation of historical wind patterns).
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1.4 Rain
The amount, direction and intensity of rainfall on a site will affect aspects of a building
design, such as roof form, flashings, stormwater drainage, rainwater harvesting and
cladding type. Obtaining rainfall data for the region should be part of the preliminary design
brief.
On this page:
 intensity
 direction
 locating information.
Intensity
Rainfall intensity varies throughout the year and from season to season, so average rainfall figures can be
misleading. Some parts of the country get periods of intense rainfall that can be far higher than the average
(taken over a longer period of time) would suggest. Building design should be able to cope with the
maximum expected rainfall.
When assessing a site or designing a building, check the degree and frequency of past extreme weather
events.
In most parts of New Zealand, a rainfall intensity of 100 mm/hour over a 10 minute period is generally an
adequate design figure for external gutters. Regions where higher rainfall intensity design figures must be
used are Arthur’s Pass, Haast, Milford Sound, Fiordland, Mount Taranaki and the Kaimai ranges. (Although
internal gutters should be avoided where possible, where they are used BRANZ recommends that a rainfall
intensity of 200 mm/hour for a 10 minute period should be used as a design figure.)
Direction
Different parts of a building may require different levels of weathertightness detailing against wind and rain
because of the at-risk features incorporated into the design (see E2/AS1 for the weathertightness risk
matrix) . Higher levels of weathertightness detailing are required on building faces exposed to high winds
that will drive rain horizontally or even vertically up a building face.
The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) provides climate station data for its 30
climate stations throughout New Zealand, including rainfall, number of wet days per month and climate
extremes.
Rainfall intensity curves may be available from the local council. Where they are not available, use the
design intensities given in New Zealand Building Code Acceptable Solution E1/AS1 Surface water. These
intensities, in mm/hour, are based on a 10% probability of such rainfall occurring annually for a period of 10
minutes.
BRANZ MAPS now provide data on rainfall intensity for any given address in New Zealand.
009
1.5 Plants, trees and landscape features
Plants, trees and landscape features provide shade and wind shelter, help with stormwater
and erosion control, provide a habitat for native or other wildlife and can make a site more
attractive.
On this page:
 site considerations
 plants as a passive design tool
 retaining/removing trees
 considering the environment
 gathering information.
Site considerations
When assessing the existing topography and vegetation of a site, considerations include:
 access to winter sun
 the amount of shading required
 provision of shelter from strong, cold winds
 enhancement of cooling breezes
 privacy
 existing biodiversity
 planted species – native or introduced
 age of the existing planting.
Plants as a passive design tool
Plants and trees can assist the passive design of buildings by:
 providing shade
 funnelling breezes where cooling is required
 providing shelter from intrusive winds
 reducing glare by filtering summer sun
 having species that let in winter sun during cooler weather.
Deflect wind rather than dam it Funnelling cooling breezes
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Retaining/removing trees
Removing trees and other vegetation may:
 require permission from the local council
 alter drainage patterns
 increase risks of erosion and land slippage
 result in increased exposure to pollution and noise from adjacent roads.
It is easier to retain existing trees and plants than to restore an area of planting. Where possible, planting
should be retained and protected during the construction process. If a mature tree must be removed,
relocation may be a better solution than removing it.
Considering the environment
Before removing trees from a site, consider their value to the environment and/or the community.
Long areas of planting provide corridors for wildlife to move between areas of bush and encourage native
species that improve biodiversity.
Streams and wetlands provide food or shelter to local wildlife, and streambanks can also provide corridors
through which wildlife can move.
Gathering information
Observation of the site and adjacent sites will provide information about the types of trees and plants that
grow well in an area, and their effect on wind and sun on the site.
A land information memorandum (LIM) or property information memorandum (PIM) may have information
about trees and plants on the site, and the district plan may have information about protected trees and
plants.
Aerial photographs and geographical information can be obtained from Terralink and Google Earth.
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1.6 Hazards
Potential hazards to buildings include man-made hazards, such aschemical contamination and pollution, and natural
hazards, such as storms, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides and erosion, and tsunamis.
For each type of hazard, consider:
 Has it happened in the past?
 Could it happen on this site?
 What is the chance of it happening in future?
 How much harm or damage could it cause?
 Does the risk associated with the hazard require further action?
New Zealand Building Code

The New Zealand Building Code is concerned with the health and safety of building occupants. It requires
that, in the event of a hazard, occupants must be able to evacuate the building safely, but does not require
that, after a major hazard such as an earthquake, a building will remain structurally sound. A specific
requirement to do so is likely to require a design in excess of NZBC requirements.
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1.6.1 Chemical contamination and pollution
Chemical contamination of a site may occur from past industrial, horticultural
or agricultural activity. Typical examples of contaminated sites are when:
 pesticides and herbicides were manufactured or stored
 fertilisers were stored
 timber was treated
 sheep were dipped
 petroleum, gas or coal products were produced, used, stored or sold
 metals or minerals were mined
 hazardous waste was dumped or landfilled (legally or illegally)
 asbestos is or was present
 land is affected by discharges from other contaminated sites
 scrapyard or recycling activities were carried out.
For existing buildings check that:

 the property has not been used for the manufacture of drugs such as methamphetamine
 there is no asbestos contamination
 activities within the building were not classified as a bio-hazard
 the building was not used for activities such as paint manufacture, printing, dry cleaning, battery storage,
explosives storage and so on.
Hazardous substances can threaten the health of people, animals or the environment where
there is direct contact with contaminated soil, vapours or dust are ingested, or food or water
from contaminated places is consumed.
Some contaminants may also cause aggressive ground conditions that can attack concrete foundations,
speed-up rust in steel or even dissolve plastic pipework.
How to find out if your land is contaminated
To start off, there are some things you can do yourself:
 Ask your district, city or regional council if it holds a register of contaminated or potentially contaminated
land, and see if your land is mentioned.
 Look for evidence of contamination such as old storage tanks or sheep dips.
 Look for evidence of earthworks that may be used to cover previous activities.
 Talk with previous owners or neighbours who have lived in the area for a long time about earlier uses of the
property.
 Look for evidence that your land is (or was) host to an activity on the Hazardous Activities and Industries
List (HAIL).
 Get a Project Information Memorandum (PIM) or Land Information Memorandum (LIM) report
from your city or district council.

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Contaminated land laws and standards
Buildings generally have to comply with the Building Code. Clause F1 Hazardous agents on site requires that
“sites shall be assessed to determine the presence and potential threat of any hazardous agents or
contaminants” and that “buildings shall be constructed to avoid the likelihood of people within the building
being adversely affected by hazardous agents or contaminants on a site”. Hazardous agents includes natural
features of the land, such as geothermal activity. These matters should be addressed in the building consent
process where applicable.
The Resource Management Act defines contaminated land as “land that has a hazardous substance in it or
on it that has significant adverse effects on the environment, or is reasonably likely to have [those effects]”.
You will need a resource consent to subdivide or change the use of potentially contaminated land. You may
also need a consent to undertake earthworks, advance bores or discharge water from the land.
The National Environmental Standard for Assessing and Managing Contaminants in Soil to Protect Human
Health came into effect on 1 January 2012. It ensures that contaminated land is identified and assessed
before development. The land may need to be remediated or the contaminants contained so the land is safe
for use. City and district councils must carry out and enforce its requirements. The standard does not affect
existing land uses. Regional and district plans may also contain rules relating to contaminated land.
Guidelines are available for managing different types of contaminated land.
Design
If construction is permitted but some degree of risk remains, such as from fuels, solvents or landfill gases,
good building design may be one way of managing risk. Some guidance on risk management is provided in
the acceptable solution for Building Code clause F1. There are standards in the United Kingdom and
Australia that deal with concrete in aggressive ground and vapour intrusion.
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1.6.2 Earthquake risk
New Zealand is divided into four earthquake risk zones for the purpose of determining the bracing
requirements of buildings to resist earthquakes.
Earthquakes can bring rapid, violent shaking both sideways and up and down.
In some areas – especially hillsides – unstable ground may slide and rocks may fall.
Earthquake zones
On flat ground where there is a high water table and the soil is low-density sand or silt, liquefaction can take
place. Liquid is forced to the surface, carrying sand and silt with it; land can slump; surface soil close to
sloping ground (such as stream banks) can spread, with cracks opening up.
Depending on the location, earthquakes can bring other hazards such as tsunamis.
New builds
There are strong rules around house construction to help houses better cope with earthquakes, and some of
these rules were strengthened following the Canterbury earthquakes of 2010/2011.
Under NZS 3604:2011 Timber-framed buildings, bracing must be provided for all buildings, with greater
bracing being required for buildings:
 in a higher earthquake zone
 where heavy roof and/or wall claddings are specified.
Earthquake bracing demand is covered in section 5.3 of NZS 3604:2011. The section includes maps showing
earthquake zones 1–4.
Earthquake bracing is provided by lengths of wall where the cladding and/or lining works with the timber
frame to form a bracing panel. NZS 3604 ensures an even distribution of bracing elements, so the building is
not expected to twist significantly in an earthquake.
Nowadays, many light timber-framed buildings are not designed completely to NZS 3604 because
homeowners want large windows on one side of the house to enjoy a view. This often requires special
bracing elements designed by a structural engineer. The rest of the building can still be designed and
constructed to the standard.
Simple houses constructed to NZS 3604 performed well in the Canterbury earthquakes, but houses with a
mixed bracing system often had significant damage.

015
BRANZ conducted a research project funded by the Earthquake Commission around houses with mixed
bracing systems. Based on the study, a simplified approach has been proposed for engineers to reduce the
likelihood of significant earthquake damage where there is mixed bracing. You can read more about the
BRANZ study here.

Another key standard regarding earthquakes is NZS 1170.5:2004 Structural design actions – Part 5:
Earthquake Actions – New Zealand.
Renovations
Depending on when and where a house was built, and what construction methods were used, there
may be steps that can be taken to make it more resilient to earthquakes.
Houses with simple shapes and with timber frames and timber cladding tend to withstand
earthquake shaking better, while unreinforced brick buildings are more likely to suffer damage.
Work that can be done to earthquake strengthen a house includes:
• Fixing or replacing damaged piles

• Making sure that piles are firmly fixed to bearers
• Add timber brace between piles and bearers or joists, between piles & corner foundations
• Adding new plasterboard lining over old sarking on interior walls
• Removing or replacing unreinforced masonry chimneys
• Making sure clay or concrete tiles are properly fixed
Removal of a building element such as an unsound chimney does not require a building consent (as
a result of changes brought in by the Building Amendment Act 2013). This exemption is limited to
any building up to 3 storeys high as long as the removal does not affect the primary structure, any
specified system or any fire separation (which includes firewalls protecting other property).
Any repair work that is necessary – for example, making good the gaps left in a roof after chimney
removal – can also be done without a consent.
Consult a chartered professional engineer over what may be possible with unreinforced masonry
walls.
016
1.6.3 Tsunami Hazard
A tsunami is a series of waves that occur as a result of the displacement of a large body of water.
It is often due to an undersea earthquake, landslide or eruption, or a large coastal landslide.
Tsunami can travel long distances across oceans before striking a coastline. New
Zealand’s location in the Pacific means that its coastline is vulnerable, particularly to
tsunami coming from South America.
A tsunami can appear as a series of waves or a quickly rising tide, and the rise in water level can be high: a
tsunami that struck in the Indian Ocean in 2004 was 9 metres high; the tsunami that struck Japan in March 2011
was 10 metres high.
In New Zealand, a tsunami from Chile in 1868 caused the sea to rise by 8 metres on some parts of the East Coast,
while another from South America in 1960 was 5.5 metres high.
Tsunami can travel inland, up waterways or across very low-lying ground. The 2011 Japanese tsunami reached
over 5 kilometres inland on some parts of the coast
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1.6.4 Flood risk
Flood risk will determine whether and how a site can be built on.
Flood risk occurs in low lying areas of land such as:
 flood plains
 by rivers and watercourses
 below a hill
 close to a valley mouth
 close to drainage channels
 natural depressions or swamps that have been drained.
If a site is prone to flooding, decisions must be made about:
 whether the site is safe to build on
 where to locate a building on the site
 the finished floor level – the council may have specific requirements under section
72 of the Building Act 2004
 landscaping and drainage.
Check council records for information such as the LIM and past flood risk. Consider the impact of flooding
on stormwater and sewer systems and erosion. There is provision under section 72 of the Building Act
2004 for the council to refuse to grant a building consent if the land is at risk of a natural hazard, such as
erosion, flooding, subsidence, or slippage, or if the building work itself is likely to accelerate the problem.
Minimising the risk
If construction of a new building goes ahead on a site prone to flooding, minimise the risk by:
 ensuring the building is located on the highest section of the site
 building away from natural drainage paths or channels
 making the finished floor level of the lowest floor well above (600 mm minimum) the maximum flood level
 installing additional land drainage for low-lying areas (there must be somewhere for water to drain to).
Note: Owners of buildings in flood-prone areas may have difficulty in obtaining insurance.
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1.6.5 Landslides, slumps and erosion
Landslides, slumps and soil erosion can undermine a building structure.
The risk is likely to be high where the site:

 has been substantially altered through earthworks or removal of vegetation
 has a river or beach frontage
 is at the top of a cliff
 is on a faultline
 is sloping and a in high rainfall area where the soil readily becomes saturated
 has had mining activity in the past
 is in a geothermally active area.
Visual signs of slipping and slumping
Visual signs of potential slipping or slumping include:

 soil cracking parallel to the top of a bank
 a hump in the soil at the base of the bank
 where power poles, trees or fence posts are on a lean
 a hollow in the centre of a flat area of ground
 an undercut bank
 a bank cut steeper than the angle of repose for the soil type – see the table below.
Angle of repose Soil type

30º Soil
33º
In some parts of the country, Sand
expansive clays may also pose a risk to the stability of the building as the
clays will shrink and swell between wet and dry parts of the year.
Gathering information
Observe the site for visual signs of past or potential landslides, slumps or erosion. Talk to neighbours who
may be able to provide information about the history of the site regarding slips or soil erosion.
The local council should have information on past landslides, slumps and soil erosion within its boundaries.
Aerial photos can give an indication of areas that may be at risk from slipping or soil erosion.
A land information memorandum (LIM) may contain information about slips and soil erosion.
Consider the potential impact of slips or slumps on stormwater and sewer systems. There is provision under
section 72 of the Building Act 2004 for the council to refuse to grant a building consent if the land is at risk
of a natural hazard, such as erosion, flooding, subsidence, or slippage, or if the building work itself is likely
to accelerate the problem.
More information : www.smarterhomes.org.nz/siting-landscaping/landforms-waterways
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1.7 Services and infrastructure
Before any design or construction work can begin, the services available on the site must be
determined.

Services to urban sites will typically include sewer and stormwater drainage, mains water supply, power, gas
and telecommunications services.

 Rural sites will generally have power and telecommunications services, but may not have a mains water
supply, gas, sewerage or stormwater services.
 Remote sites may have no economical access to any services.
On this page:
 options for services
 health effects from electromagnetic radiation
 underground network utility services
 legal site issues
Options for services
When assessing a site for building, the source of services must be determined.
Service Possible sources/options

Portable water supply Mains supply
Groundwater
A spring
A stream
Rainwater
A combination of sources if one source is unlikely to be sufficient for
the expected demand
Electricity Mains supply

On-site generation, which may be one or more of:
• wind generation
• micro hydro generation
• photo-voltaic
• fossil fuel generator
Gas Reticulated
Bottled
Sewage disposal Mains sewer – if a sewer main connection is available, the

wastewater system must be connected to it
On-site wastewater treatment system
Stormwater disposal Stormwater drainage system

On-site disposal to an existing waterway, a storage tank (rainwater)
or a soak pit
Telecommunications (telephone Landline connection
and internet) Cellphone connection
020
Health effects from electromagnetic radiation
Currently, there is no scientific agreement on the actual level of risk from electromagnetic radiation but
general advice is to avoid building within 300 m of a radiation source.
Underground network utility services
In some generally urban locations, a site may be crossed by underground services such as water, gas,
stormwater and sewer lines. These are likely to impose limitations on the design such as where the building
may be built on the site and how close the building may be to the services.
Verify actual locations and invert levels of buried services. Do not rely on local authority drawings as they
may not be accurate.
Legal site issues
Before beginning design work for a building, check the certificate of title for limitations from easements,
covenants or restrictions on the site. A right of way should be registered on the title.
Information regarding the infrastructure services and main utility service locations of a site are available on
the property information memorandum (PIM) or land information memorandum (LIM). Local authority
records such as building consent application documents and Code Compliance Certificates may provide
additional information.
Gas and power and telecommunications companies should have information about the location of
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1.8 Site conditions and ground stability
A thorough investigation and assessment of ground conditions and stability is essential to
determine whether a site is suitable for building on, where the best place may be to locate a
building and the type and size of foundations that will be required.
Inadequate bearing or ground instability may result in minor or major building failure –if in doubt, seek
advice from a structural or geotechnical engineer.
On this page:
 preliminary survey
 bearing pressure
 soil types of insufficient bearing pressure
 water table
 trial holes
Preliminary survey
Carry out a preliminary survey of the site, including consideration of:
 general landforms
 flooding
 evidence of a risk of landslide or subsidence
 soil types for load-bearing capacity
 drainage and runoff
 the water table, and presence of natural springs or waterlogged soils
 the proximity of the site or proposed building to excavations or exposed banks
 the presence of expansive clays
 previous use of the site such as buried structures, contamination, earthworks and
uncompacted fill.
Bearing pressure
The bearing pressure of soil is its ability to carry the load of the building without excessive settlement (more
than 25 mm). Bearing pressure depends on soil type. It must be assessed at the base of the foundations.
Determining good ground
Good ground is defined in NZS 3604:2011 Timber framed buildings as soil that has an ultimate bearing
pressure of 300 kPa.
022
Evidence of good ground includes where:
 foundations of adjacent buildings show no signs of settlement or inadequate bearing
 there is no evidence of landslides in the vicinity
 there is no evidence of buried services
 there is no organic soil, peat or soft clay.
A dynamic cone penetrometer or scala penetrometer test may be employed to
establish good ground.
If the ground does not meet the bearing pressure from the penetrometer test or the building is outside the
scope of NZS 3604, the ground condition must be assessed by a geotechnical or soil engineer.
Soil types of insufficient bearing pressure
Soil types that have insufficient bearing pressure include peat, sand and expansive clay.
Peat
Peat occurs in low-lying areas and consists of compressed dead vegetation that has been preserved from
decay by acidic groundwater. Although the surface of the ground can appear stable and dry, peat may be
present below the surface in a deep layer that will compress under the weight of a building.
If the presence of peat is suspected, consult a soil engineer. The extent and depth of the peat will need to
be determined by drilling bore holes. Where there is only a thin layer of peat, it may be able to be removed
to expose firmer soil below. Alternatively, a specifically designed raft foundation and floor slab may be
needed.
Sand
Sands vary in particle size and in compaction, and some types of sand have low bearing capacity. If the soil
type is sand, piles driven down to a good bearing layer may be required in conjunction with a concrete slab.
Expansive clay
Expansive clay increases significantly in volume when wet and shrinks again when dry.
When expansive clay extends a significant depth below the surface and particularly if it occurs at a depth
where the water level fluctuates, substantial uplift of the ground’s surface may occur during wet periods,
followed by subsidence during a dry periods. The amount of uplift will vary according to the clay content of
the soil but may be up to 50 mm.
Building on a clay soil will affect the ground moisture content and result in a different pattern of expansion
and contraction. Moisture content will also be reduced by large paved areas, tree planting and subsoil
drainage.
If expansive clay is present, consult a structural or geotechnical engineer
023
Fill
If the building site contains areas of fill, whether excavated and relocated on the site or imported from
another location, it must comply with NZS 4431:1989 Code of practice for earth fill for residential
development.
A Code Compliance Certificate should be obtained, but if this is not available, tests must be carried out to
determine the bearing capacity of the fill. Generally, fill is unlikely to meet the required bearing capacity so
foundations must pass through the fill down to solid bearing below.
Water table
A high water table means the water pressure in the soil is high and that the soil is likely to be
correspondingly weaker. High water pressure will also adversely affect the stability of sloping ground and
increase the loading on a wall retaining the sloping ground.
If the building site is surrounded by areas of higher ground, underground water will tend to flow to the site.
This may cause pressure beneath a concrete floor slab or increased moisture levels beneath a timber floor.
It can also cause water to be driven into timber piles. In this situation, subsoil drainage may be necessary.
Indications of a high groundwater table include:
 reeds or other wet area vegetation
 surface water or boggy ground
 springs.
A high water table is likely to mean the construction will be more difficult, and it may be
necessary to pump excavations and provide drainage to remove the water, which will generally
result in additional costs.
024
Trial holes
Information about the history of the site from documents such as a PIM or LIM may confirm
that a site has subsoil suitable for the proposed building work, but if there is doubt about
good bearing, trial holes must be dug from which to take soil samples at lower levels.
When digging trial holes, record the:

 date of excavation
 location of hole on the site
 relative level of hole if the ground is not flat
 overall dimensions and depth of hole
 excavation system used
 ease of excavation
 rainfall that occurred while the holes were being dug
 groundwater conditions and water table level (if found)
 soil descriptions and depth of each layer
 positions from which samples were taken.
If the proposed building is low rise, trial holes may be dug by a mechanical back hoe or by hand.
During digging, the sides of the excavations must be supported so the hole can be entered safely to take
samples. On completion of soil sampling, backfill the trial hole by compacting the material in 150 mm layers
so that future work in the area will not be affected.
Obtain information about ground conditions from local and regional councils, a PIM/LIM and/or a site visit.
If there any are doubts about ground stability, consult a geotechnical engineer.
In mid-2016, MBIE released Practice Advisory 17: Well-planned ground investigations can save costs. The
document points out that some poor building performance in the Canterbury earthquakes was the result of
inadequate site investigations. It describes site investigation aims and strategy, and points out how an
appropriate strategy can actually save money overall
025
1.9 Culture and heritage
Heritage protection is required to preserve the culture, heritage and local character of the
country for future generations. Heritage buildings must be maintained and adapted for
changing needs such as providing access for people with disabilities or protection from
earthquake or fire.
The design and location of the building should also respect the identity of the locality, the scale, the
historical context of the area and maintain landscape character.
On this page:
 legislation
 local requirements
 wahi tapu/sacred sites.
Legislation
Local authorities are required to contribute to heritage protection under legislation including:
 the Resource Management Act
 the Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act
 the Building Act
 the Local Government Act.
Management strategies for heritage protection are included in strategic directions, policy
statements and district plans. Partnerships are sometimes formed between different groups for the
preservation of specific sites.
Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act
If a project involves any modification to a building or landscape that was “associated with human activity”
before 1900, this law requires that authority to do the work must be obtained from Heritage New Zealand.
In a nutshell, this applies to:
 any demolition, removal or major renovation work (including repiling) on a building built before 1900
 earthworks (including digging trenches for services, or constructing building platforms, driveways or paths)
on land occupied before 1900
Working on a pre-1900 site may mean having to take extra care around certain features, or co-ordinating
work with an archaeologist.
There is more information on the Heritage New Zealand website.
026
Local requirements
Local and regional councils usually have sections on their websites outlining their own rules to preserve local
character and protect heritage buildings.
Specific local requirements may include:
 preservation of historically significant landscape features or archaeological sites
 building height and position restrictions (especially on ridge lines or prominent sites)
 preservation of existing natural features (such as native vegetation, significant trees)
 demolition restrictions (for example, a new building will be subject to current district plan requirements,
particularly for setbacks, while a renovated building can be restored utilising the existing setbacks)
 material use (see also district plan and covenants)
 specific locality requirements (for example, the special zones contained within the Queenstown Lakes District
Plan)
 colour and glare restrictions (check the district plan).
Some paint companies have special ranges of heritage paint colours for older New Zealand houses.
Wahi tapu/sacred sites
New Zealand has been settled for around 800 years, and there are many heritage places that have local or
special significance to Maori. Heritage places include physical or tangible places such as archaeological sites,
and natural and intangible places that are associated with traditional activities or significant events but may
have no evidence of human activity.
Heritage places may not be identified on a LIM report, even though they may be known to local people.
If a site is suspected to be a heritage place or have archaeological interest, contact:
 the Heritage New Zealand
 local iwi
 the local council.
A site that is identified as having historical significance may have a heritage covenant attached to the
land title. This will impose conditions and restrictions on the land use and development
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Site: 1.10 Site Analysis checklist
DOCUMENTATION
Local authority
District plan Zoning
Restrictions on building and land use
Solar access
Site coverage
Front/side/rear yards
Protected trees
Land information memorandum (LIM) Protected buildings and trees
Historic buildings
Special characteristics of a site (erosion, flooding)
Existing buildings
Planning information
Drainage information
Zoning
Project information memorandum (PIM) Similar to a LIM but site-specific
Protection of buildings under the Heritage New Zealand

Pouhere Taonga Act
Local services (water, wastewater)
Land details (ground stability, flooding)
Non-compliance issues
Resource/building consent/Code Compliance Certificate (CCC) Past consent applications
Past CCC
Aerial photographs/contour maps of site and surroundings Buildings
Vegetation
Roadways
Services
Contours
Other documentation Development that may be permitted
Services (including water, sewerage and stormwater

mains crossing the property)
Roading
1
Legal information
Certificate of Title (Land Information NZ) Legal description of the property
Caveats
Easements
Deposited plan Property boundaries
Covenants (generally part of the sale and purchase agreement) Restrictions of development
Other information (may need to be purchased)
Hazard report (Property Insight) Known/potential site hazards
Climate data (NIWA) Climate data
Sun bearings (Land Information NZ) Sun-bearing data
Aerial photographs and geographic information (local authority, Buildings

Google Earth, Terralink) of site and surroundings
Vegetation
Roadways
Services
Contours
Property inspection/site survey/soil investigation reports Boundary locations
Soil-bearing capacity
Location of underground services
Other site features
Site investigation of ground conditions (using NZBC B1 Structure

Soil-bearing capacity
B1/VM4 and Appendix A)
2
SITE VISITS
What to take Equipment
Sketch book
Compass
Camera
Tape measure
Dumpy and staff
Scala penetrometer
Stepladder
Shovel
What to look for Views
Landforms:
Slopes
Stability features (excavations, fill, banks or cliffs)
Adjacent properties:
Use
What is built (height, scale and style)
Impact of the proposed building on neighbours
Sources of potential noise
Causes of areas of shade
Wind:
Strength
Directions
Site-specific exposure (cold wind direction and the

direction most of the rain comes from)
Ground conditions:
Soil types
Evidence of drainage paths and watercourses
Evidence of flooding, groundwater, poor soil stability
Potential building locations
Location of boundary pegs
3
Location of council and utility services:
Manholes
Water
Sewage
Stormwater
Power
Telephone
Site access:
Suitable location
Existing vehicle crossing
Health considerations – cellphone towers, high tension

power lines/substations within 300 m of site?
Who to talk to Neighbours:
Weather
Past major events
Local events
Development proposals
Client:
Weather
Other conditions they are familiar with/have experienced
Presentation of information
Sketches. Views
Computer generated model using 3D software such as Google
Sketchup Pro, ArchiCAD or Autodesk Revit. Wind
Physical 3D model. Rain directions
Features (trees, banks)
North point
Sun angles
4
2.0 Site Use
The positioning of a house on a site is a crucial part of the preliminary design of the building
project.
Good location is a matter of balancing all aspects of a site, prioritising requirements and considering how
both site and building will impact on each other (for example, orientation for sun may conflict with views, or
the easiest building platform may occupy the best outdoor living or garden spaces).
Good building location can enhance the sustainability, energy efficiency and passive design features of a
home, resulting in cost savings and greater comfort for the inhabitants.
District Plans set out permitted land uses and uses requiring consent under the Resource Management Act.
Preliminary design should include consideration of the District Plan requirements that apply to the site.
Early and comprehensive site planning, including driveway access, garaging, location of outdoor living areas,
garden and utility areas, and fencing will ensure that the site is utilised to full advantage.
2.1 Resource Management Act (RMA)
The Resource Management Act (RMA) provides a framework for regional, city/district and unitary
councils to manage the land and environment under their jurisdiction.
Councils are required to produce Regional or District Plans for the management of air, water, land and sea
and define the activities that may or may not be carried out as of right.
Under the Act, activities that are considered to adversely affect the environment, and therefore may not be
carried out as of right, require resource consent. There are five different types of resource consent that are
issued by different consent authorities:
Type of consent Consenting authority responsible

Land use consent Regional, city or district council
Subdivision consent City or district council
Coastal permit Regional council
Water permit Regional council
Discharge permit Regional council
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Changes to the RMA planned
A bill that aims to make planning processes faster, more flexible, more cost-effective and more consistent
across the country was introduced into parliament in November 2015.
Significant changes contained in the Resource Legislation Amendment Bill include:
 a requirement for councils to follow national planning templates to improve consistency across the country
 a requirement for councils to have fixed fees for standard consents so that homeowners have certainty over
costs
 three ‘tracks’ to help streamline the planning process
 a new 10-day fast-track consent for simple issues
 giving councils discretion to waive the need for a consent where matters were minor
 narrowing the parties that must be consulted to those directly affected
 stronger national direction on requiring consents in certain areas
 consents would no longer be required for activities that are already properly regulated by other Acts.
National Environmental Standards
Under the RMA, the Minister for the Environment can prepare national environmental standards (NES).
These standards are set so everyone in New Zealand has clear air to breathe, clean water to drink, and
clean land to live on. The standards are regulations and every regional, city or district council must give
effect to them. Failing to comply with an NES may result in the council taking enforcement action against
the person or body responsible (such as a landowner or developer).
Local authorities cannot grant resource consents that would breach the standards and cannot impose stricter
requirements through rules or resource consents unless the NES says they may. New standards do not
affect existing resource consents or existing use rights.
There are currently five NESs in force as regulations:
 Air quality
 Sources of human drinking water
 Telecommunications facilities
 Electricity transmission
 Assessing and managing contaminants in soil to protect human health.
The air quality NES (in relation to wood burners) and the soil contaminants NES (in relation to subdividing
or changing land use) may be relevant to resource consents for building projects
029
2.2 District Plan requirements
Each city or district council in New Zealand has its own regulations set out in a District Plan. These
deal with issues of land use and subdivision, and all site usage and development must comply with
them.
Issues covered include aspects of design and construction such as the height, location and site coverage of
buildings, and the emission of noise, glare or odours from activities carried out on the site.
On this page:
 District Plan activities
 applying for resource consent
District Plan activities

Each city or district is divided into zones, for example, inner residential, outer residential, commercial,
suburban and industrial. Within each zone, activities are defined according to their actual or potential
adverse effects on the environment. Classifications of activities are:
 permitted
 controlled
 discretionary – restricted
 discretionary – unrestricted
 non-complying.
The type of activity determines the requirement to obtain resource consent within each zone.
Activity Definition Resource

consent
required?
Permitted Activity may be undertaken as of right and will not require a No

resource consent.
Controlled A consent will be granted, but conditions relating specifically to Yes
the controlled activities for the zone may be imposed.
Discretionary A consent may be granted and, if so, may have conditions Yes
(restricted) imposed relating to specific issue(s) defined in the District Plan.
Discretionary A consent may be granted and, if so, may have conditions Yes
(unrestricted) imposed on the consent.
Non-complying A consent may be granted but only if the council is satisfied that Yes
the consent will be consistent with the policies and objectives of
the District Plan, and conditions may be imposed.
For permitted activities, the District Plan sets out the rules such as:
 distances from boundaries
 overall height and form requirements for buildings
 sunlight access or height recession planes
 site coverage.
Height restrictions generally exclude antennas, aerials, chimneys, a portion of a gable and architectural
features such as finials.
030
Gable ends may usually penetrate the height recession plane
by 1/3 of the gable end height.
If the proposed design meets all the permitted activity criteria for
a zone, resource consent is not required. However, limiting design
options to the permitted activities may compromise a building
design.
Height restrictions on gable ends
Applying for resource consent
If the proposed design comes under the criteria of a controlled, discretionary (restricted or unrestricted) or
non-complying activity, resource consent is required.
Before making an application, consult neighbours to obtain agreement in principle for the proposal.
 If neighbours are in agreement, make an application.
 If neighbours’ agreement is not forthcoming, either:
o consider revising the design, or
o lodge a resource consent application regardless –
consent may still be granted without neighbours’
agreement.
Agreement in principle from all neighbours does not guarantee resource consent will be granted, and
a resource consent application must still be made for controlled, discretionary and non-complying
activities.
For more information, see the Ministry for the Environment's resource management publications.
031
2.3 Positioning a house on the site
A house’s location on the site will influence many aspects of passive design.
In practice, on most sites the house should be positioned to maximise solar access for warmth and
daylighting. Other considerations include access to views and cooling breezes, and minimising harmful
impacts on site biodiversity.
Location for solar access
To maximise solar access for warmth and daylighting, the house should in general be located to minimise
shade – particularly in the north – from landforms, neighbouring buildings, and vegetation. In most cases,
locating a building near the site’s southern boundary will reduce the risk of shading.
Also see location, orientation and layout for information about orientation for solar gain, and site analysis:
sun for information about sun paths.
Other factors
Site use will also be influenced by prevailing wind and local climate effects, site topography,
views, noise and the locations of vegetation, neighbouring buildings, and services.
Site use will also be influenced by hazards such as the risks of flooding, slips and erosion.
2.3.1 Wind effect/microclimate

As well as being affected by the local climate, many sites have their own microclimate. The
site-specific microclimate – in particular, wind – should be considered when determining the
location for the house.
Microclimate effects to consider include:
 ridges and valleys funnelling wind
 wind strength will be greater at or near a ridge
 there will be more wind close to a large expanse of open area such as a park or beach
 the building height will have an effect on wind speed.
032
Design considerations to minimise wind effects on site
On some sites, the best location for sun or spectacular views may also be the windiest location. When
designing for a windy site:
 consider the direction of the prevailing, strongest or coldest wind – for example, in Wellington the wind
comes from the north or north-west 61% of the time (the prevailing wind) and from the south
approximately 28% of the time (a colder wind), while easterly winds are uncommon
 provide shelter for outdoor living areas with fences, screens or using the building to create an enclosed
courtyard
 position the rooms (such as living room and bedrooms) where wind noise would be least desirable on the lee
side of the prevailing wind direction where possible
 position frequently used doors and opening windows away from the prevailing wind direction so that they
can be left open even in very windy conditions.
See the section on passive design (location, orientation and layout) for ideas on working with sloping sites.
Designing for ventilation while moderating the effect of high winds
The effect of doors on opposite sides of a building, room or hallway should

be considered. If they are both open at the same time, depending on
prevailing wind directions, this may lead to doors slamming shut or items
being blown around. If external doors are located on sheltered sides of the
house, this is less likely to occur.
033
2.3.2 Topography
If a site is flat, the topography may not influence the location and layout of the building,
but on a sloping site, the topography is likely to be a significant design factor.
The slope of a site and/or the slope of adjacent sites may affect access to sun and views. For example, an
east-facing hillside will have reduced afternoon and evening sunlight, particularly in winter, and depending
on the height and steepness, a south-facing site may receive little or no sun during the winter months.
The location and layout of the building should be designed to minimise:
 the need for excavation or fill – as well as increasing costs, large-scale earthworks increase the risk of
erosion by altering soil stability and water run-off patterns, increase sediment run-off during construction
and significantly affect natural biodiversity by removing soils and plants
 the building’s footprint by using low-impact foundation systems such as pole frame construction to reduce
the amount of site work and disruption
 the visual impact of the building form on the landscape.
Also see site analysis for information about sun paths and assessing site conditions and ground stability.
2.3.3 Adjacent buildings

Existing buildings on adjacent sites may influence the location of a building.
Design considerations include avoiding:

 shading from neighbouring buildings
 causing unreasonable shading to neighbouring buildings
 loss of privacy for occupants or neighbours.
Regardless of whether an adjacent site is vacant, District Plans restrict proximity to boundaries and
have sun access or height recession planes that protect adjacent properties against unreasonable
shading, loss of sunlight and loss of privacy.
Mitigate any possible adverse effects in the future:
 Consider what may be built on an adjacent site.
 Locate the building as far from the adjoining boundary as possible.
 Locate the building on an elevated part of the site to ensure views or sunlight are maintained.
 Allow for factors such as trees growing larger on adjacent sites.
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2.3.4 Views
Views enhance the enjoyment of a house and add value to the property. They may be
panoramic, presented as a framed view (that is, a strategically placed window or opening in
a wall) or create a view shaft between hills or trees.
To take advantage of views, a house may need:
 to be located higher on the site
 to have an additional storey or part storey to allow a view that is otherwise out of sight
 to be compromised for solar gain or minimising wind effect.
Careful placement and sizing of windows can maximise the visual effect of
a view while maintaining thermal performance and sunlight entry.
Window framing the view
See the section on passive design (location, orientation and layout) for more information about
maximising views.
035
2.3.5 Existing vegetation
Existing trees and plants on a site should be assessed for their value to the site including
to provide shade, wind shelter, soil stability and a habitat for birds.
They also provide aesthetic value and, if removed, take many years to replace.
If possible, design and locate the building to accommodate established trees and plants that are not easily
transplanted. Design considerations include:
 the degree of shading – the shade provided may be desirable in the summer but less so in the winter;
however, for deciduous trees, winter shade is unlikely to be a problem
 the age and condition of trees – some may require removal to avoid the risk of damage to the completed
building or they may present a risk of damage to foundations from root systems
 the impact of the building’s proximity to an existing tree – a building too close to a tree may affect its long-
term viability
 the possibility of incorporating a tree or shrub into the building design, for example, designing a house or a
deck around it
 trees that are protected under the District Plan or site-specific documents such as an open space covenant
and must be retained.
Specifying protection
 Specify protection measures for protected trees or other critical features.
 Allow space for delivery of materials, service vehicles (for example, concrete pumps), and waste materials
storage during construction to minimise the effect on the existing landform, plants and trees.
 Retain existing vegetation to reduce the risk of soil erosion, slips and sediment run-off from the site.
 Where removal of topsoil and planting is necessary, specify limiting the amount of topsoil stripping to the
building area, careful removal, storage and reinstatement when building work is complete.
Also see site analysis for information about assessing vegetation.
036
2.3.6 Location of services
The location of and connection to services is not usually a major influence on the location of
a building as services are generally laid to a site boundary.
However, where live council services cross a site, the building footprint will need to be kept clear of them or
be designed according to specific council requirements. Obtain information from the local council regarding:
 the specific construction requirements
 easements for access to services.
Redundant piped services within the footprint of the building area must be located and removed.
Water storage
If water storage is required, the location of the tank must be considered at the preliminary design stage. It
should be located where it will:
 not be visually intrusive
 be accessible for maintenance
 be on a sand base over solid ground (a full 5,500 litre tank weighs approximately 25 tonnes).
If the tank is below ground, it must be specifically designed to be able to withstand the load from the
backfilled soil. (Note that rotationally moulded polyethylene tanks are not designed for below ground
use).
037
2.4 Locating outdoor site features
In particular, consider the location of outdoor living areas, vehicle access and driveways, and
garages and parking areas.
2.4.1 Indoor/outdoor flow

Indoor/outdoor flow and outdoor living spaces such as decks, terraces and barbecue
areas are an important part of modern lifestyles.
When designing for outdoor living spaces, aspects that should be considered include:
 sun and shade
 wind and shelter
 views
 privacy
 security for children and/or pets.
Sun and shade
Outdoor areas require shade in the summer months and sun in the winter months. They should generally be
north or west-facing. Shade against midday sun can be provided by verandahs, pergolas, retractable and
fixed awnings, shadesails and adjustable louvres.
An east-facing deck or patio provides a sunny breakfast/morning outdoor area and will provide shade later
in the day.
Wind and shelter
Shelter from the wind may be achieved by locating an outdoor area on the lee side of the building. As wind
does not always come from a single direction, creating a number of outdoor spaces will provide shelter
under different wind conditions.
Use planting (either planned or existing trees and shrubs) in conjunction with fencing or screens to provide
shelter from wind.
Views
The direction of the view may be in conflict with sun for an outdoor living space. In this case, design two or
more outdoor areas to take advantage of both view and sun.
038
Privacy
Outdoor areas should provide privacy from the public or adjacent sites while maintaining good exposure to
sun. North-facing sites can present a problem if the sunniest outdoor area is located between the house and
the street. A long back yard where sunlight reaches the rear of the site, or a building layout with a
projecting living area to catch the sun, may provide effective solutions. Alternatively, incorporate screening
that is high enough to provide privacy but minimise loss of sun.
Security for children and/or pets
There should ideally be an outdoor space where children can safely play that is away from the street front
and is visible from inside the house. Dog owners will also need an easily accessible outdoor space for their
animal(s) that can be securely fenced.
entry
Locating outdoor living areas
street
single storey to
allow sun to yard
North
afternoon sun
morning sun to bedrooms
living garage
kitchen
and utilities
bedrooms
family
outdoor living
bedrooms
Outdoor living areas should be located for sun, privacy and views, and to avoid wind.
039
2.4.2 Garages and driveways
Garages, driveways and off-street parking should be located to maximise safety and
convenience and minimise the visual and physical impacts on the site.
On this page:
 Planning requirements
 Safety and site impacts.
Planning requirements
Most District Plans require the provision of some off-street parking for vehicles, regardless of
zoning. Each district has rules regarding the number of driveways, width of access at street
frontage, distance from intersections and maximum permissible gradients. Check off-street parking
requirements at the preliminary design stage of a building project.
If a garage is located on the street frontage, it may require resource consent. This may include a
requirement for landscaping along the road front boundary to minimise the impact on the
streetscape. Whether or not resource consent is required, planting should be used to screen and
soften the visual impact of the garage.
Safety and site impacts
Garages and driveways can have considerable site impacts. A garage too close to the street
boundary can dominate the streetscape.
But locating a garage near the rear of the section will require a longer driveway, which has various
impacts including:
 removal of vegetation
 increased stormwater runoff
 increased risk to safety.
A garage may be set back approximately 6 m from the street boundary so that its visual
impact from the street is reduced and additional space for car parking is provided in front of
the garage.
Garages may be attached to the house or constructed separately. If attached to the house, internal or
undercover access can also be provided.
Access to the site will be determined by the garage or car parking location and the shape and topography of
the site.
040
Generally, driveways should:
 have a single vehicle access point to minimise the impact on the site
 be kept as short as possible to minimise the impact on the site or planting – this may not be
possible on steep sites where the shape and location of the driveway may be determined by the
maximum permitted gradient
 be located away from bedrooms and living areas to minimise noise
 be away from and if possible fenced off from outdoor living and play areas.
Where pedestrian and vehicle access is shared, provide safe pedestrian access by clearly
defining a footpath and using a kerb to clarify the separation if possible.
041
3.0 Passive Design
Passive design is the key to sustainable building.
It responds to local climate and site conditions to maximise building users’ comfort and health while
minimising energy use.
It achieves this by using free, renewable sources of energy such as sun and wind to provide household
heating, cooling, ventilation and lighting, thereby reducing or removing the need for mechanical heating or
cooling. Using passive design can reduce temperature fluctuations, improve indoor air quality and make a
home drier and more enjoyable to live in.
It can also reduce energy use and environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions.
Interest in passive design has grown, particularly in the last decade or so, as part of a movement towards
more comfortable and resource-efficient buildings.
Key features of passive design
The key elements of passive design are: building location and orientation on the site; building layout;
window design; insulation (including window insulation); thermal mass; shading; and ventilation. Each of
these elements works with others to achieve comfortable temperatures and good indoor air quality.
The first step is to achieve the right amount of solar access – enough to provide warmth during cooler
months but prevent overheating in summer. This is done through a combination of location and orientation,
room layout, window design and shading.
Insulation and thermal mass help to maintain even temperatures, while ventilation provides passive cooling
as well as improving indoor air quality.
All of these elements work alongside each other and therefore should be considered holistically. For
example, large windows that admit high levels of natural light might also result in excessive heat gain,
especially if they cast light on an area of thermal mass. Similarly, opening windows that provide ventilation
will also let in noise.
Alongside passive design features, designers should also consider other factors such as views, covenants
and local authority restrictions, and building owners’ preferences.
042
Passive design in new and existing buildings
It costs little or nothing to incorporate passive design into a new building. The benefits are greatest when
passive design principles are incorporated into the entire design and build process, from site selection
onwards. Simulation tools can provide crucial help in assessing the impact of different design decisions and
maximising the benefits of passive design.
Once a building is completed, some passive design features can be incorporated during later upgrades – for
example, insulation can be improved, and it may be possible to alter room layout to improve orientation and
solar access.
But it may be difficult to achieve the full benefits. For example, it will not be practical to turn a completed
house around on the site to take better advantage of sun or cooling breezes.
043
3.1 Controlling temperature with passive design: an introduction
Passive design uses solar access and other features such as insulation to maintain
comfortable temperatures.
On this page:
 Regional climates
 Passive heating
 Passive cooling
 Passive design troubleshooting.
Solar access is fundamental to passive design. It involves letting sun in during cooler months to
provide warmth, while keeping summer sun out to prevent overheating. This is achieved through
orientation and location on the site, room layout, window placement/sizing, and shading.
Solar access works with other passive design features such as insulation, thermal mass and ventilation
to maintain reasonably stable temperatures.
Though this page deals with heating and cooling separately in order to explain the key principles, in
reality of course they must be considered together. The specific features appropriate for any particular
building will depend on local conditions such as siting and climate, as well as other factors such as client
Temperature control should also be considered alongside other factors such as noise control and daylighting.
In order to successfully use passive design, modelling should be done to verify the year-round thermal
performance and comfort levels. Including elements of passive design without modelling will not guarantee
good performance.
Regional climates
In most parts of New Zealand, the main focus of passive design should be to provide heating during cooler
months. Where passive design focuses principally on heating, space heating costs can be very low, and the
provision of good natural ventilation and shading will ensure that summer overheating can be avoided.
Some regions, however, experience cold winters and hot summers. This includes the North Island Central
Plateau, Taupo and Rotorua regions, Wairarapa, Marlborough, Nelson, Canterbury and Central Otago. In
these regions, design should accommodate both cooling in the summer and heating in the winter.
Warmer areas such as the Far North, Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Coromandel and the East Coast still require
some heating during winter, but are also likely to require good passive cooling and natural ventilation to
minimise or eliminate the need for active cooling in summer.
044
Passive heating
To make maximum advantage of the sun’s energy for heating:
 maximise the area available for north-facing windows – for example by using a fairly shallow floor plan
with an east-west orientation
 use large (usually floor to ceiling) north-facing windows to maximise solar access
 have the solar energy from the north-facing windows land on thermal mass (such as a dark-coloured hard
flooring) to absorb and store solar energy before releasing it as temperatures drop
 use minimal south-facing glazing (to reduce heat loss)
 design east- and west-facing glazing carefully to reduce heat loss in winter as well as reducing glare in
summer
 use insulating glass units to minimise heat loss through windows
 use high levels of insulation to retain heat.
 minimise unwanted air infiltration and draughts by including airlocks at entry points and ensuring that doors
and windows are well sealed.
Each of these elements is explored in more detail in the pages on location,orientation and
layout, insulation, thermal mass.
Features of passive design for heating
Passive heating captures, stores and uses the sun’s energy to provide heating, through a
combination of solar access, insulation and thermal mass. Shade and ventilation are used to prevent
overheating.
045
Passive cooling
Where overheating may be a problem, passive cooling and ventilation features will be
required. The key elements of passive cooling are:
minimising solar gain when it is not wanted (through window design and shading)
taking advantage of natural ventilation flow to provide cooling
using insulation to prevent heat gain
using thermal mass to absorb day-time heat, keeping the building cool (at night, ventilation
can be used to remove any unwanted heat).
To prevent unwanted solar gain:
place windows to minimise unwanted midday and afternoon solar gain – in particular,
reduce the size of west-facing windows to avoid late-afternoon overheating and glare
use eaves or external shading such as sun screens or deciduous trees to control prevent
solar gain during warmer periods (such as summer afternoons)
To provide natural ventilation:
use building orientation – turn the building to maximise the efficiency of natural ventilation
openings
provide openings on opposite sides of the building to facilitate through-flow of breezes
use an open floor plan to facilitate through-flow of breezes (but check for the impact this
may have on winter heating requirements)
rising warm air is

ventilated and creates
high level of air movement
insulation clerestory window shaded
minimise heat with moveable or adjustable
transfer to the louvres to prevent heat gain
inside
good house well

ventilation
internal walls with positioned for
shaded windows high thermal mass prevailing
keep heat gain low absorb heat during breeze
the day
planting
reduces
radiated heat
floor with high thermal mass open breezeway

absorbs heat during the day and helps to remove heat
helps to even out temperature and makes occupants
changes feel cooler
Features of passive design for cooling
Insulation, thermal mass and shading reduce heat gain, and ventilation provides
temperature moderation to reduce interior heat build-up.
046
Passive design troubleshooting
windows are heat loss heat loss due to warm

shaded from the through the roof air being drawn up the
sun in winter due to chimney
inadequate
insulation
draughts caused by
gaps around gaps around doors
doors and and windows
windows
inadequate
insulation in the
walls
floor
trees shade the exposed to
house from the the outside
sun in winter all lightweight inadequate insulation in air
construction with low the floor
thermal mass does not
help to even out
extremes of Reasons why some houses get too cold
temperature changes
Lack of sun, poor solar orientation of living spaces, inadequate insulation, heat loss through air leakage, and lack of,
or poorly placed thermal mass can each contribute or combine to make homes too cold in winter.
heat gain through

unshaded roof, lights
or clerestory windows
heat builds
up in roof
heat gain structure
through
windows not
shaded for
summer sun heat is reradiated no through
heat refl ected through breezeway
from paving inadequate
uninsulated roof ventilation
all lightweight construction with low

thermal mass does not help to even Reasons why some houses get too hot
out extremes of temperature change
Lack of shade, poor ventilation, lack of insulation (which would reduce radiated heat gain through the roof), low
thermal mass, and reflected heat gain from nearby surfaces all combine to make a home too hot in summer.
047
3.2 Thermal simulation
Simulation software measures the impacts of design decisions on the thermal performance
a house.
On this page:
 Why simulation?
 AccurateNZ
 Sunrel
 IES-VE
 Sefaira
 BRANZ ALF
Simulation is the best tool available to try and understand what it would be like to live in
a building that hasn't yet been built. Designing a house from scratch usually involves
making compromises. Simulation tools can examine how different design decisions and
compromises will interact to affect the results. Simulation helps designers understand
how things work and provides information to make informed decisions.
The more sophisticated modelling programs provide hourly temperature data, which lets designers
closely examine the passive performance of a house on a much more detailed level than just annual
energy use. They also potentially show measurements that are more real to people's experiences, such
as how cold it will get on a winter morning when a house’s occupants will be getting out of bed.
Why simulation?
Simulation has benefits in many areas:
 Complexity – these programmes give the ability to handle more complicated designs, and examine their
details more closely.
 Understanding – every design is different. Interactions between multiple factors can be difficult to predict,
and the only real way to understand and account for their effects is to simulate the physics of the
interactions.
 Design for thermal experience – hour-by-hour simulation enables a designer to consider what it might be
like to live in the house, and ask more sophisticated questions. What are the differences between rooms?
Some might be hot and some might be cold. How hot or cold might they get? Mere measures of the annual
building energy use obscure these issues, which may be quite important, especially for a passive house.
 Advanced technology – for those who want to use more sophisticated passive design elements and
technology, such as Trombe walls, the only way to adequately account for their effects is to use a simulation
package that supports them.
Here are brief introductions to a few of the simulation options available to New Zealand designers of
residential buildings. The expected modelling time (in hours) for a house of low complexity is provided to
048 allow comparison.

AccuRateNZ
AccuRate was developed by CSIRO (Australia’s national science agency). AccurateNZ is the New Zealand
version of the software. Batch processing, where multiple variables are looked at simultaneously, is possible
using a free companion program called AccuBatch. AccuRateNZ is fairly user-friendly and only needs a
modest one-off license to operate. However, the NZ version has not been updated for several years. It is a
very robust calculation engine. [3.5 hours].
SUNREL
SUNREL software was developed by NREL (a national laboratory of the US Department of Energy). It is quite
flexible in the passive technologies it can model and includes algorithms for Trombe walls and
programmable window shading. It is free to use but requires skill to use as the user interface is primitive. It
is a very robust engine. [4 hours]
IES-VE
IES-VE for architects is produced by Integrated Environmental Solutions, a Scottish-based company that
specializes in software programmes for designers and engineers. It has an easy-to-use interface but
requires some learning. It is interoperable with many graphics-based interfaces, such as Sketchup, Revit
and VectorWorks. It is comparatively costly. There are several packages to suit varied users. It is a robust
engine. [3 hours]
SEFAIRA
Sefaira is a London-based company that specializes in software programmes for building designers. It was
one of the first simulation companies to make use of cloud computing, rather than having a stand-alone
program that users access. It is a very robust engine, the interface is very easy to use and there are useful
and comprehensive results built in. It is highly interoperable with design packages. Sefaira is especially good
for comparing options and optimization. It is comparatively costly. [2.5 hours]
BRANZ ALF
BRANZ ALF (Annual Loss Factor) is a software programme that determines the Building Performance Index
(BPI) that can be used to show compliance with NZBC clause H1 Energy Efficiency. The designer enters
information such as orientation, plan area, wall area, window area, construction types and insulation levels,
and the programme calculates the BPI.
ALF does not provide the hourly temperature data of more sophisticated software, nor does it consider
summertime performance (i.e. cooling requirements). For Northland and Auckland the other tools listed
above may give better results than ALF, particularly where significant thermal mass effects are being
examined. It is a fairly robust engine and extremely easy to use. It is free from the toolbox on the BRANZ
website. [1 hour]
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3.3 Location, orientation and layout
Layout and orientation must be considered from the beginning of the design process.
On this page:
 Orientation for passive heating and cooling
 Choosing a site
 Building location
 Layout
 Overcoming obstacles
Orientation, layout and location on site will all influence the amount of sun a building
receives and therefore its year-round temperatures and comfort.
Other considerations include access to views and cooling breezes. Orientation and layout will also be
influenced by topography, wind speed and direction, the site’s relationship with the street, the location of
shade elements such as trees and neighbouring buildings, and vehicle access and parking.
Orientation for passive heating and cooling
For maximum solar gain, a building will be located, oriented and designed to maximise window area facing
north (or within 20 degrees of north) – for example, a shallow east-west floor plan. However, this will
depend on the site’s shape, orientation and topography. For example, an east-west floor plan will not be
possible on a narrow north-south site.
Orientation for solar gain will also depend on other factors such as proximity to neighbouring buildings and
trees that shade the site.
For solar gain, as well as considering location, orientation and window size and placement, it is also
important to consider the thermal performance and solar heat gain efficiency of the glazing unit itself
(see glazing and glazing units for more information).
While solar gain for passive heating is important, other considerations include noise,daylighting, protection
from prevailing winds, access to breezes for ventilation, shade to prevent summer overheating and glare,
views, privacy, access, indoor/outdoor flow, owners’ preferences, and covenants and planning restrictions.
Where passive cooling is more of a priority than passive heating, the building should be oriented to take
advantage of prevailing breezes.
Orientation, location and layout should be considered from the beginning of the design process – ideally,
from the time the site is being selected. Once a building has been completed, it is impractical and expensive
to reorient later.
050
If optimal orientation can be achieved, it will reduce some of the heating requirement, reduce energy costs
and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Effective solar orientation requires a good understanding of sun paths at the site at different times of the
year.
trajectory of
summer sun
t
es
W
avoid large windows on
no sun west face
zone
trajectory of
winter sun
South
North
shade to modify
midsummer sun
st
Ea
windows on east face receive

morning sun
Orientation of house for the sun
With good orientation and suitable shading, summer sun is excluded but winter sun is allowed in to
keep the house warm.
051
Choosing a site
Selecting a site is the first and perhaps most important step in the passive design process. If a site is not
suitable for passive design, some elements of the passive design ethos may not work in favour of efficiency
and comfort.
The most important factor is the amount of sun the site receives, as a site that receives little or no sunlight
cannot be used for passive solar design.
A flat site will generally have good sunlight access anywhere in New Zealand, but a south-facing slope or a
site adjacent to a tall building or substantial planting on the northern side, will not receive good solar
access.
An ideal site for passive solar design will:
 be flat or north-sloping
 be free of obstructions to the north (and be unlikely to be built out in future)
 be able to accommodate a building with a relatively large north-facing wall
or walls for maximum solar gain (as well as north-facing outdoor areas if
those are wanted).
A site with north-south alignment is likely to receive midday sun and with minimal overshadowing,
but may have limited morning or evening sun. A site with east-west alignment is more likely to be
overshadowed to the north.
Be wary of covenants that may prevent good orientation, shading to the north from trees or buildings,
south-facing slopes or views.
Building location
For maximum solar gain, a building should in general be located near the site’s southern boundary. In most
cases, this is likely to reduce the risk of shading from neighbouring properties, and also provide sunny
outdoor space.
However, the best location for solar access will vary from site to site depending on site shape, orientation
and topography; and shading from trees and neighbouring buildings (or future buildings).
As noted above, other factors such as views, wind, topography, and the location of trees and neighbouring
buildings will also influence a building’s location on the site.
In areas where cooling is more of a priority than heating, factors such as access to breezes might be more
important than solar access.
052
Layout
Rooms and outdoor spaces should be located to maximise comfort during use. In general, this means living
areas and outdoor spaces facing north, and service areas such as garages, laundries and bathrooms to the
south. See Room layout for more detail on suitable uses for north, south, west and east-facing spaces.
The shape of a concrete slab also has an impact on how much heat is lost from a house and how
comfortable it is to live in, as the diagram below shows. A square-ish slab has the highest R-value, while
longer and very irregular-shaped slabs lose more heat.
R1.8 R1.65 R1.5
200 m2 200 m2 200 m2
Effect of concrete slab shape on R-value
Overcoming obstacles
It is often not possible to obtain the ideal building orientation on a site (particularly in urban areas) and
compromise will be necessary – for example, where the view is to the south, the site has a south-facing
slope, there is a source of noise on the north side, or the view and sun face into strong prevailing winds.
Designing to avoid shaded areas of the site
area of shade from

trees on hill
house built into hillside
Shade from trees and landforms can be avoided by building higher on a site
or by using skylights or clerestory windows. Taller buildings will increase the
amount of shaded area on a site. 053
Designing to avoid shaded areas of the site
house built higher on the

clerestory windows
hill gets more light (but in
this case also creates more
shadow behind it)
Shade from trees and landforms can be avoided by building higher on a site
or by using skylights or clerestory windows. Taller buildings will increase the
amount of shaded area on a site.
keep building profile low

and follow the slope of
the site
view design to
obtain some
deflect winter sun
prevailing
wind by
planting
Design factors for a south-sloping site
Clerestory windows can be used to provide solar gain on a south-facing site.
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sunlight
sound
attenuated
roof and wall
light
sound stopping
barrier
source of high
noise
zone for rooms zone for rooms zone for outdoor
not sensitive sensitive to noise living
to noise
Design factors for a site with loud noise source on the north side
Where there is noise on the north side, careful design is required to minimise the disturbance
caused by the noise while still allowing sun into the house.
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3.3.1 Room layout
Orient rooms to take advantage of the sun when it’s wanted, but avoid overheating and glare.
On this page:
 North-facing rooms
 East-facing rooms
 West-facing rooms
 South-facing rooms
 Air locks
In location, orientation and layout, we explained how building orientation can be used for
passive heating and cooling. We also explained that rooms should be located to take best
advantage of the sun – for example, by having living areas face north where they will
receive all-day sun and service areas face south where they will receive little sun. This
page provides more detail on ideal solar orientation for different types of room.
As discussed in location, orientation and layout, solar orientation will have to be considered alongside other
factors such as noise, views, privacy, and passive cooling features such as ventilation and shading.
For solar gain, it is also important to consider the thermal performance and solar heat gain efficiency of the
glazing unit itself. In general, north-facing windows should be efficient at letting solar radiation into the
building (see glazing and glazing units for more).
North-facing rooms
The main living spaces such as living, family and dining rooms should be north facing where possible. North-
facing rooms:
 have good daylight most of the day
 have solar gain for most of the day throughout the year
 may require horizontal shading to prevent overheating in summer
 have good passive solar gain in winter.
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East-facing rooms
East facing rooms are most suited as kitchen and breakfast areas as they can benefit from early morning
solar gain throughout the year and will be cooler in the late afternoon when evening meal preparation takes
place. They:
• have good morning

light
• have solar gain in the morning throughout the year to provide initial
warming
• will be cooler in the late afternoon.
Bedrooms that face east will be cooler in the late afternoon and evening, making them more
comfortable for summer sleeping. Early risers generally appreciate east sun in spaces they will use
first thing in the morning such as breakfast bars.
West-facing rooms
As west-facing rooms get low-angle, late afternoon sun, they usually require some shading to prevent
overheating and excessive glare, particularly during the summer. They:
 have good afternoon daylight
 can overheat in the late afternoon for much of the year
 may require vertical shading to prevent excessive overheating and glare in the afternoon
 provide good direct solar gain for thermal mass heating of living spaces in the evening.
A west-facing orientation is suitable as a living area in households where occupants are away from
home during the day-time but at home in the evenings. It is not generally suitable as a kitchen as the
heat from dinner preparation coincides with low-angled afternoon and evening sun, potentially causing
glare and overheating.
South-facing rooms
South-facing rooms are not suitable for habitable spaces as they:
 have lower levels of daylight during parts of the year
 have little or no heat gain.
They are most suited for the location of the garage, laundry, bathroom, toilet, workroom and
stairs, where people spend little time and/or use infrequently.
Outdoor living areas
In general, outdoor living areas should be north-facing so they receive the sun when they are in use. As
discussed in location, orientation and layout, if the building is located towards the south of the site, this will
provide a north-facing outdoor area.
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Air locks
An additional design feature for both heat retention and heat exclusion is to include an air lock or space
between the exterior and indoor living areas. Air locks are especially useful in high wind areas. An air lock
needs to be able to be closed off from both the outside and the inside spaces and may be:
 an entry lobby (which can usefully provide storage for coats, shoes and so on)
 a laundry
 a mud room
 an attached garage - a garage with a large garage door that is very air leaky
and that is often not insulated may not be the most effective airlock space.
The space should be sufficiently large to allow doors to be opened with ease, as insufficient space is
likely to result in a door being left permanently open, defeating the purpose of the air lock. Sliding
doors are not a satisfactory option as they tend to be draughty and are difficult to seal.
058
3.4 Insulation
Passive design must include insulation to reduce heat loss or gain through the building
envelope.
Insulation acts as a barrier to heat flow, reducing heat loss in winter to keep the house warm or reducing
heat gain in summer to keep the house cool. Inadequate insulation and air leakage are the main causes
of heat loss in homes.
The most economical time to install insulation is during construction. Retrospective installation may be
more difficult and costly. However, there are options forimproving insulation in existing homes.
Insulation is needed in the ceiling, walls and floor. The key choices to be made are:
 the insulation format (blanket, rigid or loose fill) and material (for example, glass-fibre, wool,
polyester) used in each part of the building, and
 the amount specified to achieve the desired R-value (that is, the desired level of thermal resistance).
The format and material specified will depend on client preference, the type of construction (for
example, timber frame or concrete), and on which part of the building envelope is being insulated.
When specifying insulation materials, the key consideration is the thermal performance of the material over
the life of the building. Also consider the sustainability of the insulation material – for example, the
emissions associated with its manufacture. For details, see our insulation materials factsheet(PDF) and
thematerials section of this site.
Also see glazing and glazing performance for information about thermal insulation in windows and glazed
doors.
A law passed in May 2016 makes insulation a legal requirement in rental properties.  The requirement will
apply from 1 July 2016 for Housing New Zealand and community housing provider tenancies where tenants
pay an income-related rent, and from 1 July 2019 for private rental properties and other types of tenancies.
All landlords will also need to disclose in tenancy agreements from 1 July 2016 the extent of insulation in
their rental property.
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3.4.1 How insulation works
Insulation works by providing resistance to heat flow.
On this page:
 Where heat is lost
 How bulk insulation works
 How reflective insulation works
 R-values
 Thermal bridges
Insulation slows heat losses from a building, either by using bulky, lightweight materials such as
glass-fibre or wool between framing elements, and sometimes by using reflective materials to reflect
heat back into the building.
Insulation is a very significant element in a building’s thermal performance, but it is not the only one. Even if
a home is well insulated, heat can still escape through air gaps, windows, gaps in the insulation, and
building elements such as framing, as explained in thermal bridges below. A building’s thermal performance
depends on all elements of the building working together.
Where heat is lost
30–35% through the

roof

21–31% walls
through the
windows
12–14% through the 6–9% through the air

floor leakage
Typical heat losses from an uninsulated house
In an uninsulated timber-framed house, 30–35% of heat is lost through the roof, 21–31% through
the windows and 18–25% through the walls. The floor and air leakage account for the remaining
heat loss.
060
13–14% through
the roof

42–45%
walls
through the
windows
12–15% through the 10–17% through air

floor leakage
Heat loss from a house insulated to pre-2007 levels
In a house insulated to pre-2007 requirements, the windows account for the largest single
proportion of heat loss.
R-values
Insulation performance is measured in R-values, which quantify the thermal resistance of a building
material, or any part of a building such as the roof, wall, or floor.
Commercially available insulation materials are labelled with R-values. However, the R-value of any part of
the building depends not only on the insulation but also on the thermal performance of other elements such
as the framing and cladding.
High density materials such as concrete, brick or stone provide excellent thermal mass but have low R-
values and so are poor insulators. Thin metals such as profiled steel claddings and fibre-cement sheets also
have low R-values and are therefore also poor insulators.
To determine insulation requirements, it is necessary to calculate R-values for each part of the building.
See determining insulation requirements for more detail.
061
How bulk insulation works
Bulk insulation works by trapping dry air in lightweight, bulky materials. Still air is a poor conductor of heat,
so bulky materials that can trap large amounts of air can reduce the ability for heat to be transferred by
conduction. If a material consists of many small pockets of trapped air rather than a large, contiguous
volume of air, the ability to transfer heat by convection is also reduced. An everyday example is a feather or
fibre duvet.
warm side
bulk insulation
small pockets of air hinder the cold side

transfer of heat by convection
Bulk insulation
Bulk insulating materials such as wool, polyester, glass wool and foam boards work by trapping air
and reducing the speed of heat transfer.
062
How reflective insulation works
Reflective insulation, often called foil insulation, has typically been installed under timber suspended floors
where it is draped over the joists before the flooring is installed to create still air zones between joists. It
gets its insulation performance by reducing radiant heat transfer through the building envelope. It has no
inherent R-value and is not an insulating material in its own right.
The quality of the installation has meant that a still air space is seldom achieved between the foil and the
underside of the flooring. The foil also loses reflectivity (as a result of dirt accumulation and tarnishing) and
therefore efficiency.
Therefore, although it can be used in some circumstances to achieve Building Code minimum floor insulation
requirements, BRANZ does not recommend using foil on its own for floor insulation. See insulation options
for floors for more detail.
Thermal bridges
Thermal bridges, also called ‘cold bridges’, are parts of the building envelope where heat can escape more
readily because the building material connects – or bridges – both sides of the building envelope. Examples
of thermal bridges include:
 timber or steel framing in external walls that connect to both the interior and exterior faces of the wall
 aluminium window frames that do not have a thermal break
 gaps in (poorly) installed insulation.
If insulation has simply been installed between joists or studs, the R-value of the building
element is likely to be less than the R-value of the insulation used because of the thermal
bridging. Thermal bridging can be reduced through correct installation of insulation, and by
using insulating features such as sheathing on the outside of studs or using thermal breaks in
aluminium glazing. More detail is provided in the pages on roof insulation, wall insulation,
floor insulation and windows.
063
3.4.2 Determining insulation requirements
Insulation requirements can be determined using any of three methods, depending on

factors such as construction type and glazing area.
On this page:
 schedule method
 calculation method
 modelling method
Insulation for houses must comply with the New Zealand Building Code (NZBC) clauses
H1 Energy efficiency and E3 Internal moisture.
Acceptable Solution H1/AS1 cites New Zealand Standard 4218:2004 Energy efficiency – Small building
envelope with modifications as a means of meeting the insulation requirements of the NZBC.
NZS 4218:2009 can be used as an Alternative Solution.
Schedule method
The schedule method specifies minimum R-values for building envelope components – roof, wall, floor and
glazing – depending on construction type and one of three climate zones in New Zealand.
It can only be used for houses where the area of glazing is less than 30% of the total external wall area and
where the combined area of glazing on the east, south and west facing walls is 30% or less of the combined
total wall area of these walls (i.e. the north wall may have a greater area of glazing than 30% but this must
be offset by reducing the area of glazing on the other three faces).
The construction types include:
 non-solid construction, which includes all framed construction
 solid construction, which includes solid timber, masonry, concrete and earth construction.
Calculation method
The calculation method uses heat loss calculations to determine the proposed building envelope R-value
requirements and compares the results with the heat loss (HL) of a reference building.
This method may be used where the total area of glazing is 50% or less of the total wall area. Its advantage
over the schedule method is that it allows a building with different building elements to be assessed as a
whole, with adjustments being made between elements. For example, a wall R-value may be reduced if the
roof or floor R-value is increased to compensate or if window R-values are increased. In no situations may
R-values for roofs or walls be reduced below the minimum R-values set down by E3/AS1.
Using NZS 4218:2009 as an Alternative Solution

NZBC clause H1 Energy efficiency currently cites NZS 4218:2004 Energy efficiency – small building
envelope as an Acceptable Solution. NZS 4218:2009 has been published but at present is not an Acceptable
Solution as it is not cited in clause H1. BRANZ recommends that, until it is referenced in Clause H1, NZS
4218:2009 can be used as an Alternative Solution.

064
Modelling method
Where the total area of glazing of a building is greater than 50%, a modelling method must be used as an
Alternative Solution. R-values are calculated by comparing the energy use of the proposed building with a
reference building by means of a computer modelling program such as BRANZ ALF.
BRANZ ALF method
BRANZ ALF (Annual Loss Factor) is a verification method for determining the Building Performance Index
(BPI) which can be used to show compliance with NZBC clause H1 Energy Efficiency. It is a software
program where the designer inputs information about the project – such as orientation, plan area, wall area,
window area, construction types and insulation levels – and the programme calculates the BPI. For
Northland and Auckland, however, simulation such as AccurateNZ, SUNREL, IES-VE or Sefaira may give
better results than ALF. This is especially important where significant thermal mass effects are being
examined.
The software can also be used to assess and improve the thermal performance of existing buildings.
Finally, with all discussions around complying with the standard, remember that the minimum figures
required for compliance simply define the poorest-performing house you are legally allowed to build. Just
meeting the minimum requirements is not the same thing as good practice.
065
3.4.3 Options for roof insulation
Ceilings/roof spaces are generally insulated using blanket/segment or loose fill insulation.
On this page:
 Insulating timber-framed roofs
 Steel-frame roofs
 Insulating skillion roofs
Blanket or mat (segmented) insulation is available in glasswool (fibreglass), wool, polyester,

wool/polyester mix, and mineral wool.
Loose fill insulation is available in mineral wool, macerated paper and wool.
For information about performance, durability and environmental properties of each material, see
our insulation materials factsheet(PDF) and the materials section of this site.
Timber-framed roofs
Install ceiling space insulation between joists over the ceiling lining where possible as this is where the
greatest heat loss occurs. A second layer should be laid over the framing to reduce the effect of thermal
bridging.
Steel-framed roofs
The general principles of roof insulation are the same for steel-framed roofs, although there are some slight
changes required to where and how insulation is installed in practice for the best results. For more
information see the BRANZ publication Building Basics Steel Framing.
Skillion roofs
For skillion roofs with exposed rafters, install insulation over the ceiling lining between purlins – purlins must
be sized to provide sufficient depth for the required thickness of insulation plus a 25 mm minimum air gap
between the insulation and the flexible roofing underlay.
For skillion roofs with concealed rafters, install insulation between rafters – the combined rafter/purlin depth
is likely to be sufficient to ensure that a 25 mm minimum air gap is achieved.
Note: For both exposed and concealed rafter skillion roofs, an air barrier must be installed over a timber-
boarded ceiling to prevent air movement into the roof framing.
066
Options for wall insulation
The type of wall insulation used will depend on the construction system.
On this page:
 Insulating timber-framed walls
 Insulating steel-frame walls
 Insulating concrete masonry and in-situ concrete walls
 Insulating precast concrete walls
 Insulating polystyrene block walls
Walls may be insulated with blanket/segmented, loose fill, or board insulation, or with an exterior
insulation finish system (EIFS) – but the choice will depend on the construction system used.
Insulation options should be considered alongside other passive design features. In particular,
insulating the materials on a building’s interior means they cannot provide thermal mass.
Blanket or mat (segmented) insulation is available in glasswool (fibreglass), wool, polyester, wool/polyester
mix, and mineral wool.

Loose fill insulation is available in mineral wool, macerated paper and wool.
Rigid board insulation is made using polystyrene. EIFS systems typically use polystyrene board attached to
the exterior wall and covered with a layer of reinforcing and a coloured coating.
Insulating timber-frame walls
There are two options for installing exterior wall insulation.

Insulating between wall studs
Blanket or mat insulation, or rigid polystyrene boards, may be installed between wall studs.
In order to achieve the required R-value, the wall may require deeper framing. For example, R4.0 insulation
can be used in 140 mm framing, whereas R2.8 insulation is the highest practicable common insulation
material that can be used with 90 mm framing. An alternative construction technique such as double stud
construction may also be used.
EIFS system
An EIFS system may be installed outside the framing.
For buildings with a low weathertightness risk score (less than 6), rigid polystyrene sheet may be direct-
fixed to the framing so the insulation value of the polystyrene is fully utilised.
If the risk score is 7 or greater, under Building Code Compliance Document E2/AS1, the cladding will have to
be fixed over a drained and vented cavity. This will reduce the insulation value provided by the EIFS by
approximately 40%, so insulation may also be required in the wall framing.
Reducing the effects of thermal bridging
By reducing the amount of timber used in timber-framed wall construction, the area of wall that is insulated
can be maximised, thermal bridging can be reduced and the overall R-value of the wall will be increased. 067
Reduce the amount of timber used by:
 designing to maximise the efficient use of materials, for example, use simple shapes and volumes, and
compact, modular designs
 where possible, use deeper studs and setting stud spacings at 600 mm
 using two-stud rather than three-stud corners to reduce framing at corners
 using ladder blocking where interior partitions intersect exterior walls
 locating doors and windows in line with established framing
 sizing windows to fit within stud spacings where possible.
Two–stud corner
Use two studs in external corners to reduce thermal bridging.
Ladder blocking
Use ladder blocking at T intersections to reduce thermal bridging.
Use 140 x 45 mm studs to:
 provide a deeper wall cavity for higher R-value insulation
 reduce thermal bridging by the higher R-value that occurs with the use of larger timbers and
less stud area in the wall
 provide more space for insulating around in-wall piping, wiring and ducting.
Insulating steel frame walls
Install insulation for steel-framed exterior walls as for timber-framed walls, but a thermal break must be
installed on the outside face of the framing.
The thermal break should consist of a 20 mm thick length of polystyrene, timber or similar rigid insulating
material before the cladding is installed to reduce the thermal bridging effect at the steel framing locations.
steel internal thermal

framing lining insulation
20 mm foam insulating drainage underlay EIFS cladding and

strips to avoid thermal cavity plaster fi nish
bridge
Cladding and insulation for steel-framed exterior wall
With steel framing, a thermal break must be installed on the outer face of each framing member to
068 restrict the effect of thermal bridging. This applies to all cladding types.
Insulating concrete masonry and in situ concrete walls
Insulate single skin concrete masonry or cast in situ concrete walls by:
 strapping and lining the interior wall surfaces with polystyrene or mat insulation inserted
between the strapping
 direct-fixing polystyrene sheets to the interior, then line with plasterboard or render
 installing an EIFS cladding system to the exterior wall surfaces
 applying a proprietary insulating plaster to the outside and/or the inside face(s).
adhesive concrete or concrete

masonry wall
polystyrene internal finish or strapping

and lining
textured plaster
finish
Externally insulated concrete or concrete masonry wall
Plastered and painted polystyrene sheets are applied here to the external face of a single skin
concrete masonry wall. Adding insulation to the outside face of the wall allows the masonry to
provide thermal mass.
069
Notes:
 Concrete or concrete masonry walls with external insulation will act as a thermal mass, whereas
concrete or concrete masonry walls with insulation on the interior cannot.
 When using the schedule method to determine R-values, solid masonry walls that are strapped, lined
and insulated to achieve the minimum R-value requirements should be considered as non-solid walls.
Insulating precast concrete walls
Insulate precast concrete walls:
 as for concrete masonry and in situ concrete walls, or
 by incorporating a core of rigid insulation material, generally polystyrene, between two layers of
concrete –this allows the internal layer to provide thermal mass.
Insulating polystyrene block walls
Polystyrene block construction uses polystyrene as a permanent formwork for structural concrete walls. The
double layer of polystyrene provides a high level of insulation. However, this method of construction can
only provide thermal mass if the polystyrene is removed from the inside face of the wall.
Removal of the inside layer of polystyrene will result in a lower wall R-value, but it is still well within the
acceptable range for solid construction using the schedule methodof achieving minimum R-value
requirements. For example, a typical polystyrene block wall construction consists of two layers of 50 mm
EPS polystyrene (R-value = 1.31) and 150 mm concrete core (R-value = 0.09). This gives a total R-value of
R2.71 (this does not include any plaster coatings to either face). If one layer of polystyrene is removed, the
R-value of the wall will be R1.4.
070
3.4.5 Options for floor insulation
The type of floor insulation used will depend on whether the floor is concrete slab or a
suspended timber-frame floor.
On this page:
 Insulating timber-framed floors
 Insulating concrete slab floors
Timber-frame floors are typically insulated with polystyrene boards or sheet insulation made
from glasswool (fibreglass), wool, polyester, wool/polyester mix, and mineral wool.
Concrete slab floors are typically insulated with polystyrene board.
Insulating suspended timber floors
Insulate suspended timber ground floors using:
 glasswool (fibreglass), wool or polyester sheets fitted between the floor joists and
securely fixed or strapped in place. For very exposed subfloors, protect the insulation by
fixing a sheet lining material to the underside of the joists. Check that the specific
insulation products are recommended for use under floors by the manufacturer
 polystyrene panels inserted between the floor joists.
flooring
joist
joist polystyrene
insulation
Polystyrene insulation between joist
Polystyrene boards between joists give a moderate cost insulation option. The polystyrene must be
fitted hard against the underside of the floor and should be a tight fit between joists without gaps.
071
Suspended timber floor with bulk insulation and lining
For open subfloors, a sheet lining material such as plywood, tempered hardboard or fibre-cement
must be used to protect the insulation.
Composite floor insulation option
Composite construction will give higher performance values than the individual materials and will
generally more than meet minimum Code requirements.
072
Note: Perforated aluminium foil draped over the floor joists without any additional insulation currently meets
the minimum permitted R-value according to the Acceptable Solution H1/AS1 Table 1, Note 4, if the subfloor
has a continuous, closed perimeter wall. However, reflective insulation is often poorly installed and tends to
lose performance over time. BRANZ therefore recommends that other types of underfloor insulation are
installed under suspended timber floors.
Insulating concrete slab-on-ground floors
Insulate under a concrete slab-on-ground by placing a continuous layer of 50 mm minimum, S grade
expanded polystyrene (EPS) board over the damp-proof membrane before the slab is poured. However,
unless a thermal break or perimeter insulation is used, this will only raise the R-value by around R0.2. Slab
perimeter insulation is more essential than the underside of the slab as most of the heat loss from the slab
occurs at the edges between the air and the ground.
BRANZ research has looked at perimeter insulation for both conventional slabs and waffle slab foundations.
Expanded polystyrene (XPS) was chosen for the insulation as it has a history of successful use in this
application. The polystyrene was protected with 3 mm grey uPVC sheet on the outside.
Depending on the circumstances, combining underslab with slab edge insulation can result in thermal
performance of the slab improving by 100% or more. Perimeter insulation can bring significant gains in
energy efficiency.
Much of the thermal performance improvement can be achieved with a perimeter insulation R-value of less
than 1.0. Even an R-value of 0.8 (achievable with 25 mm XPS) still provides a reasonable thermal
performance improvement. See BRANZStudy Report SR352 for more details.
A thermal break to the perimeter of the floor slab, between the slab edge and the foundation, greatly
increases R-value. In older details a timber strip was used, but BRANZ Bulletin 576 Edge insulation of
concrete floor slabs shows a new detail that incorporates a 10 mm thick strip of XPS with an R-value of
R0.25. The reason for the change is to minimise the potential for differential movement at the junction
between the slab and the foundation wall under earthquake loads. This is achieved by limiting the thermal
break thickness to 10 mm (rather than 45 mm when timber was used).
073
insulated wall framing
10 mm R0.25 XPS thermal break
stirrups
cladding over cavity
underslab insulation
concrete underlay or DPM under insulation
H3.2 timber block, thickness

to match slab insulation
foundation wall
Insulating a concrete slab-on-ground
XPS sliver used as a thermal break at slab edge. The sliver will need to be forced over the
reinforcing between slab and foundation wall. Fill any gaps after installation with expanding foam.
074
Determining under-slab insulation requirements
According to the schedule method of calculation R-values in NZS 4218, the floor R-value minimum
requirement for all climate zones and wall types is R1.3. For passive design, achieving a higher R-value is
recommended - using R1.9 (this is the minimum R-value required for a heated floor) as the minimum is
recommended.
The under-slab R-value calculation is complex due to the R-value’s dependence on the thermal conductivity
of the soil under different parts of the slab i.e. thermal resistance is greatest at the centre of the slab and
least at the perimeter due to the different lengths of the heat flow paths to the exterior of the slab. The
calculation depends on the:
 area/perimeter ratio of the floor
 thermal conductivity of the soil under the slab
 thickness of the external walls.
For example, minimum under-slab insulation requirements may be met by the following:
 If the slab area/perimeter ratio is greater than 1.9, 1.2 m x 50 mm perimeter expanded polystyrene (EPS)
insulation and no thermal break with a 90 mm thick wall will give an R-value of R1.3 (a 140 mm thick wall
will give a higher R-value of R1.4).
 If the slab area/perimeter ratio is 1.3 and has a thermal break, a 90 mm thick wall will give an R-value of
R1.3.
 Where full under-slab insulation is installed using 50 mm or 100 mm thick EPS with a thermal break
incorporated, the R-value will be well above the minimum requirement.
Embedded floor heating
If embedded floor heating is incorporated in a concrete slab-on-ground, the slab must be insulated so that
heat from the slab is delivered up into the space above and not lost to the exterior and ground below. NZS
4218 Table 3 sets out minimum R-values for concrete floor slabs with embedded floor heating.
075
3.4.6 Installing insulation
The correct installation of insulation is critical.
On this page:
 precautions when installing insulation
 installing insulation generally
 specific installation instructions
 reducing the effects of thermal bridging
NZS 4246 Energy efficiency – Installing insulation in residential buildings provides guidance on
insulation use and installation so that thermal performance requirements and durability of the
building envelope elements are achieved.
Precautions when installing insulation

Take the following precautions when installing insulation:
 Take extreme care where electrical cables run under the floor. There have been fatalities
when the installer has put a steel staple through a live electrical cable and been electrocuted.
 To be conservative, keep polystyrene separated from PVC-sheathed electrical cables. Over
time, the cable sheathing will become brittle if these two materials stay in contact.
 Do not allow insulation to get wet as this will reduce performance.
Installing insulation generally
When installing insulation:

 follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for safety and handling
 wear recommended protective clothing and masks.
Install insulation to:
 fit firmly without edge gaps
 cover newer types of recessed downlights that are labelled IC and IC-F but NOT older
downlights in existing ceilings. Insulation must not sit over these older lights or touch the
sides unless the fitting manufacturer can verify that this is acceptable.
 be separated from fixtures that get hot, such as flues. A flue with no casing must be separated
from heat sensitive material by four times its diameter. A flue with two casings and 25 mm air
gaps between casings and flue requires a 25 mm gap. For a single casing, the separation
would be 2 x flue diameter. (See AS/NZS 2918:2001 Domestic solid fuel burning appliances –
installation.)
 be clear of water tank overflow trays
 have a minimum 25 mm air gap between insulation and flexible roof underlay in skillion roofs.
076
Specific installation instructions
Blankets and segments
Fit blanket and segment bulk insulation firmly between framing without gaps. They must not:
 be compressed
 have folds or tucks
 sag within wall framing cavities – the blanket or segment should preferably be the same
thickness as the cavity
 be installed into timber framing that has a moisture content of over 20%.
Loose fill
Install loose fill insulation so that it:
 cannot be shifted by air movement
 is laid in an even thickness
 is laid with sufficient depth to allow for settlement
 is not compressed
 is kept away from downlights.

Polystyrene boards
Rigid polystyrene board insulation must:
 be laid over a damp-proof membrane when used under a concrete slab on the ground
 be separated from internal spaces by a lining material
 be fitted tightly against the underside of the flooring when fitted between floor joists
 be fitted tightly between cavities
 ideally,not come into contact with PVC (such as TPS wiring).
When used as a cladding, rigid board insulation should be installed in accordance
with NZS 4246 and the manufacturer’s instructions.
Insulating plaster
Insulating plaster must be applied to the design thickness of the plaster mix and in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. When applied externally, it must be protected from the weather by a suitable
weatherproof coating.
EIFS
EIFS cladding systems are to be installed in accordance with the system supplier’s instructions.
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3.4.7 Insulation options for existing homes
Existing buildings will often benefit from insulation retrofits.
On this page:
 Code requirements
 roofs – timber frame
 ground floor – timber frame
 ground floor – concrete slab
 exterior walls – timber and steel frame
 exterior walls – concrete masonry or in situ concrete walls
 glazing.
It is easier and less costly to fit insulation in a new home than to retrofit. However, many
existing houses in New Zealand have little or no insulation, and they will benefit from any
improvements that can be made to the levels of insulation.
A law passed in May 2016 makes insulation a legal requirement in private rental
properties from 1 July 2019
In most houses, insulation can be reasonably easily added to roof spaces and under timber framed floors. It
is more difficult to retrofit insulation to walls. Retrofitting wall insulation also requires a building consent
unless the local council has made an exemption for this work.
Code requirements
When a building is being altered, the Building Act requires that it comply with the Building Code ‘to at least
to the same extent as before the alteration’. So in any alteration that affects thermal performance,
therefore, the part of the building being altered will have to comply with clause H1 Energy Efficiency at least
to the same extent as before.
This means, for example, that if a window is enlarged, additional insulation will be required to offset the
resulting reduction in thermal performance.
078
Roofs – timber frame
As most heat is lost through the roof of uninsulated homes, ceiling insulation is highly effective and
should be the first priority in retrofit situations.
If the ceiling space is:
 fully accessible, fit bulk insulation between and over ceiling joists.
 partially accessible, install blown-in, loose-fill insulation.
If the roof is a skillion roof, options include:
 fitting battens under the existing ceiling, installing insulation and a new ceiling lining
 building a suspended or dropped ceiling and including insulation (can only be done if there is sufficient
height)
 removing the existing ceiling lining and installing insulation – the most cost-effective time to do this is when
the lining needs to be replaced
 removing the roofing and installing insulation, then replacing or reinstalling the roofing.
purlin
roofing
ng on underlay
un and
new
framing
raft existing
er ceiling
new
fascia insulation
new ceiling
eaves new lining
framing
wall
cladding
wall wall
framing lining
Adding insulation and a new ceiling to a skillion roof
Fitting battens under the existing ceiling, insulation and new ceiling lining is expensive but will
provide improved insulation. The performance is limited by the thickness of insulation that can be
installed.
079
purlin
underlay and netting

roofing on un
rafter
existing
new insulat
fascia
new acoustic suspended ceiling
eaves wall lining
wall cladding
wall framing
Adding a suspended ceiling and insulation to a skillion roof
Installing a suspended or dropped ceiling is expensive but will provide very effective insulation.
080
Ground floor – timber frame
Existing houses may have no subfloor insulation, or foil. Foil can get dusty, torn, or otherwise damaged, and
lose its effectiveness, so should be removed before new insulation is added.
Retrofitting foil insulation under houses is likely to be banned from 1 July 2016. People using staples or nails
to attach the foil to timber members have sometimes accidentally pierced a live electrical cable. There have
been five electrocution deaths and one non-fatal shock reported in New Zealand as a result. The ban would
only apply to retrofitting foil to existing buildings, not yet to installation in new buildings.
Select an insulation product specifically designed for use under floors. Proprietary products include
polystyrene friction-fitted between the joists, and segments such as polyester, glass wool or sheep’s wool
that come with tabs for fixing, or are held in place by strapping. Make sure the insulation is pressed firmly
against the floor so there is no air movement between insulation and floor. Exposed subfloors may require
sheet material fixed under the insulation to hold it firmly in place.
If the material is designed to be fixed by stapling to joists, take great care to avoid electrical cables. Some
installers have been electrocuted after they put a steel staple through a live cable.
While you are working under a house, it is a good idea to also put insulation around any hot water pipes that
run under the floor. Insulating foam tubes with a slit along one side can be pressed over the piping.
If the ground under the house is damp, lay polythene sheeting on the ground, and improve subfloor
ventilation if possible.
Ground floor – concrete slab
Improving the thermal resistance of an existing concrete slab on the ground is not usually a practical option.
If renovations are to be carried out (provided there is sufficient ceiling height within the space), one option
is to cover the existing slab with a polythene membrane, 25 mm thick polystyrene board and a 75 mm
(minimum) thick topping slab. The new concrete must be isolated by a damp-proof membrane from existing
timber framing to prevent moisture from the concrete being absorbed by the timber.
Alternatively, installing carpet and underlay will reduce the heat loss through an existing floor (although this
cannot be used to meet minimum requirements of Building Code clause H1 Energy Efficiency).
081
Exterior walls – timber and steel frame
Although walls account for a significant proportion of total heat loss from a home, it is usually too difficult
and expensive to retrofit insulation. The most cost-effective option is to wait until wall linings or claddings
need to be replaced and to fit insulation at that time. Otherwise, a more cost-effective alternative is to
further reduce heat loss through the roof by fitting rolltype insulation over the top of insulation segments
between the joists.
Insulation options include:
 removing external cladding or internal lining, installing insulation and fitting new cladding or lining
 installing an EIFS cladding system over the existing cladding
 battening existing interior linings, adding insulation and fitting new interior linings
Exterior walls – concrete masonry or in situ concrete walls
Insulation options include:
 application of an EIFS cladding system externally
 battening with 90 mm framing and adding insulation and new plasterboard linings internally.
By applying the insulation externally, the benefit of the thermal mass walls is maintained.
Blown-in insulation for walls
There is a range of blown-in insulation options for retrofitting insulation to existing walls. Currently
none of the available systems hold a BRANZ Appraisal. Key considerations when retrofitting blown-in
wall insulation are:
 A building consent must be obtained before the work is carried out.
 Only use this option if it is appropriate for the existing construction – for example, such products
should not be installed into walls that do not have a flexible wall underlay (building paper or
building wrap) installed behind the cladding.
 For brick veneer construction the insulation must not fill the drainage and ventilation cavity
between the bricks and the framing. It was common for brick veneer houses to be constructed
without a flexible wall underlay fixed to the outer face of the framing.
Glazing
For aluminium windows, insulating glass units (IGUs) can be retrofitted. There are a number of options for
improving the thermal performance of existing timber-framed windows. See BRANZ Bulletin BU 507
Timber windows – retrofit glazing options for thermal improvement.
A more cost-effective option, particularly for timber windows, is to increase the R-values of other building
elements to compensate for heat loss through windows. Night-time heat loss can be reduced by installing
curtains or blinds.
See glazing and glazing units for details.
082
3.5 Thermal mass
Thermal mass can be used for passive heating and cooling.
‘Thermal mass’ is the capacity of a material to store heat energy.
In building terms, it reduces temperature fluctuations by absorbing heat when the ambient temperature is
hotter than the mass, and then releasing the heat when the ambient temperature falls below the
temperature of the mass. When used effectively, this results in improving indoor comfort.
For passive heating, thermal mass works by exposing a high-density material in the building’s interior –
such as concrete or stone – to direct sunlight. Often, this will be a concrete slab floor, though it can also be
a wall or a specially designed thermal mass element such as a Trombe wall. The sun’s warmth is absorbed
during the day and then radiated into the home as the temperature cools at night.
For passive cooling, thermal mass is combined with ventilation – so heat is absorbed during the day, then
ventilation is used to dissipate the heat when it is released at night.
To be effective, thermal mass must be considered along with other passive design features such
as insulation, location, orientation and layout, window size and placement, and shading.
3.5.1 How thermal mass works

Thermal mass works by absorbing heat and re‐radiating it as temperatures drop.
On this page:
 density and thermal mass
 rate of stored heat dissipation
 thermal lag
 using thermal mass properties of materials.
By utilising the thermal mass of a heavyweight material, temperature fluctuations can be reduced,
resulting in a more constant indoor temperature.
Thermal mass is most effective when the diurnal temperature range (the temperature difference
between day and night) is at its largest. Most New Zealand climates have a comparatively small diurnal
temperature range.
Density and thermal mass
High density materials such as concrete, brick, tiles, earth and water require a lot of heat to increase in
temperature. They also lose heat slowly and are referred to as having high thermal mass.
Low density, lightweight materials such as timber or timber products require little heat to increase in
temperature but lose heat rapidly. These are referred to as low thermal mass materials.
083
A material suitable for thermal mass must have:
 high heat capacity
 high density
 low reflectivity (i.e. a dark, matt or textured finish).
Note that thermal mass is not the same as insulation, which, in building terms, describes a building’s
ability to reduce the conduction (or flow) of heat between indoors and outdoors. In effective house
designs, thermal mass and insulation work in harmony.
Rate of stored heat dissipation
The period of time that thermal mass is able to retain heat for depends on the time the mass is not able to
be heated and the level of insulation. Without high levels of insulation (a minimum of SNZ/PAS4244 ‘Best’
level), the stored heat indoors dissipates quickly.
The rate of dissipation is dependent on factors such as the:
 outdoor ambient temperature
 amount of insulation in the building envelope
 amount of thermal mass and stored energy
 levels of air infiltration or draughts.
Thermal lag
Thermal lag is the name given to the delay in the stored heat being released from the massive material as
the ambient temperature falls. The thermal lag of a material depends on the:
 heat capacity of the material
 conductivity of the material.
084
outside air temperature
Temperature
indoor air temperature

house with high thermal mass
indoor temperature
light timber framed house
Time of day
How thermal mass evens out temperature fluctuations
By alternately storing and releasing heat, high thermal mass materials can very effectively even out
the daily indoor temperature extremes, effectively providing free winter-time heating when the
thermal mass is exposed to direct solar gains.
085
3.5.2 Thermal mass design
Thermal mass must be properly designed to be effective for passive heating or cooling.
On this page:
 using thermal mass for heating and cooling
 floor requirements to provide thermal mass for heating
 wall requirements to provide thermal mass for heating
 water as a thermal mass
Thermal mass is most commonly used for passive heating, though it can also be used to absorb and
dissipate heat for passive cooling.
Thermal mass can be achieved by an exposed concrete floor; or a wall made of heavy material such as
concrete, concrete masonry, stone or earth; or a specifically designed thermal mass feature such as a
Trombe wall.
Whatever thermal mass is used, it must be exposed to direct sunlight during the times of year when passive
heating is required. It must not be covered with any insulating material (including mats and carpets) –
otherwise it will not be able to absorb heat. But it must be insulated on the building’s exterior, and the
building envelope must be properly insulated so that any heat gain from thermal mass does not dissipate.
For good performance, thermal mass must be considered in conjunction with other passive design features
such as insulation, location, orientation and layout, window sizing, and shading.
For example, if thermal mass is being used for passive heating, it should receive maximum exposure to
sunlight during cooler months, but minimal exposure to sunlight during summer. This can be achieved
through a combination of orientation (to maximise exposure to north sun), shading (to minimise summer
exposure), floor plan (for example, a shallower north-south floor plan will allow more sun exposure for a
concrete floor slab), and window sizing and placement.
086
Thermal mass in winter
In winter, thermal mass will absorb heat from the sun during the day, as well as from
supplementary heat sources, and release that heat as temperatures fall at night.
087
insulated structure
shading cuts out

summer sun thermal mass
absorbs heat
In summer during the day the thermal mass is cool in the morning and absorbs heat during the day
helping to cool the interior.
insulated structure
through ventilation
thermal mass
loses its heat
In summer during the night the house is well ventilated to carry away heat given out by the thermal mass.
Thermal mass in summer
In summer, thermal mass absorbs the ambient air heat while being shaded from direct sunlight to
help reduce overheating. At night, the house can be ventilated to allow any excess heat to be lost
into the cooler night air. Ideally, excess solar gain should be prevented from entering the house by
use of eaves and external shading systems – otherwise overheating may occur.
088
Floor requirements to provide thermal mass for heating
A concrete slab floor provides excellent thermal mass. For maximum heat absorption, the surface should:
 be exposed or be covered with a high density material such as tile or slate
 have a dark colour or a textured or matt finish
 be 100–200 mm thick
 be insulated underneath the slab (to give an R-value of at least 1.9) so that heat moves up into the interior
space rather than into the ground
 have slab edge insulation to reduce heat loss from the slab perimeter to the outside air.
Materials with high thermal resistance (such as carpet, cork or timber) should never be laid over concrete
floors that are to provide thermal mass.
Suspended concrete upper floors in two-storey construction may be used effectively as thermal mass. By leaving
the underside of the floor exposed, radiated heat will move to both the upper and the lower levels.
heat
insulating heat given off

window as the house
cools
tiled fl oor
section
fl oor and foundation

absorb and store heat
Principle of using the thermal mass of a concrete floor
To increase the direct benefits concrete slab floors offer, insulate under the slab and have insulating
windows (IGUs) down to the floor so that winter sun falls on the slab surface. Do not have
insulating finishes such as carpet or cork over the floor area providing thermal mass – typically the
area of slab exposed to direct sunlight. Use ceramic tiles, or polished concrete over this area.
089
Overall requirements to provide thermal mass for heating
While floors are more commonly used to provide thermal mass (because they usually receive more sun and
are therefore more effective), in the right situations walls can also be used.
Walls to provide thermal mass should be concrete, concrete masonry, stone or earth. They should:
 be exposed to direct sunlight if possible
 be of a mid to dark matt colour
 be 100–150 mm thick to provide sufficient mass for optimal heat storage
 have insulation on the exterior face of external walls.
Dense or heavy materials such as brick veneer or single-skin concrete masonry located outside the
insulation do not add thermal mass to a building as the insulation prevents any heat being released to the
interior of the wall. A polystyrene block wall will not provide thermal benefits unless the polystyrene on the
inside face of the wall is removed.
An internal wall will transmit stored heat through the wall to the room on the other side of the wall.
The wall should be a dark colour to maximise heat absorption.
approximately
200 mm thick
concrete wall overhang sized for
LIVING summertime shading
SPACE
radiated heat
single or double glazing unit
TROMBE
into room
approximately 15-50 mm air
WALL
exposed
(uncovered) finish gap dark painted or
concrete slab coloured surface stop
flashing
protective surface to
insulation
DPM
30–60 mm XPS insulation
Basic principle of Trombe wall construction
A Trombe wall is a high thermal mass, north-facing wall installed behind glazing and with airspace
between the two. The wall should be a dark colour to maximise heat absorption. The slow
permeation of heat through the wall is the main heating mechanism.

090
Using thermal mass for passive cooling
Thermal mass can also be used as a heat sink for summer cooling.
By absorbing heat from the surroundings when the temperature is higher than the thermal mass material,
the ambient indoor temperature will be reduced. The heat must then be discharged to outdoors during the
night-time – otherwise it will need to be released into the house later.
For cooling, the thermal mass must be shielded from solar gain by:
 shading
 walls being located between internal rooms or on the south side of the house
 being located where cooling breezes will remove heat.
Floor requirements to provide thermal mass for cooling
The underside of a floor slab to be used as a thermal mass for cooling should not be insulated as the ground
temperature (which tends to remain fairly constant throughout the year) is generally lower than the day-
time summer air temperature. This allows the heat to be transmitted into the ground. However, the floor
should be insulated at the perimeter to prevent heat entering the slab between the slab edge and the
ground.
Wall requirements to provide thermal mass for cooling
Thermal mass walls to be used for cooling are generally concrete or stone, but an external water storage
tank that is protected from solar gain can also be used to absorb heat. Heat from the interior space must be
able to move into the water where it can be dissipated or removed by cooling breezes.
Adding thermal mass to an existing home
Thermal mass may be added to an existing house as part of alteration work by:
 laying a concrete floor in a new extension
 adding an internal thermal mass wall (e.g. hallway) that has exposure to direct sunlight
(increase window areas where necessary)
 removing existing insulating floor coverings such as carpet from existing concrete floors that
are adjacent to large areas of north-facing glazing and replacing with tiles or polishing the
exposed slab surface
 adding a sunspace with high thermal mass and automated controls to manage the stored heat.
091
3.6 Shading
Shading should be designed to take into account the sun's path in summer and winter.
In general, midday summer sun is not difficult to exclude through windows that face within 20° of solar
north. The sun’s high angle means that it will not enter these windows during the summer months if shaded
by eaves or external shades.
77°
30°
Midday sun for summer and winter solstice for Auckland
The sun’s altitude angles at midday on the summer and winter solstices are shown for the Auckland
area.
It is more difficult to shade east and west faces as they receive low morning and afternoon sun. Where low
sun is a problem, keep east and west facing glazing to a minimum.
The following table recommends shading options for different situations.
092
Orientation Sun Time of day Type of shading
direction
North High angle Middle of day Fixed or adjustable
above window
East-west Low angle Morning/evening Adjustable
screens/shutters
NE/NW Low angle Morning/evening Adjustable shading
(winter)
To design effective shading, it is important to have a good understanding of sun pathsat the site at different
times of the year.
3.6.1 External shading

External shading prevents solar access and so helps to keep a building cool.
On this page:
 eaves
 awnings
 screens and shutters
 louvres
 verandahs
 pergolas
 trees and shrubs.
Providing shade over building openings and outdoor spaces can reduce temperatures and save energy.
There are many options for external shade. It’s important that each is designed to take account of the sun
paths at the site at different times of the year.
To be effective, external shading must be considered along with other passive design features such
as location, orientation and layout, window size and placement, andthermal mass.
Eaves
Eaves or other fixed overhangs are the simplest way to provide protection against solar gain.
They must be sized correctly to exclude summer sun but still admit winter sun.
Calculating overhang depth

The following table, obtained from Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority publication Designing
comfortable homes – guidelines on the use of glass, mass and insulation for energy efficiency, gives height
and shading factors based on sun path diagrams for the main centres in New Zealand. Use this to calculate
the amount of overhang required to exclude midday summer sun but admit midday winter sun.
093
Location Fheight Fshade
Auckland 0.24 0.14
Wellington 0.32 0.15

Christchurch 0.35 0.15
Dunedin 0.39 0.16
To calculate the overhang, multiply the height (H) from the window sill to the eave or sunshade by the
factor Fheight for the nearest main centre location. This figure (A) is the required depth of the overhang: A =
H x Fheight
Example: For the Wellington region, if the height (H) of the eave or sunshade above the window sill is 2.0
m, multiply 2.0 m by 0.32 (Fheight) = 0.64 m – so the overhang should be 640 mm deep.
mid
summer
overhang
A
mid
winter
D (0.2 m)
H
2.4 m
area of shade
Calculating overhang and window dimensions
Permanently shaded glass is a significant source of heat loss in cooler climates.
Calculating window head height
In winter, the distance D between the window head and the underside of the eave or overhang, is critical to
the window’s performance. If D is close to zero, meaning the window head is directly under the overhang,
and A is greater than zero, the top of the window will never admit sun, and this area of the window will
suffer net heat loss during a sunny day. Height D must be designed to ensure that winter sun is admitted
through the entire window.
094
To calculate the minimum height for D, multiply the height (H) of the eave or sunshade above the window
sill by the factor Fshade from the table for the nearest main centre location: D = H x Fshade.
Example: For the Wellington region, if the height (H) of the sunshade above the window sill is 2.0 m,
multiply 2.0 m by 0.15 (factor Fshade) = 0.3 m – so the height between the window and the overhang should
be 300 mm.
Awnings
Awnings reduce sun when they are in position. They should be light in colour to deflect more heat.
Retractable awnings will admit sunlight when in retracted position.
Awnings may not be suitable in windy areas but motorised, retractable awnings are available that can
monitor wind levels and retract when the wind strength gets too high.
Retractable awning
These reduce sun and light when they’re out. They're a moderate cost option, but do require
cleaning and maintenance and they may not be suitable in windy areas.
Screens and shutters
Fixed and moveable screens and shutters are available in a range of sizes and methods of operation
including sliding, hinged and bifolding. The louvre panels may be fixed blade or operable. They provide an
excellent solution for low angle morning and evening sun as they can be moved away to admit light when
not required.
095
Louvres
Horizontal, fixed louvres should be angled to the noon mid-winter sun angle and be spaced correctly to
admit winter sun.
The following table gives optimum blade angles to admit mid winter sun for north-facing pergolas for the
main centres of New Zealand.
Location Blade angle
Auckland 29°
Wellington 27°
Christchurch 23°
Dunedin 20°
As a rule of thumb, the spacing between horizontal, fixed louvres should be 75% of the width. Louvre blades
should be as thin as possible to avoid blocking sun.
Verandahs
Verandahs provide excellent shade. Deep verandahs are particularly good for shading east and west facing
elevations although they will still admit very low angle sun. They can be used in combination with planting
or screens to filter sun.
Pergolas
Pergolas covered with deciduous vines provide very good seasonal shading.
Deciduous vines provide shade in summer

but the leaves fall in winter allowing the sun
to penetrate
Trees and shrubs
Trees and shrubs provide
excellent shading. Deciduous
trees provide shade in the
summer and admit sun in
the winter.
Shade from a vine-covered pergola

The deciduous vines reduce summer sun and allow in winter sun when the leaves fall (the woody
parts of the plants remaining provide about 20% shading). Vines require some maintenance and
096 may not be suitable for windy areas.

3.6.2 Internal shading
Internal shading can be provided using curtains and blinds.
Internal shading is less effective at reducing solar heat gain than external shading because the solar
radiation has already come through the glass.
The shading absorbs the radiation, and while a small amount of heat is reradiated back to the outside, most
remains within the interior space.
Internal shading can be a useful device when:
 the sun penetrates for only a short time
 heat build-up will not be a major problem
 windows can be left open adjacent to them
 it is required to reduce glare.
Internal shading options
 Curtains, when drawn, significantly reduce light but reduce heat gain by only a small
amount.
 Venetian blinds and vertical blinds can be used to adjust the amount of incoming light while
retaining views but they reduce heat gain by only a small amount.
 Roller blinds and other types of window blinds reduce the light admitted but also reduce the
heat gain by only a small amount. They may also reduce ventilation and block views but some
types of blinds provide two adjustments: one setting provides partial light blockout, the other
setting provides full blockout. Blinds may be motorised for high level windows or roof lights.
They can be made from a range of sun filter fabrics to suit the desired level of light, view and
shading.
097
3.7 Ventilation
Effective ventilation is necessary for temperature control and air quality.
On this page:
 passive ventilation
 using passive ventilation for cooling
 active ventilation
 Building Code requirements
 security and other passive ventilation issues.
Ventilation is needed to remove pollutants such as moisture, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
carbon dioxiode (CO2) from the building’s internal environment. These pollutants arise from
household activities such as cooking, cleaning and heating, as well as human activities such as
smoking.
Ventilation is also useful for passive cooling, where it should be considered along with other passive design
features such as location, orientation and layout, window size and placement, and thermal mass.
See design of passive ventilation for detail on how to specify a passive ventilation system.
Passive ventilation
Passive (naturally occurring) ventilation is when air is exchanged in a building through openings in the
building envelope using the stack and wind pressures. It is made up from two sources:
 Controlled through openings such as windows and doors or purpose-built small vents (such as trickle vents
on some windows).
 Uncontrolled by infiltration through unintentional openings such as gaps around windows and doors and
between building components.
Passive ventilation is an essential component of passive design and is a free and environmentally friendly
method of ventilation that is suitable for most New Zealand locations.
In most New Zealand homes, passive ventilation will be sufficient to meet most temperature control and air
quality requirements, so long as it is used in conjunction with localised air extraction systems such as range
hoods and bathroom extractor fans to remove moisture and pollutants.
Using passive ventilation for cooling
In warmer, more humid regions, passive ventilation for cooling should be included in house design. (Design
of passive ventilation explains how to calculate air flow rates).
098
Considerations when designing a home for passive cooling:
 Locate, orient and design a form that maximises exposure to cooling breezes.
 Ensure there are good air flow paths through the building.
 Specify windows that maximise air flow but minimise unwanted heat gain
 Where possible, specify low level (i.e. near the floor) horizontal openings as these are more effective than
vertical openings for ventilation purposes.
To avoid draughts, the maximum air speed recommended for cooling is approximately 7.5 m/s.
Passive ventilation for cooling in the summer must be countered by restricted incoming air in winter, so that
minimum fresh air requirements can be maintained without causing draughts or excessive heat loss.
Active ventilation
Passive ventilation alone will not provide enough air exchange to remove moisture from wet areas such as
bathrooms, kitchens and laundries. In those situations, an air extraction system or other form of active
ventilation is needed to remove moisture.
Other forms of mechanical ventilation are also available and may be useful if a building is very airtight, or
security or other concerns make a passive solution unviable. Heat recovery systems in particular require
very airtight buildings and user education to work efficiently.
For more detail, see active ventilation.
Building Code requirements
Passive ventilation must meet the requirements of Building Code clause G4 Ventilation. This includes
ensuring that spaces within buildings have adequate ventilation for their intended use and occupancy,
having adequate fresh air, and have means to remove moisture, products of combustion and other airborne
contaminants.
Acceptable Solution G4/AS1 provides means of demonstrating compliance, including – for most buildings –
that in occupied spaces the net openable area of windows and other openings must be at least 5% of the
floor area. G4/AS1 also provides means of compliance for removing moisture and contaminants from
kitchens, bathrooms and laundries, and for using active ventilation.
Security and other passive ventilation issues

Natural ventilation design solutions may create other issues such as:
 safety and security concerns
 the ingress of noise and dust from outside entering through openings
 draughts
 aesthetic impact.
These issues must be addressed as part of the total design of the building.
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3.7.1 Design of passive ventilation
A passive ventilation system should be designed to achieve air flow rates that are
sufficient to remove pollutants and are comfortable for occupants.
On this page:
 Factors affecting air flow rates
 Calculating air flow rate
 Designing ventilation features.
The optimum air flow rate will depend on temperature and humidity. The higher the
temperature and humidity, the more air flow is needed to maintain comfortable
temperatures.
Factors affecting air flow rates
Air flow rates depend on:
 prevailing wind direction
 average wind speeds (as a guide, use half the average seasonal speed, as wind speeds
rarely fall below this value)
 how the site is influenced by daily and seasonal variations in wind such as onshore/
offshore winds and how these may change during the day
 building form – whether it enhances or restricts air flow
 surrounding landforms and planting – will they obstruct air flow
 orientation and position of windows, doors, roof ventilators, skylights and vent shafts
 surface pressure coefficients around the building.
Calculating air flow rate
The air flow rate through a ventilation inlet opening forced by wind can be calculated using the formula Q =
Cv x A x v where:
Q = air flow rate (m3/s)
Cv = effectiveness of the openings (assumed to be 0.5–0.6 for perpendicular winds and 0.25–0.36 for
diagonal winds)
A = free area of inlet openings (m2)
v = wind velocity (m/s)
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Ventilating features
When designing a natural ventilation system, the long façade of the building should be facing the prevailing
wind direction, with doors and opening windows providing the ventilation openings.
Ensure that openings (inlet and outlet) are:
 not obstructed
 the same size
 able to control the flow
 located in opposing pressure zones to increase the potential air flow.
Awning windows have a relatively small opening area and are therefore less effective as ventilators
Other ventilating features include:
 maintaining a vertical distance between two openings to create a stack effect, i.e. hot
air rising and thereby enhancing air flow
 shafts to promote air flow
 maximising air flow by designing open plan spaces
 maximising air flow by having openings at different levels or near the ceiling on opposite
sides of the space
 using architectural and landscape features to direct and control air flow - for example,
using casement sashes on the windward façade as these can be more efficient than other
types of sashes, and including opening windows on the leeward face.
In tropical parts of Australia,it is common practice to install louvre windows to provide
good air flow control as well as keeping rain out. Louvres are also fairly common in
warmer, more humid parts of New Zealand.
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3.8 Daylighting
Daylight should be used as much as possible to light a home, both for energy efficiency
and for the health and comfort of occupants.
On this page:
 sources of daylight
 increasing daylight penetration
 improving interior lighting levels.
Ensure that daylight can penetrate fully into the building.
Design requirements for daylighting must be balanced with the client’s requirements for views and privacy.
Daylighting must also be considered alongside buildinglocation, orientation and layout, in order to control
solar access for passive heating and cooling.
Principles for utilising natural light include:
 use diffused light rather than direct sunlight, which requires careful placement and sizing of windows
 avoid over-glazing which may cause glare and heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter.
Sources of daylight
Daylight inside a building comes from three sources:
 Direct sunlight provides both light and solar gain. If the sky is overcast, solar gain is reduced but the
sky dome continues to be the source of daylight.
 External reflection comes from light reflecting from ground surfaces, adjacent buildings, wide
window sills and light shelves. Excessive reflectance may cause glare and should be avoided.
 Internal reflection comes from light reflecting from the internal walls, ceiling and floor. High reflectance
surfaces such as smooth or gloss surfaces, light-coloured finishes and mirrors reflect light around
the room, increasing penetration and also reducing extremes in brightness contrast.
Increasing daylight penetration
The higher the window head, the deeper the daylight will penetrate into the interior. A window will
produce useful illumination to a depth of approximately 1.5 times the window head height.
Therefore, increasing the height of the window head can increase the depth of light penetration up
to two times or more.
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standard
area of good
window
daylight
1.5x window head height penetration
1.5x window
head height
standard
window
Natural light from two directions
Other ways light can be allowed to penetrate into the building interior include:
 installing full-height windows with the head as high as possible (but ensure that the minimum distance
between the head height and the underside of the overhang is maintained)
 using roof-lights for top lighting – insulating glass units (IGUs) must be used for roof glazing to minimise
heat loss
 designing open plan spaces
 installing light shelves
 including high level, clerestory windows
 using glazed internal walls or borrowed lights
 installing lightpipes (proprietary tubular rooflights)
 designing so all spaces requiring daylighting have access to an external wall
 using glass that admits light but reduces glare and UV
 arranging spaces so natural lighting comes from two or more directions.
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Improving interior lighting levels
Use reflective finishes such as light colours, gloss finishes and mirrors to increase the penetration of natural
light into the interior. Reflectance values of light colours increase daylight penetration up 80% from ceilings,
50–70% from walls and 20–40% from floors. The reflectance value for white paint is approximately 75%
when new but drops off as it discolours with age.
Window frames, jambs and sills should also be painted in light colours, and where windows are deep set,
jambs should be splayed or angled towards the interior.
Although floors contribute the least reflectance, a dark-coloured floor finish will reduce the light levels in a
room.
light from clerestory raises daylight

level at the back of the room
daylight levels fall at the

back of the room
Rooflights and clerestory windows improve daylight levels in deep rooms
Because daylight illumination falls off with distance from the windows, adding clerestories, roof-
lights or borrowed lights can improve the level and distribution of daylight.
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a maximum width of 1.5 – 2 times
the height to the top of the window
to ensure daylighting reaches well
into the interior
courtyard
with open or
glazed roof
Maximising daylight and ventilation with a courtyard.
Maximising daylight and ventilation through irregular design.
Maximising daylight and ventilation
To ensure daylight reaches the back wall of a space, make sure the distance from window to wall is
no more than 1.5-2 times the height at the top of the window.
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3.9 Glazing and glazing units
Glazing and glazing units should be designed to admit light while controlling heat gain
and heat loss.
Windows and doors can account for more heat gain or loss than any other element in an insulated building
envelope. A well designed glazing system can improve internal daylight levels, reduce glare, and help
maintain thermal comfort by reducing heat gain and loss. This contributes to energy efficiency by reducing
the need for artificial heating, cooling or lighting.
By considering the transmission of heat and light through the glazing system at the design stage of the
project, window performance can be significantly improved.
Controlling heat loss and gain
Heat is gained and lost through the glazing and through the frame, so it is important to consider both
together.
It is also important to consider both the glazing unit’s insulating properties and its efficiency at letting solar
radiation into the building (this is known as solar heat gain coefficient).
Heat loss and gain can be controlled using insulating glass units (IGUs, commonly known as double glazing).
In most parts of New Zealand, IGUs are necessary to meet Building Code requirements. Even where they
are not required, they are advisable.
Framing and glazing materials, and glazing unit construction, also influence performance. Tinted or coated
glass such as low-emissivity glass can improve thermal performance and/or reduce glare. Timber and uPVC
frames provide better thermal insulation than aluminium; where aluminium is used, the frame should
incorporate a thermal break.
Thermally broken aluminium frames have a very strong spacer with a higher level of thermal performance
between the inner and outer parts of the aluminium frame. BRANZ testing has shown that frames with this
feature can be almost 60% more thermally efficient than those without it.
For best performance, consider the climatic conditions, the design and orientation of the building and its
windows, and the thermal and optical properties of the glazing and glazing units.
For many window systems, performance information is available in NZS 4218.
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WEERS
The Window Energy Efficiency Rating System (WEERS) is a voluntary 6-star rating programme that
compares the thermal performance of windows in housing and small buildings. It was developed by BRANZ
in conjunction with the Window Association of New Zealand (WANZ).
WEERS combines the thermal performance of the frame and glazing, together with the size  of the window,
to calculate an individual thermal performance rating RW for each window, and from that, its star rating.
The more stars that are shown on the window, the more energy efficient it is.
The weighted average RW values for all windows in a houselot are combined to give an RW(av), which is used
to give a WEERS star rating for the houselot.
Houselots of windows that achieve an average RW(av) of 0.32 m2K/W (or above) will achieve ENERGY STAR®
endorsement for the houselot, provided no windows in the thermal envelope are single glazed.
ENERGY STAR
ENERGY STAR-qualified windows reduce heat loss by more than 18% better than standard aluminium-
framed double glazing. An ENERGY STAR window will typically have at least one or both of the following
features:
 double glazing and a frame with a thermal break in the centre of the aluminium joinery, or a frame that is
made from an insulating material such as uPVC or wood.
 low-emissivity (low-E) glass as one pane of double glazing. Low-E glass lets light and heat in, while
reflecting escaping heat back into the room.
ENERGY STAR-qualified windows may also have other special features.
As well as glazing and glazing units, thermal performance of windows and glazed doors will of course be
influenced by other features such as size, orientation, shading, and use of curtains and shutters to prevent
heat loss at night.

Code requirements
Building Code clause H1 Energy Efficiency
requires that buildings are constructed to
provide adequate thermal resistance. The
thermal performance of glazing and glazing
units will have to be considered in
conjunction with other building elements to
determine overall thermal performance and
therefore compliance. See determining
insulation requirements for details.
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3.9.1 Measuring glazing performance: key concepts
Measuring glazing performance: key concepts
Glazing performance is typically measured according to U-value, R-value and solar heat gain coefficient.
On this page:
 R-value
 Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)
 shading coefficient (SC)
Some glazing systems have additional features that are described using other parameters (see BRANZ
Bulletin 579).
R-value
The R-value is the thermal resistance or insulating value of a material. The higher the R-value, the better
the thermal insulating properties of a material.
Total product performance
The thermal performance of a window is influenced by both the glazing and the frame. In order to accurately
determine the thermal performance, both components must be taken into account. (The air infiltration
through a window system is assumed as a constant, so does not influence the R-value in testing or
modelling.)
The thermal performance (R-value) of a glazing system without the frame is typically referred to as the
centre of glazing R-value (Rcog), the frame as Rframe while the thermal performance of a total window
including the glazing system and the frame is referred to as RW.
or a large window, the R-value at the centre of the glazing (Rcog) will have a greater impact on the overall
thermal performance than for a small window, which will be affected more by the frame performance (Rframe)
Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)
The solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) is the total fraction of available solar radiation that is transmitted
through the window as heat gain. It is expressed as a value between 0 and 1, which gives the proportion of
energy from the sun that passes through the window (including frame) into an interior space.
For example, a SHGC value of 0.6 means that 60% of the solar radiation will pass through the window to
the interior and 40% will be excluded.
Windows for passive solar heating must have a high SHGC so the solar radiation is able to enter through the
glazing system. Conversely, windows designed primarily for passive solar cooling must have a low SHGC, as
the glazing must exclude a large amount of the solar radiation.
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Shading coefficient
The shading coefficient (SC) is an older means of assessing the total amount of solar radiation passing
through a glazing system (not including the frame) and is not commonly used now and has been replaced in
literature by the SHGC. It is derived by comparing the solar radiant heat transmission properties of any
glazing system against the solar radiant heat transmission properties of 3 mm clear glass, which has an
SHGC of 0.86 (86%) and is given a shading coefficient of 1.0.
The shading coefficient is calculated by the equation SC = SHGC / 0.86.
For example, for glazing with a SHGC of 0.6, we have 0.6 / 0.86 = 0.69, so the shading coefficient
(SC) is 0.69.
3.9.2 Glazing options for temperature control
Thermal performance of windows and glazed doors is determined by the type of

glass used, the framing material, and the unit’s construction.
On this page:
 Insulating glass units (IGUs)
 Solar control glazing
 Framing materials
 Specifying solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)
All of these factors together determine the thermal – as well as optical – performance of a glazing
unit. All, therefore, must be considered together, along with other elements of passive design such as
window size, placement and orientation, andinsulation in other parts of the building envelope.
Insulating glass units (IGUs)
Insulating glass units (IGUs) may be double- or triple-glazed, although double-glazed units are more
common.
A double-glazed IGU typically consists of two sheets of glass spaced apart, typically with a hollow aluminium
frame that is sealed to both panes. The space between the panes may contain dry air or be filled with argon
gas.
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dessicant filler to keep air space dry
aluminium spacer
glass panes
10-12 mm air space
primary seal
secondary seal
Typical insulating glass unit construction
Insulating glass units (IGUs) can have a significant effect on heat loss or gain, condensation, the
transfer of noise, and other visual and aesthetic properties.
IGUs can limit heat transfer by:
 conduction – due to the high thermal resistance of the air or gas in the space between glazing panes
 convection – due to the inability of the still air between the panes to move and transfer heat
 radiation – due to two or more panes interrupting the radiation of energy and the low emissivity when using
a low-emissivity (low-E) surface.
The minimum spacing between glazing panes should ideally be 12 mm, but the gap can range between 10–
16 mm.
Argon gas
Heat transfer through windows can be reduced by using argon gas between the panes of double glazing.
Argon gas is a low-cost, clear, non-toxic, naturally occurring gas with a lower thermal conductance than air.
Use of argon between glazing panes instead of air can reduce the amount of heat conducted across the gap
and improve the R-value of the glazing by 5–20%.
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Argon also substantially improves the R-value of IGUs where the gap between the panes is narrower than
the recommended 10 mm minimum. Therefore, if the gap between panes must be reduced to 6–8 mm, such
as when retrofitting IGUs into existing timber frame windows, argon gas-filled units should be used.
Krypton gas has a better thermal performance, particularly when small gaps are used, but is more
expensive and is not available in New Zealand.
Other benefits of insulating glass units
In addition to improving the thermal performance of windows, IGUs also provide other benefits such as
reducing condensation, reducing noise transmission, and reducing the need for drapes or curtains (although
these should still be installed for use on cold nights).
Secondary glazing
A less expensive option for improving the thermal performance of existing single-glazed windows is to install
secondary glazing. With this, plastic film, magnetically attached plastic sheet, plain or low-E glass is installed
inside the existing glass with a still air gap between them.
Research (largely carried out at BRANZ) found that secondary glazing gave R-values from 0.36 to 0.57
m2 K/W. This means that secondary glazing can be used as a functional alternative to retrofitted insulating
glass units in existing domestic single-glazed window frames. (In fact, the performance exceeded the
expected performance of IGUs retrofitted into the existing framing due to the secondary glazing effectively
insulating the framing.)
Solar control glazing
Solar control glazing is any glazing that is tinted, has a reflective or a low-E coated surface, or has spectrally
selective characteristics. Many of these properties are frequently combined in one product to provide greater
solar control.
Tinted glazing
Metal oxides are added during manufacture to produce tinted glazing panes. The solar control properties of
tinted glazing operate on the principle that darker colours absorb more heat than lighter colours, so a dark
tinted glazing will typically reach a higher temperature than a lightcoloured tinted glazing.
Tinted glass is therefore sometimes referred to as heat-absorbing glass.
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Total energy passed to the inside Total energy passed to the
= 82% inside= 62%
100 100
% %
78% 48%
transmitted transmitted
5% refl
ected
7% refl 4% absorbed and

ected radiated and
convected inside
11% absorbed and 33% absorbed and

radiated and convected radiated and convected
outside outside
6 mm clear 6 mm heat absorbing
glass glass
Heat transmittance of clear glazing and heat-absorbing glazing

The variation available from advanced IGUs is large because each surface has its own absorption, transmission
and reflection characteristics.
Reflective glazing
Reflective glazing, has coatings typically added to the surface of glazing panes that have a higher reflectivity
than standard glass. The reflectivity can be tuned to selectively:
 reflect short-wave solar radiation, or
 reflect long-wave heat radiation.
The reflective ability depends on the particular coating and on the orientation of theglazing. High-reflectivity
coatings generally have low light transmission properties, but reflective glazing systems with lower
reflectivity and higher light transmission properties are also available for domestic use.
Reflective coatings may be added to tinted glazing to further enhance the solar control performance of
the glazing.
The reflection is typically towards the side with brighter illumination, so at night, the direction of the
reflectivity can change so that the reflection is to the interior.
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approximate total energy passed to the inside = 38 %
100%
29% transmitted
36% reflected
9% absorbed and radiated

and convected inside
26% absorbed and radiated
and convected outside
Heat transmittance of reflecting glazing – a solution for hot climates
Low-E glazing
Low-E coatings are applied to the surface of glazing panes with specific solar control properties. A
microscopically thin metallic coating is added to the glazing surface, which lets light through but reflects
short-wave infrared radiation. This suppresses the radiant heat flow. Converting one pane of a clear double-
glazed IGU to low-E glazing is approximately equivalent to adding a third clear pane.
Low-E coated glazing is generally clear, and different types of coatings are available for high, moderate or
low solar gain.
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Low-E glazing is typically only used with insulated glazing units, which provide protection to the coating from
the possibility of damage. The low-E coating is either:
 on the cavity-face of the inside pane to keep heat in (colder climate)
 on the cavity face of the outside pane to keep heat out (warmer climate).
Other locations are possible for specialist applications. Occasionally, low-E
glazings are used as single panes.
Framing materials
The thermal performance of any window frame will depend on its construction, but in general timber and
uPVC frames provide better thermal insulation than ordinary aluminium frames.
Thermally broken aluminium frames have a very strong spacer with a higher level of thermal performance
between the inner and outer parts of the aluminium frame. BRANZ testing has shown that frames with this
feature can be almost 60% more
thermally efficient than those without it.
The following table shows the R-values for different types of frames and different glazing systems. The
higher the number, the better the insulating performance.
Comparison of typical window (frame and glass) R-values (Rwindow)
Window frame Single IGU with 4 IGU with 4 IGU with 4 mm IGU with 4 mm glass,
material glazing mm glass and mm glass and glass, 12 mm air 12 mm air space,
8 mm air 12 mm air space and low-e low-e pane and argon
space space pane gas fill
Aluminium R0.15 R0.25 R0.26 R0.31 R0.32
Thermally R0.17 R0.30 R0.31 R0.39 R0.41

broken
aluminium
Timber R0.19 R0.34 R0.36 R0.47 R0.51
uPVC R0.19 R0.34 R0.36 R0.47 R0.51
The actual Rwindow is dependent on the glazing, frame material and window size.
Source: NZS 4218:2009 Thermal insulation – Housing and small buildings (provided by Standards new
zealand under licence 001148) andwww.smarterhomes.org.nz/design/glazing/double-glazing-glass-options/
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Specifying solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)
When specifying glazing units:
 Where passive solar gain is desirable, east-, north- and perhaps west-facing windows should
have windows with high SHGC.
 Where late afternoon passive solar gain is undesirable, west-facing windows should have a
low SHGC (less than 0.4).
 Where passive solar cooling is required, low SHGC windows should be used for north- and
west-facing windows.
 For south-facing windows, the SHGC has less effect, but where passive solar gain is
desirable, glazing should have a high R-value and a high SHGC.
The SHGC does not necessarily have a direct correlation to visible light transmittance. For
example, some advanced tinted float glazing will allow a high transmission of visible light but
also have a low SHGC.
See measuring glazing performance: key concepts for an explanation of SHGC.
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3.10 Controlling indoor air quality
Moisture and contaminants from building materials and activities such as cooking and
heating can harm building occupants’ comfort and health.
Moisture generally results from activities such as cooking and washing, as well as from building occupants’
breathing, and from unflued gas heaters.
Common sources of contamination include smoking, building materials giving off volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), and combustion (of gas, oil or wood) for cooking and heating, which gives off particulates, carbon,
sulphur, nitrogen oxide and complex organic molecules such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Air may also be contaminated by biocontaminants such as mould and fungi spores.
Moisture can affect both thermal comfort and health. Common airborne contaminants have been linked to a
range of symptoms such as headaches, sinus congestion, dizziness, nausea, irritations of the eyes, nose and
throat, respiratory problems, allergies and neurological disorders.
As far as possible, moisture and contaminants should be eliminated (by removing the source of
contamination – for example, removing moulds, and specifying low-VOC building materials) or removed as
close as possible to the source (for example, by using range hoods, extractor fans and vents to remove
moisture and contaminants from cooking and washing).
3.10.1 Humidity and condensation
Humidity and condensation can compromise building occupants' health and comfort,
damage interior finishes, and raise heating costs.
On this page:
 relative humidity (RH)
 reasons for high humidity
 controlling humidity
 maintaining a comfortable humidity range
 condensation.
Relative humidity (RH)
Air usually contains water vapour, the amount depending primarily on the temperature of the air. Warm air
can hold more moisture than cold air, so as the air temperature falls, the maximum amount of water the air
can hold also falls.

The ratio of water vapour in the air to the maximum amount of water vapour the air can hold at a particular
temperature is expressed as relative humidity (RH). For example, a RH of 30% means that the air contains
30% of the moisture it can possibly hold at that particular temperature.
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When air can hold no more moisture at a given temperature (i.e. the RH is 100%), the air is said to be
saturated.
As air temperature increases, its capacity to hold moisture also increases, so if air temperature rises and its
moisture content remains the same, the RH decreases.
Humidity affects both thermal comfort and indoor air quality. For example:
 high RH (very moist air) will make people feel chilled in cold weather and hot and sticky in warm weather
 low RH (very dry air) can cause dryness and discomfort in the nose and make skin feel dry and itchy.
In addition to the direct effect on comfort, damp air:
 facilitates the growth of fungi (mould) and bacteria that can cause respiratory problems and/or allergic
reactions
 provides the conditions for dust mite populations to grow, which can affect asthma sufferers
 results in odours in poorly ventilated spaces because of fungal growth
 will result in condensation forming on windows, walls and ceilings that are colder than the air temperature
and potentially damaging building materials.
Reasons for high humidity
Household activities such as cooking, washing and using unflued gas heaters, as well as peoples’
breathing, provide the primary sources of moisture that cause humidity indoors. (A person exhales
approximately 200 millilitres of water vapour per hour while awake and approximately 20 millilitres of
water vapour per hour during sleep).
Other sources of moisture may also include:
 water leakage through the building envelope
 damp ground conditions under suspended timber floors
 retained construction moisture, i.e. moisture retained in building materials such as timber framing, concrete
floors and plaster, after installation
 plumbing leaks.
Controlling humidity
Internal humidity can be controlled by:
 passive ventilation by opening windows for cross ventilation
 removing moisture at source, for example, using an extract fan in the bathroom, using a rangehood in the
kitchen, venting a dryer to the outside and using only externally vented gas heaters
 raising indoor temperatures by heating or insulating, since warmer temperatures imply lower relative
humidities, see above
 occupants not drying clothes on racks inside.
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To prevent moisture from the space under a floor getting into the building and increasing the levels of
internal moisture:
 ensure there is good ventilation under suspended timber floors – clear openings of 3500 mm2 per square
metre of floor area must be provided
 cover the ground with a vapour barrier such as polyethylene sheet where there is high ground water content
under the building or where sufficient underfloor ventilation cannot be provided. (Even with a vapour barrier,
minimum subfloor ventilation openings of 700 mm2 per square metre of floor area must still be provided.)
The most effective passive ventilation to remove internal moisture is simply to open windows. These should
preferably be on opposite sides of the building to maintain a good cross air flow.
Vents in window frames allow air movement while maintaining security when the house is closed up. The
recommended minimum vent area is 4000 mm2 of air opening per room space for an average size room.
This can be achieved by a 600 mm long vent in a window frame.
Maintaining a comfortable humidity range
New Zealand has a year round, outdoor RH of between 70–80% in coastal areas and about 10% lower
inland.
Indoor relative humidities are generally lower than outdoor relative humidities ranging, in New Zealand
dwellings, from 30% to 65% during the day-time in a “dry” house, and 50% to 75% in a “damp” house.
Cold bedrooms can have relative humidities of 80% - 90% at night-time. Generally, most people will be
comfortable in a humidity range of 30–80% if the air temperature is in a range of 18–24ºC.
By insulating to help retain heat in winter and providing adequate ventilation to remove indoor moisture
generated by occupants, heating requirements (and costs) may be reduced without compromising
occupant comfort.
Condensation
Condensation occurs when warm, moisture-laden air comes into contact with a colder surface such as glass.
The air temperature in contact with the colder surface suddenly drops, reducing the amount of moisture it
can hold. This results in moisture formation, or condensation, occurring on the cold surface.
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Condensation is most obvious on uninsulated, heat conductive surfaces like glass, and is less noticeable on
surfaces such as plasterboard. Nevertheless, it does occur on all surfaces that are cold enough and becomes
apparent by mould growth on walls and ceilings. It can also be seen where ‘pattern’ staining on walls
identifies the location of timber framing behind the wall lining.
Condensation causes damage to interior paintwork, the inside surface of wall linings, floor coverings,
curtains, and furnishings. It results in increased heating costs (as additional energy is required to convert
condensation back into vapour which is taken up by the air as the temperature rises), and presents a health
hazard.
Condensation can be controlled in two ways: first, by reducing humidity (by reducing sources of humidity
and through effective ventilation as explained above) so that air is less likely to become saturated; second,
by reducing the likelihood of warm air coming into contact with cold surfaces. This can be achieved through
insulation.
Changing from single glazed windows to double glazing with standard aluminium frames may not get rid of
condensation problems. Aluminium is a good conductor of heat. On very cold days, the inside of the frame
can be almost as cold as the outside, and moist air inside the house then condenses on the frames and runs
down.
Thermally-broken aluminium frames have a spacer with a higher level of thermal performance between the
inner and outer parts of the metal frame. BRANZ testing has shown that frames with this feature can be
almost 60% more thermally efficient than those without it. This can significantly reduce the risk of
condensation.
Other options to reduce condensation include using composite aluminium/timber frames, timber or uPVC
frames. Specifying window frames with built-in passive ventilation is also a good idea.
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3.10.2 Controlling airborne contaminants
Airborne contaminants such as formaldehyde and combustion products can harm building
occupants' health.
On this page:
 combustion products
 volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
 biocontaminants.
There are a number of common indoor air pollutants that are of concern. They can be classified as
combustion products, VOCs (volatile organic compounds), formaldehyde, fibres and
biocontaminants.
Wherever possible, contaminants should be eliminated or removed at source - for example by specifying
low-VOC paints and finishing materials, or by venting gas heaters outside. Risks from some contaminants
can be dealt with through adequate ventilation - either passive or active.
Combustion products
Cigarette smoke contaminants
A wide range of toxic and carcinogenic products are produced by smoking, many of which are adsorbed onto
surfaces in the room from where they revolatilise into the room even without a smoker present.
Inorganic oxides
Carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen dioxide(NO2) are combustion products from the
burning of fuels, both fossil and biofuel (such as wood). Humans and animals also emit CO2 as a metabolism
waste product.
Relatively high levels of CO2 makes a space seem stuffy, and very high levels cause drowsiness, headaches
and dizziness. CO is far more hazardous, as it is taken up in blood in preference to oxygen, which can lead
to death when exposure is high enough. CO is produced by poorly maintained gas appliances, including
unflued portable gas heaters. It also occurs when appliances are being run in very airtight spaces, where
oxygen depletion leads to incomplete combustion and the formation of CO as a result.
NO2 is produced by devices such as unflued portable gas heaters and aggravates asthma. At high levels, it
can lead to respiratory distress.
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons
An emission from combustion, polyaromatic hydrocarbons are particularly from burning coal and wood.
Some of these compounds are carcinogenic.
Particulates
Particulates are tiny particles suspended in the air as a result of combustion, such as fires, gas appliances
and smoking cigarettes. The smallest of these particles can lodge deep within the lung and cause respiratory
issues.
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Dealing with combustion products
To minimise harmful effects from combustion products:
 specify efficient appliances - ones with low emissions of harmful poducts (for example, efficient
wood or wood pellet burners in preference to open fireplaces)
 vent harmful combustion products outside - for example, using range hoods over gas burners
and using only flued gas heaters.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) include a wide range of hydrocarbon compounds that are emitted as
gases from different materials. Many building materials that are used and produced in the manufacture of
paints, resins, adhesives, polyurethanes, epoxies, solvents, sealants and some cleaning products contain
VOCs. The term ‘organic’ indicates that the compounds contain carbon.
They can have a range of effects on occupants including headaches, dizziness and respiratory irritation.
Long-term exposure at high levels, which is more common at the workplace than at home, can cause kidney
and liver effects, cancer and chromosomal damage.
VOCs can be controlled by careful choice of products and by ventilating the house well. It is important to
know that VOC levels are quite high when a house is just built while materials off-gas their most freely
evaporated volatiles but VOC levels then fall as time goes by.
Building products that release VOCs include:
 paints, polyurethanes and varnishes that are manufactured from formaldehyde, mercury, arsenic,
selenium, lead or cadmium
 adhesives and resins
 solvents
 wallpaper, vinyl and carpet
 furnishing foams and fabrics
 LOSP-treated timber
 manufactured wood products such as some particleboards, medium density fibreboard (MDF)
and plywood.
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Cleaning products and chemical processes
VOCs may react together and produce other compounds. Over 900 compounds have been identified in
buildings including toluene, xylene, styrene, acetaldehyde, paradichlorobenzene, ethylbenzene,
chloropyrifos, tetradecane, di-n-butyl phthalate and diazinon.
Formaldehyde and urea-formaldehyde
Formaldehyde is a chemical used extensively in the manufacture of building materials and household
products. It is also a byproduct of combustion from unvented, fuel-burning appliances, such as gas stoves,
unflued gas and kerosene heaters and from cigarettes.
It is commonly used in the production of resins and glues (urea-formaldehyde products), which are
incorporated into many building materials, particularly manufactured wood products such as some
particleboards, plywood and medium density fibreboard (MDF).
Formaldehyde and urea-formaldehyde gases have an irritating, pungent odour and are considered to have
an adverse effect on health and performance when levels are above about 0.1 parts per million (ppm).
They will off-gas at room temperature particularly when the building products are new, so new buildings
should be well ventilated, particularly during construction and for the first 4–6 weeks of occupation, to allow
new building products to off-gas most of their formaldehyde and thus reduce the risk of formaldehyde gas
irritation.
Controlling VOCs
VOCs are primarily released when materials or products are newly installed or applied. Over time, the level
of emissions will reduce.
VOC emissions can be controlled by:
 providing adequate ventilation, particularly during construction and the first 4–6 weeks of occupation
 using low-VOC or VOC-free building materials/products
 sealing materials, where practicable, to contain the VOCs by using

low-VOC or VOC-free polyurethane, or alkyd or acrylic paints.
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Biocontaminants
Biocontaminants include mould, fungi, bacteria (including legionella), viruses, protozoa, pollens and dust
mites. They are sometimes also referred to as microbial contaminants or micro-organisms.
They are generally associated with moist environments and can cause respiratory problems.
Biocontaminant risk should be minimised by:
 providing ventilation to reduce relative humidity and remove airborne biocontaminants
 removing moisture and pollutants at source by installing automated extract ventilation systems in spaces
such as bathrooms and kitchens
 installing insulation and/or heating systems to help maintain warm interior spaces
 having clean surface finishes that are easy to wipe down
 having surfaces and finishes that are not conducive to mould growth or do not harbour micro-organisms
 designing so that floors with carpet finish have regular exposure to sunlight.
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3.11 Controlling noise
Noise is a nuisance and can contribute to loss of sleep, stress, and ill health.
For a house to be comfortable, it must be designed so that its layout and structure keep noise to acceptable
levels and that most activities can be carried out without undue interference from internal or external noise.
To design for noise control, it is important to understand potential sources of noise, types of noise, and how
noise travels along sound paths.
Designing for noise control can be difficult because sources of noise are not necessarily apparent at design
stage, and sound paths may not always be obvious.
Sources of noise
The most common sources of noise in a house are:
 externally generated noise from outside the site such as traffic, trains, aeroplanes, neighbours and schools
 externally generated noise from within the site such as wind on the building, rain on the roof, heat pumps
and water pumps
 internally generated noise such as loud conversation, washing machines, dishwashers, stereos, televisions
and air conditioners
 impact noise through the structure such as footsteps (particularly on stairs) and children playing
 noise from services such as toilet flushing.
Noise can be airborne (for example, noise from traffic or a television set) or structure-borne (for example,
the sound of a door slamming or footsteps from someone upstairs – this is known as impact noise).
Controlling noise
Where possible, noise should be controlled at source – for example, by specifying quiet
appliances.
Where noise cannot be controlled, its effects can be reduced through a combination of good building
design and layout (which ensures, for example, that quiet areas of the building are located away from
sources of noise, or there are buffers between the noise and occupied spaces), and structural features
such as sound attenuating walls and windows that limit airborne and impact noise. See controlling noise
through design and layout for detail
Code requirements
Building Code clause G6 Airborne and impact sound applies to neighbouring tenancies, and imposes limits on
sound transmission in walls, floors and ceilings, and impact sound in floors.
To meet these requirements, a specific acoustic wall and floor construction system must be used.
Information on sound ratings of specific systems is available in manufacturers’ trade literature.
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3.11.1 Noise: basic concepts
An understanding of how sound travels and reverberates can help designers to minimise
noise in the building.
On this page:
 sound perception
 sound paths
 reverberation
 measuring sound transmission.
Noise is pressure waves transmitted through the air. Sound pressure is measured in decibels
(dB). The range of human hearing is from about 0 dB, the threshold of our hearing, to 140 dB,
which is above the threshold of pain.
Sound perception
Sound perception is individual i.e. some people enjoy music at levels that other people find painful and
annoying.
For every increase of 3 dB, the sound energy is approximately doubled, so a 5 dB increase in sound is
readily noticeable – 10 dB is 10 times more powerful than 0 dB, 20 dB is 100 times more powerful than 0
dB, 30 dB is 1,000 times more powerful than 0 dB, and so on.
Sound pressure decreases as distance from the source increases.
High frequency noise is considered more harmful to hearing than low frequency noise, but it is more difficult
to reduce the impact of low frequency noise such as from a bass guitar or traffic.
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Sound paths
Sound can reach the receiver by:
 following a direct path from the source
 being deflected off one or more surfaces
 passing over or around obstructions or through small gaps
 travelling through solid materials such as the building elements.
Sound is able to pass through gaps and cracks, which means that any break in a sound barrier will
reduce its effectiveness. Examples include gaps around doors, keyholes, ceiling spaces above walls,
gaps or cracks around partitions, windows that do not seal well, degraded seals around glazing
panes, power outlets, light switches and pipework penetrations. All of the ways in which sound can
enter a space must be considered.
Sound is dampened by passing through materials of high mass, therefore lightweight materials (such as
lightweight doors) do not dampen sound as much as heavy materials, such as solid doors.
floor or roof space
ceiling
sound travels through the source of sound

ceiling space
sound-attenuated wall
Sound loss through the ceiling space
Sound is blocked by the acoustic-insulated wall but passes through the untreated ceiling.
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sound attenuated wall
sound travels through gaps in the lining

cut out for back to back power outlets light switch
or switches
source of sound
Sound paths through electrical fittings
Sound will travel through any break in an acoustic system such as back-to-back power outlets. This
will reduce the effectiveness of the acoustic system.
Reverberation
Reverberation is the sound that continues to reflect off surfaces after the noise has stopped at source.
Reverberation time is the time that sound continues to be reflected. A long reverberation time (three
seconds or more) will mask the original sound and become background noise that makes conversation
difficult.
Sound reverberates from hard surfaces such as walls and hard floors, whereas soft surfaces such as carpets,
curtains and soft furnishings absorb sound instead of reflecting it. A room with a lot of sound-absorbent
material will seem to be quieter than a room with hard surfaces.
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Measuring sound transmission
The amount of noise that a building element (such as a wall, floor, door or sheet of glass) is capable of
stopping is expressed as a sound transmission class (STC) rating. The higher the STC number, the greater
the noise reduction. For example, a wall with an STC rating of:
 30 dB has little sound-control effectiveness
 35 dB allows normal conversation to be heard through the wall
 40 dB allows loud conversation to be heard through the wall
 50 dB will prevent loud conversation from being heard through the wall.
Under NZBC clause G6 Airborne and impact sound, 55 dB is the inter-tenancy wall STC rating requirement.
Other sound transmission ratings are:
 Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) – the rate of sound absorption of a building element
 Impact Insulation Class (IIC) – the degree to which impact sound is absorbed
3.11.2 Controlling noise through design and layout

The impact of noise can be reduced through building layout and other design
elements.
Where noise cannot be controlled at source, good design can help to reduce its impact. It is important to
consider noise control from the beginning of the design project.
Consider all potential sources of noise from both outside and inside the home, and consider all potential
sound paths – including direct paths (for example, through doors and windows) and indirect paths (for
example, when sound is deflected off walls, or passes through minor gaps in walls, or passes around
obstructions such as fences).
Also consider both airborne noise (such as noise from traffic and stereos) and impact noise (such as
slamming doors or footsteps in a floor above), and the impacts of reverberation from hard surfaces.
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Controlling noise
Key strategies include: controlling noise at source; increasing distance from the noise source; closing
potential sound paths (such as openings in walls facing sources of noise); and using mass, insulation or
buffering to block the noise.
Adding sound control features to a building retrospectively can be expensive, so where possible, aim to
control sound at its source. For example:
 use quieter appliances
 minimise vibration noise by placing appliances on rubber pads or proprietary anti-vibration mounts
 install sound-absorbent surfaces in rooms that are potential sources of noise such as laundries,
children’s playrooms, and rooms where loud music or games may be played.
Where noise cannot be controlled at source:
 increase the distance between the noise and the location where it will be heard – for example, locate the
building as far as possible from a noisy street frontage
 use zones to control noise, by grouping noisy or quiet activity spaces together
 don’t locate windows or doors towards sources of noise
 avoid direct and flanking sound paths by off-setting doors and windows from noise sources
 provide a buffer space or spaces between quiet and noisy spaces – for example, by locating a wardrobe
between bedrooms
 incorporate mass into external walls to block external noise, or use fencing or earth mounding
 use sound-attenuating exterior walls or sound-insulated interior partitions to control noise
Noise control should be considered alongside other factors such as orientation for passive heating and
cooling, views, privacy, and ventilation. Compromises may be necessary, for example if opening windows
are needed for ventilation or solar access on a wall facing a source or noise.
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zone for
rooms
quiet outdoor area
with most
sensitivity
to noise
such as
bedrooms,
study, living zone for rooms with moderate sensitivity to noise such
room as kitchen, bathrooms, workrooms, living or dining
zone for rooms least sensitive to noise such as garages,

bathrooms, laundries
sources of noise
Zone planning for known external sources of noise
When designing a home, locate noise-sensitive rooms such as studies and bedrooms away from
noisy activity spaces such as the laundry and garage, and away from sources of external noise such
as roads. The least noise-sensitive space such as the garage and laundry can be located closer to
source of noise where they will also provide a buffer zone. Internal wall may also be constructed
using a proprietary acoustic wall construction system utilising double studs, resilient channels,
multiple layers of linings and sound absorbing insulation.
Zoning in most easily achieved with new houses, but it may be possible to re-allocate rooms or
make suitable alterations in existing houses. When you’re considering zoning for noise, you must
also consider orientation for sun, views and wind.
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3.11.2.1 Noise control in the building envelope
Exterior building elements can be constructed to limit the effects of exterior noise.
On this page:
 sound-attenuating external walls
 sound-attenuating roofs
 sound-attenuating external doors and windows
The two types of noise that the building envelope must be able to keep out are:
 airborne sound passing through gaps and openings
 structure-borne sound from impact or vibration.
Sound-attenuating walls, roofs, windows and doors can be used to block external sources of noise.
They are frequently difficult and costly to retrofit into existing homes so they should be considered
during the design stage of a new building.
Sound-attenuating external walls

Where external walls face a source of outdoor noise, they should be of heavy construction and without
windows or doors if possible. If doors or windows are necessary, doors should be solid with seals
around the opening, and windows should preferably be non-opening, using sound-attenuating
laminated panes.
Acoustic performance of framed walls may also be improved by:
 using staggered stud framed construction
 incorporating proprietary sound absorbing materials into the ceiling construction
 using a proprietary acoustic rated wall construction system.
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Options for sound-attenuating wall construction
high density cladding such as

9 mm fibre-cement board
100 mm framing
20 mm cavity
insulation
wall underlay
2 x 10 mm plasterboard
sheet internal lining
External sound envelope (fibre cement cladding)
A high-density sheet cladding with sealed joints, thermal insulation, and sound attenuating interior
lining will provide sound reduction using lightweight construction.
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brick veneer cladding
cavity 100 mm framing
wall underlay
thermal insulation
rigid air barrier such as

2/9 mm plasterboard lining
fibre cement sheet
External sound envelope (brick veneer)
A brick or concrete masonry veneer with a rigid air barrier, thermal insulation and sound
attenuating interior lining uses heavy weight construction to provide effective sound reduction.
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thermal insulation
high density external cladding
50 mm strapping
20 mm cavity
2 x 10 mm plasterboard lining
dpc behind battens
20 series concrete blocks (with

built-in thermal insulation)
External sound envelope (concrete masonry)
A high density sheet cladding installed over battens, interior strapping, thermal insulation and
sound-attenuating interior lining will provide an effective sound barrier.
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Sound-attenuating roofs
Sound-attenuating roofs are difficult to achieve. One option is a concrete slab roof but this would only be
justified in extreme circumstances such as under the flight path of planes at low level.
Other options that include the ceiling construction as an integral part of the sound attenuation system:
 Bitumen-impregnated underlay under long-run profiled metal roofing – a low-cost option that will reduce
rain noise, but most other noise will be transferred through the fixings.
 Concrete or tiled roofing – this will reduce the impact noise of rain and hail but airborne noise will be able to
penetrate through the gaps in the roofing.
 Long-run profiled metal roofing with plywood underlay, thermal insulation, a sound-attenuating ceiling
without down-lights, no rooflights and the roof vented on the side away from the source of noise – this will
provide effective sound reduction
 Incorporating proprietary sound absorbing materials into the ceiling construction.
Sound-attenuating external windows and doors
Windows
Windows in walls that must be sound-attenuating should preferably be non-opening, since air currents carry
sound. Options for sound-attenuating windows:
 Thicker glass means greater mass, and hence some sound reduction. This tends to work better with lower
frequency sounds.
 Standard laminated glass will provide significant sound reduction as long as the window is not opened. The
resin layer between the two panes of glass dampens sound vibrations. Acoustic laminated glass has a centre
layer that is softer and more elastic, designed specifically to reduce noise transmission.
 Insulating glass units (IGUs) are an effective option as long as the window is not opened. Laminated glass
can be used in IGUs. For optimal performance, specify double-glazed windows with a non-metal spacer
between the sheets of glass – they transmit less sound than windows using traditional metal spacers.
 Fitting additional glazing to the window reveal – a very effective option although it may prevent the window
being opened.
Sound-control glass will only perform properly if all air gaps around a window are properly sealed.
When windows are open, any sound rating is lost. In some situations, windows may only need to be closed
for part of the day such as during rush hour or during school break times.
Where windows must remain closed to reduce noise, mechanical ventilation systems may be needed to
replace the lost ventilation.
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Doors
Sound-attenuating doors should:
 be solid core doors
 not have glazed panels, or be fitted with sound-stopping laminated glass
 have brush, foam or rubber seals all round.
3.11.2.2 Noise control in interior partitions
Interior noise can be controlled by sealing joints and incorporating sound-

absorbing materials.
On this page:
 noise control in new partitions
 noise control in existing partitions
 noise control in ceilings
 noise control in timber floors.
In general, internal sound-reducing construction should have mass and sound-absorbent material.
All joints should be sealed (to minimise air gaps through which sound might pass), and – as much as
possible – the structure between the linings should be discontinued.
air gap helps to

reduce sound
transfer
sound
some sound
reverberates in the
cavity and is plasterboard
transferred lining
plasterboard sound absorbing insulation

lining reduces the reverberation
component in the cavity (it
does not ‘stop’ sound)
sound
timber
frame
sealant reduces sound
fl oor transfer through tiny
gaps between fram-ing
and fl oor
Reducing sound transfer through a cavity partition
The amount of sound loss through a wall will depend on the mass of the wall linings, gaps through
the wall and whether an acoustical fill material has been installed.
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Noise control in new partitions
Options for sound-reducing construction for new internal partitions:

 A standard 90 x 45 mm timber partition with two layers of 10 mm plasterboard one side, sound absorbing
insulation and one or two layers of plasterboard on the other side – good noise reduction.
 A staggered stud partition with 140 x 45 mm bottom and top plates, 90 x 45 mm off-set studs, sound-
absorbing insulation woven around the studs and 13 mm plasterboard on both sides – moderate noise
reduction.
 Double wall construction with two 190 x 45 mm partitions and a 10 mm gap, studs in each partition off-set
from the other partition, sound-absorbing insulation between studs and two layers of 10 mm plasterboard
both sides – excellent noise reduction.
Solid masonry construction provides an excellent acoustic barrier as well as providing thermal mass.
A key to acoustic design is ensuring that there are no gaps or paths in the completed construction through
which noise can pass. This includes:
 avoiding service penetrations in the acoustic wall
 sealing around the perimeter of the wall.
Noise control in existing partitions
Options for improving sound transmission reduction to existing partitions:
 Adding an additional layer of 10 mm plasterboard on both sides of a standard timber partition.
 Removing the lining from one side of a standard timber partition, adding sound-absorbing insulation and two
layers of 10 mm plasterboard on one side and another layer of 10 mm plasterboard on the other side.
 Building an additional partition beside a standard timber partition that has had the lining removed on the
face adjacent to the new partition, adding sound-absorbing insulation, two layers of 10 mm plasterboard on
the external face of the new partition and an additional layer of 10 mm plasterboard on the external face of
the existing partition.
Noise control in ceilings

For both new and existing ceilings, improve sound transmission reduction by:
 adding an additional layer of 10 mm or 13 mm plasterboard
 removing existing lining and installing resilient batten fixings to existing battens, sound-absorbing insulation
and two layers of 10 mm plasterboard.
 Removing open down-lights or other ceiling penetrations
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Noise control in timber floors
Standard floor/ceiling construction with particle board or plywood flooring and a 10 mm plasterboard ceiling
below has low resistance to impact noise (IIC32). Options for improving the resistance to impact noise
include:
 a standard floor construction with sound absorbing insulation, a ceiling system with proprietary resilient
batten fixings and steel battens and two layers of 10 mm plasterboard
 a standard floor/ceiling construction with carpet and rubber underlay
 a standard floor construction with carpet and rubber underlay, sound-absorbing insulation, a ceiling system
with proprietary resilient batten fixings and steel battens, two layers of 10 mm plasterboard and carpet and
rubber underlay.
Squeaking timber floors
Timber floors can generate noise by squeaking and transmitting sounds such as footsteps and scraping
chairs. To avoid squeaking:
 the flooring should be glued as well as screw-fixed to the joists
 the framing must be dry (less that 24% MC) when the flooring is installed
 timber floor boards must be securely cramped and nailed.
For more help, see BRANZ bulletin BU521 Squeaky floors.
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3.11.2.3 Fences, walls and earth mounds as sound barriers
High-mass fences or walls, or earth mounds, can reduce external noise as long as the
source is lower than or level with the barrier.
Barriers will not reduce noise that originates from above the barrier.
sunlight
sound attenuated
roof and wall
sound stopping light
barrier
source of high
noise
zone for rooms zone for rooms zone for outdoor
not sensitive sensitive to noise living
to noise
Design factors for a site with loud noise source on the north side
The ideal house orientation may not be possible if there is a significant source of noise from the north side.
Careful design can minimise the disturbance caused by the noise, while still allowing sun into the house:
 Brick/concrete walls: A 2.0 m high brick or concrete masonry wall is an effective barrier against direct noise,
but some noise will pass over the barrier.
 Earth mounds: A similar effect may be achieved by building an earth mound to a similar height.
 Timber fences: A 2.0 m high timber fence with solid palings (no gaps), sheet material or a combination of
both will create an effective noise barrier. The palings or sheet material should have a minimum mass of 12
kilograms per square metre. The fence must have no gaps or cracks or no spaces under the fence at the
ground level. Some noise may pass over the barrier. The effectiveness of the barrier can be improved by
building the fence on top of a bank or rise. The maximum height of fencing is governed by requirements in
the district plan, which can be obtained from the local council.
 Trees and shrubs: These are not effective as an acoustic barrier but they provide a visual barrier and may
have psychological benefits.
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3.12 Environment and climate change
Buildings should be designed to use energy efficiently, and to cope with a changing
environment and climate. Anyway, the wording "climate change" is to be understood as a
normal pattern of seasons within a circle of perhaps 500 years, not a change of climate
or global warming as a result of manmade pollution of environment. Environment change
in contrast is caused by the human race in conflict with itself, foremost through greed,
hatred, negligence and the other vices that determines behavior.
New Zealand’s energy-related greenhouse gas emissions are not contributing to climate change.
Nevertheless emissions coming from using fossil fuels for heating and cooking and generating electricity for
appliances and space and water heating, cooling and ventilation can be prevented for a immediate healthier
environment. Smoking of cigarettes inside the house or dogs being kept inside the house change the
environment more drastically to unhealthy living than all the mentioned climate change effects together.
Anyway, changing rainfall, wind, temperature, storm and other climatic patterns will all influence building
design – for example, by requiring buildings in some parts of the country to cope with stronger wind
loads or more intense rainfall.
Buildings can be designed to minimise greenhouse gas emissions from energy use. Most importantly,
passive design features can help to reduce energy use for heating, cooling, lighting and other activities.
Over the life of a building, small gains in efficiency can add up to significant reductions in emissions.
The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) noted that climate change effects may
be due to more extreme and more frequent weather events such as floods, droughts and storms, rather
than changes in average weather conditions.
Environment and climate changes affect home design. When designing for environment and climate change,
designers will need to consider:
 temperature  cigarette smoke
 rainfall  domestic animals inside the house
 solar radiation and UV intensity  insect pests
 wind  impact of emissions charges
 rising sea levels  changes to building/planning rules.
 fire risk
It is not just design of new buildings that needs to be considered. Most of the buildings that will be
standing in 2050 already exist, so improving the energy efficiency of the current building stock is
important.
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Temperature
Ministry for the Environment projections for likely future average temperature changes (universal and
seasonal changes).
If changes occur, they may affect thermal comfort and the demand for airconditioning inside homes. If
there is also an associated rise in humidity, there may potentially be an increase in mould and fungi growth
that could in turn result in a rise in health issues.
Rainfall
The Ministry for the Environment also gives projections for changes in rainfall, and in some areas this will
be considerable. Hokitika is expected to see an increase in average winter rainfall of 21% by 2090; for
Queenstown, the average winter rainfall could increase by 29%.
Extreme rainfall is to be expected, particularly in the south and west. This will put more pressure on
stormwater and sewer systems and on roof drainage. The risk of flooding is a potential threat, and
properties in low-lying areas are more likely to be at risk.
M. of E. estimates that West Coast winter thunderstorms could occur four times as often by the end of
the century as they do now.
Summer rainfall could reduce, which effects water supplies. Droughts are expected in areas that are
already currently drought-prone.
Higher temperatures, lower summer rainfall, increased winter rainfall, increased evapo-transpiration and
changes to water table levels can effect seasonal patterns of soil wetting/drying. This again can effect the
risk of subsidence, particularly for building foundations on clay soil or for buildings adjacent to banks or
cliffs.
Solar radiation and UV intensity
UV intensity is a given in NZ and could increase. UV radiation is currently a major cause of polymer
degradation (for example, plastic, rubber, wood lignin).
The effects of solar radiation through changes in cloud levels or sunshine hours are uncertain.
Wind
The westerly wind flow across New Zealand could turn to more stronger winds. According to one
projection, the frequency of winds of 30 m/s can increase to 60m/s.
The number of storms and tropical cyclones could increase, although projections are uncertain. One scenario
is that the number of tropical cyclones reaching New Zealand may reduce, but those that do get here may
have greater impact.
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Rising sea levels
The Ministry for the Environment recommends planning for at least a 0.5 m rise in sea level.
In November 2015, the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment released a report Preparing New
Zealand for rising seas: Certainty and Uncertainty.
The report estimates that about 9,000 New Zealand homes stand less than 0.5 m above spring high tide
levels. Cities with large areas that are particularly low-lying include Napier, Lower Hutt, Christchurch, and
Dunedin. Dunedin has 2600 homes below this threshold. Some small towns also significantly affected:
Whakatane, for example, has 276 homes in this category.
However, the risk of children drowning in a domestic swimming pool which is not under surveillance of its
guardians and pools without properly installed fence is higher than the risk of drowning in a flood caused
by rising sea levels.
Fire risk
The fire risk could increase in eastern locations because of reduced summer rainfall and increasingly dry
vegetation. The sun is hot but the smoldering, burning part of a cigarette is hotter. Smoke suckers
therefore need specific attention to installation of smoke detectors, fire alarms, ventilation and choice of
floor covering materials.
Insect pests
Termites and infection-bearing pests such as mosquitoes may be more common in warmer climates
although research suggests that current quarantine and timber treatment practices will be enough to keep
termites away. Dogs inside the house and smoking cigarettes are increasing the potential for insect pests.
Reducing emissions in the building sector

The 2016 Royal Society report found that greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced in the New Zealand
residential and commercial building sectors through better energy management and improved minimum
performance standards for appliances.
Emissions reductions can also result from:
 improving insulation levels
 retrofitting existing building stock
 integrating renewable energy systems
 supporting innovative ‘green building’ designs.
Changes to building/planning rules
Climate change is likely to affect building and urban planning requirements as the government and
local councils seek greater energy efficiency from buildings and require that increased structure,
durability and weathertightness issues are met in the face of more extreme weather events.
Tides and increased numbers of storms and storm surges mean the local governments are likely to
implement restrictions on coastal developments and to refuse consent applications for alterations and
additions to existing building in low-lying coastal regions.

142
3.12.1 Designing for climate change
Buildings should be designed in such a way that they are responsible for few greenhouse
gas emissions.
On this page:
 designing to cope with climate change
 reducing greenhouse gas emissions
New Zealand houses have an average lifespan of over 80 years, and some have lasted over 130
years. Buildings constructed today must therefore be able to deal with climate changes forecast for
the long term. Houses will need to be designed to:
 respond appropriately to a changing climate with higher temperatures, different wind
and rainfall patterns and potentially increased incidence of hazards such as flooding
and storms
 minimise emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases over their usable
lives. Greenhouse gases contribute to climate change.
Buildings are significant emitters of greenhouse gases, firstly in the materials used and the
construction process, and – more significantly – in the energy and other resources used over the life
of the building for heating, cooking and washing. Good passive design can help to minimise energy
use while maintaining a comfortable and healthy environment, so reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.
Designing to cope with climate change
The impact of climate change will vary from region to region. Designers will need to consider:
 incorporating passive solar design features to reduce the need for heating in winter and air-
conditioning in summer
 designing buildings with more shading in response to increased solar radiation
 increasing structural design to deal with increased wind loading
 designing buildings to make more use of natural ventilation
 designing the roof, roof drainage and stormwater run-off to cope with higher and more intense rainfall
 incorporating water-saving features in homes to reduce pressure on urban water supplies (see Water)
 potential flood risk in low-lying areas
 limiting building in flood-prone areas or coastal regions that are likely to experience increased
erosion in the future.
143
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions
Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are emitted through the process of building construction and
use including during:
 material extraction, manufacture, processing and transportation
 construction
 occupation – a typical New Zealand home emits more than 3,000 kg of carbon dioxide every year)
 demolition.
Of these, the most significant is carbon dioxide emission through energy use. Limiting domestic greenhouse
gas emissions is essential to reduce the impact on the environment as well as for economical reasons.
Greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced in a number of ways including:
 selecting a site that can take advantage of passive solar design
 designing an appropriately sized home i.e. if too large, materials and energy will be wasted
 incorporating passive design features such as orientation, insulation, and thermal mass to provide a
comfortable internal environment while minimising energy use
 selecting materials with fewer emissions over their life cycle
 specifying energy-efficient lighting, heating, water heating and appliances
 incorporating rainwater collection and storage
 installing water-use reduction fittings.
144
3.12 Passive House
The Passive House standard is a rigorous, systems-based approach to closing the gap
between the anticipated and actual performance of buildings. The first certified Passive House
home in New Zealand was completed in Auckland in 2012. Many more have followed since.
The idea is to construct buildings that are healthy and comfortable year-round, while needing very little
energy to operate. This is achieved through a quality assurance regime that starts with the design and ends
with the as-built certification.  
Use of interconnected spreadsheets known as the Passive House Planning Package (PHPP) allows the
building’s performance to be accurately modelled before construction.  While certified Passive Houses differ
significantly in appearance and typology, they all perform within a narrow band of performance indicators:
 An annual heating/cooling demand of not more than 15 kWh/m² per year OR a peak heat load of 10 W/m²
 There must not be more than 0.6 air changes per hour at an indoor/outdoor pressure difference of 50 Pa
during a test.
In addition, there are limitations for primary energy renewable demand and, for some certification classes,
also requirements to generate renewable energy on site.
Certified Passive Houses have been built in all climate zones, from very cold to very hot. With New
Zealand's overwhelmingly temperate climate, the targets are far easier to meet than in countries with more
extreme climates. 
Regions around the world are incorporating the Passive House standard into local legislation.
Passive House legislation
In the following section you will find a list of cities and administrative districts that already stipulate
the Passive House standard in their building regulations. This list is always growing. If you know of any
further cities or regions that are implementing the Passive House Standard in their building
regulations, please let us know by sending an email with a link to: info@passivehouse-
international.org.
AT | BE | DE | ES | IE | LU | NO | US
145
3.13.1 International passiv house standard
10 point plan
The Passive House Institute has also published a position paper with recommendations detailing
how cities and communities can effectively take their commitment forward.
Policy tools
The International Passive House Association and the Passive House Institute provide a variety of tools
for policy makers and relevant actors.
Defining the Nearly Zero Energy Building: Passive House + renewables - PassREg Municipalities
lead the way
An accesible informational brochure providing strong examples of how municipalities can implement
NZEBs through the use of Passive House and renewables. Ideal to be shared with local policy makers
and municipal representatives in assisting in defining the Nearly Zero Energy Building.
(available in English and German)
Energy efficiency of the Passive House Standard: expectations confirmed by measurements in

practice (available in English and German)
A comprehensive report showing the planning reliability of the Passive House Standard and its
suitability for municipalities to avoid the performance gap!
Austria
Lower Austria
On 23 January 2008, the State Parliament of Lower Austria resolved to implement the Passive House
Standard for all public buildings. This directive applies to both new builds and retrofit projects. The
State Parliament of Lower Austria budgeted 130 million euros to complete these construction
measures. Read more (in German)
Vorarlberg
In October of 2007, several municipalities in the Austrian state of Vorarlberg pledged to plan and
construct all new public buildings to the Passive House Standard. These municipalities are Altach,
Bregenz, Dornbirn, Frastanz, Götzis, Hörbranz, Krumbach, Langenegg, Mäder, Rankweil, Thüringen,
Wolfurt and Zwischenwasser. An excerpt of the Passive House legislation of the city of Altach may be
taken as an example: “The city of Altach resolves that all public new builds are to be built to the
Passive House Standard. […] A specific heating demand of 15 kWh/m2 is to be demonstrated by means
of the Passive House Planning Package (PHPP); the use of active cooling systems is to be
avoided.” Read more (in German)
Wels
As per its “Passive House Declaration” of 2008, the city of Wels will ensure that all new builds and
future retrofit projects will include renewable energy and energy efficiency goals. New builds are to
be both conceptualized and constructed according to the Passive House Standard. When retrofitting
existing buildings, Passive House Components (insulation, windows, ventilation with heat recovery) are
to be used and the Standard is to be achieved. This policy applies to all developments maintained and
administrated by the city of Wels and the Wels GmbH holding company. Read more
146
3.13.2 Austrian passiv house regulations: A building system as role model
AUSTRIA – COUNTRY REPORT
1.1 Response on questionnaire
• Questionnaire filled in by ATP sustain GmbH

• Questionnaire on sustainable building in Europe, Austria, prepared in the framework of the 3rd Euro-
pean Ministers conference on “Sustainable Housing”, Genval, Belgium, 27-28 June 2002, filled in by
Donau-Universität Krems, for Austria
• ‘The legal two-tier approach in the new Austrian Building Codes’, by Rainer Mikulits (OIB),
RICS/COBRA conference, Dublin 4-5 September 2008
• The impact of energy performance regulations on systems of building control’ by H.Visscher/E. Mlec-
nik/F. Meijer (RICS COBRA Research Conference, University of Cape Town, 10-11th September
2009)
1.2 Introduction of construction regulatory system in Austria
Austria is a federal republic which consists of nine provinces (Länder). Due to the distribution of responsi-
bilities according to the constitutional law from 1929 there has never been one single building law in Aus-
tria, but at least nine different systems, each consisting of a building law (covering the procedures and
functional requirements for building works) and related ‘ordinances’ (covering the technical requirements).
The building regulatory system is currently in the process of being changed. In the future (for most of the
Länder starting in 2008 or 2009) the requirements will be purely functional and harmonized at the level of
provincial laws. Detailed requirements will be set in so called ‘OIB-guidelines’, issued by the Austrian Insti-
tute of Construction Engineering (OIB), a private institution founded by the state governments, which have
also transferred certain duties to OIB. Most of the Länder will in their ordinances refer directly to these
OIB-guidelines, which will also be made compulsory by the ordinances.
In drafting the OIB-guidelines, the principles of performance based building regulations have been taken
into account as far as possible. Nevertheless, the first generation of these guidelines will include a mix of
performance based and prescriptive requirements, in order to insure a certain continuity in the practical
application of building regulations in the Austrian provinces. It is envisaged to replace the remaining pre-
scriptive requirements with performance-based requirements, in a step-by-step manner, in future editions
of the OIB-guidelines. Revisions will be made approximately every three to five years.
It will be possible to deviate from the OIB-guidelines, when an equivalent level of safety can be demon-
strated. The OIB-guidelines themselves can also further refer to Austrian standards and other technical
documents.
The purpose of the building law, which applies to all buildings, is to ensure that all buildings are con-
structed in accordance with good building practice and the legal provisions. The planning and building
control law are embodied within the same document and therefore both aspects are considered at the
same time and a joint permit is issued. Consideration is given to land-use zoning, the size of the building
relative to the site area and the height and type of building.
A building notification can be served for minor internal alterations with photographs instead of plans, but
for most other building work a building permit is required. Any applications for a building permit must be
made by an architect, engineer or qualified builder (Baumeister). A Baumeister can design, build and su-
pervise other trades during construction provided he has a licence to practice, for which a formal qualifica-
tion is necessary.
Y0602.01.01 Screening nat. building regulations -Austria -1- 14 febr. 2011

The local authority has six weeks to determine applications and the level of site inspection is determined
when the approval is given. The owner has to appoint a building supervisor and either the local authority
carries out inspections or an engineer not connected with the builder or owner.
1.3 Building regulations

Building regulations in Austria, under the new system (see par.1.1) cover the field of the six ‘essential re-
quirements’ (mechanical strength and stability, safety in case of fire, hygiene, health and the environment,
safety in use, protection against noise, energy economy and heat retention) as well as access for all.
Building regulations do not cover electrical installations, which are regulated by a federal law. Building
regulations apply to all kinds of construction works (buildings and civil engineering works), except those
which are covered by special federal law (e.g.: railways, motorways, waterways, avalanche barriers, mili-
tary buildings) or by special provincial law (e.g. provincial roads, secondary roads and other public roads).
Each state can have special regulations relating to buildings dependant on a purpose group (‘Sonderbau-
ten’).
The OIB intends to draft also an OIB guideline for the new Basic Works Requirment 7 as defined in the
Construction Products Directive. However, the OIB thinks that the methodology for possible indicators of
sustainability is not yet enough consolidated.
1.4 Regulation and requirements to sustainable construction
1.4.1 Regulated sustainability topics for new buildings

Except for water conservation/efficiency techniques and the usage of recyclable or renewable materials,
all topics related to ecological quality are regulated in Austria, at different governmental levels.
The implementation of the EPBD is (was) mainly the responsibility of the Ministry of Economy and Labour.
However, additional requirements may be set by the Länder. In 2006 the ‘Energy Certification Providing
Act’ (‘Energieausweisvorlagegesetz EAVG’) was adopted, which obligates vendors and landlords to pro-
vide energy certificates for buildings when they are sold or rented. The law refers to the Länder regulations
as far as methodologies, requirements and procedures are concerned.
With regard to economic quality, only a few topics are regulated (mostly at state or local level): the density
of the development (e.g. minimal number of dwellings per area), mixed land use, and the usage of local
labour in construction.
Several aspects of social quality are regulated: provision of safe and healthy work environment, provision
of adequate local services and facilities, provision of affordable housing, conservation of local heritage and
access to green space within a certain distance.
Most aspects of functional quality are regulated at the level of the Länder or at local level. Only the acces-
sibility of buildings for disabled people is regulated at a federal level.
All aspects of technical quality are regulated at federal and state level. Limitation of construction time
(planning) is also regulated at a local level.
4 La responsabilité des constructeurs

1.4.2 Regulated sustainability topics for existing buildings and for renovation of existing buildings
Regulations on energy performance and waste reduction also apply for existing buildings.
For functional and technical quality relaxations of the regulatory provisions are possible.
For the rest there are no requirements for existing buildings.
Most regulation that applies for new building also applies for renovation, but the energy performance re-
quirements only apply case of a major renovation of buildings larger than 1000 m2.
1.4.3 Background in EU-Directives

According to ATP the following regulated topics have a background in EU-directives:
• Energy performance
• Implementation of energy efficiency techniques
• Thermal insulation
• Limitation of CO2-emission, ozone depleting gasses, green house gases
• Usage of local labour in construction
• Accessibility of disable people
• Fire resistance and fire safety.
1.4.4 Ordering of the regulations

In general, the regulations apply to all buildings. Only for energy performance and social quality there is a
set of regulations of different building types.
1.4.5 Type of requirements and deemed-to-satisfy solutions

The regulations are a mixture of performance based requirements, functional requirements and prescrip-
tive requirements. For many aspects of sustainable construction there is documentation on accepted of
deemed-to-satisfy solutions.
1.5 Process of implementation

In case of energy performance, waste reduction, economic quality and social quality, the regulation was
implemented as a cooperative process (governmental parties collaborated with the construction sector).
For the other aspects of ecological quality, and for functional and technical quality it was a top-down proc-
ess (central government led process).
1.6 Enforcement of regulation and requirements to sustainable construction
1.7 General
Building control is performed by the building authorities. Private experts or private institutions are only
involved in certain cases, which can either be on behalf of the building authority, or contracted by the
builder (building owner) as provided for in the procedural regulations. This differs, however, from state to
state. Verification is done in most of the cases through an assessment of the designs, and only in few
cases (e.g., for larger or more complicated projects) by additional inspections on site. Only registered de-
signers, contractors and specialists are allowed to be involved. The professional requirements for those
registered designers, contractors and specialists are relatively high in Austria (professional education at
secondary or university level plus several years of professional experience plus additional examination).
Assessment is done before the work starts, hence building permits can be seen as ‘design permits’. After

completion, in most of the Länder a confirmation of the builder is required that all legal requirements as
well as conditions and orders of the building permit have been duly respected.
Site inspections are normally only carried out for larger and/or more complicated projects. In order to make
inspections at the right time, the building authority can oblige the builder to notify to the building authority
when certain stages of the construction process have been achieved (e.g. completion of the foundation,
placement of the reinforcement etc.).
1.8 Sustainability topics

Building plans are monitored on all aspects of sustainability aspects, except for aspects related to eco-
nomic quality and social quality. The checking is performed by municipal authorities for functional and
technical quality. The other aspects of sustainability are checked either by the architect, a technical advi-
sor on behalf of the authorities or the owner, or other public authorities. The monitoring process is regu-
lated in the building law of the Länder. Checking is done superficially, mostly by means of a visual check,
sometimes by means of a paper checklist and sometimes by checking the registration of the architect.
Work under construction is checked on some aspects of ecological quality, like waste reduction, and on
functional and technical quality. This monitoring is performed by the municipal authorities, by the technical
advisor on behalf of the municipality or by other public authorities. The monitoring process is regulated in
the building law of the Länder.
Prior to occupation, the finished building is checked on most aspects of sustainability, except on economic
quality and on the technical execution /quality of the construction process. This is done by the municipality,
by other public authorities, or by a technical advisor.
Existing buildings are only checked on aspects of functional and technical quality by other public authori-
ties than the municipality.
1.9 Role of the EU

On the question: “Do you see any role for the EU to stimulate sustainable construction in your country?”,
ATP answers: “No”. On the question: “Do you see any role for the EU to stimulate sustainable construction
in your country?”, the ATP-respondent answers: “No. In Austria I never heard something from EU about
some thought of sustainability in accordance with buildings. In Austria we know the green building certifi-
cate which is an ‘only energy saving label’. In my opinion, at the moment they have created this energy
label the EU has lost the chance for a sustainable label. So at this moment the different countries started
different labels and on top Austria has 2 labels for sustainable buildings (ÖGNI and ÖGNB). My wish
would be a common label for Europe probably based on BREEAM with country ref. sheets for the different
adoptions as well as LCC and LCA calculations on thermal comfort and so on from DGNB. For my opinion
sustainability labels shouldn’t be perfect as DGNB, they should be practical to create a new way of think-
ing, design and development. The process will get more and more complicated to find a common and
practical solution for countries, developers, owners and auditors if the EU is still waiting and thinking.
The role of the EU has to be a platform to create a sustainability label based on the different labels in the
next 2 years because this label has to be for our future AND a commercial target for each developer in
Europe similar to LEED.”
1.10 Complementary sustainable construction initiatives – including public and joint public-
private initiatives
On the question “How would you describe in general the relationship between government regulation to
sustainable construction and complementary sustainable construction initiatives in your country?”, ATP
answers: “The governmental regulations only relate to energy saving. The theme of sustainable construc-
tion is left to initiatives, and sometimes the regulations are counterproductive or even contradictory to the
different themes of sustainable construction.”
Example 1: Austrian Program on Technologies for Sustainable Development

The Austrian Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology (BMVIT) has initiated a five
years R&D programme to support innovative sustainable buildings in Austria. The Austrian Program on
Technologies for Sustainable Development aims at supporting the economy with future-oriented innova-
tions and developments. It initiates and supports trendsetting research and development projects and the
implementation of exemplary projects.
The sub-programme has clearly shown the demand for a comprehensive and integrated top-down and
bottom-up approach to speed up innovation towards sustainable development in the building sector. As
the building industry is characterized by incremental innovations, major steps can only be reached by a
concerted improvement of the total system (building) with focus on socio-economic aspects to secure
market diffusion.
Example 2: Österreichische Gesellschaft für nachhaltige Immobilienwirtschaft (ÖGNI)

This is a partner organisation of the German Green Building Council (DGNB). The goal of ÖGNI is to
achieve a transparent system for the integrated assessment for all sustainability criteria of buildings, for
the Austrian real estate sector. The organisation is still in its early phases. It has not/hardly been used in
projects. It coexists with government regulation, but there is no relation. The relationship with government
regulation has not changed.
The rating system sets higher criteria than formal regulation.
Anyone can join the initiative. There are certain rules for the processes, procedures, and products deliv-
ered by initiative members. The members are allowed to carry the initiative’s logo, they are certified (or
comparable) by the initiative’s organization
See www.ogni.at
Example 3: klima:aktiv Baustandard (passive house standard)

klima:aktiv is the Austrian climate protection initiative launched in 1998 by the Federal Ministry of Agricul-
ture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management, embedded in the Austrian federal climate strategy,
consisting of a bundle of measures of regulation, taxes, and subsidies.
The primary objective of klima:aktiv is to introduce and promote climate friendly technologies and services.
klima:aktiv has gathered all voluntary and supportive measures under one umbrella. In the four thematic
clusters Building, Energy Efficiency, Mobility, and Renewable Energy, specific programmes are carried out
by various programme managers of different institutions. These programmes follow a comprehensive and
systematic approach in supporting the market introduction of climate-friendly technologies, services and
activities.
klima:aktiv follows the idea of market transformation. Market transformation is a targeted effort to change
the market. This approach’s main characteristic is an active and comprehensive inclusion of all relevant
market players and stakeholders. The main advantages of a market transformation approach are compa-
rably low costs and high sustainable effects. In this case, market transformation aims to raise the share of
energy efficient products and services.
Klima:aktiv ’s core activities are:
• Training of klima:aktiv professionals
• Setting standards and safeguarding quality
• Providing information and raising awareness
• Providing advice and support

• Activating and networking partners
The initiative is now catching on; it is used in a small number of projects. It coexists with government regu-
lation, but there is no formal relation. It sets higher criteria than formal regulation. An organization has
been set up to administer and steer the initiative. Anyone can join the initiative. Members have to meet a
code of conduct and they are monitored by the initiative organization’s representatives. Members are dis-
ciplined when non-compliance with the system is found.
The paper ‘The impact of energy performance regulations on systems of building control’ by H.Visscher/E.
Mlecnik/F. Meijer (RICS COBRA Research Conference, University of Cape Town, 10-11th September
2009) gives the following information on the passive house standard:
“In Austria the passive house standard is highly popular. In connection to the national policy the Pro-
gramme of the Austrian Government for the period between 2007-2010 is to be cited, where the Austrian
government mentions and defines the passive house standard for the first time. The Austrian pioneer fed-
eral state is Vorarlberg, where the federal government constituted at the beginning of 2007, that for new
buildings of public housing associations passive house standard is obligatory. In 2008 the city of Wels
signed a declaration to build all future municipal buildings in the passive house standard. In Austria nine
different housing grant schemes exist, so verification can be different in different regions. The certification
of passive houses in Austria basically happens by means of the Passive House Planning Package and/or
the Austrian methodology according the guideline no. 6 of the Austrian Institute of Construction (OIB),
when it comes to housing grants. Since 2005 the Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Envi-
ronment and Water Management supports the dissemination and implementation of minimum criteria con-
cerning the energy performance and the ecological quality of new built residential buildings within its
klima:aktiv haus program.
Within the klima:aktiv haus programme criteria for so-called klima:aktiv passive houses were defined.
They must be heat –bridges-free and airtight, their heat energy demand and their total primary energy
demand must be verified by the PHPP, they must be equipped with energy efficient ventilation systems
with heat recovery and water saving fittings. Further they must not be built of HFCH or PVC containing
building materials and they must fulfill requirements concerning summer suitability. Some differences oc-
cur between the Austrian OIB methodology and PHPP, especially concerning surface definition. Very op-
timistic default values for internal heat gains and shading of the OIB methodology have been criticized,
while PHPP shows good validation.”
Example 4: ‘Low-Energy-Building Cluster Tirol’

The Niedrigenergiehauscluster Tirol is a private-public initiative of the Austrian Federation of Industry Tirol
and private firms primarily from the construction industry. Its mission is to accelerate the market diffusion
of low energy buildings and to increase the construction quality of new buildings as well as refitting of
buildings. This mission is to be reached by networking, professional training and the definition of common
quality standards.
To secure permanent networking a private institute has been established that offers a broad range of sup-
porting activities from know-how-transfer to corporate marketing, research and development and
political lobbying.
Regarding the construction perspective, the Cluster guarantees a high and continuous increase in con-
struction standards with special focus on energy efficiency.
To secure low energy buildings (including Buildings in Passiv House standard ) at high quality standards,
cluster management is active in the following areas:
• Standardization of products (e.g. Passive Houses ) over firms;
• Development of innovative products and services (e.g. contracting);
• Motivation and qualification of employees (and firms);
• Re-adjust public regulation and general market conditions in favour of low energy buildings;

• “Clustering” independent firms to teams.
The most important goals of the Cluster are:
• Diffusion of innovative technologies in the building sector; strengthen the innovation process in the
construction industry;
• Development and marketing of low energy buildings;
• Increase of employment through (high quality) refitting of buildings;
• Development joint consulting, design and construction tools and services;
The ‘Niedrigenergiehauscluster Tirol’ is organised as a private membership society, which has been
established in 1999. and working as a focus point between public autorities, most notably the Federal
State Tirol, the Federation of Industry Tirol, and the construction industry. It is managed by a cluster man-
ager. It is integrated into a network of related organizations in Tirol (e.g. ‘Energie Tirol’, University of Inns-
bruck, training institutions) and other organizations all over Austria/
The general background of the Niedrigenergiehauscluster Tirol is the demand for a sustainable housing
policy including:
• Economic aspects (building industry a leading branch of the economy, employment, job security)
• Social aspects (increasing qualification of employees, improved building quality)
• Economic aspects (reduction of energy demand, renewables
The Niedrigenergiehauscluster Tirol is a neutral platform for all companies, that are members of the Clus-
ter. The Cluster is open to new members as long as they meet defined criteria. The Cluster is a follow up
of the Tiroler „economic concept“ (Wirtschaftsleitbild). Since its foundation the number of members in-
creased from 18 to 62 companies. As a result of its activity the a number of low energy buildings in Tirol
has tripled.
The Cluster is based on a bottom-up approach, following a top down analyses of the regional economy,
where economic priorities for Tirol have been defined. As it has shown its success over the last years,
comparable networks have been established all over Austria (e.g. Passive House Cluster).
As other examples have shown, its main problem is to secure a specific economic advantage for the mem-
bers to justify the annual membership fee. Therefore, a starting period of 3-5 years should be cofinanced
by public authorities, without neglecting the responsibility of private companies for the success of the Clus-
ter.

Appendix: Abstract of paper, ‘The legal two-tier approach in the new Austrian
Building Codes’, by Rainer Mikulits (OIB), RICS/COBRA conference, Dublin 4-5
September 2008
Background
Given the size of Austria, with roughly 8.3 million inhabitants and an area of 84.000 km², it has always
been criticised to have nine different building regulations, which is why already in 1948 the first attempt
was made to establish one ‘model building law’ which should have been taken over by the provinces one
by one. Similar initiatives have been regularly made over the following years but have never succeeded.
Even worse, over the years the building laws (containing mainly the procedures of building control) and
the technical regulations have developed partly in diverging directions, a fact that has never been under-
stood by the stakeholders (designers, contractors, producers of construction products, etc.), and periodi-
cally repeated criticism has been supported by studies according to which harmonization of building regu-
lations would potentially allow a reduction of costs for residential buildings by 10 to 15 %.
In 2000 the provinces decided that an expert group be established and given the task to draft a new pro-
posal for the harmonization of building regulations in Austria. This latest attempt was restricted to the tech-
nical requirements on buildings and other construction works, whereas the procedures for building control
were excluded. Furthermore, the expert group should cooperate with the Austrian Institute of Construction
Engineering (OIB), an organization which was established in 1992 by the provinces and which functions
as a common platform of the provinces in the field of construction and construction products. OIB has also
been assigned other tasks like acting as a European technical approval body and as an accreditation body
for testing laboratories, inspection bodies and certification bodies.
The task of the expert group was to draft together with OIB a treaty (‘Vereinbarung gem. Art. 15a B-VG
über die Harmonisierung bautechnischer Vorschriften’) containing the new harmonized legal requirements
on buildings and construction works and a commitment of the provinces to replace the existing legislations
by this new common text.
The concept of the new building regulations

Since it was a unique opportunity to establish a totally new set of building regulations, it was decided to
start from scratch with an innovative and forward-looking concept. The most influential inspirations were
taken from the following two sources:
• The discussion paper on performance-based building regulations (IRCC 1998)
• The new approach for technical harmonization and standards (Council resolution (85/C136/01) on a
new approach to technical harmonization and standards [1985] OJC136, 04/06/1985 1-9)
According to the ‘new approach’ legislative provisions should be restricted to ‘essential requirements’,
whereas more technical and detailed requirements should be transferred to referenced non-legal docu-
ments like standards. While this ‘new approach’ was intended for the harmonization of technical require-
ments for products, this idea has been taken up by the expert group and OIB, and combined with the prin-
ciples of performance-based building regulations.
This resulted in the following two-tier approach for the new building regulations:
• The provisions laid down at legal level (laws or orders) shall be restricted to purely functional require-
ments, whereas any performance-based or prescriptive requirement shall be laid down in guidelines
established by the Austrian Institute of Construction Engineering (OIB).
• When a project has been designed according to the performance-based or prescriptive requirements of
the OIB-guidelines, the project is deemed to satisfy the functional requirements of the legislative provi-
sions.

• However, it is also possible to deviate from the OIB-guidelines as long as the designer or the builder
can demonstrate that this solution ensures an equivalent level of safety, as if the OIB-guidelines had
been applied.
In this context the terms “functional requirement”, “performance requirement” and “descriptive
requirement” have the following meaning:
Type of requirement Meaning Example
Functional requirement A requirement expressed using only “Buildings must have escape routes which
qualitative terms, and stating a goal allow users to leave the building sufficiently
which shall be achieved quickly and safely, taking into consideration its
purpose and size, and whether emergency
equipment can be used”
Performance requirement A requirement expressed using quan- Limit values of oxygen concentration, carbon
titative terms, and the fulfilment of dioxide concentration, carbon monoxide con-
which can be determined by calcula- centration, smoke interface height, tempera-
tures, etc. which must not be exceeded
tion, testing or simulation
Descriptive requirement A requirement expressed using defini- “From any point in a room the travelling dis-
tions, particular (product) types or tance to a direct exit to a safe spot outdoors or
classes, or design features to a staircase must not exceed 40 m
The major advantage of this approach is to provide on the one hand guidelines which can be easily ap-
plied, which are understood by everybody and which don’t need much expertise to demonstrate compli-
ance for the majority of traditional construction projects, while on the other hand it is possible to realise
more sophisticated design solutions, if it is possible to demonstrate an equal level of safety. This allows for
the necessary flexibility for innovative architecture and complex building projects. Everything is possible,
as long as it can be demonstrated that the functional requirements are fulfilled.
Organisation of the drafting process

For the drafting of the OIB-guidelines, project groups had been established which consisted of experts
from universities, testing laboratories, building authorities and specialised design offices. These project
groups were supervised by a steering group composed of representatives of the OIB and the provincial
governments. This steering group drafted the terms of reference for the project groups and met with them
on a regular basis in order to comment on the recent drafts of the guidelines. A novelty in the project man-
agement for the drafting of the OIB-guidelines was involving stakeholders already at a very early stage of
the drafting process. For this purpose a so called “Contact Forum” had been established, and the drafts of
all guidelines were discussed in numerous meetings of this ‘Contact Forum’. In this ‘Contact Forum’ par-
ticipated all relevant sub-organisations of the chamber of commerce, the chamber of architects and con-
sulting engineers, the chamber of labour, the chamber of agriculture, the Austrian medical chamber, the
Austrian standards institute and the relevant federal Ministries.
As a result of this procedure, the final official consultation for the guidelines – as technical regulations to
be taken over by legislation – went very smoothly.

After adoption of the OIB-guidelines, the steering committee was converted into a standing committee,
from then onwards responsible for discussing comments and questions related to the OIB-guidelines, and
for future revisions of the guidelines. For these revisions of OIB-guidelines an interval of three to five years
is envisaged. One first outcome of this standing committee is the FAQ-site on the homepage of OIB, which
has proven to be a very useful tool especially in the first year of application of the new guidelines.
4. Scope and content of the regulations

The structure of both levels of the ‘two-tier approach’ follows the system of the six ‘essential requirements’
which have been established by the Construction Products Directive. Although this directive relates to
construction products, the essential requirements relate to construction works (buildings and civil engi-
neering works). When the provinces had implemented the construction products directive, the essential
requirements had already been taken over in their respective legislation, but only in a few cases the prov-
inces have so far followed this structure in their building regulations, which were rather organised accord-
ing to parts of the building (foundation, walls, envelope, roof etc.) than according to functions, as this is the
case with the essential requirements.
However, while for traditional buildings (e.g. one family houses, conventional multi-family houses) the
‘parts of buildings approach’ is sufficient, for projects with a more sophisticated architectural concept or for
complex projects it is much more appropriate to deal with the different functions which need to be fulfilled
by the building, like structural stability, fire protection, energy efficiency etc.
Therefore the structure of the new legislation follows these essential requirements, only for ‘safety in use’
the requirements concerning ‘accessibility’ have been added (see figure 2).
(1. Mechanical resistance and stability, 2. safety in case of fire, 3. Hygiene, health and the environment, 4.
Safety in use and accessibility, 5. Protection against noise, 6. Energy economy and heat retention.)
Legislative provisions
In the course of the year 2008 four out of nine Austrian provinces have already taken over the new build-
ing regulations. In these countries the so far detailed technical provisions have been removed and re-
placed by the same set of functional requirements. This new legal text has only about eight pages, cover-
ing all six essential requirements. There are no technical values, no classes, the wording of the require-
ments is just purely functional. These legislative provisions have either the form of a law, or of an order
(Ordinance of the provincial government), depending on the legal tradition of the respective province.( One
example of such a legislative provision is the decree of the government of Tyrol: Technische
Bauvorschriften 2008, LGBl. 93/2007.)
The laws or ordinances refer to the OIB-guidelines which are thus made compulsory. However, this provi-
sion is always complemented by a clause according to which the project may deviate from the OIB-
guidelines if an equal level of safety is met, and if this has been clearly demonstrated (e.g. through an
expertise).
OIB-guidelines
The guidelines have been published by the Austrian Institute of Construction Engineering (OIB) and are
available in the internet on the homepage of OIB9. There is one OIB guideline for each essential require-
ments, with the exception of ‘safety in case of fire’ were there are one general guideline as well as two
specific ones for ‘industrial buildings’ and for ‘garages, roofed parking spaces and multi-storey car parks’
respectively. Furthermore there is one common document on ‘definitions’ and another common listing all
‘cited standards and other technical regulations’. The OIB-guidelines are, although more detailed than the
functional requirements, still quite slim: their size varies between three pages and nineteen pages.
The requirements in the guidelines are mostly descriptive, but sometimes also performance-based. The
Y0602.01.01 Screening nat. building regulations -Austria - 10 - 14 febr.

2011
most prominent example of performance-based requirements is the energy efficiency coefficients in OIB-
guideline 6 “energy economy and heat retention”. This guideline is also implementing the EBPD as far as
technical requirements are concerned.
The structure of each guideline follows the articles and topics of the respective chapter in the legal provi-
sions (functional requirements). These again have been inspired by the so called ‘interpretative docu-
ments”, which are complementary documents to the construction products directive.
Under OIBguideline 6 ‘Energy economy and heat retention’ there is also a manual for the calculation of the
energy performance characteristics of buildings, which has been published as a separate document.
This manual contains the methodology for the assessment of the energy efficiency of buildings as required
by the EPBD.
The interrelationship between the two tiers

The functional requirements of the legal provisions are the benchmark for the building authority when as-
sessing a building project. From this starting point, there are two possible ways to demonstrate compli-
ance with the legal requirements:
• Application of the OIB-guidelines and fulfilment of the performances and descriptive requirements es-
tablished in these guidelines, or
• Demonstration that an equal level of safety is achieved through an expertise by a qualified expert.
For the second case, the expertise needs to be conclusive, and it is left to the building authority’s discre-
tion to evaluate such an expertise.
For the different OIB-guidelines, as well as depending from the degree of deviation from the OIB-
guidelines, the extent and quality of the expertise may be different. Only for OIB-guideline 2 ‘safety
in case of fire’ there are clear provisions for the content of this expertise, which needs to be in this
case a ‘Brandschutzkonzept’ („Brandschutzkonzept“ means, literally translated, “fire prevention concept”,
and there is an informative guide available at www.oib.or.at for the drafting of such concepts.)
One challenge of this system is that the provisions in the OIB-guidelines are not always performance-
based, but in many cases descriptive. In such cases a quantitative benchmark is missing for the evalua-
tion of the expertise. When there are no clear metrics and performance requirements, the demonstration
of an ‘equal’ level of safety will reflect only a knowledge- and experience-based judgement of the experts
that the solution which has been designed offers – from an overall point of view – the same general safety
level as is implicitly given in the descriptive provisions. Moreover, the actual level of safety achieved by
different buildings which are all fulfilling the same descriptive requirements may be different, due to the
simplification inherent to any descriptive requirement. In an ‘ideal world’ the safety level (or accepted risk)
ought to be set using performance indicators, which are the benchmark for engineering solutions as well
as the basis for simplified descriptive requirements, by this ensuring a consistent level of safety, inde-
pendent of the route which has been taken by the designer (following the descriptive requirements or de-
viating from them). The discussion of this problem is already ongoing, especially with regard to fire safety.
State of implementation
The functional requirements and the OIB-guidelines have already been taken over and implemented in the
Austrian provinces of Burgenland, Tirol, Vorarlberg and Vienna . Three other provinces start with an im-
plementation of OIB-guideline 6 ‘Energy economy and heat retention’, which is already in force in Kärnten
(Carinthia) and for which the implementation is under preparation in Oberösterreich (Upper Austria) and
Steiermark (Styria). Generally spoken, all other provinces, or the missing OIB-guidelines respectively, will
be taken over and implemented successively.

2011
Naturally, when such a fundamental change of the building regulations takes place, many questions will
arise during the first months of the practical application. It is the task of the newly established experts
committee, which has been already mentioned above, to discuss these questions and to interpret the pro-
visions of the OIB-guidelines. The results of the discussions of the expert committee are published in the
internet on the website of the Austrian Institute of Construction Engineering (OIB), were a particular FAQ-
page can be found.
Conclusions
In an effort to harmonise the so far disparate building regulations of the nine Austrian provinces, a new
system of functional requirements at legal level and building code type “OIB-guidelines” has been intro-
duced in Austria. This two-tier approach has been chosen in order to provide sufficient flexibility for inno-
vative architectural design and engineering solutions. For the first time stakeholders have already been
involved in a very early stage in the preparation of a legislative project, independent from, and much ear-
lier than the official consultations, which are usually only performed on the basis of final drafts. This ap-
proach turned out to be very useful.
This new system has been put into force in the first Austrian provinces by 1 January 2008, and has been
implemented in four provinces by now. The other provinces will follow successively. The first experiences
with this new system shows that there is still a number of questions popping up in the practical application,
but in general the transition went astonishing smoothly. Although the flexibility offered by the two-tier ap-
proach has been generally applauded, in practice most of the projects apply the partly performance-based
and partly descriptive OIB-guidelines.
In a standing committee which has been set up for this purpose, practical questions of the implementation
and application are discussed, and together with the answers put on a FAQ-page of the OIB-website in the
internet. This standing committee will in future also prepare revisions of the OIB-guidelines, which are
intended to be published every three to five years.

2011
4.0 Water
By minimising water use, and making good materials choices, you can reduce running
costs, cut demand on community infrastructure, and reduce harm to the environment.
For water supply and drainage, the first consideration is building users’ health and safety. A system is not
sustainable if it does not meet basic needs for drinkable water and for safe disposal of waste.
But, subject to health and safety requirements, it is good practice to design systems that support efficient
and sustainable use of water, energy and materials.
For water supply, there are many things to consider, ranging from the type of water heating used to the
layout of pipework to specifying appliances and fixtures. These decisions can have a significant impact on
water and energy use over the life of a building.
For wastewater treatment, the key decision is whether to connect to the mains sewerage network, treat
wastewater on-site, or a combination of both. Either way, it is important that health and safety
requirements are met.
Stormwater runoff places demand on infrastructure and can carry contaminants into waterways such as
streams and the sea.
All water and wastewater costs are borne by building owners and occupiers, through rates and user charges.
By designing, building and renovating homes that use water efficiently, you can help keep these costs down.
Incorporating water saving devices in a house can also result in it achieving a much higher score in rating
tools such as Homestar. This gives homeowners an independent measure of their home’s efficiency and
sustainability – and can be a useful marketing tool if and when they choose to sell.
Reducing water use also benefits the environment by, for example, reducing the need to draw more water
from rivers and waterways, reducing demand for energy, and reducing the need to build new infrastructure
for supply and disposal.
This section of the Level website incorporates material from the BRANZ publicationsWater and Plumbing.
147
4.1 Water supply
Design a safe water supply system that meets building users’ requirements
while also making efficient use of water, energy and materials.
All habitable buildings must have a water supply that is potable(drinkable). That water supply must
be protected from contamination, and must not contaminate the water supply system or source.
As part of that water supply system, the building must provide appropriate facilities for personal
hygiene, and washing utensils, and hot water that is safe and will not cause scalding.
All water must discharge to a wastewater system to safeguard people from illness and protect them
from odours and waste matter.
Code requirements
The water supply must be installed in accordance with NZ Building Code Clause G12 Water supplies,
or AS/NZS 3500.1 Plumbing and drainage – Water services andAS/NZS 3500.4:2015 Plumbing and drainage
Heated water services.
Other relevant Building Code clauses include G1 Personal hygiene, G2 Laundering, and G3 Food preparation
and prevention of contamination.
Sustainability considerations
While the first consideration in designing a water supply system is the building occupiers’ health and safety,
it is good practice to design systems that support efficient and sustainable use of water, energy and
materials.
By designing, building and renovating homes that use water efficiently, you can help to keep costs down,
and benefit the environment by, for example, reducing the need to draw more water from rivers and
waterways, reducing demand for energy, and reducing the need to build new infrastructure for supply and
disposal.
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There are sustainability considerations in most aspects of water supply, including decisions about the
sources of water, location and layout of pipework and storage, materials used, heating methods, and
appliances and fixtures specified.
As well as ensuring the building owner is aware of the impact of their behaviour, water use can be
minimised by controlling water pressure, ensuring the hot water system is efficient, controlling the amount
of water used for toilet flushing, reducingwater flow from outlets, specifying efficient appliances,
and minimising outdoor water use.
4.1.1 Mains or rainwater?
Most buildings will use mains water supply. However, rainwater is an option to partly
or fully replace mains water.
On this page:
 Ministry of Health recommendations
 Designing a rainwater system
Mains systems promise reliable supply that meets required standards for drinkable water.
For most buildings where mains water is available, using the mains supply will be the most effective way to
meet users’ water needs. Other features – such as specifying efficient fixtures and appliances, and
designing an efficient water heating system – can be used to reduce the building’s environmental impact.
But rainwater can be used to provide water supply when there is no mains connection available. Even if
there is a mains connection available, rainwater can be used either to meet all of a building’s demand for
water (depending on users’ water needs) or to meet some water supply needs such as providing water for
gardening, flushing the toilet, and/or bathing and clothes washing.
Using rainwater can:
 reduce costs for users on a metered water supply
 provide an emergency supply
 reduce demand on mains water supplies
 reduce demand on stormwater disposal systems
 provide an independent supply for watering the garden in times of drought
 reduce the rate of stormwater runoff.
For all its benefits, harvesting rainwater brings maintenance requirements that do not apply to mains
water supply. Specific maintenance tasks should be pointed out to clients considering this option,
without discouraging them, before they make a final decision.
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Code requirements
Any rainwater system must meet relevant Building Code requirements.
This includes a requirement for adequate potable (drinkable) water to be provided for consumption, oral
hygiene, utensil washing and food preparation. This potable water supply must be protected from
contamination, and must not contaminate the water supply system or source.
Potable water must meet the relevant standard for drinking water. The current standard is the Drinking-
water Standards for New Zealand 2005 (Revised 2008), issued by the Ministry of Health.
The Building Code also requires adequate water supply to any sanitary fixture (such as toilets, baths,
showers, sinks and so on). The sanitary plumbing system must be set up to minimise any risk of illness or
injury.
A building consent is required if collected rainwater is piped into a house and/or connected to a mains supply
system.
Rainwater storage tanks (whether plumbed to the house or not) also require a building consent where they:
exceed 2,000 litres capacity and are supported not more than 2 metres above the ground; or exceed 500
litres capacity and are supported not more than 4 metres above the ground.
Any rainwater system that is connected to a mains water supply must be designed to minimise the risk of
contamination of the mains water supply by including an air gap or backflow prevention device. The system
must also be designed to minimise the risk of contamination to rainwater intended for household use.
Ministry of Health recommendations

The Ministry of Health recommends that:
 where mains water supply is available, it is used for drinking and food preparation
 where no mains supply is available, a water filtration system and/or treatment for
drinking water should be specified.
Designing and installing a rainwater system
The design and installation of any rainwater system will depend on its purpose – whether it is a small
rainwater barrel used for watering the garden, or a larger storage system for sanitary uses or potable water
supply.
In general, rainwater will be harvested from the roof and stored in a tank until use. The system must be
designed, installed and used to minimise the risk of contamination.
Irrespective of whether mains or rainwater is used, the designer will need to consider how to manage water
pressure, and pipework layout and specifications (seesystem design and pipework), as well as how to
achieve efficient water heating.
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4.1.1.1 Harvesting rainwater
It is crucial to ensure that the roof, guttering, pipes and other elements used in
rainwater collection do not contaminate the water before it goes into the storage tank.
On this page:
• Roofing materials
• Roof paint
• Gutters and downpipes
• Leaf screens and guards
• Diverters
Water from roofs can be contaminated by decaying vegetable matter such as leaves, petals and
pollen; droppings from birds, possums and rats; and dead birds, animals and insects.
Other sources of contamination include particulates from solid fuel flues; pollution; chemical spray drift; and
harmful elements such as lead in the roofing material, paint, gutters and downpipes.
The Building Code requires that water supplies be protected from contamination. SeeWater supply for
general Code requirements, and Mains or rainwater for requirements relating to rainwater collection.
To reduce the risk of contamination:
• Specify roofing, spouting and pipework materials that are safe for collecting rainwater.
• Specify leaf guards over the gutters and leaf screens on downpipes.
• Specify a first flush diverter to prevent the first 20–25 litres of water, which will be the
most contaminated, from entering the storage tank.
• Do not collect rainwater from a roof that has many overhanging branches – this will
reduce the risk of leaves and bird droppings getting into harvested rainwater.
• Ensure that the flue from a solid fuel burner is located so that soot and other
discharges are carried clear of the rainwater collection area.
• Advise owners that gutters must be kept clean.
If rainwater is being harvested for human consumption, roofing, spouting, downpipes and pipework
materials must comply with AS/NZS 4020:2005 Testing of products for use in contact with drinking
water.
151
Roofing materials
Roofs suitable for water collection for human consumption include:
• unpainted zinc/aluminium-coated or galvanised steel
• factory-coated or painted zinc/aluminium alloy-coated or galvanised steel
• zinc
• stainless steel
• aluminium
• concrete or terra cotta (clay) tiles
• copper
• PVC (without lead stabilisers) or fibreglass sheet
• untreated timber shingles (usually imported western red cedar)
• butyl rubber
• asphalt shingles.
When specifying materials, while the first consideration is health and safety, you may want to take
account of sustainability considerations such as embodied energy. See the section on Materials for more
information.
Leave a new roof for at least one good period of rainfall before connecting the downpipe to the storage tank.
Do not use collected water for drinking if it has come into contact with:
• uncoated lead flashings (lead flashings on existing roofs should be coated with suitable
paint; coated lead is available for new roofs)
• treated timber where chemicals leaching out might contaminate the water
• asbestos (although asbestos is no longer used in building, existing asbestos roofs should
not be used for collection of rainwater).
Roof paint
Specify only roof paint that the manufacturer recommends as suitable for collecting rainwater. Do not drink
water collected from roofs coated with lead-based paints, and where acrylic paint has been used, wait until
the surface has been washed by a good rainfall before collecting water.
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Gutters and downpipes
Materials suitable for use as gutters and downpipes where water for human consumption is being collected
include:
• extruded PVC
• factory-coated zinc/aluminium alloy-coated steel
• galvanised steel
• copper (which may cause staining if the water has a low pH)
• aluminium
• polyethylene/polypropylene.
Again, while the first consideration is health and safety, you may also want to take account of
sustainability considerations such as embodied energy.
Leaf screens and guards
Leaf screens located on each downpipe keep larger debris out of the rainwater tank.
Leaf guards for gutters
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roofing
gutter
rainwater head with sloping

perforated screen
leaves and large debris are

screened out
rainwater downpipe to first flush

diverter and storage tank
Leaf screen fi tted to downpipe

Leaf screens located on each downpipe help to keep larger pieces of debris out of the rainwater tank.
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Diverters
fl oat seals the diversion pipe once it is full
fi rst fl ush diverter pipe
water to tank
position of float
before rainfall
valve releases water slowly and diverter empties to drain
First-flush diverter
These devices divert the first rain away from the water collection tank, washing dust, leaves and other
debris off the roof before water is collected.
One form of diverter has a float that rises as the rainwater flows in. When the floater reaches the top of the
diverter pipe, it seals it off allowing the rainwater to flow into the tank.
Generally, the more water that is diverted, the better the quality of the collected water. To calculate the
amount of water to divert, consider the level of the pollutants on the roof:
• for minimal pollution, allow 20 litres/100 m2 (0.2 litre/m2) of roof area
• for heavy pollution, allow 50 litres/100 m2 (0.5 litre/m2) of roof area.
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.2 Storing rainwater
Specify a tank that is suitable for the purpose – whether the rainwater is to be used for drinking or only for
gardening – and ensure that rainwater is stored in ways that minimise risk of contamination.
On this page:
• Tank types and sizes
• Tank materials
• Filtration systems
• Backflow prevention
• Maintenance
Once rainwater has been harvested, it must be stored in a tank for use. Tanks are available in
different sizes from small barrels for gardening water to tanks that are large enough to cover all of
a building’s water needs.
If the tank is supplying water for use in the house, make sure that it has a gauge that shows the water level
at any time.
To reduce the risk of contamination:
• site the tank, if possible, so that it is shaded from the sun, particularly during the
hottest time of the day
• specify tightly fitting covers for all tank inspection ports, insect screens on all vents and
openings, and an overflow that can siphon out fine sludge
• specify an intake near the water surface or a floating intake, with optional filter to draw
the water from the best area in the tank
• specify a calmed inlet to reduce disturbance of the sediment layer during high rainfall events
• specify a vacuum overflow that clears debris from the bottom of the tank.
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rainwater
inlet insect proof inspection
cover
hole prevents overfl ow
from siphoning out total
contents of tank
fl
oat
water
inlet siphon-type overfl
fi lter and water ow
intake
water to settlement particles

pump are drawn into the
overfl ow
anaerobic water and settlement
zone
Storage tank features that help to deliver clean water
Leaf guards and a first flush diverter help reduce contamination before rainwater
reaches the tank, but good tank design can also enhance water quality.
A water intake near the surface and an overflow which siphons out fine sludge are
useful features.
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Tank types and sizes
There are several types and sizes of rainwater tanks, designed to meet different needs. The tank selected
should provide adequate supply for the purpose, whether that is irrigation, toilet flushing or all household
use.
roof collection
area
gutter
leaf guard optional

down pipe
overflow to approved
discharge point
drum, barrel or tank

for water storage
drain tap
hose supply to irrigation
stand to allow for

gravity fl ow to irrigation
Simple rainwater storage tank for garden irrigation

A simple rainwater tank can supply water for a small garden. Purpose-built systems are available.
158
roof collection
area
rainwater gutter with leaf

guard
downpipe to
tank inspection
first flush diverter cover
toilet cistern
overflow
pipe
pump
Note: if mains supply is connected overflow to approved

backflow must be prevented by an air tap discharge
gap or a backflow prevention device
hose for garden irrigation
standby mains
supply
toilet effluent to sewer
or on-site treatment
Rainwater storage system for irrigation and toilet flushing
159
gutter with leaf
roof collection
guard
area
kitchen sink
downpipe
inspection cover
first flush diverter
potable water household
househo supply storage tank
supply
mains
tub
washing supply
machine topup
toilet (if available
(if overflow
hose
overflow to approved
gully trap discharge
pump
toilet effl uent to sewer or on-site

treatment
garden
hose wastewater to sewer or greywater
irrigation
Rainwater storage for all household purposes
The Ministry of Health recommends that where mains water supply is available, that it is used for drinking and food
preparation.
Where no mains supply is available specifying a water filtration system for drinking water is recommended.
If main town supply is connected to a rainwater collection system, backflow must be prevented by an air gap or a
backflow prevention device.
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Tank materials
If rainwater is being harvested for human consumption, tank materials must comply with AS/NZS 4020
Testing of products for use in contact with drinking water.
Suitable materials for water storage tanks include galvanised steel, fibreglass, plastics such as
polypropylene, concrete, and ferro-cement.
Tank materials should not transmit light, as light will encourage organic growth.
When specifying materials, while the first consideration is health and safety, you may also want to take
account of sustainability considerations such as embodied energy. See material use for more.
Filtration systems
Filtration systems may be:
• point-of-use (attached to a tap or plumbed in with a dedicated faucet), or
• point-of-entry (centrally installed system to treat all water).
Types of filters include:
• mesh filters of various sizes to remove different types of particles
• carbon filters
• reverse osmosis filter
• UV sterilisers to kill bacteria.
Ideally, a filtration system should include a number of different types of filters.
Backflow prevention
As we noted in mains or rainwater, any rainwater system that is connected to a mains water supply must be
designed to minimise the risk of contamination of that mains water supply.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 provides that there must be no likelihood of cross-connection between a
private water supply system (such as a rainwater system) and mains water supply. This can be achieved by
using using an air gap or a backflow prevention device such as a double non-return valve. See backflow
prevention for details.
Maintenance
Research has shown that few owners maintain their rainwater tanks properly. It is important to give them
maintenance schedules and detailed explanations of what they need to do. Stress the importance of
following the manufacturers’ maintenance recommendations for the tank and filters.Every three months,
owners should clear the roof gutters, clean leaf guards and first flush diverters, and trim back any trees
overhanging the roof.Tanks themselves should be inspected at periods specified by the manufacturer.
Sludge may be removed by siphoning or pumping without having to empty the entire tank.
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4.1.1.3 Filtration and treatment
Although leaf screens and first flush diverters help provide cleaner water in a rainwater
collection tank, it is still possible for bacteria, viruses, algae, pesticides and other
contaminants to be present. Filtering and/or treating the water can greatly reduce the
presence of these. Treatment can also help remove unpleasant odours.
Filters
Filtration systems can treat all the water entering the house from a rainwater collection tank, or can be
fitted under a kitchen bench to just provide cleaner water from one tap.
Different types of filters do different jobs. Typically, a 1 micron cartridge comes first, and this can filter out
some organisms such as Giardia cysts. It also reduces any sediment, dirt and rust that may be in the water.
This can help keep the inside of household tapware and appliances clean, but importantly, it also helps
extend the life of the second filter.
The second stage filter is typically a carbon filter that can significantly reduce the numbers of bacteria in the
water, remove some chemicals, and reduce unwanted tastes and odours.
Filters occasionally need replacing; how often depends on water use.
Ultraviolet treatment
With these systems, water is exposed to the light from ultraviolet bulbs. This light disrupts the DNA of
microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses, stopping them from multiplying and thereby reducing their
potential to cause illness. Common pathogens such as E. coli, Cryptosporidium and Giardia are all affected.
Ultraviolet treatment systems are sometimes installed in conjunction with filters. Ultraviolet bulbs need
replacing when they are no longer functioning.
Ozone treatment
Ozone treatment kills microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella and Listeria. It can reduce pesticides in
water and also remove unpleasant odours. As with filtration, ozone treatment systems can be installed that
treat all water coming from a rainwater tank, or can be installed under a kitchen bench to provide treated
water from a single tap.
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4.1.2 System layout and pipework
The water supply system must be designed to achieve appropriate water pressure
and flow, and to avoid contamination to potable water.
On this page:
 Water pressure
 Water flow rate
 Flow rate and pipe size Acceptable Solutions
 System layout
 Connection to the mains supply
 Backflow
 Mains connection
 Pipe materials and specifications
As well as avoiding contamination and achieving the right pressure and flow, the system must be suitable
for the temperature of water carried. A well-designed and installed system will also be durable, minimise
noise from water flow and from problems such as water hammer, and support efficient use of water.
All water supply systems use a combination of pipes (of different dimensions and materials), valves and
outlets to deliver water to building users. Some water supply systems also use storage tanks and pumps.
Designing a water supply system involves getting all of these elements right so that clean water is delivered
to the user at the appropriate rate and temperature.
Water pressure
If the aim is to provide for building users’ needs while also using water efficiently, the right water pressure is
crucial. If water pressure is too low, this will be inconvenient for building users – for example, because
showers have poor water flow, and baths take a long time to fill. If pressure is too high, this will lead to
wastage of water, as well as high wear and tear on the system.
Typically, new buildings in areas with mains water supply will have mains pressure systems. Existing
buildings, and buildings that are not connected to mains water, may have low pressure systems or unequal
pressure systems (with different pressures for hot and cold water supply).
As an example of the difference in water usage, a low pressure hot water system shower flow may average
about 7 litres per minute, while a mains pressure shower may average around 12–20 litres per minute.
Mains pressure systems require pressure limiting and pressure reducing valves to control water pressure
and temperature. Typically, pressure limiting or pressure reducing valves will be used to control pressure in
mains-supplied hot water systems or where high pressure may lead to problems such as burst pipes.
163
Low pressure systems require few valves or controls. In low or unequal pressure systems, pressure can be
increased to adequate levels by storing water in a header tank (typically in the ceiling space) so that gravity
can be used to create water pressure. If a tank is being used, see the BRANZ publications Water and
Plumbing for details of installation requirements.
Pressure can also be raised to adequate levels using a pressurising pump, in which case it may be necessary
to use pressure limiting and pressure reducing valves.
Water flow rate

The Building Code requires that sanitary fixtures and appliances have adequate water supply at an adequate
flow rate.
As with water pressure, flow rates are crucial. A flow rate that is too high will result in water being wasted,
whereas a flow rate that is too low will mean that sanitary fixtures and appliances don’t work properly.
Flow rate is affected by:
 Water pressure
 Pipe diameters – The smaller the internal diameter of the pipe, the lower the pressure and flow
rate. (Note that pipes are generally referred to by their inside nominal diameter (DN), but it is
actually the internal diameter that counts; a pipe rated as DN 15 may have an actual inside
diameter ranging between 10–18 mm.)
 Water temperature – higher temperatures will tend to raise pressure and flow rates (note: also
see materials below).
A flow regulator can be used to maintain a constant flow, independent of water pressure. As an
example, if someone is in the shower and the kitchen tap is turned on full, the temperature and
flow are likely to remain more stable if a flow regulator is used.
Limiting the flow for a tap or appliance to a reasonable rate helps balance the available pressure
throughout the system. Regulating flow allows a simpler design and minimum pipe sizes as
peak flow rates can be specified accurately and can also reduce noise, splashing taps, and water
hammer.
Manufacturers’ recommendations must be referred to for pressure and flow information when selecting
tempering valves and outlets (taps, mixers and shower heads).
Flow rate can also be controlled by specifying low-flow outlets.
164
Flow rate and pipe size, Acceptable Solutions
Building Code compliance document G12/AS1 sets out Acceptable Solution for flow rates and pipe sizes.
Pipes must be sized to achieve flow rates set out in accordance with Table 3 (see table below), or the pipes
must be sized in accordance with Table 4.
When calculating pipe size, the speed of the water (velocity) moving through the pipes must not exceed 3.0
m/s.
Acceptable flow rates for fixtures and appliances Adapted from G12/AS1 Table 3
Fixture Flow rate (l/s) and temperature °C
Basin 0.1 at 45 °C
Bath 0.3 at 45°C
Sink 0.2 at 60°C (hot) and 0.2 (cold)
Shower 0.1 at 42°C
Laundry tub 0.2 at 60°C (hot) and 0.2 (cold)
Dishwasher and washing machine 0.20
The flow rates in Table 3 must be capable of being delivered simultaneously to the kitchen sink and one other
fixture.
System layout
In the design process, the layout of the plumbing system will largely follow room layout. Nonetheless, there
are many things to consider which relate to Code compliance, building users’ comfort, and sustainability.
When planning a water supply layout, the following must be considered:
 Pipe runs and lengths – Keep pipe runs as short as possible. Pass pipes close to fixtures to
minimise the number of branches and unnecessary elbows, tees and joints. Having longer pipe
runs and more fixtures will reduce flow rate, increase heat losses, and increase use of materials
 Point of entry into the building – This should be into a utility space such as garage/laundry and
include an accessible isolating valve, line strainer and pressure limiting valve (if required)
 Water heating system – Locate centrally to reduce the length of pipe runs to fixtures because
longer pipe runs require more water to be drawn off before hot water is discharged. Install a
separate point-of-use water heater for fixtures that are more than 10 m from the main water
heater
 Noise prevention – Avoid running pipes over or near bedrooms and living areas.
165
Backflow
Backflow is the unplanned reversal of flow of water (or water and contaminants) into the water supply
system. The system must be designed and used to prevent contamination from backflow. See backflow
prevention for more.
Mains connection
Where the water source is a mains supply, the network utility operator is responsible for the water supplied
to the property boundary. The property owner is then responsible for providing the pipework to bring the
water into the building.
An isolating valve must be fitted at the point of connection to allow for maintenance and repair of the
building’s water supply system if required.
Pipe materials and specifications
The pipes used in a building must not contaminate potable water supply, and must be suitable for the water
pressure, flow rate and temperature of water they will be carrying. This will be influenced by the materials
used and also by other factors such as the wall thickness.
Other considerations are durability, ease of installation, cost, and sustainability. Common materials include
copper, polybutylene (PB), unplasticised polyvinylchloride (uPVC or PVC-U), polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP-3 or PP Type 3), and cross-linked polyethylene (PEX).
See pipe materials for more.
166
4.1.2.1 Pipe materials
Pipes must not contaminate water, and must be suitable for the pressure, flow and
temperature of the water they are carrying.
On this page:
 what to consider
 copper
 polybutylene (PB)
 unplasticised polyvinylchloride (uPVC or PVC-U)
 polyethylene (PE or HDPE)
 polypropylene (PP)
 cross-linked polyethylene (PEX)
All of these are acceptable materials for water supply pipes.
Also see:
 hot water pipes for requirements specific to hot water pipes
 pipe jointing systems for details of jointing systems suitable for each type of pipe material.
The acceptable solution G12/AS1 requires that “components of the water supply system shall not
contaminate potable water” (clause 2.1.1). Table 1 lists pipe materials for hot and cold water, and
clause 2.1.2 states “Non-metallic components complying with BS 6920 or AS/NZS 4020 materials
complying with Table 1 shall be acceptable.
What to consider
Pipe materials and components must not contaminate potable water. They must also be:
 suitable for the expected temperatures and pressures
 compatible with the water supply, to minimise the potential for electrolytic corrosion
 suitable for the ground conditions (if used underground) to minimise the potential for
corrosion of the exterior of the pipe
 suitable for the local climate (if used outdoors) such as freezing conditions or
atmospheric salt or sulphur
 able to withstand UV effects (if used outdoors).
So, when selecting of materials for water supply pipes, consider water pressure, water
temperature, compatibility with water supply, durability, support, ease of installation, and cost.
Also take account of sustainability considerations such as embodied energy. Seematerial use for more.
167
Copper
Copper has long been used for all types of domestic water services and distribution because it:
 is durable
 has good corrosion resistance
 is malleable and easy to bend
 is self-supporting
 has good flow characteristics
 requires few fittings
 can be recycled.
Copper may be annealed (i.e. heated, then cooled slowly) which improves its properties,
for example making it less brittle and stronger.
Although copper in general has good corrosion resistance, this depends on the environment. Acidic
conditions, either from the soil (if buried) or from the water, can cause corrosion, so local pH levels should
be checked before using copper pipes.
Polybutylene (PB)
Polybutylene is a plastic material that was introduced in the late 1970s and used extensively for water
supply pipes until the mid 1990s. Unfortunately, one brand of polybutylene gained a reputation for failure,
resulting in a significant drop in use.

Polybutylene has excellent properties for use as water supply pipework, including:
 low cost
 flexibility
 ease of installation
 ability to be used for both hot and cold water services
 frost resistance.
In outdoor situations, it must be protected from UV exposure.
168
Unplasticised polyvinylchloride (PVC-U or uPVC)
PVC-U is the most widely used plastic piping for water supply pipes and drainage pipes. It can be used in
internal, exposed outdoor and underground situations as it:
 is durable
 is inexpensive
 has chemical resistance
 can withstand UV
 is easy to handle.
It is suitable for cold water services and can be used for limited hot water services as it has a maximum
temperature use of 60°C (140°F).
Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC or PVCc) is produced by the chlorination of PVC. The result is a PVC
pipe with a service temperature of 90°C (190°F) that may be used for hot water supply pipes.
Polyethylene (PE or HDPE)
High density polyethylene (often called alkathene or polythene) has been used since the early 1960s. It is
suitable for both potable water and wastewater services but it can only be used for cold water supply.
It is the most commonly used plastic pipe for supplying the mains water to a dwelling. Polyethylene:
 is durable
 is corrosion resistant
 is lightweight and flexible
 is easy to install
 has a good bending radius
 is inexpensive
 requires few fittings.
Polypropylene (PP)
There are three types of polypropylene:
• P-H has good mechanical properties and excellent chemical resistance for use as industrial
and sewerage waste pipes systems
 PP-R has good resistance to high internal pressure so it is suitable for domestic pressure water supply
systems and both hot and cold water services
 PP-B is suitable for buried sewerage and wastewater drainage as it has good impact strength,
particularly at low temperatures, and excellent chemical resistance.
169
The use of polypropylene has been increasing since the late 90s as it is:
• chemical and corrosion resistant
• heat resistant
• lightweight
• easy to install
• frost resistant.
In outdoor situations, it must be protected from UV exposure.
Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX)

PEX tubing is made from a cross-linked, high density polyethylene polymer, which results in a stronger
material that polyethylene. Properties include:
• more durability under extremes of temperature and chemical attack
• greater resistance to cold temperatures, cracking and brittleness on impact
• it can be used for hot water supply and hydronic heating systems, as well as potable water supplies
• flexibility
• ease of installation
• it can be used for indoor and buried outdoor situations.
PEX is not recommended for outdoor above ground use – although it can withstand some UV
exposure, this should not exceed the manufacturer’s instructions.
4.1.2.2 Pipe jointing systems

The type of pipe jointing system used depends on the pipe material.
Jointing system Copper PB PP uPVC PE PEX
Brazing *
Manipulative mechanical jointing *
Non-manipulative jointing Crimp *
ring * * *
Sliding sleeve * *
Heat fusion welding * *
Solvent cement welding *
170
Brazing
is the most common method for joining copper pipe in New Zealand. Straight joins are made by soldering using a solder that
comprises copper, phosphorus and 15% silver, to create a lapped capillary joint that is permanent and durable.
Manipulative mechanical jointing
uses brass fittings to make copper pipe connections. A nut is placed over the end of the pipe and a swaging (crox)
tool is inserted to expand the pipe, creating a rolled groove to secure the nut in position. The joined ends are made
watertight using plumbers’ hemp or thread tape. This joint is most commonly used for connecting pipes to valves and
fixtures. It is prone to loosening over time and should therefore not be used in concealed or inaccessible locations.
Non-manipulative jointing
also uses brass fittings, but instead of expanding the pipe with a swaging tool, a brass ‘olive’ is placed over the pipe
and compressed between the nut and fitting to create a secure joint that can easily be separated later.
Crimp ring
uses an external stainless steel or copper ring that is placed over the pipe, then compressed with a hand tool. As long
as the ring is correctly placed and aligned, the resulting joint is very robust.
Sliding sleeve
uses a sleeve that is placed over the pipe end and then expanded to go over the serrated spigot. A special tool forces the
sleeve over the pipe and spigot to create an effective joint. Sleeves can be removed with the application of heat and then
reused. The disadvantage of this connection is that the tools to create it can be difficult to use in confined spaces.
Heat fusion welding
is where the surface of the pipe and connection are melted together using a heating iron. As the two ends are overlapped
and fused without the application of welding fillers, the result is effectively a continuous pipe.
Solvent cement welding also overlaps and fuses the pipes but uses a solvent to ‘glue’ the pipes together.
4.1.2.3 Pipework installation
Pipes must be installed to meet requirements for durability, safety and thermal performance.
On this page:
• contractor responsibilities
• general installation requirements
• where to lay pipework
• access for maintenance and replacement
• preventing electric shock
• pipe insulation
Also see valves and controls for details of isolating valve requirements.
171
Responsibilities
Before a project starts, determine the responsibilities for specific work of the plumber, the main contractor
and the electrician.
Discuss the location of pipe runs with the main contractor to minimise cutting or notching of framing.
General installation requirements

Pipework must:
 comply with the durability requirements of Building Code clause B2 Durability
 be compatible with the support
 be installed to allow for thermal movement
 be protected from freezing by insulation, or being buried below the level of freezing
 be protected from damage
 be wrapped in flexible material or sleeved when penetrating masonry or concrete.
Where to lay pipework
Pipework may be installed:
• in a roof space
• under a timber floor
• below a concrete slab (BRANZ does not recommend within slab installation).
Where pipes are buried, they must have:
• 600 mm cover under trafficked areas
• 450 mm cover under lawns and garden areas (non-trafficked)
Where pipes are under concrete, they must have 50-year durability.
Where pipes cross other services below ground, they must comply with the details shown in the following
diagram.
Water supply pipe

crossing electric warning tapes water service
cable or gas pipe water service
100 mm min.
separation
450 min.
electrical cable or gas pipe electrical cable or gas pipe
PLAN ELEVATION
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Access for maintenance and replacement
Pipes installed in locations that are difficult to access should:
 have a detailed durability statement for 50-year service from the manufacturer
 if passing through a structural element, be sleeved in a larger pipe that is open at both ends to
allow the pipe to be inspected or replaced if necessary
 be installed in a chase or duct which will provide ready access and will not compromise
structural elements.
Preventing electric shock
Electric shock from water pipes may occur in any building where:
 the water supply piping is metal and in contact with the ground
 an electrical supply is provided into the building
 building occupants are able to make contact with exposed pipes.
To avoid the potential of electric shock:
 the pipework must be connected to an earth electrode using earth-bonding conductors
 metallic fixtures must be bonded to the pipework.
Safety precautions must be followed when cutting metal pipes.
f low
earth clamps bonding conductor to switchboard
bonding conductor to pipe work

earth electrode
incoming water supply

Earth bonding
f low
1.8 m
173
attachment to metallic piping
attachment to fixture
bonding conductor Equipotential bonding of metal fixtures
electrical clamp
70A. bridging conductor
NOTE
Safety precautions before cutting a metal pipe
• fit a b idging conductor
• swi ch off main power switch
174
Pipe insulation
NZBC Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 requires pipework to be insulated to:
 limit heat loss (hot water pipes)

 prevent water in pipes from freezing (hot and cold water pipes)
BRANZ recommends that all water pipes are insulated except where connected to a heat dissipation device.
vent pipe
insulation should extend 300 mm
level of standing water
distribution pipe insulation
Insulation of vent pipes
storage water heater
insulation to top outlet

distribution pipe
distribution pipe
Insulation of hot water
2 m min.
distribution pipes
Although insulation of pipes
is shown for a minimum 2 m
from the storage water
insulation to side outlet distribution pipe heater, BRANZ recommends
insulating hot water pipes
for their full length.

2 m min.
175
4.1.2.4 Noise and air locks in pipework
How to prevent water hammer and air locks.
On this page:
 water hammer
 air locks in water supply pipework
Water hammer
Water hammer (or pressure surge) generally occurs in a high pressure system when the flow of water is
suddenly stopped. A sudden fluctuation in flow velocity sets up shockwaves through the pipework, causing
the pipe to vibrate making a ‘hammering’ sound. It mostly occurs in metal pipes, although it can occur in
plastic pipes.
Fast-acting taps such as lever taps with ceramic disc washers, solenoid valves such as those on washing
machines, spring-closing valves and pumps are often a cause of water hammer. It is related directly to the
water velocity – the faster the water travels, the greater likelihood of water hammer.
It is better to prevent water hammer than trying to fix the problem once a building is complete.
To reduce the likelihood of water hammer:
 avoid direct contact of pipes with the structure
 clip pipes with rubber insulated clips or clip over the pipe insulation
 fix pipework rigidly to prevent movement
 provide relief bends or flexible sections of pipe to absorb shock
 fit grommets or cushioned packers where pipes pass through structural members
 size pipework to avoid excessive water velocity (below 3.0 m/s)
 limit system pressure – recommended is 350 kPa.
Air locks in water supply pipework

If air enters a water supply system, it will accumulate at high points and can restrict the flow of water.
If there is not enough pressure to push the air bubble through the pipe, the air lock will remain until
the pipeline is manually purged.
Air may enter the system from:
 a cylinder vent
 the tank if it runs low
 water as it is heated.
Low pressure pipes should be graded to allow air to exit from predetermined high points and to
prevent air locks from occurring.
176
4.1.2.5 Backflow prevention
The water supply system must be designed and used to prevent contamination from
backflow.
On this page:
 Causes of backflow
 Using an air gap to prevent backflow
 Backflow prevention devices
 Installation requirements
 Testing
Backflow is the unplanned reversal of flow of water (or water and contaminants) into the
water supply system.
For backflow to occur, there must be a physical connection, or cross-connection, between the water supply
and any delivered water or contaminant. A common situation is the end of a garden hose submerged in a
bucket or other container of liquid. Backflow can also arise from appliances, pools, and water storage tanks
such as header tanks and rainwater tanks.
As well as using the methods described below to minimise the risk of backflow, advise building owners to
take simple precautions such as not submerging garden hoses or spray heads from showers and sinks, and
always turning off the water supply at the tap when it is not being used.
Causes of backflow
Backflow is caused by a difference in pressure and may occur due to:
 backsiphonage – the supply pressure is less than the downstream pressure, allowing water to be pushed in
the wrong direction
 backpressure – for example, insufficient relief of pressure in a vessel where water is heated.
negative pressure siphonage through hose (cross connection)

supply
backflow
Backsiphonage
177
outlet blocked or closed
x
normal flow
if there is insufficient relief of

pressure in a vessel where water is
heated, backflow can occur when the
water expands
Principle of backpressure
water expands when heated
normal inlet flow
backflow can occur
Backflow can only occur where there is a connection or cross-connection. Cross-connections can occur in any
situation where fixtures are connected directly to the main supply such as:
 irrigation systems
 dishwashers
 washing machines
 coffee machines
 swimming pools, spa pools or ornamental pools that are filled by hose
 water softeners
 pesticide and fertiliser attachments for hoses
 fridges and icemakers
 bidets
 retractable spray outlets to tubs and sink
 flexible shower hoses
 storage tanks.
Code requirements
Building Code Clause G12 Water supplies requires that potable water supply must be protected from
contamination and installed in a manner that avoids the likelihood of contamination within the system.
178
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 requires backflow prevention to be provided where it is possible for water or
contaminants to backflow into a piped potable water supply. Backflow can be prevented either through an
air gap or a backflow prevention device (see below).
The Acceptable Solution also provides that there must be no likelihood of a cross-connection between a
private water supply (such as a rainwater tank) and mains water supply.
Responsibility for preventing backflow may rest with:
 the network utility provider who may install a backflow prevention device as part of the meter assembly, or
 the individual property owner whose responsibility it is to comply with the requirements of the network
utility provider and the Building Code, and to protect building users.
Using an air gap to prevent backflow
In most situations, an air gap is the most cost-effective and reliable form of backflow prevention.
An air gap should be used to prevent backflow from rainwater tanks and other water supply tanks into the
mains-supplied water system. Air gaps should also be used to prevent backflow of contaminants from all
appliances and fixtures that are connected to the water supply.
For swimming and spa pools, provide a dedicated water supply with an approved air gap.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 requires that the air gap must be the greater of 25 mm, or twice the diameter
of the supply pipe.
water delivery pipe

level of delivery from pipe or valve
air gap to prevent backflow
overfl ow
storage tank or fixture

maximum possible water level
Principle of air gap used for backflow prevention
If mains supply is used to top up a private water supply, backflow can be prevented by using a
floating weight can be used to operate a valve, ensuring that the maximum water level always
remains at least 25 mm below the mains inlet. Alternatively, a double non-return valve can be used.
179
mains water inlet valve operated
overflow sized to cope
by “floating” weight
with maximum inflow
highest possible
level of water
air gap between high level

of water and inlet point to pre-
vent backflow
cord
floating weight operates mains water supply pipe

level of water when
inlet valve when low
topup operates
level is reached
Mains water supply top-up valve and air gap backflow prevention
If a piped supply is used to top-up the rainwater storage tank, a simple commercially available
floating switch will ensure that top-up water is added only when the level in the tank is low. A float
valve should not be used because it will add piped water whenever there is any draw-off.
180
test taps
upstream isolating valve

downstream
isolating valve
flow from mains flow

water supply double check valve
strainer
Double non-return valve installation to prevent backflow contamination of a potable
water supply
If there is any direct connection between mains supply water and a rainwater collection system,
then a means of preventing backflow, such as a double non-return valve, must be designed into the
system.
water delivery pipe
flow
air gap
• twice he delivery pipe diameter
• min. 25 m
spill level
container or fixture
Air gap separation between potable water supply and spill level
181
float valve air gap
• twice he delivery pipe diameter
• min. 25 m
flow designed max. water level
float
overflow
operational water
level
overflow size
maintain air
Note: AS/NZS 3500.1.2 requires the highest possible level of water to

be calculated, see 3500.1.2 clause 4.6.3.2(a). Air gap separation in a storage tank
Backflow prevention devices

If the system is a high pressure system and a pipe is directly connected to an appliance or
sanitary fixture, it may not be possible to use an air gap. In this case, a backflow prevention
device must be installed.
The appropriate device for a particular installation will depend on the:
 hazard level of any potential contaminant
 potential for cross-connection
 type of backflow expected
 physical limitation of the device and the environment.
Cross-connections are rated according to Building Code Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 to
three hazard levels:
 High – this has the potential to cause death
 Medium – this would endanger health
 Low – this is a nuisance but does not endanger health
Generally, the higher the hazard, the higher the risk, so the safer the device must be.
182
Vacuum breaker
A vacuum breaker contains a float disc and an air inlet port. Under normal water flow, the float disc closes
off the air inlet port, but if the normal water flow is interrupted, the float drops, closing off the system
against backflow and, at the same time, opening the air inlet port.
A variety of vacuum breakers are available:
Atmospheric vacuum breaker atmospheric control valves are not allowed

An atmospheric vacuum breaker (AVB) vacuum breaker downstream of the vacuum breaker
is one of the simplest and least 150 mm above highest outlet

expensive backflow prevention devices stop valve
and can provide excellent protection sprinkler
against backsiphonage. It consists of a
gravity plunger or float disc that is
forced upwards when the supply
pressure is turned on, thus sealing off
the atmospheric vent overhead. As soon
as the supply is interrupted or

flow
terminated, the float drops down and
flow
opens the downstream pipework to
atmosphere. There must be sufficient Hose connection vacuum breaker

pressure to fully lift and seal the float on A hose connection vacuum breaker
the vent, so it is not suitable for use on (HCVB) is a specialised type of
very low pressure systems. atmospheric vacuum breaker designed
to attach directly to the hose tap. It
has a spring-loaded check valve that
seals against an atmospheric outlet
hose tap when the water supply is turned on.
When the supply is turned off, the
device vents to atmosphere, thus

hose connection protecting against backsiphonage
flow vacuum breaker
conditions. It is non-testable and
should not be used as protection

hose
flow against backpressure or be subject to
continuous pressure (2 hours
maximum is permitted), i.e. no control
valves should be located downstream
of the device.
183
Pressure vacuum breaker
A pressure vacuum breaker
(PVB) evolved due to a need
to have a vacuum breaker pressure vacuum breaker (PVB)

downstream isolating valve
that that can be subject to
constant pressure and is

300 mm above
able to be tested in line. It highest outlet
is similar to the atmospheric

line strainer
vacuum breaker except that
there is a spring to hold the
disc float in the open

upstream isolating
position during normal valve
operation. They have two
isolating valves and two
cocks for testing, one for

flow flow
each chamber. These
devices can be used under
constant pressure but do
not protect against
backpressure. They must be

Double non-return valve assembly
at least 300 mm higher than
Essentially, a double non-return valve
any downstream piping.
assembly (also known as a double check
valve assembly or DCVA) consists of
two independently operated non-return
valves within one body. One non-return

test taps
valve simply acts as a back-up. Because
upstream isolation valve downstream isolating valve
there is a risk that both valves will fail
at the same time, regular testing is
imperative, and the device is limited to
use in medium and low hazard

flow flow situations. This valve will protect
strainer against backpressure and
double check valve
backsiphonage but is not fail-safe.
Because of the spring pressures, there
can be a significant reduction in
pressure (up to 40 kPa) across this
device.
184
test taps downstream
Reduced pressure zone device
upstream isolation valve isolating valve
This backflow protection device
incorporates two independently-
acting, spring-loaded check
valves separated by a differential
pressure relief valve. Pressure flow strainer flow

between the two valves is lower reduced pressure zone device
than the supply pressure during
discharge vent
normal operation. If either check
300 mm above ground
valve leaks, the pressure relief
valve will open, discharging
water out of the system.
This device provides the maximum protection of any valve and can be used in high hazard
situations.
Backflow prevention Typical applications
device
Air gap Taps, sinks

Vacuum breakers (VB) Industrial plants, cooling towers, laboratories, laundries, swimming
pools, lawn sprinkler systems, fire sprinkler systems
Double check valve In-house pumps, elevated tanks, non-toxic boilers
assembly (DCVA)
Reduced pressure backflow Industrial plants, hospitals, morgues, chemical plants, irrigation
assembly (RPBA) systems, pumps, elevated tanks, boilers, fire sprinkler systems
185
Installation requirements
All backflow prevention devices require a building consent for installation and must be:
 installed as near as practicable to the potential point of contamination
 protected from physical and frost damage
 isolated from corrosive or toxic environments
 installed above surrounding ground level so that leakage from air ports and discharge ports is readily visible
 installed in a position and manner to be accessible for maintenance and testing
 fitted with a line strainer upstream to prevent particles in the pipework from rendering the device ineffective
 attached only after the pipework has been flushed
 installed without the application of heat.
Testing
Backflow prevention devices may be testable or non-testable. Their use in a particular situation depends on
the degree of hazard. Non-testable devices may only be used on low-hazard rated systems.
Testable devices must be tested on installation and at regular intervals to the standard set down by
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1: 3.7 Testing. Non-testable devices should be checked every 2 years maximum.
186
4.1.2.6 Valves and controls
Valves and controls are required – particularly in mains pressure systems – to protect
water supplies from contamination and to achieve the desired water pressure, flow and
temperature.
On this page:
 Valve requirements
 Isolating valves
Valve requirements
Valve and control Function Required Recommended
device
Isolating valve Manually operated valve At the property boundary At the entry point to the
to isolate one section of for all mains connected building
the system installations Adjacent to At a supply tank At the
tank outlet where there hot water cylinder
is on-site supply Any other fixture where
frequent maintenance is
required
Pressure limiting valve Limits the pressure With mains pressure Where mains pressure
within pre-set range systems where the water is very high or
pressure could exceed the fluctuates excessively
pressure rating of the
pipe material or hot water
cylinder
Non-return valve Prevents reverse flow At the hot water cylinder At the property
within or from the to prevent water from the boundary
system cylinder from returning to At any pump
the water main or being
delivered from cold water
outlets if mains supply
fails
Line strainer Filters particles of solid Where other valves could At the entry point to
matter from the water to be damaged by solid the building
protect other valves materials At the hot water
further downstream cylinder on all systems
187
Valve requirements
Valve and control Function Required Recommended
device
Pressure reducing valve Reduces the pressure to To reduce mains pressure To provide balanced
a pre-set level on a low pressure hot low pressure cold
water system water to other fixtures
on the same system
Expansion control valve Releases pressure in the On any valve-vented hot Retrofitted to all
(cold water) cold water feed pipe water cylinder existing valve-vented
caused by the expansion hot water cylinders
of water in the storage (low and mains
water heater cylinder pressure)
during normal operation
Pressure relief valve Releases pressure in the On low pressure (<120
(PRV) storage cylinder if it kPa) valve-vented hot
rises above the pre-set water systems that do not
limit incorporate an open vent
pipe
Temperature/pressure Operates above a pre- On valve-vented hot All valve-vented
relief valve (TPR) set temperature and water systems >120 kPa systems (low and
pressure mains pressure)
Temperature limiting Controls the On the hot water delivery On all hot water
thermostat temperature of the to all personal hygiene delivery to personal
water fixtures and on wetback hygiene fixtures
installations
188
Isolating valves
Isolating valves are required to be installed in accessible position points in the supply system to allow
maintenance and repairs to be carried out. They must be provided in accordance with AS/NZS 3500.1 and
NZBC G12/AS1 as shown below:
Isolating valves
Location AS/NZS 3500.1 NZBC G12/AS1
At the boundary Yes Yes
Inlet to a storage tank Yes Yes
(cold or hot)
Outlet to storage tank Yes 2
(over 50 litres)
Inlet to a flushing cistern Yes 2
Each appliance Yes 2
Each backflow prevention device Yes Yes
Each thermostatic mixing valve Yes 2
Each pressure limiting device Yes 2
At each branch serving a separate dwelling Yes Yes
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4.1.3 Hot water supply
Hot water supply must be adequate to meet building users’ needs while also keeping them
safe. It should also support efficient use of both energy and water.
On this page:
 Controlling temperature
 Controlling pressure
 Water heating options
 Other considerations
In designing a water heating system, the key decisions will include the source of energy for water
heating, whether to use a storage cylinder or continuous flow system, system layout, and system
capacity (including delivery rate, recovery rate, actual and potential number of users, type and
number of fixtures within a household).
The system must be designed to meet safety requirements, which largely concern controlling temperature
and pressure to ensure there is minimal risk of scalding or of a storage cylinder exploding.
A well-designed system will also minimise energy and water use, for example by using an efficient heating
source, ensuring the pipe runs are relatively short, and by using efficient fixtures and appliances.
Code requirements
The NZ Building Code clause G12 Water supplies requires hot water systems to meet a number of objectives
including to:
 provide potable hot water to outlets for consumption, food preparation,
utensil washing and oral hygiene
 prevent growth of Legionella bacteria
 protect users from scalding during personal hygiene activities
 be safe from explosion
 be efficient and avoid energy wastage.
NZS 4305:1996 Energy efficiency – domestic type hot water systems sets the energy efficiency
requirements for hot water storage cylinders including:
 maximum standing heat loss (kWh per day) for electric hot water cylinders
of different sizes
 maximum gas consumption rate and minimum thermal efficiency for gas
hot water cylinders.
190
Controlling temperature
Water heated to more than 50°C can cause serious burns in less than a minute. This creates risk,
particularly for children (who have sensitive skin) and the elderly (who have slower reaction times).
Under Acceptable Solution G12/AS1, in most buildings hot water delivered to sanitary fixtures such as
basins, baths and showers should not exceed 55°C (lower temperatures are required for some buildings
such as hospitals, schools, and care facilities).
Hot water may be delivered to domestic kitchen sinks and laundries at higher temperatures – generally
around 55°C to 65°C.
If a storage cylinder is used, the water must be heated to over 60°C at least once a day to prevent the
growth of Legionella bacteria. The water must then be tempered to reduce the temperature before it is
delivered to outlets. See storage cylinders for more detail.
Continuous flow systems are not at risk as they do not store water that would allow growth to occur.
Controlling pressure
In buildings with mains pressure water supply, a system of valves and controls will be required to regulate
water pressure and temperature. See Controlling pressure in storage cylinders and Valves and controls for
more detail.
Water heating options
Probably the key decisions to be made are which energy source to use, and whether to use a storage
system or a continuous flow one.
In continuous flow systems, water can be heated using electricity or gas. In storage systems, the water can
be heated using electricity, gas, solar energy or a wetback.
Each energy source has its advantages and disadvantages, as do storage and continuous supply systems. In
general, solar, heat pump and wetback systems are more energy efficient than traditional electric and gas
systems. Continuous flow systems can be efficiently used in some circumstances, such as to boost a solar
system, or to feed an outlet that is some distance from the main hot water supply.
See water heating in the energy section of this site for more detail on these options.
191
Other considerations
As well as specifying an efficient energy source, water and energy efficiency can be enhanced by:
 designing the system to minimise pipe runs – for example, by locating the storage cylinder close to
the kitchen, laundry and bathroom
 specifying low-flow fixtures
 specifying appliances that use water and energy efficiently
 locating the hot water storage tank close to kitchen and bathrooms
 installing a continuous-flow hot water system, particularly for remote outlets, so that hot water
does not need to be stored
 insulating the pipes to reduce heating costs (but this has less impact than reducing pipe lengths)
tempered water to personal

hot water
hygiene fi xtures (max 55°)
storage heater
tempering
valve
shower untempered
hot water if the kitchen is remote
rose
from the bathroom install a
secondary hot water
storage heater
shower ba
mixer sin
hot water
storage heater
kitchen (where close to bathroom)
shower kitc
hen
Avoiding waste through long hot water pipe runs
If a kitchen is remote from the hot water storage system, install a secondary continuous-flow
system to reduce water wastage.
192
4.1.3.1 Storage cylinders
Hot water storage systems can be used with energy-efficient heating sources such as
solar, air-to-water heat pumps or they can use gas or electricity as the primary energy
source. A disadvantage is that they can run out of hot water.
Find out about:
 code requirements
 cylinder size
 cylinder location
 cylinder insulation
 controlling Legionella bacteria
 tempering heated water
 specific requirements for gas storage water heaters.
Code requirements
Under Building Code clause G12 Water supplies, hot water systems must provide water in a manner that
allows for the control of Legionella bacteria but minimises the risk of scalding. Adequate hot water must be
provided for utensil washing and personal washing/bathing.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 requires that storage cylinders must:
 be large enough to meet draw-off demand
 have sufficient recovery capacity to be ready for the next draw-off demand
 include a non-return valve (unless supply is from a water tank)
 have temperature controlled by a thermostat (electric and gas heating).
A storage cylinder must be heated to at least 60ºC daily to remove the risk of microbial
contamination in the water.
 maximum standing heat loss (kWh per day) for electric hot water
cylinders of different sizes
 maximum gas consumption rate and minimum thermal efficiency for gas
hot water cylinders.
193
Cylinder size
The hot water storage cylinder must be large enough to provide for a household’s peak hot water demand,
but more water will be heated than needed if the cylinder is too large. The appropriate size depends
primarily on the number of people in the household. Typical hot water usage is in the order of 40–60 litres
per day per person.
Significant standing losses occur from the cylinder and during the transfer to the point of use. For greater
efficiency, hot water storage cylinders should be short and broad rather than tall and slim, as this reduces
the surface area. Cylinder size varies enormously, around 460–810 mm diameter, but most are typically
around 480, 550 or 580 mm.

Taller cylinders may be better where heat is exchanged to and from other sources (such as a solar collector
or wetback) to the cylinder. For example, a wetback may draw cold water from the bottom of the cylinder
and return it as hot water to the top of the cylinder. A taller cylinder will allow a greater temperature
difference to be maintained and therefore improves the effectiveness of the wetback.
Cylinder location
Minimise heat loss through the hot water pipes by locating the cylinder as close as possible to the outlets
where the majority of hot water is used.
The cylinder will lose more heat in a cold location (e.g. when located outside the insulated building
envelope) than a warm one (such as in the middle of the house or in a well-insulated space). Locating the
cylinder in a cupboard will help to retain heat. Modern gas storage cylinders are often designed for
installation outside the building envelope.
Other design factors to consider include:
 hot water system pressure – low or mains pressure
 provision of sufficient space for the cylinder
 access to replace the cylinder
 plan spaces where hot water will be used to be in close proximity – if an isolated hot water outlet is
required, or hot water demand will be low, a continuous flow water heater may be a better option
 placement in relation to solar collectors or solid fuel burners where these are used for water heating.
Cylinder insulation
Maximise energy efficiency by:
 wrapping the cylinder with additional insulation
 insulating the hot water pipework.
194
Electric storage water heaters installed since 2002 must have ‘A’ grade insulation. These have a layer of
insulation of around 50mm between the water jacket and the outside of the cylinder. Cylinders that were
installed prior should have insulation in the form of a cylinder wrap added. Any cylinders that are warm to
the touch would benefit from having a cylinder wrap added.
Available cylinder wraps include:
 wool with cotton exterior
 wool with foil exterior
 fibreglass with foil exterior.
Controlling Legionella bacteria and tempering heated water
To prevent the growth of Legionella bacteria, stored water should be heated to not less than 60°C at least
once a day. If the thermostat control is set above 60°C, hot water storage systems are not at risk
of Legionella growth.
If the hot water storage system is partially heated by solar power or heat exchange system (wetbacks or
solar heat transfer system), the temperature must be boosted at least 60°C or higher on a daily basis.
vent or valve if high pressure system
hot water to kitchen sink
check with manufacturer of

tempering valve for minimum
working head
hot cylinder at min. 60°C to prevent

growth of Legionella bacteria
tempering valve
stop valve
tempered water
• 55°C to personal hygiene
• 50°C to personal hygiene
• 45°C to early childhood centres, schools, facilities for the
stop aged
cold water feed drain valve
Water temperatures to prevent scalding/prohibit the growth ofLegionella
195
Tempering heated water
The Building Code requires that hot water be delivered at a temperature that avoids the likelihood of
scalding. As water heated to 60°C or more can cause serious burns, water must be tempered before it is
delivered to users though taps and other outlets.

Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 sets maximum temperatures for water delivered to sanitary fixtures. For most
types of building, the maximum temperature is 55°C for outlets such as basins, baths and showers (the
limits are lower for buildings such as hospitals and schools).

For kitchen sinks and laundries, maximum temperatures of around 55°C to 65°C are acceptable.
Temperatures can be reduced to acceptable levels by installing:
A tempering valve is installed in the hot water line close to the cylinder and has a cold water
connection to provide a pre-set hot water temperature at fixtures. Valves are factory pre-set but are
able to be adjusted to cater for specific temperature requirements.
As water may be delivered at any temperature to non-personal hygiene fixtures such as sinks and laundries,
a tempering valve is not required to these fixtures. However, if a wetback water heater or other uncontrolled
heat source is used, tempering the supply to all fixtures is good practice.
Most dishwasher and washing machine manufacturers may require the installation of a tempering valve for
warranty purposes where the unit does not heat its own water.
adjustment knob
preload spring
cold water enters the mixing

chamber over top of piston
hot flow cold flow

 a tempering valve, or
 a thermostatic mixing valve.
piston
hot water enters the mixing
chamber under the piston spring
mixing chamber wax element thermostat control Tempering valve

expands or contracts in response
to temperature changes and moves
piston up or down to control flow of
hot and cold water
mixed water flow
196
Specific requirements for gas storage water heaters
Gas storage water heaters must have:
 adequate ventilation of the cylinder
 a flue to remove exhaust gases.
They must be:
 serviced annually
 flushed out regularly to remove water sediment at the bottom of the cylinder
 checked to ensure that vents are not blocked.
4.1.3.2 Controlling pressure in storage cylinders

Most new hot water cylinders are mains pressure, but existing buildings may use low
pressure systems.
On this page:
 types of water storage heater
 low pressure, open-vented, header tank system
 low pressure, pressure-reducing valve system
 mains pressure, unvented system
 advantages and disadvantages of different types of storage water heater
Storage water heater systems may operate as:
 a low pressure, open-vented system, where pressure is provided by a cold water
storage, header tank (3–12 m head/30–120 kPa)
 a low pressure system that uses a pressure-reducing valve to reduce the mains
pressure water (3–12 m head/30–120 kPa)
 a mains pressure, unvented system, where the operating pressure is the same as
the incoming supply (120–1,400 kPa, but typically 350–700 kPa).
Mains pressure storage water heaters are the main type of new installation in New
Zealand.
Low pressure, open-vented, header tank system
Traditionally, low pressure, open-vented systems provided the hot water supply for New Zealand houses. In
order to provide adequate hot water supply pressure, cold water is stored in a header tank located at a
higher level than the storage water cylinder, from which water is gravity-fed into the bottom of the storage
water cylinder.
As the water is heated, it rises to the top of the cylinder where it can be drawn off through taps or shower
outlets and will be replaced from the header tank. The gravity feed provides the water pressure that pushes
the water to the outlets, as long as they are at a lower level than the stored water.
197
As heating causes the water within the cylinder to expand, an open-vent pipe provides an outlet for excess
pressure. The pipe usually feeds back into the header tank supply.
alternative vent pipe vent pipe to terminate

termination at storage tank outside building
cold water storage

header tank check minimum head
required for correct
function of tempering
valves
vent pipe
cold water inlet
pipes should be equal pressure
graded to tank or cold water supply
safe tray vent to avoid air
locks
equal pressure grade

cold water supply tempered water
tempering grade
valve
hot water supply
kitchen and laundry
cold water feed

to water storage Note: tempering valve may be
heater installed in close proximity to
.the fixtures served
drain pipe
cap
Low pressure, open-vented, header tank storage water heater system
198
Low pressure, pressure-reducing valve system
Note: This system may be open-vented or unvented.
The low pressure, open-vented, pressure-reducing valve system works in the same way as the header tank
system but uses a pressure-reducing valve to reduce the high pressure water from the mains supply down
to a pressure, or head, that is able to be maintained within the height of the vent pipe, which usually
discharges above the roof.
This system, commonly known as an unequal pressure system, supplies low pressure hot water and high
pressure cold water to fixtures. Its major disadvantage is that it is difficult to achieve balanced flow to a
shower.
The unvented, low pressure system must also include a pressure relief valve.
These are old systems that wouldn’t be installed today – modern systems have much better performance.
vent pipe to terminate outside building normal standing

water level
vent pipe
1m min.
above
standing equal pressure cold
water level water supply
highest outlet in
3m min. from the system grade
highest outlet Low pressure, open-
hot water supply vented, pressure-
reducing valve storage
water heater system
tempering valve must be

fitted to hot water supply
to all personal hygiene
fixtures but may be
non-return valve remote from storage
pressure reducing valve drain pipe
cap
cold water
supply inlet strainer shut-off valve
199
Low pressure, unvented, pressure-reducing
valve storage water heater system cold water supply
hot water supply
pressure relief valve
tempering valve must

be fitted to hot water
supply to all personal
hygiene fixtures
drain
expansion
control valve storage water
and drain heater
non-return valve
pressure reducing valve

drain pipe
cap
cold water inlet drain
strainer
Mains pressure, unvented system

Mains pressure, unvented, storage water heater systems supply mains pressure hot water to all outlets so
both the hot and the cold water is delivered to outlets at the same pressure. An internal or external
expansion vessel allows the heated water to expand, and systems must incorporate a pressure relief valve in
case the expansion vessel fails.
All mains pressure cylinders (>120 kPa) require the pressure relief valve to be both pressure and
temperature operated (temperature pressure relief or TPR) in order to provide a dual failure mode.
Where a mains pressure unvented system is used, valves must be specified for the particular system to
achieve the required pressure rating.
One problem with a single valve for relieving pressure is that hot water is wasted as the water expands
during the frequent heat-up cycles. To prevent this, an expansion control valve, set at slightly less pressure,
is installed on the inlet side of the cylinder and will relieve cold water during the heat-up cycle. It is normal
for an expansion control valve to drip approximately 5 litres of water per day. Both these valves must have
a correctly-sized copper drain line that discharges to a safe and visible location.
As cold water storage header tanks and vent pipes are not required, the system allows greater flexibility in
locating the cylinder.
200
cold water supply
hot water supply
temperature and
pressure relief valve
tempering valve must
be fitted to hot water
supply to all personal
hygiene fixtures
drain
storage water
expansion heater
control valve
and drain
non-return valve
pressure limiting valve
as required by heater
manufacturers Mains pressure, unvented, storage
drain pipe water heater system
cap
drain
strainer
Valves must be installed so they are:
 accessible for repairs and maintenance
 protected from damage
 protected from frost.
Unqualified people should not alter, remove or dismantle valves on any potable water supply system.
Acceptable flow rates for fixtures and appliances
Low pressure, Low pressure, pressure-reducing Mains pressure,

Advantages
open vented valve (open vented or unvented) unvented
Inexpensive to install and maintain * *
Few valves required Equal pressure * *
system Unequal pressure system * *
High pressure hot water Quick hot * *
*
water delivery Smaller diameter
pipework may be used *
201
Acceptable flow rates for fixtures and appliances
Low pressure, Low pressure, pressure-reducing Mains pressure,

Advantages
open vented valve (open vented or unvented) unvented
Greater flexibility of pipe * *
layout
Quiet operation *
Wet back connection OK * *(if open-vented)
Disadvantages
Larger diameter pipework required * *(for hot water supply)
Grading to avoid air locking

*
essential
Low pressure supply * *(for hot water)
Prone to pressure fluctuations * *
Noisy and subject to water hammer *
More water wastage *
More valves required Increased *
wear and tear on pipes and fittings *
Difficult to install wetback *
202
4.1.3.3 Hot water pipes
Hot water pipes must be appropriate for the temperature and pressure of water being piped.
On this page:
 materials
 pressure rating of thermoplastic pipes
 de-rating (rate of loss of strength) factors of some commonly used pipe material
Also see pipe materials, pipe installation, and valves and controls.
Materials
Hot water pipes must be able to withstand the maximum temperature of the water being piped. Pipe
material may be copper or an appropriate thermoplastic material.
Materials suitable for hot water supply pipes include:
 copper
 polybutylene (PB)
 chlorinated polyvinylchloride (CPVC or PVCc)
 random polypropylene (PP-R)
 cross-linked polyethylene (PEX).
Thermoplastic piping should not be used where a hot water system includes an uncontrolled heat
source such as a wetback or a solar heating system.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 and AS/NZS 3500.4 require the first metre of length of pipe from water
heaters to be in copper.
Grades of PEX vary, and few grades will tolerate 100°C water for any significant length of time.
Pressure rating of thermoplastic pipes
Pipes are classified according to their pressure rating (PN) at 20°C. For example, a pipe rated PN16 is rated
for a pressure of 160 MPa at 20°C. Thermoplastic pipes lose strength and ability to withstand the pressure
with increasing temperature, and this differs with different materials.
203
De-rating (rate of loss of strength) factors of some commonly used pipe materials
Temp Poly- Polyvinyl-chloride Chlorinated polyvinyl-chloride Poly- Cross-
(°C) butylene ethylene linked poly-
ethylene
20 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
27 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.7
38 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8

49 0.8 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.8
60 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.7
71 0.6 * 0.4 * 0.7
82 0.6 0.4 0.6
93 0.4 0.2 0.5
104 * * *
* not resistant to long-term service beyond this temperature.
204
4.1.4 Appliances and fixtures
Efficient appliances and fixtures can significantly reduce water use.
On this page:
 Household water use
 Toilets
 Fixtures
 Appliances.
Household water use
BRANZ monitored 51 random houses in Auckland and found that showers, washing machines and toilets
account for almost three quarters of the water used. It makes sense therefore to focus on these three areas
for potential water savings.
205
Toilets
In an average home, around one litre in five is used for toilet flushing. This can be reduced by:
 ensuring a dual flush cistern is specified
 installing a water-efficient toilet pan
 using collected rainwater or treated greywater for flushing
 installing waterless composting toilets where no mains sewer connection is available.
Many older cisterns use far more water than necessary – up to 12 litres is not uncommon. To reduce
the amount of water used, replace the inefficient cistern with a modern dual-flush one that uses 6 /
3 litres or 4.5 / 3 litres. (A new pan may be needed where a dual flush cistern cannot be fitted to
the existing one.)
Toilets are covered by the New Zealand Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme, and must have efficiency labels
on them – see Appliances below.
If fitting a new pan/cistern is impractical, options you can use to reduce water usage include:
 placing an object such as a brick, or plastic milk bottle filled with water that has the top firmly
screwed on into the cistern to reduce the amount of water required to fill an older cistern
 adjusting the float ball by bending it down slightly to reduce the volume of water in the cistern –
ensure that sufficient flow and volume is maintained for an adequate flush
 ensuring that the cistern supply shuts off fully when not in use.
In all cases, sufficient flow and volume must be maintained so the pan is cleared with a single flush.
Other fixtures
Water usage can be reduced by specifying/installing:
 For main-pressure systems, low-flow showerheads that use around 9 litres of water per minute
and still deliver a comfortable shower
 aerators on taps used for hand washing – aerators are not suitable for taps on fixtures such as
baths where water is being used to fill the fixture.
Reduced water flow by specifying an aerator
An aerator on a tap used for handwashing will reduce the flow while still providing
plenty of water. Aerators should not be specified for taps on fixtures such as baths
where a large volume of water is required.
206
Appliances
Reduce water use by recommending water-efficient appliances. Under the Water Efficiency Labeling Scheme
(WELS), certain products must display a WELS label. These include:
 clothes washing machines
 dishwashers
 lavatories
 showers
 taps.
The WELS label shows a star rating for relative water efficiency – the more stars, the better, up to a
maximum of 6 – and a water consumption or water flow figure. The latter is given in:
 litres per minute (showers and taps)
 litres per wash (clothes washing machines and dishwashers)
 llitres per half flush, full flush, and average flush – the average of four half flushes and one
full flush (for lavatories).
More information can be found at the WELS page of the Ministry for the Environment website.
Information about water efficiency can also be found at the Australian water efficiency rating scheme
website www.waterrating.gov.au.
Do not specify or install waste disposal units. Instead, where possible, encourage building users to compost
all organic kitchen waste.
207
4.2 Wastewater
With wastewater, the overriding consideration is building users’ health and safety.
Most buildings will connect to a town or city sewerage system. However, there are options for on-site
disposal that can be used when there is no mains sewerage available. Some wastewater can also be
recycled to reduce building water use.
In this section, we describe best practice options for installing standard wastewater systems. We also
describe other options such as greywater recycling.
While recycling greywater has benefits, maintenance is required to keep these recycling systems operating
properly. Specific maintenance tasks should be pointed out to clients considering this option, without
discouraging them, before they make a final decision.
Code requirements
Installation of sanitary plumbing and drainage systems in New Zealand must be in accordance with NZ
Building Code clause G13 Foul water or AS/NZS 3500 Plumbing and drainage.
The key objectives of Clause G13 are to safeguard people from:
 illness due to infection or contamination as a result of personal hygiene activities
 loss of amenity due to the presence of unpleasant odours or the accumulation of offensive
matter resulting from sewage disposal.
To do this, sanitary plumbing and drainage must be designed to carry discharges away so that they:
 do not cause nuisance or health risk

 prevent foul air and gases that are generated in sewers, drains and plumbing systems from
entering buildings
 minimise the risk of blockage
 minimise noise generated by the flow within the system
 allow for access and cleaning
 are durable
Acceptable Solution G13/AS1 applies to above-ground non-pressurised sanitary plumbing (i.e. pipes,
fixtures and fittings above ground). Acceptable Solution G13/AS2 applies to drainage (i.e. below
ground pipework).
208
4.2.1 Building design considerations
There are several issues with sanitary plumbing and drainage that must be considered during
building design.
On this page:
 common plumbing coordination and installation issues
 checklist for drains
 checklist for discharge pipes within floor depths
 checklist for floor waste gullies within floor depths
Common plumbing coordination and installation issues
Accommodating water supply pipes in a building structure generally presents few problems, but this is not
the case with drainage pipes. As they are generally larger and need to be installed with minimum gradients,
they also take up more space.
Problems can occur because of a lack of coordination at the design stage, and/or between builder and
plumbing contractor. Once the building is under construction, it is sometimes too late to achieve a proper
solution.
Common plumbing coordination and installation issues include:
 pipework needs to be surface mounted because there is insufficient space for it to be

concealed
 minimum gradients are compromised because of insufficient depth in floor joists to
accommodate pipe gradient
 dimensional requirements for floor waste gully traps are compromised because of
inadequate floor depth
 structural members are compromised by oversized holes and notches because there is
inadequate provision of ducts and bulkheads
 top and bottom plates and bracing are compromised to accommodate pipes in timber-
framed walls
 fixtures are located with the waste outlet directly over a joist, bearer or beam
 pipe runs that are overlong and unnecessarily complicated in order to navigate non-
penetrable building elements such as steel beams
 pipe and drain noises that cause disturbance to living and sleeping areas
Checklist for drains
Check:  the invert level of the connection at the property boundary to ensure that sufficient fall
can be incorporated within the site
 the length of unvented branch drains
 that drains under concrete slab floors are accurately set out – they can be difficult or
impossible to move later
209
Checklist for discharge pipes within floor depths
Check:
 that waste pipes run in the same direction as floor joists – large holes must not be drilled through joists
unless specifically designed
 that there is sufficient depth between floor and ceiling at upper levels to accommodate the pipe’s
required fall, diameter and bends
floor joists
waste pipes must
run in the same
joistsas the
direction
Discharge within floor depths
WC pan
ideally, do not run discharge

pipes across floor joists
required fall/gradient
floor
pipe falling to gradient direction of flow
joist depth Allowance for fall within floor
max. length within joist depth
Checklist for floor waste gullies within floor depths
Check:  that there is sufficient space to accommodate the full depth of the trap
 that there is sufficient allowance for fall from the trap
210
4.2.2 Sanitary plumbing systems
Compliance requirements for discharges from wastewater and soil fixtures.

On this page:
 Types of fixture
 Basic rules for discharges
For more detail, see discharges and vents.
Code requirements
The Acceptable Solution G13/AS1 Sanitary plumbing is based on the NZ Plumbing and Drainage Regulations,
which applied until the introduction of the NZ Building Code in 1991.
G13/AS1 applies to above-ground, non-pressure (i.e. gravity) flow sanitary plumbing for buildings of three
storeys or less.
G13/AS1 does not cover:

 specialised sanitary fixtures or appliances, e.g. such as used in hospitals,
laboratories, and factories
 industrial, chemical or toxic wastes that cannot legally be discharged into a sewer
Types of fixtures
Wastewater fixtures are all sanitary fixtures or appliances that receive wastewater and are not soil fixtures.
Wastewater fixtures include hand basins, showers, baths, sinks and tubs.
Soil fixtures collect solid and liquid excreted human waste and include toilets, urinals, slop sinks and so on.
Soil fixtures must discharge directly into a drain or to a discharge stack.
211
Basic rules for discharges
Basic rules for waste pipes discharging to a gully trap
vent pipes serving fixtures that discharge to
a gully trap must not connect with a vent
which is connected to a drainage system
alternative route for vent
all wastewater fixture discharge air admittance valve

pipes must incorporate a water trap air admittance valve alternative to vent
alternative to vent
an air admittance valve may be used fixtures with single waste

as an alternative to a vent pipe pipes less than 3.5 m
need not be vented
fixtures with waste
pipes exceeding 3.5 m
where the waste pipes from two or more must be vented
fixtures are combined, each ficture must be
gully trap
vented
drain pipe
where the vertical drop on a 32 mm waste pipe
exceeds 1.5 m the fixture must be vented
Basic rules for a system serving two floor levels
vent pipes must terminate 150 fixture vent pipes must ascend at a
mm above roof level and be alternative vent
minimum gradient of 1:80
fitted with bird excluder pipe connection
all discharge pipes from fixtures must be
vented. The vent pipes must be
1:80 connected to the discharge stack vent
above the level of the highest fitting
discharge stack vent for vent sizes
the individual discharge pipe from the top most
1: fixture only may connect without separate
fixture vent
80 venting to the discharge stack vent but must
– exceed:
not
discharge pipe
– 6 m or 100 mm pipe
fixture vent 3.5 m or 32 mm to 65 mm pipes
discharge pipe
1.5 m or an 80 mm pipe
alternative 1:80
discharge stack must be vented connection
by a discharge stack vent – for to stack water closet fixtures may be connected to the
stack sizes stack or directly to the drain
for waste water drain pipe

fixtures 500 mm
discharging to a no connections allowed within the positive pressure zone
gully trap 600 mm at the base of the discharge stack – shown red
500 mm
gully trap
212
the individual discharge pipe from the
top most fixture only may connect
without separate venting to the
vent pipes must terminate 150 mm above alternative vent pipe discharge stack vent but must not
roof level and be fitted with bird excluder connection exceed:
45 0
– 1.5 m or an 80 mm pipe
– 3.5 m or 32 mm to 65 mm pipes
discharge stack vent for vent sizes
fixture vent pipes must
ascend at a minimum
gradient of 1:80
1:80
all discharge pipes from
fixtures must be vented.
fixture vents may be replaced with air

admittance values in accordance
a relief vent must be fitted
1:80
water closet fixtures may be
connected to the stack or
directly to the drain
discharge stack must be vented by a

discharge stack vent – for stack sizes
450 drain pipe

for waste water fixtures
2.5 m
discharging to a gully trap
no connections allowed
within the positive pressure
600 mm zone at the base of the
1m
gully trap discharge stack – shown red
Basic rules for a system serving three floor levels
213
discharge stack vent
branch vent
fixture vent pipes must
ascend at a minimum
gradient of 1:80 1:80
all fixture discharge pipes

must be vented
maximum developed length without
a fixture vent for the topmost fixture
discharging to a stack vent:
fixture vents may be replaced – 6 m or 100 mm pipe
with air admittance valves fixture – 1.5 m or an 80 mm pipe
vent – 3.5 m or 32 mm to 65 mm pipes
the graded discharge stack
shall be sized
graded discharge stack
access point
450 mm
450 mm
vertical stack to drain
no connections allowed within
the positive pressure zone,
shown red
Basic rules for a graded discharge stack
214
4.2.2.1 Discharges and vents
Discharges and vents should comply with the size, material and performance
requirements in Acceptable Solution G13/AS1.

On this page:
 water traps with single discharge outlet
 water traps with multiple discharge outlets
 sizing discharge pipes
 access points
 venting discharge pipes
 vent pipes
 WC pans – discharge pipes and venting
 air admittance valves
 floor wastes
 pipe materials
Water traps with single discharge outlet

Every fixture that discharges foul water must incorporate a water trap to prevent foul air from entering the
building.
The type of fixture determines the size of the discharge pipe and trap, and the size of the discharge pipe
determines the minimum gradient required for the pipe:
 1:20 for 32 mm pipes
 1:40 for pipes 65 mm diameter and under
any waste water fixture
max. developed length of single fixture

discharge pipe without venting is 3.5 m
depth of water seal min. 25 mm

min. gradient of discharge pipes
water seal
gully trap
Discharge pipe from wastewater fixture to gully trap
215
Discharge pipe from wastewater fixture to discharge stack
any waste water fixture

except for the topmost fixture on the system,all discharge
pipes connecting to a stack must be vented
discharge
stack
min. gradient of discharge pipes

depth of water seal –fixtures min.
25 mm for pipe discharging to a water seal
discharge stack
max. developed length of the top most discharge pipe without venting
is 3.5 m. There is no limit on length of vented discharge pipes
Water traps must be:
 located as close to the sanitary fixture as possible
 removable or fitted with a cleaning eye.
Easy-clean traps are acceptable and are used mainly in showers, urinals and trapped floor wastes
inlet holes
screw-off cover weir
water trap
outlet to discharge pipe
Easy-clean trap
216
The developed length of a fixture discharge pipe between the sanitary fixture outlet or a sanitary appliance
(e.g. a washing machine) discharge and the water seal must not be greater than 1.2 m.
Water traps with multiple discharge outlets
A trap may serve multiple fixtures such as:
 two domestic sinks and one dishwasher machine (note that if one sink has a
waste disposal unit installed, it must be trapped separately)
 two laundry tubs
 one laundry tub and a clothes washing machine
 two hand basins.
two domestic kitchen sinks
dishwasher
max. length of discharge

pipe is 1.2 m
trap dishwasher
hose
A water trap may serve two domestic kitchen sinks and one dishwasher
217
two domestic kitchen sinks
dishwasher
seperate wastes may be

combined if vented
WDU trap trap dishwasher hose
waste disposal unit
A waste disposal in the second sink must be trapped separately
laundry tub laundry tub
40 mm pipe
developed max. length of discharge
pipe is 1.2 m
trap
A water trap may serve two laundry tubs
218
discharge hose from
washing machine
laundry tub
developed max. length of

discharge pipe is 1.2 m
40 mm pipe
trap
A water trap may serve one laundry tub and one washing machine
basin basin
max. length of discharge

pipe is 1.2 m
trap
A water trap may serve two hand basins
219
Sizing discharge pipes
The minimum diameter for a discharge pipe is given in G13/AS1:Table 2 Fixture discharge pipe sizes and
discharge units.
A discharge pipe that receives discharge from two or more fixtures must have a minimum diameter
calculated from G13/AS1:Table 4 Discharge unit loading for stacks and graded discharge pipes.
Discharge pipes must not decrease in size in the direction of flow.
vent pipe connection above overflow level

of all fixtures
laundry tub and washing

basin 1 DU machine 5 DU
5 DU 40 at 1:30 vent pipe gradient 1:80
1 DU 32 mm
pipe at 1:20 sink 3 DU
6 DU 40 at 1:20
dishwasher 3 DU
10 DU 50 at 1:30
bath 4 DU 6 DU 40 at 1:20
4 DU 40 at 1:40
16 DU65 at
1:40
DU = discharge unit
Example of discharge pipe sizing
220
Access points
Access points must be provided so that blockages can be cleared where:
 a soil discharge pipe connects to a stack
 a soil stack connects to a drain
 there are bends and/or junctions likely to cause a blockage
 access to a pipe is otherwise restricted.
Venting discharge pipes

All discharge pipes must be vented in accordance with G13/AS1:Table 5 Venting requirements.
A vent pipe may be connected to a relief vent, a discharge stack vent, or a branch vent.
A vent pipe must:

 have a continual rise from the point of connection with the discharge pipe to the open air
 terminate in the open air
 terminate no less than 50 mm above the overflow level of the highest fixture that it serves
 be fitted with a bird exclusion device
 have a gradient no less than 1:80.
Vent pipes must have a minimum diameter as given in G13/AS1:Table 6 Vent pipe sizes.
Discharge stack vents must have:
 a minimum diameter of 80 mm where they are also acting as a drain vent pipe, or
 a minimum diameter as given in G13/AS1:Table 6 Vent pipe sizes.
WC pans – discharge pipes and venting
WC pans may connect directly to a drain or a discharge stack. When discharging to a drain,
WC pans may be:
 vented by connection to a drain vent as long as the developed length does not
exceed 1.5 m for an 80 mm diameter pipe, or 6 m for a 100 mm diameter pipe

 connected directly to a drain without venting if both the main drain and discharge pipe
gradients are 1:60 or more, and the developed length does not exceed 1.5 m for an 80
mm diameter pipe, or 6 m for a 100 mm diameter pipe.

• When discharging to a stack, WC pans must be vented.
221
S’ trap soil fixture connected to drain and using the drain vent as a fixture vent
vent cowl
vent pipe
‘S’ trap
water seal
• developed length must

not exceed:
– 1.5 m for an 80 mm pipe
– 6.0 m for a 100 mm pipe
• minimum gradient 1:60 to drain
‘P’ trap soil fixture connected to drain and using the drain vent as a fixture vent
• developed length must

not exceed:
– 1.5 m for an 80 mm pipe
– 6.0 m for a 100 mm pipe
• minimum gradient 1:60
vent cowl
vent pipe
water seal
‘P’ trap
must discharge directly to drain 100 mm min. drain
222
Water closet connected directly to drain not requiring venting
a vent is not required provided:

• the discharge pipe has a minimum gradient of 1:60
• the main drain has a minimum gradient of 1:60
• the length of the discharge pipe is not more than:
– 1.5 m or 80 mm pipe
discharge pipe – minimum

main drain minimum
gradient 1:60
gradient 1:60
Venting an ‘S’ trap water closet pan

vent pipe
alternative vent connection point
air admittance valve as

alternative to vent pipe
‘S’ trap
vent must be connected within 1.5 m of trap
(to area coloured green)
vent must not be

connected within 300 mm
of bend on vertical section
must be connected to discharge stack

clear of any pressure zones 223
Venting a ‘P’ trap water closet pan
vent pipe
must be connected to
discharge stack clear of
any pressure zones
air admittance valve as

alternative to vent pipe
vent must be connected within this area
(to area coloured green)
water seal ‘P’ trap
75 mm
1.5 m
Air admittance valves

Air admittance valves (AAV) provide an alternative to running vent pipes to the outside of the building.
When flowing water causes a reduction of air pressure within the system, the air admittance valve will open
automatically, admitting air into the system. It will close again when the pressure in the system is equal to
or greater than the external pressure.
Air admittance valves must be:
 used in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions
 a minimum of 100 mm above the weir of any trap that they serve
 installed in an accessible, ventilated space where they are protected from damage, sun exposure and
freezing
 fitted in an upright position.
224
They must not be used:
 on a stack vent that is also a drain vent
 as main or branch drain vents – these must be vented to the open air.
Air admittance valve – closed

flap valve closed
positive pressure within the

pipe keeps the valve closed
pipe
Air admittance valve – open

flap valve open
negative pressure within the

pipe opens the valve and pipe
admits fresh air
225
fixture
air admittance valve

100 mm integral with tap
water trap
Air admittance valve to discharge pipe

may be in ceiling
100 mm min.

to stack in wall or duct
(must be ventilated)
AAV not permitted if the stack

is acting asa drain vent
air admittance valve to each
discharge pipe
Typical air admittance valve installation
226
Floor wastes
Dry floor wastes are provided to drain away accidental water spillage. They:
 do not need to have a water trap
 may discharge directly outdoors, or into a gully trap
 must not be connected to a foul drainage system – water in the trap may be lost through evaporation
admitting unpleasant odours
 must have a minimum diameter of 40 mm
 must have a grating flush with the floor so they do not create a hazard.
INTERIOR EXTERIOR
grating must be flush with floor finish

floor
must be fitted with a hinged flap

min. 40 mm pipe to exclude vermin
untrapped wastes should

discharge 50 mm above grating
may discharge to gullytrap if trapped
Floor wastes
trap may be fitted
Floor drainage may also be provided by a trapped floor waste or a floor waste gully, both of which require a
charged water trap.
Pipe materials
Acceptable materials for sanitary plumbing include:
 pipes and fittings – copper, PVC
 traps – PVC
 expansion joints – PVC.
Sanitary plumbing pipework must allow for thermal expansion to prevent damage to pipework and fixtures.
227
4.2.3 Drainage systems
Compliance requirements for drainage features such as gully traps and underground drains.
On this page:
 gully traps
 ventilation of drains
 pipe sizing and gradient
 material for drains
 testing of drains
Also see access for maintenance.
Code requirements
Acceptable Solution G13/AS2 Drainage covers below-ground foul drains up to 150 mm in diameter. G13/
AS2 does not cover industrial, chemical or toxic wastes that cannot legally be discharged into a sewer.
Gully traps
Gully traps receive discharge from wastewater fixtures. One gully trap may receive discharge pipes from
several outlets.
Each residential building must have at least one gully trap. If a drainage system becomes blocked, the
gully trap provides the point where sewage can overflow outside the building, instead of building up
inside the pipe and overflowing inside the building.
Gully traps must:
 have an overflow rim at least 150 mm below the overflow level of the lowest fixture served by
the system
 be located within the legal boundary of the land on which the building stands
 prevent surface water from entering the trap
 be constructed so the grate will lift to allow surcharge
 have at least one discharge pipe feeding into it to maintain the water seal.
228
Gully trap construction
waste pipes (may discharge through the back of the
chamber) but must be watertight
grating must ‘pop-up’ in the event of surcharge
concrete surround if gully is likely to suffer damage
every residential building must have at least one

gully, the rim of which is 150 mm below the overflow
level of the lowest fixture
pipe bedding material
flow
Gully trap dimensions and requirements

cleaning eye
grating – removable to allow cleaning and relief of surcharge
a min. of one waste pipe must concrete surroundif subject to damage

discharge into the gully
min. 20 mm
below grate
• 25 mm ab ve a paved surface
• 100 mm u paved surface
max. 600 mm to allow
gully to be cleaned
• where the trap is likely to be
subject to damage 75 mm min.
concrete surround;
• if n t subject to damage
compacted granular bedding
min. water seal 65 mm
100 mm min. dia. outlet
229
A floor waste gully acts as a floor drain as well as receiving the discharge from wastewater fixtures. It may
only receive discharge pipes from wastewater fixtures that are located in the same room. It may also be
used as a shower outlet but cannot receive solid waste, for example, from a WC pan.
The advantage of using a floor waste gully is that it reduces the number of connections required to the drain
and the length of pipe.
They may be used in buildings where overflowing water could enter another property.
floor
gully riser
total of four inlets
outlet
Floor waste gully trap

trap level
ceiling total depth for:

• 100 mm iser is approx. 290 mm
• 80 mm iser is 360 mm (check manufacturer)
Ventilation of drains
Drainage systems must be ventilated to reduce the build-up of foul air within the drains.
A discharge stack that is within 10 m of the head of the drain may be used as the drain vent pipe.
Ventilation requirements include:
 every drain must be ventilated by an 80 mm diameter minimum vent pipe which terminates to open air
 every branch drain over 10 m in length must be ventilated
 vent pipes must be located so that there is less than 10 m of upstream drain
 vent pipes must be located downstream of the discharge pipe that is closest to the head of the drain
– to allow for regular flushing at the point where the vent connects with the drain.
230
Main drain venting
discharge stack vent no more than 10
m from head of drain may be used as
the drain vent
head of drain
every residential building
must have at least one
gully trap
80 mm
max. length of AP max. length of

unvented branch unvented branch
drain is 10 m AP
drain is 10 m
AP
min. drain size 100 mm except

that an 80 mm drain may serve
AP waste water fixtures only
main sewer
AP
site boundary
231
Branch drain venting
branch drain vents

must be sized
correctly
the main drain vent must be 80 mm min.
the drain vent must be

downstream from the
head of the drain but
not more than 10 m
from it
head of drain
every drain branch that
exceeds 10 m must be AP
vented
access point (AP)
the main drain vent must be an

open vent
AP
main sewer
AP
site boundary
Pipe sizing and gradient

Pipe gradients are expressed as a ratio of the pipe length and the amount of fall over the length. The amount of
fall is usually expressed as 1, for example, if a pipe gradient is 1:100, it has a fall of 1.0 m over 100 m of length.
B. unit length
gradient A:B
A. amount of fall per unit length
Pipe gradient
232
The minimum diameter for a drain is 100 mm, except where it carries discharge from wastewater fixtures
only, in which case, it may have a minimum diameter of 80 mm.
Calculating larger diameters, the size and gradient of a drain is based on the total of all discharge units that
each section of the pipe carries. Each fixture type is given a rating derived from its expected discharge:
 1:20 for 32 mm pipes
Drains must be laid:
 at even grades
 so the diameter does not decrease in the direction of flow
 with a minimum diameter and gradient as set out in G13/AS2:Table 2 Drain discharge
loading and minimum gradients.
Materials for drains
Materials and standards for drainage pipes are given in G13/AS2:Table 1.
Drainage pipes must have flexible joints so that pipes are not damaged by differential settlement.
Testing of drains
Drains must not be covered over until they have been inspected and tested for leaks.
Depending on the type of drain and the situation, tests that may be applied to a drain to test the joint
performance include:
 water test
 smoke test
 coloured water test
 low-pressure air test.
233
4.2.3.1 Access for maintenance
Access points must be provided in specified places to allow drains to be cleaned.
Access points must be provided:

 immediately inside the boundary
 at every change in gradient over 45°
 at every horizontal change in direction more than 45°
 at every junction that serves a soil fixture or any branch drain longer than 2 m
 every 50 m on straight drains if rodding points are used, or every 100 m if inspection chambers, access
chambers or inspection points are used
 at both ends of the building where a drain passes under a building.
every 50 mm where rodding points are used
every 100 m where access chambers, inspection

chambers or inspection points are used
at every junction with:

• a b anch drain connected to a soil fixture
• a b anch drain longer than 2 m
at every change in horizontal

direction greater than 45º
at every change ingradient

more than 45º
immediately inside at every junction with another drain (except branch

the boundary drains less than 2 m long serving a gully trap)
boundary
Locations where access points must be provided to drains
234
Inspection point
Inspection point on a straight section
Inspection point
Inspection point at a junction
235
concrete surround to
removable cover
225 mm pipe compacted fill surround

for top section
1 m or less (invert
of drain in ground) 45° junction
Rodding point
flow
236
Inspection chamber with internal inspection point
removable lid at ground level must

prevent ingress of surface water
concrete pipe diameter

• 450 mm or drains 100 mm or less
• 600 mm or drains over 100 mm
inspection point
must be 1 m or less (cover

level to drain invert)
flexible joint within 225 mm of

concrete surround
150 mm
min. 150 mm concrete surround to drain

flexible joint within 225 mm of and inspection chamber
concretesurround
237
Inspection chamber with internal open drain
removable lid at ground level must

prevent ingress of surface water
concrete pipe diameter

• 450 mm or drains 100 mm or less
• 600 mm or drains over 100 mm
concrete haunching to fall to

open drain
must be 1 m or less (cover

level to drain invert)
fall 1:15
flexible joint within 225 mm of
concrete surround
fall
150 mm
min. 150 mm concrete surround to drain

flexible joint within 225 mm of and inspection chamber
concretesurround
238
Access chamber with inspection point
all joints
must be sealed
removable access lid at ground level
must prevent ingress of surface water
concrete top
concrete pipe internal

diameter 1 m min.
ladder rungs as necessary
greater than 1 m (cover level inspection point

to drain invert)
flexible joint within 225 mm

of concrete surround
concrete fill to inspection point level
150 mm concrete base
min. 150 mm concrete surround to

drains and chamber

239
Access chamber with open drain
all joints
must be sealed removable access lid at ground level
must prevent ingress of surface water
concrete top
concrete pipe internal

diameter 1 m min.
ladder rungs as necessary
greater than 1 m (cover level

to drain invert)
fall 1:15
concrete haunching to fall to open drain
fall
150 mm concrete base
min. 150 mm concrete surround to

drains and chamber

240
Drains under buildings
adjoining property
gully
access point
access points must be

provided at both sides of
the building
drains under buildings mustbe straight

access point and have an even gradient between
access points
adjoining property
Drains under buildings – drainage access points

branch drains must
connect at 45°
any drainage access point
within a building may be
a sealed rodding point and
must be in an isolated
space complying with
G1/AS1 and G4/AS1
gully
adjoining property
access point
access points are required at an access point is required

both sides of the building on any branch drain with
more than one soil fixture
adjoining property
241
4.2.4 On-site wastewater treatment
On-site wastewater treatment is an option if there is no sewer available or if the owner wants to
recycle water to reduce demand on mains wastewater systems.
The Building Code requires that if a sewer is available the drainage system must be connected to it –
although the local authority can provide a waiver, allowing building owners to reduce demand on mains
systems by recycling greywater or using a composting toilet.
If there is no sewer available, on-site treatment options will be needed.
With all wastewater disposal or recycling, health and safety must be the overriding priority.
Blackwater and greywater

Blackwater is wastewater from toilets, dishwashing machines and sinks – because the fats, detergents and
cleaning agents used in kitchen wastewater, this is considered blackwater and must be discharged
accordingly.
Greywater is waste from baths, showers and hand basins.
Wastewater from clothes washing machines may be considered in either category.
Code requirements
An on-site wastewater treatment system must meet performance requirements for construction and
operation of the Building Code. If the system is designed to AS/NZS 1547:2012 On-site domestic-
wastewater management, the requirements of the Code will be met.

As noted above, the Building Code requires that if a sewer is available the drainage system must be
connected to it – but the local authority can provide a waiver allowing on-site wastewater treatment to be
installed. Local authorities or regional councils may have additional bylaws controlling the installation of on-
site wastewater treatment systems. The local authority should be contacted before you begin to design a
system.
The sanitary plumbing connected to an on-site wastewater treatment system within the house must comply
with the requirements of NZBC clause G13 Foul water.
Septic tank construction is covered by AS/NZS 1546.1:2008 On-site domestic wastewater treatment units –
Septic Tanks.
242
On-site wastewater treatment options
Most on-site wastewater treatment systems involve two stages of treatment – the first stage in a tank or
treatment system, and the second when the effluent is dispersed on to land or the garden and further
breaks down. The first stage may be carried out in a septic tank or in a more advanced system such as an
aerated wastewater treatment system or advanced sewage treatment system. These systems are much
more advanced than septic tanks and treat effluent to a level that allows it to be used on the garden or even
recycled for toilet flushing and vehicle washing.
For new building projects, most local and regional councils require a higher level of wastewater treatment
than that provided by the traditional septic tank.
Both of these options reduce the amount of effluent to be disposed of by the wastewater treatment system.
4.2.4.1 Designing an on-site wastewater treatment system
The appropriate wastewater treatment system will depend on the site, the required
capacity, and compliance requirements.
On this page:
 site considerations
 system options
 system capacity
Also see design checklist.
Site considerations
Site features that must be considered when designing a wastewater disposal system, include:
 Is the water table high or low?
 Does the land become saturated during periods of high rainfall?
 What area of land is available for the system?
 What is the soil’s ability to absorb moisture, e.g. is the subsoil clay, sand, loam etc?
Note: The amount of land needed for the disposal field depends on the subsoil.
243
System designs
toilet blackwater from toilets
basin
shower
gully trap greywater and blackwater treatment

to land
greywater from: application
• showers
• bath
• wash basins
• laundry
• kitchen
Schematic of on-site domestic wastewater treatment
Where a sewerage connection is not available, the on-site wastewater treatment system must meet
the performance requirements of the NZBC.
Local authorities or regional councils may have their own bylaws controlling an installation and resource
consent may be required. Contact the local authority before you begin to design a system.
244
toilet
toilet
blackwater from toilets and kitchen
kitchen sink
wash basin
shower to land application
optional diversion to treatment unit

blackwater treatment
only unless diversion is
connected to greywater
greywater from:
• shower
• bath
• wash basin to irrigation
• laundry
Schematic of separate on-site domestic greywater and blackwater treatment systems
Greywater and blackwater may be treated separately. If separate treatment systems are selected,
you should include a means of diverting the greywater to the blackwater treatment system.
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organic kitchen waste (some
systems) toilet and separate greywater
system
compost
some systems require urine

separation
all greywater to treatment

and irrigation or to land
application
Schematic of an on-site domestic greywater treatment system used in combination with a
waterless composting toilet
A composting toilet eliminates the need for a blackwater system but must incorporate a means of
dealing with urine. The greywater can be dispersed to a land application or used for irrigation.
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System capacity
Allow for a daily output of 200 litres per person when designing a system. This will enable it to cope with peak
discharge rates or temporary overloads. It must also be able to retain the total flow for at least of 24 hours.
The system should also have enough capacity for 3–5 years of sludge at the following rates:
 for blackwater and greywater – 80 litres per person per year
 for blackwater only (where there is separate greywater system) – 50 litres per person per year
 for greywater only – 40 litres per person per year.
The septic tank system capacity must allow for:
 variations in the quantity of effluent to be disposed of
 the possibility that householders will not manage and maintain the system effectively.
4.2.4.1.1 Design checklist
Use this step-by-step to guide design of an on-site wastewater treatment system.
These are the stages of an on-site wastewater treatment system design process as set out in AS/NZS
1547:2012 On-site domestic-wastewater management.
Stage 1: Feasibility study
Determine requirements by preliminary:
 discussion with system suppliers
 identification of site conditions
 discussion with regulatory authorities.
Stage 2: Evaluation and investigation
Includes soil evaluation for permeability and drainage capability, and site investigation to identify:
 gradients  groundwater conditions
 site boundaries  location of nearby wells, springs and watercourses
 building positions  vegetation
 runoff  climatic conditions.
 stability
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Stage 3: Selection system
Consider the:
 number of occupants
 site conditions
 local authority regulatory requirements.
Stage 4: Design distribution system
Must include:
 uniform, effective and continuous distribution
 an area that can be controlled and maintained.
Stage 5: Approval/consents
Obtain as required from regulatory authorities for:
 location
 system specification
 operation
 maintenance
 monitoring.
Stage 6: Installation
In accordance with:
 approved design drawings and specification
 manufacturer’s instructions
 certification as required by the regulatory authority.
Stage 7: Operation and maintenance
Includes:
 providing an operations and maintenance manual
 keeping records of all servicing/inspections/remedial actions
 carrying out regular inspections/cleaning
 having a service and maintenance manual with the supplier (for AWTS/ASTS)
 maintaining the land application area.
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4.2.4.2 Septic tanks
Septic tanks provide minimal treatment for wastewater and are no longer allowed in many
areas.
On this page:
 how septic tanks work
 construction and installation
A septic tank is a primary treatment system – that is, treatment of wastewater is minimal and involves
only separation of solids and some preliminary anaerobic (without oxygen) action. Many local authorities
no longer allow septic tanks to be installed, instead requiring anaerobic or advanced treatment systems
which provide a higher level of treatment.
See on-site wastewater treatment for Building Code requirements.
How septic tanks work

Wastewater flows into the septic tank where solids and liquids separate. Partially decomposed solids settle
to form sludge on the tank floor, and lighter materials such as fat and grease form a floating layer of scum.
Effluent, which may still contain small particles of solids, flows out of the septic tank to a land-application
disposal area. It filters through the soil, where it is treated by bacterial action.
inspection covers
blackwater and greywater inflow

air vent
scum floats on the surface
septic tank
settlement zone
outfall to land
application
sludge settles to the bottom
effluent flow
A single-chamber septic tank
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The partially decomposed solids that settle on the bottom of the tank must be pumped out approximately
every 3–5 years, depending on use.
The septic tank outlet should be below the level of the floating scum layer so the amount of these solids that
are dispersed onto the land is limited.
Septic tanks are generally gravity-fed. They must therefore be installed below the level of the house. If this
is not possible, waste must be pumped to the tank. Tanks may incorporate tees or baffles at the inlet and
outlet pipes to slow incoming wastewater and reduce sludge disturbance. Gas baffles may be incorporated to
deflect gas from escaping through the outlet.
vent
Gas baffles to the outlet of a septic tank
inspection cover
baffle
outfall to land application
gas baffle (many

different types)
rising gas bubbles deflected from outlet
sludge
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Construction and installation
Septic tanks may be factory-built and manufactured from reinforced cement mortar, fibreglass,
steel, or plastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene.
Tanks may be installed underground, or above ground.
Below-ground systems are most commonly installed and must:
 resist loads from the surrounding soil and groundwater
 resist hydrostatic uplift (tendency to float)
 prevent surface and groundwater getting in
 have inspection covers that are not accessible to children
 be clear of trafficked areas.
An above-ground system may be required if the site is sub-ground rock or has a very high water table.
Above ground systems must:
 be watertight
 be durable
 be UV resistant
 resist earthquake forces
 have inspection covers that are not accessible to children.
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4.2.4.3 Aerated and advanced wastewater treatment systems
These systems treat sewage to a higher level than septic tanks, allowing it to be safely
used for gardening or even recycled for toilet flushing.
Aerated water treatment systems (AWTS) and advanced sewage treatment systems (ASTS) are secondary
treatment systems, that is, they involve both anaerobic and aerobic (with oxygen) treatment to a higher
level than a primary treatment system, resulting in effluent that is suitable for garden (excluding fruit and
vegetables) and landscape irrigation.

At the highest level of treatment (from ASTS), the treated effluent can be used in non-potable situations
such as toilet flushing, vehicle washing and firefighting.
In many areas, a secondary treatment system is the only option permitted.
How an AWTS works
Water flows through a series of chambers or tanks that progressively treat and filter the
wastewater
Stage Type of Process
treatment
Chamber Anaerobic Settlement of solids and anaerobic decomposition
Chamber Aeration Effluent passes through filter to aeration chamber
2 Pumped in air creates turbulence and aerates effluent
The chamber may incorporate a bioreactor to give additional
bacterial treatment
Chamber Clarification Effluent passes through second, finer filter to clarification chamber
3 Fine sludge particles settle and are pumped back to the first
chamber
Chamber Pump A submersible pump distributes treated effluent to the disposal field
After treating wastewater in a similar process, an advanced treatment system may pass the effluent through
a sand filter, a packed bed filter or a textile bed reactor, where effluent trickles through the bed material
containing micro-organisms that treat any remaining fine solids before being pumped to the disposal field.
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Aerated water treatment system (generalised)
control panel and

access lid air pump alarm system access
lids
ground level
inlet
outlet
scum
sludge
return
effluent sludge
filter sludge effluent pump
SETTLEMENT CHAMBER AERATION CLARIFICATION FINAL PUMP

(ANAEROBIC) CHAMBER CHAMBER CHAMBER
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4.2.4.4 Land-application disposal system
Following treatment in a septic tank or other treatment system, effluent is disposed of on
land. There are several ways this can be done.
On this page:
 gravity soakage trenches/beds
 low pressure effluent distribution (LPED)/dose loading systems
 proprietary aerobic treatment system
 drip-line irrigation systems
 evapo-transpiration systems (ETS)
 sand mound systems
 site investigation
Following primary or secondary treatment, effluent is moved by gravity or pump via a subsoil
drainage system to a land-application disposal area, where bacterial action carries out the final
treatment as the effluent filters through the soil.
The effluent from an ASTS will have had significant treatment and may be used for irrigation, but it may not
be used for crops for human consumption.

The various land-application disposal systems (listed above) each have their own advantages and
disadvantages.
Gravity soakage trenches/beds (septic tank system only)
Perforated dose lines, 100 mm in diameter, are laid in trenches or beds filled with aggregate and covered
with a layer of topsoil. Effluent trickles through the aggregate into the surrounding soil.
Gravity soakage can only be used with a septic tank system. It can work well in reasonably flat, good
draining soils, but a common problem is that the effluent flow does not spread evenly over the disposal
area, and most of the effluent will discharge at the beginning of the trench. If a trench is too deep, aerobic
bacterial treatment of effluent will not occur.
Low pressure effluent distribution (LPED)/dose loading (septic tank system only)
Effluent may be discharged more evenly across the disposal area by pump or dose loading. A controlled
dose is pumped through a doseline at regular intervals over a 24-hour period, ensuring the effluent is
spread over the whole area and also gets a rest period between soakings. It also eliminates the chance of
disposal surges that may occur during periods of high household use.
Alternatively, even soakage can also be achieved by nesting the perforated dose line within a drainage coil
installed in the trench. The effluent moves along the drainage coil, spreading more evenly across the whole
land-application area.
A distribution or diverter box can be used to different parts of the field and allow the trenches to be
periodically ‘rested’ to prevent drains becoming clogged by saturated conditions.
As the soil filtering process provides the secondary treatment, the disposal area for both gravity soakage
and LPED disposal should be fenced off to prohibit access.
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Proprietary aerobic treatment system
A proprietary dispersal system is available that treats effluent from a septic tank, releasing much cleaner
water into the soil than standard dispersal systems. The US-designed system passes effluent into 300 mm
diameter perforated underground pipes on a sand bed. The pipes have a geotextile and fibre wrap which
microorganisms colonise. Passive aerobic breakdown follows, which is effectively a secondary treatment. The
process is passive – there are no pumps and no filters to change.

By putting much cleaner water into the soil, the system is far less likely to see progressive failure and the
soils are less likely to be compromised.
The system is consented as an alternative solution.
Drip-line irrigation systems
Several options of drip-line irrigation are available including:
 sub-surface drip – where lines are buried in topsoil 100–150 mm deep
 surface drip – where lines are laid on the surface and covered in bark or mulch
 spray system – where treated and disinfected effluent is sprayed over the ground surface.
Drip-line systems are only suitable for secondary treatment effluent. Effluent is pumped, distributing it over the
whole of the effluent field each time it operates.
Evapo-transpiration systems (ETS)
In evapo-transpiration, effluent is dispersed into beds planted with selected, shallow-rooted plants. The
plants absorb effluent through the roots and release water through the leaves into the atmosphere in a
natural process of transpiration. Effluent not taken up by plants will be absorbed into the soil.
Sand mound systems

Where it is not possible to achieve a suitable depth of trench due to a high natural water table or poor
percolation, soil or sand can be mounded to provide a suitable filtering depth for the effluent treatment. The
effluent can trickle through the mound into the underlying soil.
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Typical septic tank land application system
sewer inlet from house
septic tank
distribution box
piped
trenches
absorption
trenches
vegetation
topsoil 150 mm
filter cloth 75 mm
perforated pipe
250 mm
large aggregate fill
300 mm
Typical piped land application trench system
Traditional distribution of effluent from a septic tank has been through gravity-fed perforated pipes
in an aggregate bed.
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Evapo-transpiration trench
grass and planting
100 mm topsoil
200 mm sand
200 mm sand
450 mm
200 mm stone aggregate
50 mm sand bed
1500 mm 100 mm perforated pipe
Treated effluent from an on-site domestic waste-water system may be discharged through an evapo-transpiration
trench. The effluent is absorbed into the topsoil, taken up by plants, or may evaporate.
Site investigation
Site requirements for an effluent disposal system must consider the:
 nature of the subsoil, including permeability (the rate at which water can percolate through it)
and stability
 characteristics of the site such as:
o slope
o natural drainage characteristics
o water table levels
o water course location
o tendency to flood
o area available for land application
o vegetation and planting
 potential effects on:
o downstream neighbouring properties
o natural water courses the sea
o local ecology
o the field location i.e. fields must not be grazed or driven over.
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4.2.4.5 Maintenance and problems
Owners are legally responsible for maintaining their on-site wastewater treatment system.
On this page:
 Maintaining septic tank systems
 Maintaining aerated water/advanced sewage treatment system
 Maintaining land-application/disposal systems
 Avoiding problems
 Signs of trouble
 Solving problems
Maintaining septic tank systems
 Inspect tank annually for sludge and scum levels.

 The tank should be pumped out approximately every 3–5 years. Have tank pumped out when:
o the top of the floating scum is 75 mm or less from the bottom of the outlet
o sludge has built up to within 250 mm of the bottom of the outlet

 Check and clean outlet filters regularly (6-monthly)
 Alternate dispersal to the land-application areas approximately every 3–6 months.
Maintaining aerated water/advanced
sewage treatment system AWTS and ASTS should be serviced by a qualified service person,
generally every 6 months, to:
 clean or replace filters as required
 monitor the effluent quality, including pH level, of the first chamber
 check the submersible pump and float switch operation
 record all inspection maintenance and monitoring events
 replace the submersible pump at 7–10 yearly intervals.
Maintaining land-application/disposal systems

 Keep the area clear of deep rooting trees and shrubs (these may grow into and cause
blockage of the system).
 Clean and service pumps, siphons and filters according to manufacturers’ instructions.
 Flush drip lines regularly to remove accumulated sediment.
 Redirect effluent periodically to alternative trenches or beds (septic tanks).
 Mow grass and maintain plants in evapo-transpiration areas.
 Ensure that surface water drains around land-application areas are kept clear to reduce
rainwater runoff into trenches or beds.
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Avoiding problems
 Specify water-efficient appliances.
 Prevent overloading the system by minimising water use (e.g. spread heavy water-use activities such as
clothes washing over several days) and installing a separate greywater treatment system.
 Strong chemicals restrict the biological action within the tank – select cleaners and washing products that do
not hamper the decomposition process, and make sure chemical products such as volatile thinners, bleaches
and disinfectants do not enter the system
 Kitchen waste should not enter on-site wastewater treatment systems – compost kitchen waste instead of
installing a garbage disposal unit.
 Systems cannot deal with condoms, dental floss, tampons, sanitary napkins, nappies and nappy wipes
–these should be wrapped up and disposed of in the rubbish.
Signs of trouble
The system is not working correctly if:
 there is a foul smell around tank or land application area
 the tank overflows
 the ground around the tank is soggy
 sinks/basins/toilets are emptying slowly
 fixtures make a gurgling noise when emptying
 the grass is unusually dark green over the land application area
 black liquid is oozing from the trenches
 a gully trap or tank mushroom is overflowing.
Solving problems
Problem Solution
Tank is too full Have it pumped out
Tank contains too much sludge and scum Have it pumped out/desludged
Too much water going into the tank Use less water and check for stormwater infiltration
Toxic chemicals are going into the system Reduce use of hard detergents/cleaner
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4.2.4.6 Greywater recycling
Greywater is wastewater from bathrooms, diverted for garden irrigation or (if the
greywater is treated) for toilet flushing.
On this page:
 Safety considerations
AS/NZS 1547:2012 On-site domestic-wastewater management defines greywater as “the domestic

wastes from a bath, shower, basin, laundry and kitchen, but excluding toilet and urinal wastes.”
However, some people prefer not to reuse wastewater from clothes washing machines because of
the enzymes, detergents and other chemicals in it. Some systems do not reuse kitchen wastewater
because it contains fats and other organic matter (especially if there is a food disposal unit in the
sink). Kitchen wastewater also has the potential to carry contamination from organisms such as
Campylobacter that come from preparing raw meat for cooking.
It can be recycled for use in garden irrigation and, if treated, for toilet flushing.
Recycling greywater:
 reduces the load on sewerage systems including on-site treatment systems
 provides a garden water supply, reducing demand on other sources of water.
While recycling greywater has benefits, maintenance – in particular, cleaning or replacing filters – is
required to keep these recycling systems operating properly. Specific maintenance tasks should be pointed
out to clients considering this option, without discouraging them, before they make a final decision.
Code requirements
Any on-site wastewater treatment system must meet performance requirements for construction and
operation of the Building Code. If the system is designed to AS/NZS 1547, the requirements of the Code will
be met.
Some local authorities in New Zealand encourage greywater recycling, but other authorities do not. The local
authority should be contacted before you begin to design a system.
The sanitary plumbing connected to an on-site wastewater treatment system within the house must comply
with the requirements of NZBC clause G13 Foul water.
Safety considerations
Greywater recycling must be designed and installed with care as it is potentially unsafe in some situations.
Proprietary systems are available in the New Zealand market. To reduce risk, greywater used for garden
irrigation should deliver water below the soil surface.
Public health authorities in New Zealand typically do not support the use of greywater.
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BRANZ does not recommend greywater use for:
 washing clothes
 garden irrigation by sprinkler
 use on vegetables or salad plants.
Collected rainwater is a preferred option for toilet flushing than greywater. Where greywater is used for toilet
flushing it should be filtered, treated to remove odours and disinfected. The water is likely to be cloudy.
A greywater system should have a bypass switch so that the greywater can be sent directly into the sewer
or on-site blackwater treatment system if there is something in it that house occupants do not want to go
into the garden. Water with faecal matter from bathing very small children should be diverted, for example.
There should also be provision for overflow to be discharged to a sewer or on-site blackwater treatment
system.
Some proprietary systems have a sensor that diverts greywater if there is already enough water in the
garden.
4.2.4.6.1 Greywater systems
A greywater system diverts waste water either to an irrigation or a treatment and recycling
system.
On this page:
 how a greywater system works
 treatment of greywater
 designing a greywater system
 proprietary greywater systems
The key consideration is the health and safety of property users. Greywater systems used for irrigation
typically comprise a surge tank and a method of discharge to anirrigation system. Greywater systems used for
toilet flushing should have a treatment system.
Greywater systems must comply with Building Code requirements.
How a greywater system works
Greywater is water from basins, baths and showers that is piped to a surge tank. The greywater is held
briefly in the tank before being discharged to an irrigation or treatment system.

The greywater can be diverted either by gravity or by using a pump.
The surge tank can be any type of container that is suitable for holding (but not storing) the initial surge of
water. The surge tank must be emptied completely each time greywater is dispersed to the irrigation or
treatment system – greywater must not sit for extended periods of time in the tank.
A gravity system can only be used when there is sufficient fall from the laundry/bathroom drain to the surge
tank.
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The surge tank should:
 be vented
 have a trapped overflow
 discharge directly into the sewer or to an on-site discharge
 be sealed
 be vermin proof.
washing machine hose
air gap
vent or air inlet valve if pipe run is more than 3.5 m

to gully or surge tank
laundry tub
3-way diversion
valve
surge tank
fi lter bag
outfall to irrigation or
pump
gully trap
Diversion of water from washing machine or tub for gravity fed irrigation
A three-way valve manually diverts water from the normal drainage system to the surge tank. The
machine discharge pipe must not be more than 300 mm above the top of the machine to avoid
overloading the pump, and it must discharge into a 40 mm open pipe to avoid the possibility of
water being siphoned from the machine.
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laundry and bathroom bath/shower/basin wastewater
power supply by qualified electrician
to
irrigation
kitchen wastewater
to gully
3-way diversion
valve
submersible
filter bag
pump
gully trap
Diversion of laundry and bathroom greywater for pumped irrigation
This can only be done if there is sufficient distance between the floor level and the outside ground
level to allow a gravity feed to the surge tank. It entails a valve on the appropriate waste pipes to
divert the wastewater to the surge tank. The pipes may be individual or combined wastes from the
laundry and bathroom (but not from the kitchen). Water is then pumped to the irrigated area.
A pumped system, using a simple submersible pump and float switch, must be used where there is
insufficient fall. If necessary, the surge tank may be partially or wholly below ground level.
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gully grating
manual valve or remote electrically

operated diversion valve
kitchen waste discharges to

greywater discharges over screen gully trap and drain
filter or can be diverted to gully
screen filter plate

outfall to sewer
submersible pump
outfall to irrigation
gully trap
Cut away schematic diagram of manufactured gully with pumped diversion to irrigation
Greywater can be pumped from the surge tank to the irrigation system. If necessary, the surge tank may be partially or wholly
below ground level.
Commercially manufactured units usually comprise a plastic gully and grating, submersible pump, and an override switch
which diverts all the greywater to the sewer or on-site treatment if necessary.
Water unsuitable for irrigation such as kitchen wastewater, discharges to the sewer or on-site treatment plant.
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Treatment of greywater
Treatment of greywater may include:
 filtering
 settlement of solids
 flotation and separation of lighter solids
 anaerobic or aerobic digestion
 chemical or UV disinfection.
Greywater used for irrigation should be filtered as it still contains high levels of solids and is otherwise likely to
clog the irrigation system.
Filtering may be:
 a filter to catch the lint, e.g. a muslin bag, or
 use of large diameter pipes that allow solids to pass through the system without causing blockages.
greywater inlet
perforated distribution pipe
bark (requires regular changing)
sand bed
outfall to
irrigation
Simple type of greywater filter
Greywater must be filtered to avoid clogging the system. In a simple filtration device such as this,
greywater is discharged into a tank containing the filter material that consists of a layer of bark over
a filter-cloth and a sand layer. The water flows continuously through the filter and directly to the
irrigation system.
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Greywater filters will need to be replaced from time to time, and the solids that settle on top of the
greywater must be removed regularly.
Greywater should only be used for toilet flushing if it has been treated to reduce harmful bacteria to an
acceptable level.
Designing a greywater system
Consider the:
 personal habits of the users i.e. what they put in the system
 quantity of wastewater output
 size of the site
 soil conditions of the site
 type of recycling usage required i.e. whether it is for irrigation only, or for re-use within the home.
Greywater is often reused to reduce the pressure on an on-site treatment system. It does not allow a reduction in
on-site treatment capacity, however, because good system design will still allow greywater to be diverted to the
treatment system when a tank is full or the garden is waterlogged.
Installations that are designed in accordance with NZBC G13/AS1 Sanitary plumbing are suited to a greywater
installation because:
 greywater and blackwater systems are separate until they are outside the building
 greywater intended for recycling can be directed to a single gully trap where it can easily be
diverted for re-use
 other wastewater, such as kitchen wastewater, can be directed to a separate gully.
Installations designed in accordance with AS/NZS 3500.2 Plumbing and drainage may not be
suitable for a greywater installation because:
 greywater and blackwater are not necessarily separated, i.e. they may be both connected to the same
drain
 all wastewater may be connected directly to the outfall drainage, i.e. there may be no gully trap.
Under AS/NZS 3500, a purpose-designed plumbing installation must be specified for a greywater
recycling system.
Proprietary greywater systems
Commercially manufactured systems that treat greywater to a standard for toilet flushing and/or irrigation
are available in New Zealand.
Commercially manufactured units suitable for irrigation typically comprise:
 a plastic gully with a grating
 a submersible pump that automatically pumps the greywater to the irrigation system
 either a manual or remote electrically operated over-ride switch that diverts all the
greywater to the sewer if necessary
 a partially self-cleaning filter.
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Note: if a backup mains water
supply is provided to the toilet
basin
cistern it must have an air gap
shower or backflow prevention device
treated greywater to toilet cistern

cistern
gully toilet effl uent to sewer or on-

trap site treatment
treated greywater to irrigation
greywater treatment and disinfection plant
Treatment of greywater in proprietary system for use in toilet cisterns and irrigation
Greywater used for toilet flushing should be treated to reduce harmful bacteria. Commercially
manufactured systems which do this are available.
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4.2.4.6.2 Irrigating with greywater
When using greywater for irrigation, it’s important to comply with local authority
requirements and to ensure that the greywater is used safely.
On this page:
 local authority restrictions
 safety and health
 distribution systems
Local authority restrictions

Check with the local authority for restrictions on greywater use such as:
 minimum distance of discharge from boundaries, waterways, wells and bores, and sea
 maximum allowed daily discharge rate.
Safety and health

Greywater that has not been disinfected will contain bacteria. Greywater may also contain chemicals from
cleaning products, detergents and bleaches that can contaminate the soil and kill plants. If using greywater
for irrigation, avoid:
 harsh detergents, softeners and whiteners
 bleach or cleaners with chlorine
 cleaners containing boron.
Minimise any health risks:
 Do not allow greywater to pond.
 Do not spray, as this creates aerosol droplets that can drift.
 Discharge greywater below the soil surface.
 Do not use for vegetables – it is suitable for shrubs, flowers and fruit trees only.
 Do not irrigate near children’s play equipment or play areas.
 Do not irrigate plants that prefer acidic conditions.
Distribution systems
A greywater distribution system should incorporate a distribution box and branched drain network, so that
water can be diverted to different parts of the dispersal area, to allow each area to rest.
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Subsoil gravity-fed irrigation trench
These are filled with large aggregate metal and rely on absorption and/or transpiration, or in areas
of good soil permeability, mulch.

vegetation
topsoil
sand
filter cloth
large stone aggregate
Mulch-filled swale irrigation
Mulch-filled swales are channels filled with pine bark mulch. Water is discharged through small
diameter slotted pipes. The mulch prevents physical contact with the water.
bark separates greywater from human contact
bark mulch fill
200 mm
slotted distribution pipe
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Proprietary greywater irrigation system
There are several manufactured systems available, typically using a pump to distribute water.
main distribution pipes
geywater inlet
distribution box
orchard trees
planting
distribution pods
deliver water 100 mm
below the surface
mini tubes
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4.2.4.7 Composting toilets
Composting toilets can be used where there is no mains sewer connection or in some
circumstances to reduce demand on the mains sewer.
On this page:
 how they work
 statutory requirements
 requirements of composting toilet system
 deciding to install a composting toilet
Also see types of composting toilets.
How composting toilets work

Flushing toilets account for approximately 30% of domestic water use. Composting (or waterless) toilets
eliminate the need for flushing water.
A composting toilet breaks down human waste and other added organic material by an aerobic process in
the same way that garden compost is made. The end product should be an odourless, soil-like humus that
can be buried on-site.
For the composting to occur, the moisture content in a composting toilet must be minimal. This generally
requires separating out the urine by evaporation or a separate collection system.
The urine can then be disposed of by:
 a septic tank or other on-site blackwater treatment system
 a rock filled soakaway/soakpit
 a storage tank – it can be used as a fertiliser for citrus trees.
Approval from the local council for the proposed disposal method must be obtained.
Statutory requirements
A composting toilet cannot be used in urban areas where a mains sewerage system is available. Under the
Building Code, if a mains sewerage connection is available, toilets must be connected to it unless the
building consent authority provides a waiver.

The standard requirements of waterless composting toilets for residential use are covered by AS/NZS
1546.2:2008 On-site domestic wastewater treatment units - Waterless composting toilets.
Waterless composting toilets that are constructed separately from the house come within the description of
a building under the Building Act 2004.
The plumbing installation within the house must comply with the requirements of NZBC clauses G12 Water
supplies and G13 Foul water.
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Requirements of composting toilet system
Composting toilets must contain and act on pathogens. They must:
 meet good sanitation and public health requirements
 keep human contact with effluent to a minimum
 prevent contact with disease carriers, such as flies
 produce no offensive smells
 end with an inoffensive product with low concentrations of harmful bacteria.
In addition, they:
 can usually only be installed where there is no available public sewer connection
 require continuous extract ventilation
 may require a separate urine disposal system
 must have an alternative means of disposal for maintenance or repair of the system.
Deciding to install a composting toilet
They require a commitment to monitor and maintain the system, which involves:
 changing the full bins with batch systems
 removing the compost at regular intervals from continuous systems
 adding soil, burying or disposing of the compost
 cleaning the system as required by the manufacturer.
If a composting toilet is not properly maintained and monitored, the end product may not be properly composted,
which means:
 removal and cleaning may be unpleasant
 there may be a health risk
 there may be odours.
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4.2.4.7.1 Types of composting toilet
Composting toilets may be batch type or continuous.
BRANZ does not recommend self-designed composting toilets. A range of manufactured composting toilets is
available – these have the benefit of research and development input and have been tested over many
years.
Batch-type units
Most small self-contained composting toilets are of the batch type. These have two or more bins. When one
bin is full, it must be moved to a suitable place (generally outside) to allow composting to be completed.
This generally takes 5–6 weeks. The material is buried, an empty bin replaces the full one and the process is
repeated.
They generally do not have the underfloor space requirement of continuous systems, which makes planning
easier particularly if more than one toilet is required
Batch type systems must be vented and may:
 be heated
 have mechanical ventilation that requires an electrical connection – 12-volt models are available
and power consumption is generally low
 require a vent pipe
 require a connection to an on-site blackwater outfall for separated urine
 require the toilet room to be maintained at a regular temperature.
air vent to above

roofl ine
Batch-type composting toilet
removeable container switched power supply if

inside outer casing required by system
container removed and left outside in a protected

location for composting process to complete
second container
replaces full one
compost to topsoil
for orchard or shrub
cultivation
urine separation (some

systems) to:
• onsite treatment
• soakaway
• storage (citrus fertilizer)
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Continuous systems
Continuous systems have one chamber where all waste is received and stored until composting is completed.
The finished compost is removed and buried.
A continuous system requires an underfloor space, and each pan must have its own chamber. (Therefore,
having more than one toilet may be difficult and expensive.)
They may require:

 a positive air pressure in the toilet room to avoid smells
 an air inlet and exhaust which may be driven by convection, electric fan or solar heat
(generally power consumption is low)
 a means of draining excess liquid
 access to a hatch for removal of finished compost
 the addition (by the users) of organic bulking agents such as sawdust to aid the decomposition
process.
Continuous composting toilet

vent to above roofline
toilet pedestal and pan
switched power supply if required by system
floor level
air vent and inspection hatch
excrement vent
compost
com
check height required

with manufacturer removal
emoval
finished compost
urine tray or separator
urine
urin
• onsite treatment
• soakaway
• storage (citrus fertilizer)
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4.2.5 Stormwater control and landscaping
Careful stormwater control and landscaping can cut water use, reduce demand on mains
stormwater system, and protect waterways from contamination.
On this page:
 controlling stormwater runoff
 rainwater storage
 permanent paving
 swales
 green roofs
 reducing garden water use
Stormwater must be managed to minimise the risk of flooding. But allowing all stormwater from a property to
run into drains not only wastes a potential source of garden water but also means that contaminants such as oil,
paint and animal droppings are carried into waterways.
Stormwater can instead be harnessed for irrigation or otherwise disposed of on-site, reducing demand on
property’s water supply. With an estimated 10-30% of household water used for gardening, this can have
benefits in terms of water efficiency.
Similarly, garden water use can be reduced by selecting plants that require little water, by collecting and
using rainwater (which also has the effect of reducing stormwater runoff), and/or by using greywater for
garden irrigation.
Controlling stormwater runoff
Stormwater may be disposed of:
 into a natural watercourse
 into a water storage tank
 into a soakpit
 through a local authority system of culverts and pipes.
In a natural landscape rainwater surface runoff averages about 27% but in urban areas, due to the increase
in hard surfaces such as roads, driveways and reduced vegetation, average runoff is in the region of 58%.
Runoff can cause pollution by carrying soil, contaminations (such as fuel) from roads and vehicles, human
and animal waste, and chemicals (e.g. fertilisers, pesticides, industrial chemicals and household cleaners)
into waterways.
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Change in surface water runoff due to site development (figures approximate)
evaporation and transpiration 43% evaporation and transpiration 32%
soil infiltration
5% soil infiltration
3%
groundwater
recharge 5%
groundwater recharge
less than 1%
base fl ow 20%
base flow 5%
surface water runoff 27%
surface water runoff 58%
Natural Developed
Landscape Site
Stormwater runoff can be reduced by:
 collecting and storing rainwater in storage tanks
 using permeable paving
 incorporating swales to slow the rate of surface water movement
 installing a green roof as part of a new building design.
Rainwater storage
Stormwater runoff can be reduced by collecting and storing rainwater for gardening, toilet flushing or other
uses. This also has other benefits, such as reducing water costs for properties on metered supply, and
reducing demand on other stormwater disposal systems.
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Permeable paving
Stormwater runoff rate can be reduced by using permeable paving for driveways, footpaths and parking
areas instead of hard, impervious paving such as asphalt or concrete.
Permeable or porous surfaces include:

 gravel
 concrete-grass paving
 porous concrete/asphalt
 open-jointed paving over gravel
 green roofs.
Permeable surfaces are best suited to:
 areas with a slope of 1:10 (5°) or less
 low traffic volumes
 low speed traffic.
grass
concrete block units
topsoil and grass in th
sand
Concrete/grass paving
Stormwater runoff will be slowed by open paving blocks that allow water to infiltrate through gaps. Grass is
usually planted in the gaps.
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Open joint paving
concrete or brick
pavers
sand bed
surface water can penetrate sand joints and sand bed

sand joints
Paving blocks on a sand base and with open joints can be used to slow rainwater runoff but they are not as
permeable as concrete/grass paving options.
Swales
Swales are wide, shallow drainage channels running across the slope of the ground that forms part of the
landscape. They reduce runoff rate by:
 retarding the flow rate of surface water
 providing a means of infiltration into the subsoil.
Swales should be wide and shallow, with a gradient across the slope of less than 1:25. They should be grass
covered and mown infrequently. On steeper slopes, they should include a check dam to slow the flow rate. If
used for driveways over 30 metres long, an underdrain should be incorporated.
2 metres
grass 50 to 150 mm long
350 mm
topsoil
fall in bed of swale 1:20
Cross section of a swale

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Cross section of a check dam in a swale to slow water flow
edge of
swale
water temporarily
retained soaks away
slope of swale 1:20 to 1:25
railway sleepers laid across the swale
rocks piled against

sleeper for support
Run-off is slowed and absorption of rainwater into the ground is increased by use of a check dam on sloping ground.
279
Green roofs
A green roof has vegetation planted into a layer of growing/drainage medium laid over a waterproof
membrane. Green roofs help to reduce the water runoff rate by retaining the water, which is then lost
through slow drainage, transpiration and evaporation.
Pitched roofs up to 25º are suitable as green roofs, but lower pitches require less depth of growing medium.
Steeper roofs require a deeper layer and measures to prevent erosion. Obtain specialist advice before
deciding on the type of growing medium and plants to use.
dripline irrigation topsoil

if necessary planting
Cross section of a green roof
waterproof
membrane
depth of structure
and insulation
drainage layer
Disadvantages of green roofs include:
 they cost more
 the roof is heavier than a conventional roof and will require additional structure for support
 they require specific design under the NZ Building Code
 the membrane, flashings and rainwater collection and retention system must be carefully designed and
detailed to prevent deterioration from plant roots and damp conditions
 if the roof leaks, it may be difficult to find the cause, and the cost of repairing it will be expensive
 they are likely to require more maintenance than a conventional roof
 in arid regions, they require an irrigation system for the plants, which will increase the cost.
Advantages of green roofs include:
 protection of the waterproof membrane by the growing medium from ultraviolet light
 they reduce the rate of rainwater runoff
 good noise reduction
 a natural appearance that blends into the landscape.
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Reducing garden water use
The amount of water needed for garden irrigation can be reduced significantly by selecting plants that
require little water.
Observe plants that grow well with limited or no watering within the local area. This will give a good guide to
plants that are largely self-maintaining and will not require extensive irrigation.
Garden water use can also be reduced by using an efficient irrigation system – that is, one that applies a
smaller volume of water directly where it is needed, such as by drip irrigation rather than sprinklers.
Water use should be controlled by the use of timers (for example, to water in the evening to reduce the
amount of water evaporation) and/or in-ground moisture meters.
Other ways to reduce garden water use include storing and using rainwater for irrigation, using greywater
for irrigation, and diverting stormwater for irrigation instead of allowing it to run into drains (see above for
details).
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5.0 Material Use
Building materials account for a significant proportion of all material use worldwide, and
construction and demolition waste accounts for over a third of all solid waste generated.
Building materials have an environmental impact at every step of the building
process – from extraction of raw materials to processing and manufacturing,
transportation, construction and eventual disposal at the end of a building’s useful
life.
The impact can be significant – some materials require large amounts of energy in their production, others
may be polluting or hazardous to building occupants. Appropriate selection can ensure efficient use, low
environmental impact and minimising waste generated, which will result in improvements in the cost-
effectiveness, energy efficiency and, ultimately, the comfort of a building.
This section focuses specifically on the sustainability and environmental impact of materials.
New Zealand statutory requirements
A key purpose of the Building Act 2004 is that buildings are designed, constructed and used in ways that
promote sustainable development. Under the Act, designers, builders, local authorities and building owners
must consider:
 minimising waste during construction
 using sustainable materials
 using safe and healthy materials
 energy conservation and efficiency of materials and systems
 the durability of materials.
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5.1 Construction systems
Construction systems are the ways in which materials are combined to construct the
elements of a building. They can be classified according to the mass of the system into
heavyweight and lightweight construction.
For example, New Zealand houses typically use lightweight construction systems
comprising timber framing combined with building underlay, insulation and
internal and external cladding materials for the walls and roofs.
Heavyweight construction generally uses reinforced concrete, concrete masonry or brick.
On this page:
 heavyweight construction
 lightweight construction
 which construction system to use.
Heavyweight construction
Characteristics of heavyweight construction include:
 excellent durability
 low maintenance
 good thermal mass
 most suited to climates with a large diurnal (day/night) temperature range
 should not be used on remote sites where materials must be transported for long distances
 generally high embodied energy

 generally significant site impact and disturbance because of substantial foundation system requirements
 generally quarried raw materials that cause a high impact on the landscape
 generally require heavy lifting equipment on site
 often require temporary support during construction, which can increase waste.
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Lightweight construction
Characteristics of lightweight construction include:
 less durable than heavyweight construction
 higher maintenance required than heavyweight construction
 greater responsiveness to outdoor temperature changes – this can be beneficial
by cooling more rapidly at night in warmer climates
 suitable for remote sites where materials must be transported for long distances
 generally lower embodied energy
 generally lower site impact and disturbance than heavyweight construction
 generally lower environmental impact, for example, sustainably sourced timber
 able to be handled without the need for heavy machinery.
Which construction system to use
The type of construction system used for a project can affect the building’s:
 sustainability
 thermal performance
 environmental impact.
Which construction system is selected for a building depends on the:
 local availability of materials and skills
 durability of the material
 intended lifespan of the system/building
 maintenance requirements
 life cycle costs and energy consumption
 environmental impact
 end use/reuse potential.
Generally, there is no one best solution, but a number of options depending on a range of factors.
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5.2 Life cycle assessment
Life cycle assessment calculates the potential environmental impacts of materials, products
and services across a defined life cycle. LCA is recognised in international building
environmental rating tools such as Green Star.
Knowing about LCA and how it works can help designers and specifiers to select building products and
services that have a lower environmental impact.

LCA models the use of materials and energy and calculates environmental impacts as a result of this use
during extraction, processing, manufacturing, transportation, use, reuse, maintenance, recycling and
eventual disposal.
Depending on the scope of an LCA, it can quantify potential impacts across this entire life of a product or
just one part, such as manufacturing. When using LCA data it is important to understand what the analysis
covers and what has been left out.
Examples of environmental impacts that can be calculated using LCA:
 Greenhouse effect – that part of climate fluctuation caused by the emission of greenhouse
gases.
 Ozone depletion – ozone helps reduce harmful levels of solar radiation reaching the earth’s
surface. Ozone can be destroyed by the release of ozone-depleting substances.
 Acidification of land and water – release of acidifying pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides and ammonia can contribute to this.
 Smog – can be aggravated by release of volatile organic compounds and carbon monoxide.
Providers of construction materials or products who use LCA can publicly declare the environmental
performance of their materials or products in an Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) or
environmental profile. This provides a summary of information about the environmental impacts
associated with a material or product, including results of an LCA.
There are a number of life cycle assessment tools and websites, for example:
 Environmental Choice New Zealand
 Eco-hierarchy Tool
 Ecospecifier (Global)
 Greenspec (United Kingdom)
 Gabi is a widely used database for building material examination.
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ISO Standards
The process for undertaking LCA is set out in the ISO standards ISO 14040 (2006) and ISO 14044 (2006),
with more specific detail concerning the application of LCA to building products in ISO 21930 Sustainability
in building construction – Environmental declaration of building products (2007).
ISO 21930 is part of a suite of developing standards concerned with sustainability in building construction
and construction works. Others are as follows:
 ISO 15392: Sustainability in building construction – General Principles (2008).
 ISO 21929-1: Sustainability indicators – Part 1: Framework for development of indicators for
buildings (2011).
 ISO 21931-1: Framework for methods of assessment of environmental performance of construction

works –Part 1: Buildings (2010).
European standards
Published European standards include:
 EN 15643-2 Sustainability of construction works. Assessment of buildings. Framework for the
assessment of environmental performance.
 EN 15978 Sustainability of construction works. Assessment of environmental performance of buildings.
Calculation method.
 EN 15804 Sustainability of construction works. Environmental product declarations. Core rules for the
product category of construction products.
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5.2.1 Environmental Product Declarations
EPDs are an independently verified public declaration of environmental performance of

materials or products for all or part of the life cycle.
EPDs may be produced for specific materials or products (a product-specific EPD) or an average of the same
or similar materials or products within a sector (average product EPD).

EPDs must be developed in accordance with specific rules (called Product Category Rules (PCRs) that are
developed and published by EPD schemes with input from interested stakeholders. These rules are
necessary to ensure there is consistency and comparability when calculating potential impacts of materials
or products within a product category.
There are several EPD schemes globally including, for example, the IBU scheme in Germany and
the International EPD System in Sweden. They operate in compliance with the international standard on
EPDs – ISO 14025 (2006).
In 2014 the Australasian Environmental Product Declaration (EPD®) programme was launched. This helps
construction product manufacturers in New Zealand and Australia develop EPDs. The programme is a not-
for-profit joint venture between theLife Cycle Association of New Zealand and the Australian Life Cycle
Assessment Society. Its launch in New Zealand has been supported by the BRANZ Building Research Levy.
The Australasian EPD® Programme is aligned with the International EPD® System.
Allied Concrete is the first New Zealand company to publish an EPD.
EPD schemes provide a facility for manufacturers to develop and publish EPDs for their products. They
ensure that the process for developing the rules and developing the EPDs meets all requirements in
international standards, including independent review.
An EPD differs from an ecolabel because an EPD does not reflect an environmental preference. An EPD is
simply a statement of environmental performance based on a robust, transparent, data-driven process.
While an EPD in itself does not provide an indication that a product is environmentally preferable, it can do
this when (for example):
 A product-specific EPD is compared with a sector average EPD for the same or similar products
(demonstrating better environmental performance compared to the sector).
 An updated product-specific EPD (or average product EPD) is compared with an older version
(demonstrating continuous improvement at a manufacturer or sector level).
 A product-specific EPD from a manufacturer within a sector is compared to another manufacturer
with a competing product in the sector (demonstrating better environmental performance of one
product over another meeting the same function(s) within a sector).
 A product-specific EPD in a sector is compared with an alternative product in another sector
provided the EPDs are on a life cycle basis (demonstrating environmental performance between
products from different sectors).
287
5.2.2 Ecolabels
Manufacturers who have reduced the environmental impacts of their products or services
can use ecolabels, under license from an ecolabelling body. Products that carry an ecolabel
are likely to be less polluting that some comparative products that do not carry such a
label.
Ecolabelling schemes generally use a life cycle assessment approach, often peer-
reviewed, but may not do a comprehensive, quantitative LCA study. The criteria used
work out where the biggest environmental impacts occur. The criteria are published
in specifications whose processes should comply with ISO 14024 (1999).
Environmental Choice NZ
New Zealand has one established multi-attribute ecolabel scheme called Environmental Choice
New Zealand (ECNZ).
Building products included in ECNZ are:
 floor coverings  long steel products
 furniture and fittings  ready-mix concrete
 gypsum plasterboard  Portland cement and Portland cement blends
 laminates and wood panels  synthetic carpets
 paints  recycled plastic products
 recycled rubber products  textiles, skins and leathers
 wool and wool-rich pile carpet.  thermal building insulants
In Australia, there are several ecolabel schemes, some of which are recognised under a framework
developed by the Green Building Council of Australia (GBCA) for materials assessment within its Green Star
building environmental rating tool.
The New Zealand Green Building Council (NZGBC) recognises both ECNZ licensed products and those
products with ecolabels recognised by the GBCA Framework in the New Zealand version of Green Star.
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5.1.3 Eco-hierarchy Tool
The Eco-hierarchy Tool is used to select construction materials and is aimed at focusing
designers on the most important environmental issues relevant to each material.
It follows an eight-step process, beginning with environmental impacts of a building material while it is in
use. This is because research has shown that most materials have their biggest impact while the building is
in use, but there are exceptions – some materials have relatively bigger impacts during other stages such as
extraction, manufacture or disposal.
Building life (use) stage
1. Energy use: Can the material being specified reduce a building’s energy use?
 If no, proceed to step 2.
 If yes (for materials such as glazing and insulation), design to minimise energy use.
2. Occupant health: Might this product compromise the health of building occupants?
 If yes (for example, some interior furnishings and finishes), specify materials that have
no or low levels of off-gassing harmful chemicals that can pollute the indoors.
3. Durability and maintenance: Is this product likely to need replacement, special treatment or repair
multiple times during the life of the structure?
• If yes (for example, roofing, coatings, cladding and sealant), consider specifying an alternative
material unless the particular material has low environmental impact, is renewable (durable
plantation timber, wool-based insulation, cork, jute, bamboo) or is able to be reused or recycled
easily (for example, grade 1 and 2 plastics).
Manufacturing stage
4. Hazardous byproducts: Are significant toxic substances created during manufacture, during installation,
after the material is installed or when it is removed that are a risk to either the
environment or worker (and occupant) health?
 Where toxic materials are either generated in large quantities or in small but uncontrolled
quantities (for example, smelting of zinc, production of petrochemicals), consider specifying an
alternative building material with less impact or specifying that the material is sourced from a
company with higher environmental standards.
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5. Energy use: Is the manufacturing process energy-intensive?
 If yes (for example, aluminium, copper and plastics), try sourcing from producers using
renewable energy sources.
6. Waste from manufacturing: Are large amounts of waste generated relative to the quantity of product
manufactured or does the waste generated (even if small) create pollution
or degrade the environment?
 If yes (for example, tailings and overburden from metal mining), specify an alternative material or
source from a company with a progressive recycling programme. (Designing a building to suit the
readily available sizes or modules of the specified materials and careful site management will
significantly reduce waste on site.)
Raw material source
7. Resource limitations: Are any of the component materials being specified from rare or endangered
resources?
 If yes (for example, native New Zealand timbers and many overseas-sourced hardwoods), avoid
specifying these products unless they can be sourced from recycled materials or from a sustainable
managed source that has recognised certification (for example, imported hardwoods certified by the
Forest Stewardship Council). (Often, demolition yards will have a great range of durable and good
looking timber.)
8. Impacts of resource extraction: Are there significant eco-impacts from the process of mining or
harvesting the raw materials?
• If yes (for example, damage from certain timber harvesting practices, water run-off from a
quarry), seek a supplier of material from recycled stock or those with credible third-party
certification (for example. Forest Stewardship Councilaccreditation for timber).
290
5.3 Choosing materials
The choice of materials for a project requires considerations of aesthetic appeal and initial
and ongoing costs, life cycle assessment considerations (such as material performance,
availability and impact on the environment) and the ability to reuse, recycle or dispose of
the material at the end of its life.
Materials must be used sustainably – this means the present use will not compromise future use by running
out or harming the environment at any time. Few materials fully meet this criteria. The aim when selecting
materials should therefore be to use:
1. materials from renewable or replaceable sources
2. recycled materials
3. materials that are in plentiful supply.

Life cycle assessment considerations include:
 extraction and manufacture
 sourcing
 construction/installation
 performance
 waste disposal/recycling/reuse
Extraction and manufacture
Impact of extraction: The environmental impact of extraction such as large-scale mining, on scarce, non-
renewable resources is obvious, but even the extraction of renewable resources will have some impact on
the environment. The effects of extraction may be:
 noise
 visual pollution
 air pollution
 water pollution
 chemical emission
 release of CO2
 damage to ecosystems
 water use
 energy use.
Energy and resource use: The total energy used in the extraction, production, transportation and construction of
a building material is the embodied energy of that material. As high consumers of energy, buildings have a
significant impact on our environment. Understanding embodied energy allows us to understand how much and
where energy is used in the construction of buildings and the benefits of recycling.
Byproducts and emissions: The processes for the production of building materials can cause pollution and
emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases.
291
Sourcing
Material sources: The source of materials must be considered to keep transport costs and resultant
emissions to a minimum. The heavier or more bulky materials are, the greater the transport costs will be –
where possible, heavy and bulky materials in particular should be sourced locally.
Availability: Availability may influence material selection decisions. Long delivery lead-in times must be
allowed for as delays may cause project hold-ups and cost and energy losses.
Cost: Cost considerations must include the initial cost of purchase and the life cycle costs of materials. Life
cycle costs include maintenance, replacement, demolition and disposal. Maintenance cost considerations
must also factor in additional environmental costs such as the emission of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) when repainting.
Transport to site: The further materials must be transported, the greater the financial and emissions costs
will be. Heavy or bulky products will have greater transport costs than lighter weight materials.
Construction/installation
Health and safety during construction/installation: Some materials such as solvents and chemicals
release VOCs, and materials that release dust and other airborne pollutants may be harmful to people
during installation or application. Limit harmful effects by
 using paints, adhesives and primers that contain fewer harmful solvents
 providing good ventilation in spaces where LOSP treated timber is being used
 following the recommendations made by the manufacturer or supplier regarding

installation or application.
Ease of construction/installation: Select materials and systems for ease of construction and installation.
Complicated installations with close tolerances can result in greater wastage or even rework being required.
Adaptability: The design of any building and the materials selection should consider the future use or reuse
of the building and use materials that facilitate adaptation or future replacement. The more adaptable a
material, the less waste will result from changing needs or tastes.
292
Performance
Health and safety during the life of the building: Some materials give off emissions or allow run-off or
leaching of chemicals that can be harmful to the health of building occupants. Adequate ventilation can
mitigate some of the effects of gas emissions, but materials should generally be selected to minimise
adverse effects to occupants.
Structural capability: Materials must be selected or designed for their ability to support the loads imposed
by the building over the whole life of the building. An appropriate structural system and correct selection of
structural materials can reduce excess material use and waste and increase the building’s adaptability for
other uses.
Durability: A highly durable material may provide the most sustainable solution if it reduces maintenance
or replacement requirements but a material should also be appropriate to the expected life of the building.
Durability considerations should include:
 the actual or serviceable life of the building
 maintenance requirements
 the minimum statutory requirements for the building element.
Maintenance: Design buildings using materials that are readily and easily maintained. Generally, elements
with higher maintenance requirements are likely to have lower initial costs but they may also have higher
whole-life and environmental costs. The level of maintenance of a building element may also be determined by
the performance requirements of the Building Code, particularly with regard to durability and weathertightness.
Moisture resistance: Selected materials must be protected from moisture. Some materials have a natural
moisture resistance while others must be fully protected from moisture.
Material deterioration/decay: Some materials deteriorate rapidly, particularly in a moist environment or
if they are continuously wet, generally due to the growth of moulds or fungi, or corrosion of some materials,
so it is essential that materials selected have the durability required for their area of use.
Thermal performance: Building design and material selection must contribute to good thermal
performance and reduced energy demand by including insulation and thermal mass in the building. Building
Code clause H1 Energy efficiency sets out minimum requirements for thermal performance but BRANZ
recommends that the minimum requirements are exceeded wherever practicable.
Sound insulation: Building design and material selection must contribute to the sound insulation of the
building, both from exterior noise and sound transmission within the building.
Fire performance: Building design and material selection must be in accordance with the requirements of
Building Code clause C Protection from fire including fire compartment separations, allowing the occupants
safe escape from the building and allowing fire service personnel safe access to the building. Materials must
be selected for ignitability, surface spread of flame, fire loading, and fire resistance and stability.
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Waste disposal/recycling and reuse
Reuse: Materials that can be reused after the useful life of the building will reduce the need for new
materials to be produced in the future. How materials are installed and fixed can have an effect on the
ability to reuse them, so the shorter the expected life of the building, the greater should be the reliance on
screw or bolt fixing rather than adhesive and other permanent fixings.
Recycling: Materials that can be recycled will reduce the need for new materials to be produced, and the
energy required to reconstitute materials is generally much less than required for new production.
Waste disposal: Building design and site management should aim to minimise waste, thereby reducing
waste disposal and the release of pollutants. The impact of the disposal of materials at the end of their
serviceable life must be considered.
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5.4 Embodied energy
Embodied energy is one part of a building material’s overall environmental impact.
On this page:
 reasons to reduce embodied energy
 how embodied energy is measured
 reducing embodied energy
 an embodied energy case study.
Embodied energy is the total energy required for the extraction, processing, manufacture and delivery of
building materials to the building site. Energy consumption produces CO2, which contributes to greenhouse
gas emissions, so embodied energy is considered an indicator of the overall environmental impact of building
materials and systems.
Unlike the life cycle assessment, which evaluates all of the impacts over the whole life of a material or
element, embodied energy only considers the front-end aspect of the impact of a building material. It does
not include the operation or disposal of materials.
Why reduce embodied energy?
Energy consumption during manufacture can give an approximate indication of the environmental impact of
the material, and for most building materials, the major environmental impacts occur during the initial
processes.
The total amount of embodied energy may account for 20% of the building’s energy use, so reducing
embodied energy can significantly reduce the overall environmental impact of the building.
Embodied energy must be considered over the lifespan of a building, and in many situations, a higher
embodied energy building material or system may be justified because it reduces the operating energy
requirements of the building. For example, a durable material with a long lifespan such as aluminium may
be the appropriate material selection despite its high embodied energy.
As the energy efficiency of a building increases, reducing the energy consumption, the embodied energy of
the building materials will also become increasingly important.
How is embodied energy measured?
Embodied energy is measured as the quantity of non-renewable energy per unit of building material,
component or system. It is expressed in megajoules (MJ) or gigajoules (GJ) per unit weight (kg or tonne) or
area (m2) but the process of calculating embodied energy is complex and involves numerous sources of
data.
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Reducing embodied energy
Buildings should be designed and materials selected to balance embodied energy with factors such as
climate, availability of materials and transport costs.
Lightweight building materials often have lower embodied energy than heavyweight materials, but in some
situations, lightweight construction may result in higher energy use. For example, where heating or cooling
requirements are high, this may raise the overall energy use of the building.
Conversely, for buildings with high heating or cooling requirements but where there is a large diurnal
(day/night) temperature range, heavyweight construction (typically with high embodied energy) and the
inclusion of high levels of insulation can offset the energy use required for the building.
When selecting building materials, the embodied energy should be considered with respect to:
 the durability of building materials
 how easily materials can be separated
 use of locally sourced materials
 use of recycled materials
 specifying standard sizes of materials
 avoiding waste
 selecting materials that are manufactured using renewable energy sources.
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5.4.1 Embodied energy case study
The embodied energy of the major components for a 1½ storey house of 195 m2 is set out in
the following table.
MATERIAL TYPE APPROX EMBODIED TOTAL EMBODIED
WEIGHT (KG) ENERGY ENERGY (MJ)
INTENSITY
(MJ/KG)
Floors - concrete
17.5 Mpa concrete in floor slab for 57,120 1.0 57,120
brick veneer cladding
17.5 Mpa concrete in floor slab with 53,184 1.0 53,184
lightweight cladding
Concrete masonry foundation 1,312 0.94 1,233
Reinforcing steel for slab on ground 789 8.9 7,022
and foundation
Floor – suspended timber (excluding garage slab)
Concrete masonry foundation wall 460 0.94 432
Foundation wall reinforcing 147.5 8.9 1,313
Concrete to footings 13,440 1.0 13,440
Timber framing* – air dried, gauged, 2,562 1.16 2,972
600 kg/m3
Particleboard flooring 1,244 8.0 9,952
Windows and glazing
Aluminium window joinery – factory 144 34.3 4,939
coated
Aluminium window joinery – anodised 144 42.9 6,178
Float glass 450 15.9 7,155
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Timber framing* – 500 kg/m3 @ 12% mc
Timber wall framing ground and first 2,255 2.5 5,638
floor – kiln dried, gauged
Timber roof framing – kiln dried, 1,875 2.5 4,688
gauged, light roof
Timber roof framing – kiln dried, 1,925 2.5 4,813
gauged, heavy roof
Timber ceiling framing and battens – 2,035 2.5 5,088
kiln dried, gauged
First floor
Particleboard flooring 544 8.0 4,352
First floor framing* – kiln dried 1,505 2.5 3,763
Wall cladding
Timber weatherboard cladding* – 2,646 9.5 25,137
kiln-dried, dressed
Brick veneer 13,780 6.7 92,326
Fibre-cement sheet 2,940 9.4 27,636
Roof cladding
Steel roofing 1,048 34.8 36,470
Concrete tile roofing 10,350 0.81 8,384
Insulation
Glasswool insulation 294 30.3 8,908
Internal linings
Plasterboard linings 4,518 6.1 27,560
* Timber treatment not allowed for in embodied energy figure.
The table shows that the weight of materials used in construction can have an impact on relative embodied
energy. For example, per kilogram of material, steel roofing has an embodied energy around 43 times
greater than concrete roof tiles, but because the weight of steel required for a roof is far less than the
weight of concrete tiles, the comparative embodied energy of a roof-lot of steel reduces to about 4 times
greater than concrete roof tiles.
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5.5 Minimising waste
Construction and demolition produce large amounts of waste.
On this page
 costs of construction wastes
 statutory requirements
Approximately 850,000 tonnes of C&D waste is sent to landfills each year, depending on the level of
building activity. Waste is also disposed of in cleanfills, making up an estimated 80% by weight of all waste
present in these sites. That’s a lot of waste that space has to be found for.
Most of this dumping of construction waste is unnecessary – it has been demonstrated that simply by
sorting waste, at least half of it could be diverted from landfills and cleanfills. Large volumes of waste also
increase the costs of a project and its environmental impact.
Costs of construction wastes
Environmental costs from waste disposal include:
 limited reuse of landfill sites due to potential health hazards
 energy required in transportation
 pollution to land, air and water from heavy metals and toxic chemicals
 greenhouse gas emissions
 unsustainable depletion of resources.
Economic costs from waste disposal include:
 cost of operating and maintaining landfill sites
 cost of transporting waste to landfills
 loss of financial benefit from using recycled or salvaged materials.
Social costs from waste disposal include:
 noise, dust and traffic pollution to the community
 effects of hazardous or nuisance waste to workers on a building site and to the community.
Statutory requirements
The Building Act 2004 contains sustainability principles that the the Building and Housing Group within the
Ministry of Business, innovation and Enterprise and building consent authorities (BCAs) must take account of
under the Act. These include:

 the efficient and sustainable use of materials
 the reduction of waste during the construction process.
The Waste Management Act 2008 was introduced to encourage waste minimisation and reduce waste
disposal by applying a levy on all waste sent to landfills. The levy aims to encourage people to think about how
they dispose of materials, and provide an incentive to avoid waste as well as provide funding to help develop
waste minimisation projects.
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5.5.1 Implementing waste management
The three Rs of waste minimisation are: reduce, reuse, and recycle.

Specifically:
 reduce – produce less waste
 reuse – reuse existing building materials whereever possible
 recycle – recycle materials that have reached the end of their useful life wherever possible.
Applying the three Rs in this hierarchy will lower the amount of waste that goes to landfills and reduce the
demand for new building materials to be produced.
 design stage
 construction stage
 deconstruction/demolition stage.
Design stage
Design must incorporate the principles of minimising waste by:
 allowing for a logical sequence of construction
 keeping the range of materials to a minimum
 using modular sheet sizes
 identifying and sourcing suitable recycled materials
 arranging services to be compact with minimum runs
 using excavated material to form landscape where possible
 selecting locally manufactured materials
 planning for end use and deconstruction.
Plan for end use and deconstruction by:
 specifying reversible jointing methods, e.g. bolted or screwed connections rather than welded
joints in steel
 minimising use of composite materials such as coated materials and laminates as they are
generally more difficult to recycle
 specifying materials that are easy to reuse or recycle even if they have a higher initial embodied
energy.
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Construction stage
Prepare a waste management plan: Prepare a waste management plan before beginning construction.
From the REBRI website you can download a waste management plan template.
Before construction starts:
 Plan locations for depositing and stacking materials.
 Ensure all subcontractors are aware of the recycling policies.
Ordering and obtaining materials:
 Order the correct amount of material – do not over-order.
 Plan for delivery as required to minimise storage time on site.
 Confirm dimensions before ordering materials/components.
 Minimise the number of trips to a supplier by getting everything needed in one trip.
 Use prefabricated materials and components where possible.
Storage and use of materials:
 Store materials so they are protected from the weather and potential damage.
 Centralise timber cutting and collect off-cuts.
 Confirm measurements before cutting or fabrication.
 Use recycled aggregate for concrete where possible.
 Use recycled steel for reinforcement where possible.
 Return surplus materials to the supplier to be recycled where possible.
Avoid repair work:
 Sequence work effectively.
 Set up an effective quality control system to monitor the quality of the work as it proceeds.
 Prevent damage to completed work by providing adequate protection, sequencing work

effectively and using tradespeople who respect the work and finish by others.
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Deconstruction/demolition stage
Demolition produces more waste than at any other stage of a building’s life, and significant waste is
generated when a building is renovated. The most effective way to minimise waste is to extend the
building’s life by relocation or renovation.
When relocation and renovation is not an option, with careful planning, a significant amount of waste may
be able to be reused or recycled during the deconstruction/demolition process.
Planning steps during the deconstruction/demolition should include:
 site and building survey
 make an inventory of materials
 prepare a deconstruction plan
 deconstruction/demolition.
Site and building survey: Review building plans, working drawings, and engineers’ reports to determine the
materials and construction techniques used and to locate the existing services. Information can be obtained
from the local council or the building owner.
Buildings suitable for deconstruction include:
 timber-framed buildings with large timbers and beams
 buildings containing native timbers
 buildings with architectural features such as multi-paned windows, architectural mouldings and panelled
doors
 buildings constructed from high-quality brick laid with low-strength mortar, which allows relatively easy
break-up and cleaning
 buildings incorporating high-quality reusable items such as steel beams or steel cladding.
To carry out the building survey, employ:
 a builder, carpenter or architect with expertise in the methods and materials of construction
 tradespeople experienced in repair/restoration work
 a structural engineer/materials inspector who can advise on the structural integrity of building components
and/or the existence of hazardous materials that require special handling
 someone with knowledge of the salvage value of building materials on the local market.
When carrying out a building survey, use:
 inspection forms to ensure that you have collected all the information you need
 a camera – photographs are helpful in recalling important characteristics of the building and the site
 hand/power tools to look behind walls or beneath flooring to verify the size and condition of structural
components or the existence of hazardous materials
 respirators or dust masks when any cutting, drilling or removal of materials is done.
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Make an inventory of materials: Quantify each material type and evaluating to determine whether the material
should be reused, recycled or disposed of.
Calculate the costs and savings associated with reuse, recycling and disposal. Include:
 payment for recyclable and reusable materials

 reduced landfill/cleanfill disposal costs
 reduced transport costs
 cost of time required for sorting or preparing materials for reuse or recycling.
Prepare a deconstruction plan: Prepare a deconstruction plan that includes:
 a list of building materials and components to be removed for reuse or for recycling
 a specification for the refurbishment work
 instructions regarding deconstructing methodology and sequencing.
The deconstruction plan can be used to tender, to provide information to the people involved in the project
and in the application for a consent for demolition.
The plan should describe the:
 location of materials to be salvaged for reuse or recycling
 quantities of materials to be salvaged for reuse or recycling
 destination and/or intended end use of the building’s components, including appropriate disposal of residual
waste
 deconstruction methodology and sequencing
 schedule for deconstruction
 location of storage areas (if materials are to be stored on site)
 security and protection measures for storage areas
 handling and removal procedures for materials and components.
Deconstruction/demolition process: The implementation of the deconstruction/demolition process should include:
 enough time within contract periods for dismantling
 clear identification of storage areas on site for each type of material
 designated storage areas that are convenient for workers
 protection of salvaged materials from the weather and potential damage
 dismantling components in reverse order to construction
 stripping interiors manually to reduce damage
 ensuring that all latches, hinges, framing and so on are kept with the component
 ensuring that all salvaged items are removed carefully from the site to reduce damage and contamination.
More information
 www.branz.co.nz/REBRI
 www.branz.co.nz/REBRI_Resource Routing Calculator
 www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/www/html/1940-how-to-minimise-construction--demolition-waste. 303
5.5.2 Reuse and recycling
Many building materials can be reused or recycled.
The ability to reuse and recycle materials salvaged from demolition and building sites for reuse and recycling
depends on:
 local recycling facilities
 market demand
 quality and condition of materials and components
 time available for salvage
 emphasis put on reuse and recycling.
The BRANZ REBRI website has a recycling directory to help locate recycling and waste management organisations
On this page:
 reuse/recycling from construction sites
 reuse/recycling from deconstruction/demolition sites
 hazardous materials
 requirements for recycled or reused materials.
Reuse/recycling from construction sites
Materials that can generally be recycled from construction sites include:
 steel from reinforcing, wire, containers, and so on
 concrete, which can be broken down and recycled as base course in driveways and footpaths
 aluminium
 plastics – grades 1 and 2
 paper and cardboard
 untreated timber, which can be used as firewood or mulched
 topsoil.
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Reuse/recycling from deconstruction/demolition sites
Materials that can generally be recycled from deconstruction/demolition sites include:
 siteworks and vegetation – asphalt paving, chain link fencing, timber fencing, trees
 concrete – in situ and precast concrete
 masonry – concrete blocks and decorative concrete, paving stones, bricks,
 metals – reinforcing steel (rebar), structural steel, steel roofing including flashings and spouting, zinc
roofing, interior metal wall studs, cast iron, aluminium, copper including flashings, spouting, claddings and
pipework, lead, electrical, plumbing fixtures
 timber – hardwood flooring, laminated beams, truss joists, treated and untreated timbers/posts, joinery,
untreated timber generally, engineered timber panels
 terracotta tiles
 electrical wiring
 wool carpet
 plastics – high density polyethylene water pipes, PVC, polystyrene (resin codes 1–6).
Components that can readily be reused include:
 stairs
 timber – hardwood flooring, weatherboards, laminated beams, truss joists, treated and untreated
framing, timbers/posts, New Zealand native timber components
 thermal insulation – fibreglass, wool and polyester insulation, polystyrene sheets
 carpet and carpet tiles
 plumbing fixtures – baths, sinks, toilets, taps, service equipment, hot water heaters
 electrical fittings – light fittings, switches, thermostats
 linings and finishings – architraves, skirtings, wood panelling, specialty wood fittings, joinery
 doors and windows – metal and timber doors, mechanical closures, panic hardware, aluminium
windows, steel windows, sealed glass units, unframed glass mirrors, store fronts, skylights, glass
from windows and doors, timber and metal from frames
 clay and concrete roof tiles
 metal wall and roof claddings
 PVC and metal spouting.
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Hazardous materials
Hazardous materials must be disposed of appropriately. Check the requirements for removal and disposal of
hazardous waste for your local area.
Hazardous wastes from the demolition of buildings may include:
 fluorescent light ballasts manufactured before 1978 – contain PCBs
 fluorescent lamps – contain mercury
 refrigeration and air conditioning equipment – contain refrigerants made using CFCs
 batteries – contain lead, mercury and acid
 solvent-borne paints and solvents – one paint manufacturer has recycling collection centres for left-over
paint (Note that all paints are accepted but there is a charge for paints made by other manufacturers.)
 roof and wall claddings, pipe insulation, some vinyl flooring, textured ceilings and roofing membrane
sheets containing asbestos fibres
 lead or materials that contain lead such as flashings, paint, bath and basin wastes.
When cleaning up, materials such as cement, sand, paint and other liquids and solvents, must not be released
into the stormwater or sewerage disposal systems. This should be included in the demolition specification.
Requirements for recycled or reused materials
The BRANZ REBRI website has a Resource Routing Calculator that helps to calculate the economic value of
sending different waste streams to landfill or to reclamation facilities. Factors include the:
 cost of transport
 cost of skip hire
 value of material
 weight/amount of material
 amount of contaminants.
Every market has its own specifications for recycled or reusable materials. Obtain specifications from the
recycling operators before starting deconstruction so you know what to save and how to save it. You should
find out:
 material type
 acceptable and unacceptable levels of contamination
 acceptable and unacceptable levels of damage
 quantities accepted
 transportation requirements
 required documentation including waste tracking forms
 sorting and handling requirements for each material type.
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Things to check for concrete
 Types of concrete and rubble accepted.
 Size of concrete pieces.
 Amount of preprocessing.
 Acceptable levels of bricks and tiles.
 Acceptable amount of contamination from materials such as glass, metal, soil.

Some concretes products are too hard-wearing on crushing machines and some concretes are too soft to meet
reuse specifications after crushing, so will not be accepted by operators.
Things to check for metal
 Types of metal accepted.
 Contamination tolerances from materials such as plastics and leftover product in containers.
Things to check for plasterboard
 Whether demolition board is acceptable.
 Minimum and maximum sizes of chip or powder particles.
 Contamination tolerances from materials such as screws, nails, paint and glues.
 Moisture tolerances.
 Minimum and maximum quantities.
Things to check for timber
 Types of timber acceptable (for example, treated, native, untreated).
 Minimum and maximum sizes of board and lengths of timber.
 Minimum and maximum quantities.
 Contamination tolerances from materials such as nails, paint, concrete.
 Any preprocessing requirements such as sorting or grading.
 How timber is to be received (for example, loose, stacked in containers or on pallets).
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6.0 Energy
A typical New Zealand home consumes 10,500 kWh of energy per year.
All energy consumption has environmental impacts, ranging from the production of greenhouse gases in
burning fossil fuels to direct effects on landscapes from dams and other sources of generation.
However, by 2015 almost 40% of New Zealand’s primary energy was coming from renewable resources.
Energy efficiency measures have also led to energy use in the average New Zealand household falling by
10% since 2000.
This figure comes from a study commissioned by the Equipment Energy Efficiency (E3) programme. There is
evidence that people buying more energy efficient appliances explains a large part of the drop. The
researchers go on to forecast that household average energy use will continue to fall in the near future, as
will greenhouse gas emissions from households.
There are still many opportunities for making our energy use even more sustainable, however.
Sustainable energy use means designing homes to conserve energy, obtaining energy from sources that do
the least possible long-term environmental harm and, where energy is used, to use it efficiently. (Find out
more about embodied energy.) Energy efficiency will also reduce long-term energy bills for home occupiers.
Energy-efficient design may incorporate small-scale on-site energy production to meet demand.
This section of the Level website incorporates material from the BRANZ publications Energy and Electrical
design.
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6.1 Space heating
Space heating accounts for around a third of energy use in an average New Zealand house,
so improving the energy efficiency of space heating has the potential to provide significant
economic and environmental benefits.
On this page:
 Key considerations
 How much heating is required?
Energy consumption for heating and cooling can be reduced in most homes by
using passive design features such as correct orientation thermal insulation and
thermal mass as well as incorporating effective passive ventialtion to maintain
indoor air quality. However, even with good passive design, many New Zealand
homes will need some form of active heating for at least part of the year.
Key considerations
The key design decisions will include:
 the type of heat required (i.e. radiant or convective) in each part of the house – also see space heating
options by room
 the type of heating source (heat pump, electricity, gas, solid fuel, oil, or solar)
 the location, number and capacity of heating units – including whether to use central or room-by-room
heating, and whether to use portable or built-in heaters
 the control systems used – for example, whether to use thermostats, and if so whether to use one
thermostat for the whole house or one for each room; in general, heating should be controlled either
manually or by thermostat to ensure that heat is only provided where and when it is needed
 how heat is distributed around the building – for example, through natural convection or an active
system such as fans or ducts – to ensure spaces are warmed when needed.
Space heating should be discussed early in the planning process to provide the opportunity to place the heat
source(s) in the optimal positions in the house.
In general, the aim should be to keep building occupants comfortably warm while minimising energy use (in
particular, use of energy that generates harmful emissions). Other major considerations include: fire risk;
noise; impact on air quality; cost of installation and use; and life span of the heating source.
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How much heating is required?
Much of the research into the link between indoor temperature and health has focused on at-risk
populations. There is evidence that for more vulnerable people such as the sick, disabled or elderly, all living
and sleeping areas should be maintained at a temperature of at least 16ºC.
Factors that influence indoor air temperature (and occupants’ perceived air temperature) include:
 outside air temperature range
 relative humidity (both outside and inside)
 exposure to direct sunlight (which is warming)
 ventilation air flow (which is cooling)
 stratification (i.e. warm air rising within a space)
 occupants’ activities, ages and personal preferences
 draughts and air leakage, generally in older, less airtight homes.
Active ventilation may help reduce the amount of air that needs to be heated by bringing in warm air
from other rooms and/or by creating positive pressure, which prevents cool air from getting into the
heated space.
As a rough guide, older non-insulated houses will require approximately 150 W/m2of energy for heating, and
houses insulated to NZ Building Code requirements will require around 120 W/m2. For example, a 15
m2 room in an uninsulated house will require a 2250 W or 2.3 kW (150 x 15 m2) heater; if the room is
insulated, an 1800 W or 1.8 kW (120 x 15 m2) heater is required.
Heater sizing calculator
On EECA’s Energywise website there is an interactive Heater sizing calculator. This allows you to work out
the heating requirement for particular rooms, taking into account things such as the part of New Zealand
you live in, type of insulation, number of external walls, window size, and so on.
More information
 www.smarterhomes.org.nz – heating
 www.energywise.govt.nz
 www.healthyhousing.org.nz
 www.consumerbuild.org.nz – heating
 www.yourhome.gov.au – energy use
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6.1.1 Space heating – energy sources
Comfort, health, efficiency and environmental issues all influence decisions about the
right energy source to use for space heating.
On this page:
 Efficiency of commonly used heating options
 Electric heaters
 Heat pumps
 Gas heaters
 Solid fuel burners
 Oil burners
 Solar heating
The best option for space heating is – of course – the sun. By siting and orienting a building to take advantage
of solar gain, and using insulation and thermal mass to capture and store heat, it may be possible to
significantly reduce the amount of additional heating required to maintain comfortable temperatures. (See
passive design for detail.)
But, even with effective passive solar heating, most New Zealand houses will also require top-up heating at
times – especially during the cooler months of the year. The most common sources of energy for space
heating in New Zealand homes are electricity, wood (either in open fires or in wood burners), and gas.
Other options include solar hydronic heating, and heat pumps. In recent years, there has been rapid uptake
of heat pumps and these are now common in both new and existing houses.
When specifying a heating source, consider:
 its suitability for the purpose – Are you trying to provide short-term heating for a single person
(such as in a bathroom), or to maintain comfortable temperatures for several room occupants over
reasonably long periods (such as in a living room)? This will determine whether you choose radiant
or convective heating, as well as the heater size and control systems (e.g. thermostat or manually
controlled). By specifying the heater that is most suitable for the purpose, you can maintain
occupants’ comfort and health while reducing energy use. See space heating options by room for
more.
 the environmental impact of the fuel used – Does the fuel emit moisture, carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases? Ministry for the Environment figures show that 58% of human-made airborne
particles in 2013 were from burning wood and coal for home heating. Are there other
environmental impacts from its extraction or manufacture? How efficient is it at converting energy
to heat?
 the health impacts of the fuel used – Is it ‘clean’ or does it emit moisture or gases that might
affect occupants’ health?
The aim, in essence, is to maximise occupants’ comfort and health, while minimising harmful
environmental impacts.
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Efficiency of commonly used heating options
While portable electric or gas heaters are convenient and relatively common, they are often not the most
efficient option.
The different space heating options available can be categorised according to their efficiency or Coefficient of
Performance (COP). The COP is the ratio of energy input to energy output. A COP greater than 1 means that
the heating method produces more energy (in the form of heat to warm a building and its occupants) than it
consumes; a COP less than 1 means that the heating method consumes more energy than it produces.
Best efficiency Good efficiency Average efficiency

(COP >1) (COP about 1) (COP <1)
• Solar energy (good passive design, • Electric heating – radiant • Flued natural gas, or LPG –
appropriate glazing etc.) for entire or convective. convective or radiant.
space heating needs. • Hot water heating – • Underfloor hydronic (hot water)
• Heat pumps (convective heat). radiators connected to an radiant heating – gas, electric or
electric boiler. heat exchange.
• Underfloor (electric cable) • Hot water heating (radiator) –
radiant electric heating. gas or oil.
• Ducted hot air from electric, oil,
gas or LPG.
• Solid fuel burner.
Electric heaters
Electricity provides energy for portable and fixed convective heaters, radiant panels and bar heaters,
bathroom light heaters, oil-filled column heaters, heat pumps, nightstore heaters and embedded floor
heating cables. Electricity may also be used to heat water for hot water radiator central heating and
embedded hydronic floor heating systems, and to heat air in ducted central heating systems.
Electric heating converts 100% of the energy used to heat. When fan assisted, it also distributes heat
efficiently.
Advantages of electric space heating include that:
 electricity is readily available
 there are no emissions in the home
 output is controllable – either thermostatically or by timer
 heat can be targeted with portable and free-standing units
 electric heaters are convenient and easy to use
 most electric heaters have low initial costs
 electric heaters are low maintenance
 electric heating may be powered using a renewable source such as hydro or wind (about 75% of New
Zealand’s electricity generation is from renewable sources)
 efficiencies range from 100% (radiant heater) to over 500% (some heat pumps).
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Disadvantages include that:
 electric heaters may be costly to run, and costs will continue to rise as electricity prices rise
 electricity generation can have negative environmental impacts, such as greenhouse gas emissions
from burning gas, coal and diesel to generate electricity, damming of rivers and visual impact and
noise pollution from wind farms.
Heat pumps
Air-to-air heat pumps use refrigerant to absorb heat from outside a building and transfer it inside, via a heat
exchanger. Heat pumps use electricity to move heat around, but not to generate it.
The key advantage of heat pumps are their high efficiency at converting energy to heat. A heat pump will
provide the same amount of heating with much lower energy input than a standard electric or gas heater.
Heat pumps are also responsive – providing heat relatively quickly when it is needed.
They can provide cooling as well as heating, which is an advantage in terms of thermal comfort but can be a
drawback in terms of environmental performance; as heat pumps have become more common, summer
electricity demand has tended to increase, offsetting the gains made from more efficient winter heating.
Another disadvantage is relatively high up-front costs. Heat pumps are, nonetheless, a highly efficient
method of space heating.
Ground source heat pumps (sometimes called geothermal heat pumps) are also available in New Zealand.
These use a network of pipes underground beyond the building envelope to collect heat. Some have a bore
so pipes go deep into the earth, taking up less surface space. They typically provide heat for underfloor
home heating systems, but can also provide a heating source for hot water supply and even a swimming
pool. Their initial costs are high, but they have good efficiency even when outside temperatures are very
low. A significant number of these systems in New Zealand are installed in South Island alpine locations.
See heat pumps for more detail.
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Solid fuel heating
Solid fuels for heating include wood pellets, wood, and coal. They may be used for direct heating of spaces
or to heat water for hot water heating systems. Wood in particular is a popular option – the 2013 census
found that 36% of New Zealand households use wood to heat their homes.
The National Environmental Standards for Air Quality require that all wood burners installed on properties
less than 2 hectares must have:
 a discharge of less than 1.5 grams of particulate for each kilogram of dry wood burnt
 a thermal efficiency of at least 65%.
The Ministry for the Environment website has a list of authorised wood burners and pellet burners that have
been tested and found to meet the performance requirements. Regional councils can apply rules that are more
stringent than the National Environment Standards in their area. All new woodburner installations require a
building consent.
Open fires and multi-fuel burners designed to burn wood and/or coal are not covered by the National
Environmental Standards, but a number of regional councils have imposed rules or restrictions around them
in their region.
For solid fuel consumed within a closed firebox burner, around 55–80% of the energy from the fuel is
converted into heat, compared with open fires, where around 15–30% of the energy is converted into heat
(although manufacturers of a steel firebox that can be retrofitted into open fireplaces claim an efficiency of
up to 50% for their product). In many parts of New Zealand, open fires are no longer permitted.
Advantages of solid fuel heating include:
 the aesthetics of a flame
 they can provide high heat output
 they may be able provide water heating (e.g. wetbacks)
 many people have access to free or cheap firewood.
Drawbacks can include:
 byproducts of combustion must be vented outside
 depending on the fuel used, toxic emissions and smoke may be released into the atmosphere
 a source of (cheap) wood is not always available
 control over heat output rate and therefore temperature is limited
 it may be difficult to achieve efficient heat distribution from a single source
 maintenance is required (ash removal, cleaning of flues and dirty heating surfaces)
 they may cause staining within the room (particularly from open fires).
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Different types of solid fuels and solid fuel heaters vary widely in their environmental impact. Enclosed woodburners
generally burn more efficiently and produce fewer emissions than open fires.
Pellet burners are similar to wood burners but, instead of burning timber, they burn pellets that are
manufactured from waste wood shavings and sawdust. They tend to produce fewer emissions than enclosed
wood burners. They require electricity to control a thermostat that, in turn, controls the supply of pellets to the
fire box, so in the event of a power supply cut, the pellet burner will not operate.
Gas heaters
Gas can be used as an energy source for a number of heating options including radiant and convective in-room
heaters, ducted hot air systems and for heating water for hot water heating systems.
Advantages of gas heating include:
 approximately 80% of the energy used is converted into heat
 radiant heaters can provide the aesthetics of an open flame
 gas heaters can provide high heat output relatively quickly
 gas convective heaters can be thermostatically controlled (with radiant units, it is only possible to control
heat output).
Disadvantages include:
 burning fossil fuels
 byproducts of combustion must be vented to outside
 reticulated gas may not be available
 initial installation costs are higher than for electricity
 there may be issues with security of supply for gas in the future.
For health and safety reasons, BRANZ does not recommend the use of any sort of unflued gas heater (natural gas
or LPG).
Oil heaters
Oil has been a popular bulk fuel for domestic heating systems in the past. A small number of oil-fired
heating appliances are still available.
Disadvantages of using oil as a fuel include:
 burning fossil fuels
 the possibility of limited supply in the future
 cost
 potential hazards from spills
 flue emissions.
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Solar heating
Solar heaters use solar radiation to heat:
 water that circulates through radiators, or
 an air supply coil, or
 air, for direct supply to internal spaces.
Solar heating is highly efficient, as energy is generally only consumed to operate a water pump, refrigerant pump, or air
fan.
However, for some forms of solar heating, the heat capacity can vary, and heat is only available when the sun is out
– not necessarily when heating is needed.
More information
 www.consumer.org.nz – heating
 www.mfe.govt.nz – costs and benefits of home heating options
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6.1.2 Space heating options by room
Each room in a house has different heating requirements, so different types of heaters will
provide the best outcome in terms of occupants’ comfort and environmental sustainability.
On this page:
 Living or dining rooms
 Bedrooms
 Bathrooms
 Kitchens
 Open plan spaces
 Two-level spaces
 Heat transfer systems
The most sustainable heating approach is to maximise use of passive heating first, then select
an active heating system to meet the remaining heating needs. Always start with the simplest
and cheapest option for the circumstances.
As discussed in space heating – energy sources, when specifying space heating consider its suitability for the
purpose (i.e. the type of space being heated and the type of heat required), as well as environmental and
health impacts. The aim, in essence, is to maximise occupants’ comfort and health, while minimising harmful
environmental impacts. Below, we explain suitable heating types for each space in a typical home.
Living room or dining room heating

For living and dining rooms, the space heating system generally needs to provide for:
 heating of larger spaces
 longer periods of use
 low noise
 variable occupancy levels.
Occupants should be able to control the heating, and it should have a relatively quick response time so both the
occupants and the space can be quickly warmed when temperatures fall.
As activity within this space is often sedentary, it is important that natural air movements should not make the
occupant feel cold.
Bedroom heating
The space heating system for bedrooms needs to allow for:
 long periods of occupancy with low activity levels
 gentle heating of the air in the room
 low noise levels.
This is best achieved using convection heating. In a well insulated, passively warmed house, an oil-column heater
or nightstore may be sufficient.
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Bathroom heating
The space heating system for a bathroom needs to:
 provide for short periods of use
 have a very quick response (to warm the occupant when the bathroom is in use)
 be effective and safe for use in a moist environment.
To minimise the risk of condensation forming, ventilation should be addressed first. After that, a low level of
background heat is recommended, such as a hot water radiator or underfloor heating system. Condensation is
made worse by cold walls, especially exterior walls that are not insulated.
Other options are:
 ceiling-mounted heat lamps (with exhaust air duct)
 high-level, wall-mounted electric radiant heaters
 electric wall-mounted fan heaters.
Kitchen heating
The space heating system for a kitchen needs to allow for short or medium periods of use, depending on
when the room is occupied and whether other sources of heat such as the oven are being used. The system
also needs to allow for raised levels of moist air, which will require ventilation.
In general, heating is not required or installed in kitchens. If it is needed, the best heating option is an
electric radiant heater.
Open plan spaces
Open plan areas generally include kitchen-dining, living-dining or a combination of both. The space heating
system for an open plan space needs to allow for movement of air between areas and for loss of heat from
the immediate area around the heater.
An even, level heat without draughts will be achieved with underfloor heating. Even heating can also be
achieved with heat pumps, ducted central heating or hot water radiators throughout the area.
Additional heating for specific areas, such as the area where lounge seating is located, may be provided by
gas or electric radiant heaters.
Two-level spaces
The heating system for a two-level space should allow for convection currents causing warm air to rise from
the heated lower level to the upper level.
In a well insulated home, there may be sufficient heat flow from the lower-level heating system so that the
upper level only needs a low output radiant or convective heater for boost heating. Alternatively, a ceiling
fan can be used to redistribute heat, within a space and heat transfer systems can redistribute heat into
adjacent hallways or bedrooms.
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Heat transfer systems
When considering room-by-room heating options, bear in mind that a heat transfer system may also help keep
some rooms warm.
These systems aren’t actually heaters – they just move warm air to where it is needed. They are most useful in
houses where at least one room is heated with a log burner or pellet burner, and the air at ceiling height in that
room reaches around 30ºC or more. This is the excess heat that can be moved to other rooms.
The simplest heat transfer units are installed high on an internal wall, moving warmed air directly through to
an adjacent room.
Other units draw the warm air from a grille at the opposite side of the room to the heat source, and move it
through 150 mm or 200 mm insulated ducts in the roof space to ceiling outlets in other rooms.
The fans typically use 40–120 W of power and move 300 m3–1000 m3 of air per hour. Some systems have
thermostats so the fans only operate when the temperature in the source room is above a certain level.
Many proprietary systems are available with touch-screen controllers and timers.
These systems are not a good choice for rooms where the heat source is thermostatically controlled and/or
there is little heat stratification in the room.
Some heat transfer systems have provision for an outdoor air intake beneath the eaves that allows fresh air
ventilation in summer.
Ideally, heat transfer systems should be always contained within the thermal envelope. If this is not
possible, then the insulated duct runs should be as short as possible and the R values as high as possible.
More information
 www.consumer.org.nz – heating
 www.mfe.govt.nz – costs and benefits of home heating options
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6.1.3 Heat pumps
Heat pumps can be an extremely energy-efficient form of space heating and cooling –
provided they are sized, installed, and used properly.
On this page:
 Advantages and disadvantages of heat pumps
 How heat pumps work
 Heat pump energy sources
 Energy efficiency of heat pumps for space heating
 Heat pump capacity
 Heat pump size
Also see heat pump configuration and installation.
Air-to-air heat pumps, the most common type in New Zealand, use refrigerant to absorb heat from one
space and transfer it to another via a heat exchanger (often a fin or coil). The electricity supply to a heat
pump is only used to move the heat around, not to generate it – the heating itself has a passive energy
source.
Heat pumps are popular in New Zealand because of their high efficiency and ‘clean’ energy image. Most are
installed to provide heating, although it is becoming more common for them to also be used for summer
cooling. Some local authorities offer incentives to switch to heat pumps from less efficient, more polluting
technologies.
Advantages and disadvantages of heat pumps
Advantages of an air-to-air heat pump include:
 it is very efficient at converting energy to heat (optimum efficiency is when the
difference between source and supply temperatures is very small)
 it provides a medium to fast source of heat
 it has the ability to provide heating and cooling.
Drawbacks of air-to-air heat pumps are:
 annual maintenance is required
 loss of efficiency as temperature decreases below 6–7ºC (but some models can still
provide heating in temperatures down to -15ºC)
 higher initial purchase and installation cost than portable heaters
 air distribution is by fan, which can cause draughts and some noise
 space is needed to install the exterior unit
 penetrations have to be made through the weatherskin of the building
 no heating during a power cut.
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Although heat pumps are an efficient form of heating, installing a heat pump is not likely to reduce heating
costs. In a BRANZ study of 160 households with heat pumps, more people said their energy costs had increased
since acquiring a heat pump than those who said their energy costs had fallen. Only 15%described running
costs as excellent. Occupants keep their homes warmer than previously.
Heat pumps do not replace the need for good insulation. In that same BRANZ study (covered in BRANZ
Study Report 329), half the households that achieved less than 18°C average winter evening temperatures
had no or poor insulation.
How heat pumps work
Heat pumps operate on very similar principle to a fridge. Refrigerant flows through connected indoor and
outdoor coils. In heating mode, as the liquid refrigerant flows to the outdoor coil, it passes through an
expansion valve that creates rapid expansion of the liquid, causing it to become a gas. This results in very
rapid cooling of the refrigerant. Then as it flows through the outdoor coil, it is able to absorb heat energy
from the air. Before it flows through the indoor coil, it passes through a compressor where the gas is
compressed, increasing both the pressure and the temperature. As it moves through the indoor coils, the
gas condenses, releasing latent heat.
external heat
collector unit
outside air is interior heat
drawn in exchange unit
vapour
warmed air is blown
out
compressor
vapour
cooled refrigerant loses
outside air its heat and
is expelled condenses
refrigerant cooled
evaporates and room air is
expansion valve
absorbs heat drawn in
liquid
REVERSE CYCLE AIR-TO-AIR SPLIT SYSTEM
Heat pump Schematic diagram of how a heat pump operates in heating mode.
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Heat pump energy sources
Most heat pumps in New Zealand are air-to-air units. The heat source is plentiful, but can be variable, which
can affect efficiency. As temperatures fall, air-to-air heat pumps can require defrosting and then are not
providing heat. This makes them less effective in areas with extremely cold winters (particularly if the
humidity is also high).
There are two other sources of energy used for heat pumps:
 Ground-to-air heat pumps have the advantage of fairly constant ground temperatures year-round (and so
have fairly high efficiencies even on very cold winter nights) but they are considerably more expensive to
set up. Most parts of New Zealand do not have climate extremes, or heating demands, to justify the cost.
 Water-to-air heat pumps – water is also an excellent source of low grade heat but is only suitable where
buildings are located close to a water supply.
Energy efficiency of heat pumps for space heating
As heat pumps only move heat and do not actually generate it, they have a very high ratio of heat output to
energy input. This heating energy efficiency is expressed as a coefficient of performance (COP), while
cooling energy efficiency is expressed as an energy efficiency ratio (EER).
Typical domestic heat pumps have a COP of 2–4.5, which means the heat pump produces about 2–4.5 times
as much heat as the electricity it uses (under optimum conditions). Some heat pumps that qualify for the
ENERGY STAR label (see below) have COP’s as high as 5.7. The efficiency of an air-to-air heat pump
decreases as the temperature difference between source and supply increases – as outside temperatures
drop, the heat pump’s energy efficiency reduces.
Heat pumps are currently the only form of heating, aside from solar, where the COP is (usually) greater than
1, which makes them the most efficient form of purchased space heating commonly available.
The cooling energy efficiency ratio (EER) is typically about 2.5–4.0, which means the heat pump produces
about 2.5–4 times as much cooling power as the electricity it uses. Some heat pumps that qualify for the
ENERGY STAR label (see below) have EER’s as high as 5.8.
When selecting a heat pump, consider its primary use. If it will mostly be used for heating, select for a high
COP; if mostly used for cooling, select for a high EER.
Under the Energy Efficiency (Energy Using Products) Regulations 2002, heat pumps for sale in New Zealand
must meet the Minimum Energy Performance Standard (MEPS) given in AS/NZS 3823.2:2013 Performance
of electrical appliances - Air conditioners and heat pumps – Part 2: Energy labelling and minimum energy
performance standards (MEPS) requirements.
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ENERGY STAR heat pumps
Heat pumps that meet certain criteria are able to carry the ENERGY STAR label. These heat pumps use up to
30% less energy than a non-qualified product. ENERGY STAR heat pumps are also tested to perform at
typical New Zealand cold winter temperatures – when properly sized and installed they will continue to work
at 2ºC.
Heat pump capacity
The heating capacity of an air-to-air heat pump (in the heating cycle) is typically between 2–16 kW for
domestic systems. The cooling capacity (in the cooling cycle) is generally about 10–20% less than heating
capacity.
To reflect a variation in capacity depending on outside temperatures, heat pumps can have three heat
capacity ratings. These are based on standardised testing under laboratory conditions.
 H1 rates the unit’s heating output when the outside temperature is 7°C.
 H2 rates the heating output at 2°C ambient temperature.
 H3 rates the heating output at -7°C ambient temperature.
These ratings allow you to select the appropriate heat pump for the climate and household requirements (i.e. the
design temperature and heating load) of individual situations.
It is important to note the advertised COP values are based on lab tests – in practice, the overall efficiency of a
heat pump is likely to be lower, e.g. one rated as COP of 2.0–4.5 may have an actual overall operating efficiency
of around COP 1.5–3.0.
Heat pump size

Getting sizing right for heat pumps is crucial for maintaining their efficiency.
If the heat pump is too big for the space requiring heating (or cooling):
 fixed speed systems will cycle on and off repeatedly (as the target temperature will be reached very
quickly), which is inefficient and reduces the life expectancy of the unit
 ducted systems will have higher than necessary pressure, which can cause duct leakage.
If the heat pump is too small, the unit will run continuously as it attempts to reach the set point, which
reduces the outside coil temperature and cause it to defrost regularly.
A general recommendation is to avoid using extremes of annual temperatures when selecting the ambient
design condition and also to avoid exaggerating the set points for indoor heating and cooling.
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Heat pump sizing calculations must take into consideration:
 region, location and orientation of the building
 specific local conditions
 orientation of windows
 seasonal high and low ambient temperatures
 levels of insulation
 number and types of occupants and their levels of activity
 solar gain.
A rough rule of thumb to determine the heating requirements for rooms is for:
 Older uninsulated houses – use 65 W/m3 room volume
 Newer well-insulated houses – use 50–55 W/m3 room volume.
Ducted heat pump systems require careful design. They can have heating energy loss of more than 30% if the ducts
are overlong and/or have many bends, or travel through uninsulated space such as attics. The majority of heat
pump systems o not ̀
include a fresh-air supply system – they only recirculate room air. Ventilation requirements need to be managed by
other means.
More information
 Heat Pumps (EECA)
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6.1.3.1 Heat pump configuration and installation
here ̀ are arious ̀ configuration options for heat pumps ̀
On this page:
 Configuration options
 Outdoor unit
 Indoor unit
Configuration options
Air-to-air heat pump design options include:
 split – the outdoor unit supplies a separate indoor unit located in the space being heated or cooled
 multi-split – one outdoor unit supplies a number of indoor units
 ducted – one indoor unit located in a building void space (such as above the ceiling) has many
supply ducts to a number of rooms, separately controlled by air flow rate.
Heat pumps may operate as:
 an inverter system – where a variable speed compressor motor maintains a constant
temperature setting with small fluctuations
 a fixed speed system – where a single speed compressor in the outdoor unit operates at a
constant speed and is either on or off.
Inverter systems are more commonly installed as they are approximately 30% more efficient than fixed speed
systems. They achieve the set temperature more quickly than fixed speed systems, and the speed control gives a
quieter operation.
Other features to consider include:
 demand defrost control – this will minimise the defrost cycle, reducing heat pump energy use and
supplementary energy use
 programmable thermostat – allowing the home occupier to preset operating times, which
reduces the temptation to oversize equipment to get rapid warming or cooling
 variable speed handler – providing better operational performance, particularly in hot climates
 corrosion-resistant coils – especially useful in coastal areas and areas with a high sulphur level,
because coils are more prone to corrosion.
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Heat pump outdoor unit
Heat pumps should be installed by experienced professionals.
To maximise heat transfer and heat pump capacity:
 the outdoor unit’s air inlet path needs to be unobstructed
 the outlet air needs to be directed away from the coil and the air inlet.
It is essential to have unimpeded air flow around the coil. The gap from the outdoor unit to any obstruction
needs to be at least 500 mm on the air inlet and outlet faces, and 100 mm on any other face.
Consider the heat pump’s primary use when siting the outdoor unit. For best performance for heating, locate
the outdoor unit in the warmest location, e.g. on a north or west facing wall (and vice versa for cooling).
Heat pumps are most efficient when the temperature differential between outdoor and indoor temperatures
is at its lowest.
The unit’s compressor and fans will create noise, so position the unit to minimise inconvenience to the
occupants and to neighbours:
 Locate it away from quiet areas like bedrooms.
 Mount the heat pump chassis on neoprene isolation mounts or pads (to absorb any vibration).
 Avoid wall-mounted outside fans as these are likely to transmit vibrations.
 Maintain the unit regularly to ensure worn bearings and other parts do not become noisy.
 Use a fence or other barrier to block noise from neighbours – the most effective is a block mass in
line of sight of the unit.
Particular care is required in retrospective installations, to ensure sound and vibration insulation is effective.
For efficiency, locate the outside and inside units as close as practically possible. If a longer pipe run is
necessary, a professional installer may add another pump to the line. Make sure that the pipe
manufacturer’s recommended run lengths aren’t exceeded.
Finally, BRANZ investigations of installed heat pumps have found some common errors to be avoided. In
particular:
 Ensure that outdoor units are fixed with at least the recommended 100 mm ground clearance.
 Ensure the units are stable. Where the unit is connected to brackets to keep it off the ground, the brackets
themselves should be firmly connected to something solid.
 Seal the gaps around the pipes coming out of the ducting.
 Make sure hoses draining condensation from the indoor unit are directed into drains or gardens and not onto
paths.
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Heat pump indoor unit
The indoor unit heats/cools, dries and circulates the room air and normally contains a coil, fan, air filter, air
vanes and condensate pipe. The indoor unit can be:
 wall or high wall – mounted high on the wall, this brings air in from above or below and directs air
downwards or horizontally into a room
 under ceiling – mounted on the underside of the ceiling, near to a wall, this brings air in from below or
the wall side and directs air across the room at ceiling level
 ceiling cassette – mounted within the ceiling panels, this brings air in from below at its centre and
directs air out from each of the four edges at ceiling level
 floor – mounted on or just above the floor and against a wall, this brings air in from below or from
floor level and directs air up the wall.
For air to freely circulate, there should be no obstruction around the unit. The best location for a reverse cycle heat
pump is near ceiling level. The best location for a heating-only heat pump is at floor level. (Note that these units are
not interchangeable – those designed for use high on a wall should not be used close to floor level.) For a ducted
system, the best location is in the ceiling space, with the supply and return air ducts located as far apart as possible.
Effective air flow is important:
 If mounted too close to the ceiling, a unit may short cycle and shut down prematurely.
 If the unit is located in a corner, the room may be only partially heated or cooled.
 If the location is subject to draughts, the unit’s performance may be affected.
Careful thought should therefore be given to the precise location of the indoor unit. In a BRANZ study of
households with heat pumps, over a fifth of the households said that their heat pump was not installed in the
optimum location – a very poor outcome. Location should consider room entry and exit points and likely furniture
layout so occupants are not made uncomfortable by airflow draughts.
More information
 www.smarterhomes.org.nz - heating
 Neighbourly installation of heat pumps (Dunedin City Council)
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6.1.4 Convection heaters
In convection heating, air is heated when it comes into contact with hot surfaces in the
heater. People feel warmer because of the higher air temperature. Some convection
heaters use a fan to draw the cool air in.
On this page:
 Types of residential convection heaters
 Characteristics of convection heaters
 Convection heaters with thermal mass.
Types of residential convection heaters
Typical residential electric convection heaters include (listed from lowest to highest in terms of cost and
performance):
 wall-mounted panel heaters
 wall-mounted or freestanding fan heaters
 oil column or nightstore storage heaters, which incorporate a small amount of thermal mass
 ducted central heating systems with floor or low-wall grilles.
Typical residential gas-fired convection heaters include (listed from lowest to highest in terms of cost and
performance):
 balanced flue gas heaters
 wall-mounted furnaces, which may incorporate fans
 boiler supplying hot water radiators
 ducted central heating systems with floor fan

or low-wall grilles.
warmed air is distributed

through the room
heating elements
Convection heater with fan

cooled room air is drawn in
Cool air is drawn in and passed over gas or
electric heating elements. Warm air moves out
into the room by natural convection.
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Note: BRANZ does not recommend the use of unflued convection gas heaters because they emit water
vapour and other gases into indoor spaces.
Characteristics of convection heaters
Convection heaters:
 heat the space from the top down – for larger spaces or spaces with high ceilings, it will take
some time for the heat to reach occupant level, particularly when the occupants are sitting
 raise room air temperature more quickly than radiant heaters
 use more energy to achieve the same temperature change as radiant heating in larger spaces
 change the air temperature gradually (fans may increase the rate of air movement), which means
that occupants only gradually feel warmer
 make the air warmer close to the heater, so space heating relies on adequate air movement
 create convection currents and temperature gradients as warmer air from the heater rises.
Convection heaters with thermal mass
Convection heaters may also incorporate thermal mass. Examples include hot water radiators, nightstore or
oil column heaters, underfloor heaters and solar hydronic heaters. Heaters with high thermal storage
generally don’t get as hot on the surface as heaters with low thermal storage, and therefore have steadier
heat output.
High thermal storage heaters can be useful for:
 heating spaces with longer periods of occupancy, for example, beyond about 15 minutes
 heating larger spaces that require more even temperature throughout
 providing low impact heating (lower rates of temperature change and lower air velocity)
 spaces where there is a significant distance to the occupant from the heater
 situations where air temperature needs tighter control over extended periods of time
 rooms where there are high transmission heat losses through walls or the floor or ceiling
(for example, a conservatory in winter).
More information
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6.1.5 Radiant heaters
In radiant heating, surfaces (including people’s skin and clothing) are heated by infrared
rays of heat from the heater. The air in between is not heated.
Find out about:
 types of residential radiant heaters
 characteristics of radiant heaters
 use of radiant heaters.
Types of residential radiant heaters
Typical residential radiant heaters include:
 electric (ceiling) radiant panel or element heaters
 bathroom ceiling-mounted electric heat lamps (with exhaust air duct)
 gas-fired infrared (outdoor) heaters
 gas-fired radiant tube heaters
 gas fires (visible flame) (a number of gas fires provide both radiant and convection heating)
 electric tubular heaters.
The sun and warmed outdoor surfaces also provide radiant heat.
Note: BRANZ does not recommend the use of unflued radiant gas heaters because they emit water vapour
and other gases into indoor spaces.
heating unit
only objects the radiant heat

falls on are heated
Radiant heater
Radiant heaters heat surfaces, objects and occupants with infrared radiation. They do not heat the
air within the room directly.

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Characteristics of radiant heaters
Radiant heating provides immediate heat:
 Someone directly in front of the heater will feel immediately warmer when it is turned on and immediately
cooler when it is turned off.
 Only surfaces in a direct line of sight to the heater are heated.
 Though air isn’t directly warmed, it will warm up through contact with surfaces that have been heated.
 Heating intensity increases as the surface gets closer to the heater.
Uses of radiant heaters
Radiant heaters can be useful for heating spaces with:
 short-term room occupancy (for example, using a bathroom, making a drink in a kitchen)
 a need for immediate warmth
 large size (for example, long rooms, rooms with high ceilings) to directly provide heat to occupants
 high or fast air flow from outside or other cooler spaces (for example, garage, basement, deck)
 high transmission heat loss through walls or the floor or ceiling (for example, a conservatory in winter)
 high humidity (for example, bathrooms) with surfaces that temporarily need to be clear of condensation
(for example, mirrors)
 occupants who are very active and mobile while in the room (for example, people doing aerobics or
working in a garage workshop)
 rooms with thermal mass (as the heater warms the mass).
A radiant heater will be less effective and less efficient compared to a convection heater if:
 the radiant heat cannot freely radiate into the room (for example, because the heater is behind furniture)
and/or directly on to the room occupant
 the heater is distant from the occupant
 the room is already very warm and near to desired air temperature
 the room has longer-term problems with condensation and moisture damage
 tight thermostatic control is required
 safety from touch is an issue.
More information
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6.1.6 Combined convection and radiant heaters
Any hot surface provides both radiant heating and convection heating, with the radiant
heating component increasing as surface temperature increases. Above about 80°C, a
heater surface is primarily providing radiant heating.
On this page:
 Wall-mounted panel heaters
 Oil column heaters
 Undertile heating
 Hydronic underfloor heating
 Embedded electric underfloor heating.
Heaters with heated surfaces that can be touched without causing burns provide fairly equivalent levels of
both radiant and convection heating. These heaters typically have a large, warm surface, which is oriented
vertically. Air that touches the surface is heated and rises, forming convection currents. At the same time,
radiant heat is directed across the room. Where air flow is driven by a fan, convection heating will take
precedence.
Mixed convection/radiant heaters are typical of heaters used in living rooms and bedrooms. They provide
comfort through gentle convective air movement and some radiant heating on the skin.
Wall-mounted panel heaters

Wall-mounted panel heaters can provide a low wattage, safe heating option for bedrooms and hallways
where additional, permanent heating is required. They can be hard wired into a standard power outlet and
are cheap to purchase and easy to install.
They should not be installed below windows, and for older houses without wall insulation, heaters should not
be located on external walls.
Oil column heaters
Oil column heaters are portable plug-in units and are easily relocated to a room that needs additional heat.
They are a good option where a safe gentle heat is required.
They have a low capital cost but are expensive to run on an uncontrolled rate. Power outlets are required in
each room they will be used in.
Undertile heating
Electric cables installed directly beneath tiles with a floor sensor and a programmable thermostat can be a
cost-effective and energy-efficient system to keep the warm feeling in a bathroom, en suite, toilet or entry
area.
Undertile heating systems require RCD protection and a 1.5 or 2.0 mm2 (depending on wattage) two-core
plus earth dedicated supply circuit. The programmable thermostat must be located away from any damp
area zone.
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Hydronic underfloor heating
With hydronic underfloor heating, water is heated and circulated through pipes embedded in the floor. The
water may be heated using solar radiation (known as ‘solar hydronic’), or using a boiler powered by gas,
wood, electricity, or a combination of these. Some types of heat pump can also supply the heat for hydronic
underfloor heating.
Specific advantages of a heated floor include:
 the heating system is unobtrusive and doesn’t take up any floor space
 heat is released evenly across the whole floor area
 the ‘cold foot syndrome’ is eliminated because heat is emitted at floor level
 heat will continue to be radiated from the slab after the heating has been switched off.
Underfloor heating can also offer thermostatic control, and does not create draughts or noise. But it is only
moderately responsive – it can take some time for a room to warm up after a hydronic system is switched on.
Up-front costs are high, and some maintenance will be required.
Other advantages and disadvantages will depend on the fuel source. Solar hydronic systems are energy
efficient, since they rely on free solar energy, but may not provide heat when it is needed, and may need a
gas, oil or electric boost. See space heating – energy sources for information on the pros and cons of gas,
electricity and oil.
Embedded electric underfloor heating
Embedded electric floor heating systems can be installed to suit specific areas, such as a bathroom, where
other forms of heating are difficult. Installations require a floor sensor and a programmable thermostat for
maximum efficiency.
Installation requirements include:

 a 2.5 or 4.0 mm2 two-core plus earth (depending on wattage) dedicated supply circuit
 RCD protection with protection not exceeding 30 mA – the exception is MIMS (mineral insulated metal
sheathed) cables complying with 2.5.3.1 of AS/NZS 3000
 cables in accordance with NZS 6110
 a well insulated slab (50 mm minimum polystyrene slab insulation) with edge insulation.
Embedded electric floor heating systems are generally expensive to operate. For more detail, refer to BRANZ Bulletin
586 Embedded floor heating.
Radiators
Radiators – in which warm water is circulated to a radiator in each room – have similar advantages and
disadvantages to underfloor hydronic systems. With radiators, the water is most commonly heated in a boiler
powered by gas, though some may use wood, oil or electricity. Some types of heat pump can also supply the heat
for radiators.
More information
 www.smarterhomes.org.nz – heating  www.righthouse.co.nz – underfloor heating
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6.1.7 Central heating systems
In central heating systems, heat is supplied by a single unit and ducted to outlets in
the floor or ceiling of rooms/spaces inside the house.
Most central heating systems use hot air, though heated water passing through radiators or underfloor pipes
can also be used. For homes, separate room heaters are more common than central heating.
Most central heating systems use gas or electricity, but some use energy-efficient sources such as heat
pumps, waste heat recovery, or the absorption of passive heat (for example, solar radiation).
Though both air and water have reasonable heat storage capacity, there are always some energy losses
between the heating unit and the room. These heat losses can be reduced by minimising the length of
duct/pipe run, minimising cross-section area, maximising flow rate, improving insulation, and running the
ducts/pipes through spaces with warmer temperatures.
A central heating system has a slower response to changes in room heating requirements. The delay will
increase with longer duct/pipe runs and will be greater in systems using water to transfer heat from the
plant to the rooms.
Central heating involves a significant upfront capital cost compared with room heating options. An efficiency
of 70–90% (depending on the system specified) can be achieved.
Central heating suits families with small children, elderly people and people with a disability or long-term
illness. The lower-temperature heat sources in each room are safer than high-temperature appliances, with
a reduced risk of burns.
Advantages and disadvantages of central heating
Central heating can provide more effective and energy-efficient convective space heating when:
 rooms have individual thermostatic control
 there are a number of rooms with similar heating requirements regarding temperature and
times that heat is needed
 one central heating unit can be used instead of a number of room heaters
 energy-efficient heat sources can be used to power the central unit (for example, solar panels
or heat pumps)
 the combustion of gas, oil or solid fuel is isolated from the heated space.
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Drawbacks of central heating include:
 installation costs
 limited control over heat output within each individual space without suitable feedback from
each space (for example, separate thermostats)
 a time delay before heat output is changed to meet heating demand
 limited flexibility (in terms of moving or resizing components) to meet changing heating requirements
 the need for space to house the central heating unit
 the need for suitable routes for pipes and ducts.
More information
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6.2 Cooling
In most New Zealand homes, passive design solutions should be sufficient for cooling.
On this page:
 Fans
 Heat pumps
 Evaporative coolers
 Mechanical ventilation systems
Cooling and ventilation should not be confused. Cooling is modifying temperature, which may or may not
involve bringing fresh air into a house from outside. Ventilation is about bringing in fresh air from outside
or expelling stale air to the outside.
In New Zealand, sufficient cooling can usually be achieved with passive design options such as shading and
allowing natural summer airflows and ventilation, given that indoor air temperature comfort levels range
from about 18–24ºC and outdoor air temperatures do not often exceed 25ºC. Simulation software can help
work out the optimal passive design options.
But some situations may still require active cooling, to provide back-up or boost a passive system when
temperatures and/or humidity are well above average.
Active cooling also takes care of situations where building occupants do not open windows.
Active cooling is more likely to be required in rooms:
 with high solar heat gain or poor natural ventilation
 that are used by a lot of people, or used for long periods
 where people are very active (such as a rumpus room)
 with lots of electrical equipment (such as lights and computers in a study)
 in locations where weather conditions do not allow passive design to work effectively, e.g. strong
hot or dry winds, dust, pollen
 in calm, hot and humid summer climates.
When specifying a cooling system, consider:
 What is the real requirement? If the demand is only for a dozen or so days each year, portable
electric fans may be sufficient.
 How many spaces require cooling? Is it sufficient to cool just one space, such as a north or west-
facing living area?
 What would be the most cost-effective option? A ceiling fan may be sufficient if there is just one
room where the occupants feel too hot.
Mechanical cooling options are fans, heat pumps, evaporative coolers and mechanical ventilation.
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Fans
Fans move air and increase air velocity within a room. They don’t actually change the air temperature, but
the increase in air movement makes people feel cooler. Fans can be fixed or portable. They are generally
cheap to buy, relatively easy to install, and comparatively cheap to run. Floor fans can use around 100 W,
ceiling fans typically less, with the high efficiency models using less than 30 W on high speed.
Ceiling-mounted fans are often effective at moving the air in a room to provide cooling. They can also be
useful in winter as they can be used to move the warmer air at ceiling level back down into the occupied
space.
Heat pumps
Until recently in New Zealand, reverse cycle heat pumps have tended to be installed primarily to provide
heating. However, people with heat pumps are increasingly using them for summer cooling as well as winter
heating, resulting in increased electricity costs to households that have traditionally not used active cooling
systems.
Their efficiency is measured by the energy efficiency ratio (EER), which is the ratio of cooling energy
compared to the electricity used to produce it. A heat pump with a higher EER tends to provide more cooling
for a particular amount of input electricity. However, the actual energy used will depend on the particular
heat pump, how it is used, and conditions such as the outdoor temperature.
Heat pumps for sale in New Zealand must meet the minimum energy performance standard (MEPS) in
AS/NZS 3823.2:2013 Performance of electrical appliances – Air conditioners and heat pumps – Part 2:
Energy labelling and minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) requirements.
Heat pumps that carry the Energy Star label can use up to 30% less energy than models that don’t.
Heat pumps used for cooling work better when doors and windows are closed (as heating works best, too).
Specifying the right size of unit is important.
It is important to note (and to advise your clients) that heat pump energy efficiency decreases as the
difference between the indoor and outdoor temperature increases – as it gets hotter outside, it takes more
time and electricity to cool the air inside the home.
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cooling elements
cool is piped to the inside unit

room air is drawn in
Exterior
fan
exterior unit extracts cool from

the air
cool air is blown out
Interior
A heat pump – cooling operation
Evaporative coolers
An evaporative cooler uses a fan to move hot, dry air through a wet filter. It adds moisture to the air, and
the air temperature drops as warmth is used to evaporate the moisture. Evaporative coolers are only
efficient in air that is consistently dry. They are not commonly used in New Zealand and should not be used
in rooms that already have moisture problems.
Evaporative coolers:
 are comparatively cheap to run as the only energy used is to run the fan, and this may be as little as
70–100 W, or 150 W and up for larger models. This is a lot less power than a heat pump uses
 are relatively inexpensive to buy. They are available as portable units with a water tank that needs
occasional topping-up or as fixed units connected to a water supply
 use a significant amount of cold water
 do not use a refrigerant
 require regular filter maintenance
 may require windows or vents to be left open to allow airflow.
Mechanical ventilation systems
Mechanical ventilation systems are rarely required to meet Building Code requirements – in most cases
these are met by opening windows. However, ventilation supply systems can provide cooling benefits. The
air intake, usually in the soffit under the eaves, should be located where it will not draw in polluted air. A
fan, air filter to remove particulates, ductwork and room diffusers make up a ventilation system.
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Heat recovery ventilation systems that use a heat exchange unit are primarily installed to warm the outside
air they bring into a house, but some models also provide a cooling option.
More information
 www.smarterhomes.org.nz – cooling
 www.energywise.govt.nz – heating and cooling
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6.3 Lighting design
For maximum energy efficiency, homes should be designed to make the most of
natural daylight.
Lighting accounts for 11% of energy used in an average New Zealand home, and that percentage is
projected to increase in coming years.
For maximum energy efficiency, homes should be designed to make the most of natural light during
daylight hours. See daylighting for details.
However, artificial lighting is necessary for times when natural lighting is not available/adequate and for
specific tasks. Artificial lighting – especially using LED fixtures – can be designed to provide appropriate
lighting levels while using energy efficiently.
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6.3.1 Appropriate lighting levels
Appropriate lighting levels are important for safety, comfort and energy efficiency.
On this page:
 Required and recommended lighting levels
 Types of lighting
The level of light on a surface is called illuminance. It is expressed as lumens per square metre or lux. In
determining the appropriate amount of lighting, consider:
 the passive design daylighting provided by the design of the building
 direct lighting from lamps
 reflected light – levels will be higher from lighter-coloured or glossier surfaces.
Good lighting design is said to be lighting that ‘allows you to see what you need to see quickly and easily
and does not cause visual discomfort but does raise the human spirit’.
Insufficient light levels can be uncomfortable and unsafe. Too much light can cause glare, which is also
uncomfortable and can cause headaches or eyestrain, and too much artificial lighting wastes energy.
Required and recommended lighting levels
New Zealand Building Code clause G7 Natural light requires 30 lux of natural light at floor level for 75% of
the year. Clause G8 Artificial light requires 20 lux of natural or artificial light at floor level at all times when
the room is inhabited. Though energy efficiency can be maximised by providing no more than the minimum
level of lighting required, this may not always be safe or comfortable.
Recommended lighting levels are:
 150–200 lux for general household activity – for example, vacuuming or washing
 300–500 lux for focused activity – for example, reading or studying, working on a car
 750 lux or more for concentrated activity – for example, fine detail sewing.
Adjustments should be made to these recommended lux levels so they are:
 higher – if there isn’t much reflected light, or levels of light and dark contrast are low, or the
area has no windows, or the occupants are older people
 lower – if the task is of short duration.
Types of lighting
Generally, lighting within a home can be broken into:
 general lighting to provide an all-over low-level illumination of a space
 task lighting to illuminate an area (desk or benchtop) where a higher lighting level is required –
task lighting is more effective where lower wattage lights with a focused light beam are specified,
and task lighting can create issues of glare, flicker, noise or heat output
 accent lighting to highlight decorative or dramatic features using spotlights or wall washer lights.
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6.3.2 Lamp selection
Lamp selection depends mostly on energy efficiency and the type and amount of lighting
required.
On this page:
 Light emitting diodes (LEDs)
 Fluorescent lamps
 Halogen lamps
 Incandescent lamps
 Recessed light fittings
The decision of which lamp to use is influenced by:
 energy use
 the amount of light emitted
 lamp purchase cost
 hours of lifetime use
 application, e.g. task/general lighting, short/long periods of use
 colour and temperature of the light required.
In order of lighting efficiency, from most efficient to least efficient, the available options are: light emitting
diodes (LEDs); fluorescent lamps; halogen lamps; and incandescent lamps. As an example of the
difference between the top and bottom of this range, a 9.5 W LED will produce the same amount of light
as a 60 W incandescent bulb.
Light emitting diodes (LEDs)
LEDs (light emitting diodes) are basically solid state devices like a semiconductor or circuit chip – there is no
filament like an incandescent bulb, and no gas like fluorescent bulbs. LED light fittings are typically made up
of a number of LEDs combined.
These are very energy-efficient with low heat output and are extremely long lasting – between 15,000–
30,000 hours and more in some cases, compared to around 1000–2000 for incandescent bulbs. This makes
them an obvious choice for use in stairwells and other locations where bulbs are difficult to change.
The LED lighting market has seen huge development in recent years, and now LED bulbs are available to
replace incandescent or compact fluorescent bulbs in most existing fixtures and fittings, including spotlights
and downlights.
Other LEDs are available with their own dedicated fittings. These are designed to maximise an LED’s lifespan
by managing the heat that develops at the bottom of the lamp. If you are building a new house or making a
significant renovation, these are a good option.
These lights turn on immediately, unlike some fluorescent bulbs that take a moment to warm up. Some
LEDs are dimmable, and LED lights that produce a warm white light are available.
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A small number of LEDs now have Energy Star ratings, which means that they meet high standards for
energy efficiency (up to 30% more efficient than LED lights without the Star), colour tone, brightness and
life expectancy. They have a 3 year warranty.
Fluorescent lamps
Fluorescent lamps:
 are very energy-efficient, using as little as 20% of the energy to provide the same light output as an
incandescent lamp
 are long lasting (up to 10,000 hours)
 can provide light in a range of colours.
They are not suitable for rooms where they will be used for short periods of time, such as toilets and bathrooms,
because they need a ballast to start, which uses more energy than the light itself and causes extra wear. They
also take some time to reach full brightness. They tend to be unsuitable for exterior use as they produce less light
in low temperatures. Light output will drop slightly as fluorescent lamps age.
Fluorescent tube lamps:

 are available in straight or circular styles
 require special fittings
 are good for background lighting but not for directional lighting
 are most suitable for kitchens, garages and workshops and non-adjustable task lighting
 have a separate replaceable ballast – although electronic ballasts are more expensive, they are more
energy-efficient, longer lasting, start the lamp quicker, produce less flicker and are dimmable.
Compact fluorescent lamps are similar to fluorescent lamps but:
 can fit into conventional bayonet or screw-fitting light sockets

 come in a range of styles – stick, globe, circular and square
 can replace incandescent light bulbs in most light fittings
 have an integral ballast
 should be concealed within a fitting to minimise glare.
They may not be able to be used with dimmers or sensors and electronic switches.
Compact fluorescent lamps with an Energy Star rating are up to 15% more efficient than standard models.
They come with a 2-year warranty.
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Halogen lamps
Halogen lamps require special fittings and are more expensive than standard incandescent bulbs, but they
last longer (up to about 2,000 hours of use). A 35 W halogen lamp produces the same light output as a 50
W standard incandescent. Low voltage halogen lamps (which need a transformer) will further improve
energy efficiency but increase cost.
Halogen lamps have a compact filament to produce a concentrated light beam that illuminates a small area,
making them suitable for highlighting or task lighting. They are a type of incandescent lamp but provide
more light. IRC halogens are more energy-efficient than conventional halogens, with a lifespan of around
5,000 hours.
They are available in two voltages – 12 volt (which requires a transformer) and mains.
When specifying halogen lighting:
 a whiter and brighter light is achieved with 12 V units
 a softer light is achieved with mains powered halogens
 12-volt systems offer a range of special-purpose bulbs such as wide angle, narrow beam or coloured.
Linear halogen lamps should not be used where the source is visible to the occupants.
Incandescent lamps
Incandescent lamps are basically the same today as when they were invented over 100 years ago. Up to
95% of their energy output is radiated as heat rather than light. They are cheap to buy, but have a short
lifespan (approximately 1000–2000 hours).
Recessed light fittings
 Recessed downlight fittings in ceilings have been a popular choice in the past, but there are two significant
problems with them:
 Insulation must be kept away from older models of these lights to prevent the lights, ceiling materials or
insulation from overheating and causing damage.
 A lot of heat can escape through holes cut in the ceiling for these older downlights, significantly reducing the
effectiveness of ceiling insulation, and this can make homes hard to heat in winter.
Newer recessed downlights in categories labelled IC and IC-F can be covered with insulation, and reduce
the risk of overheating.
BRANZ recommends replacing older downlights either with surface-mounted lights to avoid all heat loss, or
with IC or IC-F recessed downlights that have insulation placed over them.
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6.3.3 Switches, sensors, dimmers and timers
Switches, sensors, dimmers and timers can all improve energy efficiency.
On this page:
 Switches
 Sensors
 Dimmers
 Timers
Higher cost options include fully programmable or automatic house lighting systems that will operate light and
security systems to maximise operating efficiency.
 timers include:
o scheduled timers with manual over-ride that switch lights on and off at particular times of the
day or week –these are often used to turn lights on in the evening as darkness falls, and switch
off during daylight and after people have gone to sleep
o delay timers to switch lights off automatically after a short period of time – these can usually
be adjusted to suit use patterns
 dimmers to reduce light output (and power consumption) for incandescent lights and fluorescent
lights having electronic ballast – these can be linked with a photoelectric light meter to reduce
artificial lighting when more natural lighting is available. While many compact fluorescent lights
cannot be used with dimmers, LED lights generally can be
 programmable/automatic lighting.
Switches
For general space lighting, locate switches at room entry and exit points. Specify two- or three-way circuits
where a space has multiple entry points and for stairs – this will reduce energy use and improve
convenience by making it easier for people to turn on lights as they come in to the room and turn off lights
as they leave.
For task lighting and accent lighting, locate the switches adjacent to the task area. That way, occupants
won’t be tempted to turn on task lights when they’re not needed. An alternative is to locate task and accent
lighting on a single control panel remote from the general lighting switch.
Each lighting installation should have its own control. A single switch point to turn on all lights in a room will
waste energy.
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Sensors
Movement sensors turn lights on automatically when someone comes in to a space and turns lights off
(either by movement or after a set period of time) when the person leaves. This can reduce energy wastage.
Movement sensors use a small amount of power by being on standby, but this is much less than lights that
are left on continuously.
Daylight sensors turn lights on when the room or outdoor area is not daylit.
For efficiency and convenience, specify movement sensors that:
 incorporate a daylight sensor and/or timer so lights don’t turn on unnecessarily
 have a manual over-ride function.
Dimmers
Dimmers can save energy and increase bulb life by reducing light output. Specify a dimmer linked to a
photoelectric light meter to reduce artificial lighting when more natural lighting is available.
Timers
Delay timers can be specified to switch lights off automatically after a short period. This saves energy by
ensuring that lights aren’t left on indefinitely, but can also cause safety issues if the light goes off without
warning. Timers are more suited to spaces that are only used for short periods of time, such as toilets or
store rooms. Schedule or programmable timers can also be used to turn lights on and off at particular times
of the day or week. Specify models that have a manual over-ride.
More information
 www.smarterhomes.org.nz – lighting
 EECA Energywise Right Light
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6.4 Water heating
Water heating accounts for 29% of energy use in an average New Zealand house, so
achieving energy efficiency can make a significant difference to energy use and costs.
A hot water system must be designed to provide sufficient hot water for household
needs. It must meet health and safety requirements such as controlling
temperature and pressure to ensure there is minimal risk of scalding or of a storage
cylinder exploding, and to prevent the growth ofLegionella bacteria.
A well-designed system will also support efficient energy and water use, by:
 using a heating source that is efficient and minimises environmental harm
 locating the heating source close to points of use, and ensuring that pipe runs are relatively short
 insulating hot water pipes and – if a storage cylinder is used – a Grade A insulated cylinder
located in a warm space
 heating and storing only as much water as is needed to meet peak demand
 only heating water to the temperature needed to meet regulatory requirements
 using low flow fixtures
 using energy efficient and water efficient appliances, or appliances that heat their own water
(unless you use solar or heat pump water heating).
For Building Code requirements, information about controlling temperature and pressure, and information
about system layout and capacity, see hot water supply in the Water section of this site.
In general, the most energy efficient system for most household purposes will be an appropriately sized
storage system with solar or heat pump water heating. For outlets that are rarely used or remote from the
main hot water supply, a continuous flow system may be more convenient and minimise energy use.
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6.4.1 Energy sources
Water can be heated using solar energy, electricity, gas, a wetback system, or a heat pump
water heater. Each has advantages and disadvantages, though in general solar and heat
pump are the most efficient and produce the least greenhouse gas emissions.
On this page:
 Solar
 Heat pump
 Electricity
 Gas
 Wetbacks and solid fuel heaters
Energy sources for water heating need to be considered alongside other factors such as system design and
capacity, and the choice between storage and continuous flowsystems.
Many New Zealand homes have stored hot water using electricity or gas for heating. The remaining 5% use
a continuous flow system, generally gas heated, although electric continuous flow systems are also
available.
More energy-efficient hot water heating options include solar, heat pump, and wetback systems.
To determine a suitable water heating system, you need to consider size, likely water use, initial and on-
going costs – some options can be three or four times more expensive to run than others – and the energy
efficiency and environmental impact of the energy used.
Solar
Solar water heating systems are becoming increasingly popular in New Zealand, and provide a highly
efficient way to meet part of a household’s water heating needs. Typically, a well designed and installed
solar water heating system can provide about 75% of a household’s water heating needs in summer and
about 25–45% in winter.
A solar water heating system cannot provide all of a household’s water heating needs – a booster system
will be needed. This may be heat pump, electric or gas depending on how the system is configured.
To achieve maximum efficiency, solar systems must be properly designed and installed.
See solar water heating for more.
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Heat pump
Heat pump water heaters use heat energy from outdoor air (or in some cases the ground) to heat water in a
storage cylinder. Heat pumps use electricity to move heat, but not to create it, and so are a highly energy
efficient method of water heating.
Heat pumps can also be used as a booster option for solar water heating.
See heat pump water heating for more.
Electricity
Electricity can be used to heat either storage or continuous flow water heaters, and can also be used as a
booster to solar or heat pump water heating systems.
The advantage of electricity is its reliable supply. However, in terms of sustainability and energy efficiency,
conventional electric hot water heating is not a preferred option except as a booster system.
Conventional electric systems are less energy efficient than solar and heat pump systems, and generating
electricity from fossil fuels produces greenhouse gas emissions. As well as these environmental costs, rising
electricity prices also provide an incentive to seek more efficient energy sources.
Gas
Gas can be used to heat either storage or continuous flow water heaters, and can also be used as a booster
to solar or heat pump water heating systems.
Continuous flow gas systems or small, high-efficiency gas storage systems may be more efficient than
electricity for small households, and may have a slightly lower cost (based on actual energy use) than
electrical supply with the same heating capacity. They also have a quicker heat recovery time than electric
for storage cylinder systems.
Burning gas on site to heat water produces fewer greenhouse gas emissions than electricity generation
using fossil fuels, so is generally seen as more sustainable.
However:
 gas systems have higher heat losses, with heat being lost in the products of combustion
exhaust (although condensing gas burners reduce this lost heat)
 gas may not be available through a reticulated system, which means gas bottles will have to be used
 if gas is available through a reticulated system, the gas line may have connection and line supply
charges.
Wetbacks on solid fuel heaters
Wetbacks generally provide a boost to the water heating system, particularly in the winter when most
required. They are most suitable for cold climates where a lot of space heating is used.
See wetbacks for more.

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6.4.1.1 Wetbacks
Wetbacks generally provide a boost to the water heating system, particularly in the
winter when most required. They are most suitable for cold climates where a lot of space
heating is used.
The combustion process of the solid fuel burner heats a water jacket installed in the firebox. Options are
available for 1.5–4 kW water jackets. Water circulates through the water jacket, then back to the storage
heater.
Wetbacks must meet a minimum thermal efficiency of 65%. Burners that meet this requirement can be
found on the list of authorised burners on the website of theMinistry for the Environment.
Most wetbacks circulate the water by a thermo-siphon effect (i.e. warmer water rises and cooler water falls,
creating a natural flow through the water jacket). The hot water cylinder should be close to the heat source
to minimise heat loss. The compromise may be that longer pipe runs are required to hot water outlets than
would otherwise be needed. Large diameter wetback water pipes (25 mm) are recommended to improve
flow.
Some systems incorporate an electric pump to increase pressure and allow the storage cylinder to be
located further away. In this situation, open venting is required.
Key factors when incorporating a wetback system:
 Wetbacks generally only make a substantial contribution to water heating in cold climates
where a lot of space heating is used.
 Some burners produce a higher proportion of their output as hot water – these are suited
to houses where space heating demand is lower.
 The input from the wetback must be supplemented by other means of heating when the
solid fuel burner is not being used.
 The emissions rating for a solid fuel burner incorporating the water jacket must be
determined – as the water jacket cools the combustion process, the particulates emissions
level will increase.
 The installation of water jackets within the firebox reduces the heat output to the adjacent space.
 The circuit between the water jacket and the storage cylinder must be open-vented for safety. This
means that either a low pressure open-vented cylinder is required or that an isolated circuit
separate from the water in the cylinder is open-vented and heat is supplied to the water in the
cylinder by a heat exchanger coil. (This option allows the cylinder to be run at mains pressure.)
 The isolated open-vented supply line must incorporate a valve to allow the water to be
replenished if overheating occurs. Overheating will cause a drop in pressure in the line, which will
activate the valve to replace the water lost from the top of the vent pipe.
 Only copper piping must be used.
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6.4.2 Storage and continuous flow systems
The choice between storage and continuous flow system will depend on a range of factors.
In continuous flow systems, water can be heated using electricity or gas. In storage systems, the water can
be heated using electricity, gas, solar energy, a wetback or a heat pump.
Both types have advantages and disadvantages. For most purposes, the most efficient option will be an
appropriately sized storage cylinder with water heated using an energy efficient source such as solar energy
or a heat pump. However, in some circumstances continuous flow systems may be more suitable.
Continuous flow systems can also be used as a booster for solar or heat pump systems.
The decision about whether to install a continuous flow system may be influenced by:
 the energy source used for water heating – some energy sources such as as solar and heat pump
will require a storage cylinder
 the space available for installation – a continuous flow system might be suitable if there is no space
for a storage cylinder
 hot water demand and patterns of use – if demand is highly variable, a continuous flow system
may be suitable
 distance between the water heater and the point of use within the house – a small continuous
flow system may be suitable for areas that are remote from the main hot water system.
Whichever system is specified, it must meet Building Code requirements and should have
appropriate capacity to meet household needs without heating water that is not going to be
needed.
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Hot water storage systems can be used with energy-efficient heating sources such as
solar, air-to-water heat pumps or they can use gas or electricity as the primary energy
source. A disadvantage is that they can run out of hot water.
On this page:
 Cylinder size
 Cylinder location
 Cylinder insulation
 Controlling Legionella bacteria
 Tempering heated water
 Specific requirements for gas storage water heaters.
Code requirements
Under Building Code clause G12 Water supplies, hot water systems must provide water in a manner that
allows for the control of Legionella bacteria but minimises the risk of scalding. Adequate hot water must be
provided for utensil washing and personal washing/bathing.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 requires that storage cylinders must:
 be large enough to meet draw-off demand
 have sufficient recovery capacity to be ready for the next draw-off demand
 include a non-return valve (unless supply is from a water tank)
 have temperature controlled by a thermostat (electric and gas heating).
A storage cylinder must be heated to at least 60ºC daily to remove the risk of microbial contamination in the
water.
 maximum standing heat loss (kWh per day) for electric hot water cylinders of different sizes
 maximum gas consumption rate and minimum thermal efficiency for gas hot water cylinders.
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Cylinder size
The hot water storage cylinder must be large enough to provide for a household’s peak hot water demand,
but more water will be heated than needed if the cylinder is too large. The appropriate size depends
primarily on the number of people in the household. Typical hot water usage is in the order of 40–60 litres
per day per person.
Significant standing losses occur from the cylinder and during the transfer to the point of use. For greater
efficiency, hot water storage cylinders should be short and broad rather than tall and slim, as this reduces
the surface area. Cylinder diameter is typically 450–590 mm.
Taller cylinders may be better where heat is exchanged to and from other sources (such as a solar collector
or wetback) to the cylinder. For example, a wetback may draw cold water from the bottom of the cylinder
and return it as hot water to the top of the cylinder. A taller cylinder will allow a greater temperature
difference to be maintained and therefore improves the effectiveness of the wetback.
Cylinder location
Minimise heat loss through the hot water pipes by locating the cylinder as close as possible to the outlets
where the majority of hot water is used.
The cylinder will lose more heat in a cold location (e.g. when located outside the insulated building
envelope) than a warm one (such as in the middle of the house or in a well-insulated space). Locating the
cylinder in a cupboard will help to retain heat. Modern gas storage cylinders are often designed for
installation outside the building envelope.
Other design factors to consider include:
 hot water system pressure – low or mains pressure
 provision of sufficient space for the cylinder
 access to replace the cylinder
 plan spaces where hot water will be used to be in close proximity – if an isolated hot water outlet is
required, or hot water demand will be low, a continuous flow water heater may be a better option
 placement in relation to solar collectors or solid fuel burners where these are used for water heating.
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Cylinder insulation
Maximise energy efficiency by:
 wrapping the cylinder with additional insulation
 insulating the hot water pipework.
 Electric storage water heaters installed since 2002 must have ‘A’ grade insulation. These have a
layer of insulation of around 50mm between the water jacket and the outside of the cylinder.
Cylinders that were installed prior should have insulation in the form of a cylinder wrap added. Any
cylinders that are warm to the touch would benefit from having a cylinder wrap added.
Available cylinder wraps include:
 wool with cotton exterior
 wool with foil exterior
 fibreglass with foil exterior.
Controlling Legionella bacteria
To prevent the growth of Legionella bacteria, stored water should be heated to not less than 60°C at least
once a day. If the thermostat control is set above 60°C, hot water storage systems are not at risk
of Legionella growth.
If the hot water storage system is partially heated by solar power or heat exchange system (wetbacks or
solar heat transfer system), the temperature must be boosted at least 60°C or higher on a daily basis.
Tempering heated water
The Building Code requires that hot water be delivered at a temperature that avoids the likelihood of
scalding. As water heated to 60°C or more can cause serious burns, water must be tempered before it is
delivered to users though taps and other outlets.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 sets maximum temperatures for water delivered to sanitary fixtures. For most
types of building, the maximum temperature is 55°C for outlets such as basins, baths and showers (the
limits are lower for buildings such as hospitals and schools).
For kitchen sinks and laundries, maximum temperatures of around 55°C to 65°C are acceptable.
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Temperatures can be reduced to acceptable levels by installing:
 a tempering valve, or
 a thermostatic mixing valve.
A tempering valve is installed in the hot water line close to the cylinder and has a cold water
connection to provide a pre-set hot water temperature at fixtures. Valves are factory pre-set but are
able to be adjusted to cater for specific temperature requirements.
As water may be delivered at any temperature to non-personal hygiene fixtures such as sinks and laundries,
a tempering valve is not required to these fixtures. However, if a wetback water heater or other uncontrolled
heat source is used, tempering the supply to all fixtures is good practice.
Most dishwasher and washing machine manufacturers may require the installation of a tempering valve for
warranty purposes where the unit does not heat its own water.
Specific requirements for gas storage water heaters
Gas storage water heaters must have:
 adequate ventilation of the cylinder
 a flue to remove exhaust gases.
They must be:
 serviced annually
 flushed out regularly to remove water sediment at the bottom of the cylinder
 checked to ensure that vents are not blocked.
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6.4.2.2 Continuous flow systems
Continuous flow systems provide an endless supply of hot water, so long as the electricity or
gas is available.
On this page:
 Where continuous flow hot water systems are used
 How they operate
 Advantages and disadvantages
 Calculating size
 Connecting with other water heating systems
Where continuous flow hot water systems are used
Instantaneous or continuous flow hot water systems are typically used:
 for outlets that are a long way from the main hot water storage system
 where hot water use is low and inconsistent, such as in a holiday home
 to boost hot water supply from systems that are not always able to meet demand (such as heat
pump water heaters or solar water heating)
 to boost hot water supply from limited storage systems or to fittings having high hot water
demand (e.g. showers).
How they operate
Continuous flow systems can be heated using electricity, gas or LPG.
Although electric systems are more energy-efficient than gas systems, gas has a higher maximum heating
capacity and is better able to impart sufficient heat to mains pressure water.
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Operation of typical electric instantaneous (continuous flow) water heater
outer casing
thermostat rod
heating element
thermostat
when valve is turned on the pressure

switch opens the electrical circuit to
the heating element
pressure switch
the thermostat overrides the pressure

valve
switch and shuts off the power if
overheating occurs
earth
cold water hot water
electrical supply inlet outlet
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Operation of typical gas continuous fl ow water heater
flue
heat exchanger
outer casing
hot gases heat up water in

combustion chamber
gas burner
automatic gas valve, pressure regulator

and safety shut-off
air in air in
gas supply
cold water supply

hot water outlet
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Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages of continuous flow systems over storage systems include:
 continuous hot water, i.e. supply does not run out
 no requirement to keep water hot when not being used, so no standing losses and no energy input to
maintain the temperature of stored water
 no need for a cylinder, so useful where space is limited
 heat is to the required outlet temperature, without the need to heat it to 60ºC first
 easily adjustable temperature
 can be located close to the outlet
 gas units are usually fitted on an outside wall, saving interior space.
Disadvantages include:
 both gas and electricity produce greenhouse gas emissions (electric units are responsible for emissions
during generation, and gas units produce emissions during combustion)
 gas units have flue emissions
 limited water flow rates
 achievable flow rates are lower in colder areas
 electric systems may require heavy duty wiring
 electric systems cannot use off-peak electricity supply rates
 the pilot light on gas heaters can be extinguished by wind – electronic ignition is recommended.
Calculating size
The required flow rate is used to size continuous flow systems, and this is based on the number of outlets
served by the unit. Obtain specific flow rates from the supplier or manufacturer. Flow rate recommendations
for a gas continuous flow water heater from www.environment.nsw.gov.au/households/hot-water-
systems.htm are:
Max. no. of outlets served Flow rate

at one time (litres per minute)
1 16
2 20
3+ 24
Connecting with other water heating systems
Continuous flow water heaters can operate in conjunction with hot water storage systems, to take
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advantage of and overcome disadvantages of each system:
 Example 1: Use a small volume hot water storage cylinder for the general hot water supply and
supplement with a continuous flow water heater from a cold water feed for outlets with high hot water
demand such as shower and washing machine. Mix hot water at the outlet with the flow rate maximised
from the continuous flow water heater and minimised from the hot water storage cylinder.
 Example 2: Use the continuous flow water heater as a booster system to a storage system with limited
hot water capacity or intermittent energy supply (such as solar systems or heat pumps). Requires
specific plumbing arrangement.
LPG and reticulated gas water heating systems are generally installed on the building exterior as they
require good ventilation for the exhaust gases. If the system is installed internally, the space must be well
ventilated and exhaust gases flued to the outside.
Electrical heaters are compact and can be installed close to the hot water outlet, often with cabinetry.
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6.4.3 Heat pump water heating
Heat pumps provide a very efficient method of heating water.
On this page:
 Energy efficiency of heat pumps for water heating
 Heat pump configuration
 Key design decisions
An air-to-water heat pump takes heat energy from the outdoor air and transfers it to the stored water in a
cylinder. It can also use a ground or water (e.g. a river or lake) heat source, but these sources are less
common for New Zealand residential use.
The drawing shows specifically how the heat transfer is done. Outdoor air passes over an evaporator (heat
exchanger), transferring heat to a liquid refrigerant. This vapourises the refrigerant, which then enters the
compressor. The compressor uses electrical energy to increase the refrigerant pressure (and temperature)
and circulate it around the condenser (heat exchanger) where the refrigerant cools as it heats the water.
The condensed liquid refrigerant then passes through an expansion valve, and the cycle continues.
outside air
warm gas
exhaust air
compressor
hot gas
condenser (heat
exchanger)
hot water output

from heat
exchanger
evaporator
fan
cold water cool liquid

into heat
exchanger expansion valve
warm liquid
Heat pump water heater cycle
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Advantages of heat pump water heating include:
 efficient conversion of energy to heat
 the energy source is always available
 it can provide energy-efficient heating for large amounts of water for use for space heating (e.g.
underfloor), hot tubs and swimming pools
 it can be used to boost other water heating systems
 government subsidies may be available.
Disadvantages of air-to-water heat pumps include:
 loss of efficiency as temperature decreases below 6–7ºC although some will continue to
provide heating in temperatures down to -10–15ºC
 purchase and installation costs are higher than for standard electric storage cylinder systems
 space is needed to install the exterior unit
 penetrations have to be made through the building cladding
 outdoor units may be noisy
 less efficient with low water use (1 or 2 person households)
 independent testing has shown that some systems perform significantly better than others, so
seek advice from suppliers or independent agencies such as Consumer NZ.
Energy efficiency of heat pumps for water heating
Heat pumps are a highly efficient method of water heating and offer the most efficient electricity-based
option, as the electricity is used only to move the heat, not to create it. They can have a coefficient of
performance (COP) of between 2.0 and 3.0, which means they create two to three times the energy for
water heating than they use in electricity to run the pump and fan. Some heat pump water heaters include
an electrical heating element to supplement the heat pump output in colder conditions.
As noted above, heat pump efficiency, particularly with air-to-water heat pumps, is reduced by low outdoor
temperatures.
To enhance efficiency, the heat pump unit could be operated when:
 outdoor temperatures are warmer (such as
during the afternoon), which improves the performance of the system
 the price of electricity is lower (such as a night-rate tariff)
 surplus electricity is available from a photovoltaic system that would otherwise be exported to the
electricity grid.
When considered throughout the year, the energy efficiency of air-to-water heat pumps is comparable
to solar water heating. Heat pump water heating is therefore particularly suited to sites with poor solar gain.
Ground-to-water heat pumps have a less variable heat source, but with their high set-up costs and ground
area required, they are more suitable to multi-residential developments or very cold climates.
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Heat pump configuration
There are two different types of heat pump water heating systems:
 all-in-one integrated systems, which have the heat exchanger and the storage cylinder in a single unit,
located outside
 split systems, which have the heat exchanger set up separately from the storage cylinder. In this case, the
cylinder can be either inside or outside.
Key design decisions
Key design decisions for heat pump water heating will include:
 whether to use an integrated system or a split system
 the size and location of the heat pump system.
Installation
A building consent is generally required when a new heat pump water heating system is installed or a new
split heat pump is added to an existing water storage heater.
A building consent is not required where a certifying plumber:
 replaces an existing water storage heater with a  heat pump water storage heater
 replaces and repositions an existing internal water storage heater with an external heat pump water
storage heater
 replaces an existing external water storage heater with an external heat pump water storage heater.
The outdoor components must be positioned to allow unimpeded airflow through the system. Ideally, the location
should be warm. The outdoor components may switch on at irregular times, so to avoid them becoming a nuisance at
night they should not be located close to bedrooms.
The hot water tank, whether internal or external, should be restrained with straps to suitable anchoring
points on the building. Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 gives restraint methods suitable for tanks up to 360
litres. Straps at top and bottom should be no more than 100 mm from the end of the tank. Tanks over 200
litres should have a third strap in the centre.
An isolation switch must be mounted on the exterior of the house. If the cable breaks away, the electricity
supply to the cable can be shut off from the isolation switch.
All hard wiring must be carried out by a registered electrician and have an electrical certificate of
compliance.
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Recommended restraints for a heat pump water heating system
heat pump unit
strap restraint
strap restraint
fixed to wall timber restraint
framing fixed to framing
water storage tank
wall framing
wall framing
restraint battens
strap fixed to dwang fixed to dwangs
water storage
tank
strap fixed to dwang
Note: Tanks over 200 litres should have a third strap in the centre.
More information
 www.smarterhomes.org.nz – water heating
 www.energywise.govt.nz – heat pump water heaers
 www.building.govt.nz – heat pump water heaters
 www.heatpumpcentre.org
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6.4.4 Solar water heating
Solar water heating systems are highly energy efficient but, for
best performance, must be designed and installed correctly.
Solar water heating is energy-efficient, has low running costs (typical water heating costs may reduce up to
75% in summer and 25–45% in winter) and has low greenhouse gas emissions.
However, solar energy is variable, and systems will not be as effective on cloudy days, so a booster system
is required to provide water heating in periods of high demand or low solar gain. Solar water heating
systems can also feed into other water heating systems such as instant gas.
Key design decisions will include the size, location and type of the collector panels; whether to use an open
or closed loop heat transfer system; whether to use a pump or thermo-siphon for heat transfer; and the
size, location and other specifications for the cylinder.
An important factor in the efficiency of solar water heating systems is how systems are configured and how
well they have been installed. It is generally more expensive to retrofit a solar water heating system in an
existing house than to install a system in a new construction.
Some solar water heating products now come with an EECA Energy Star rating. This means that when sized
and installed correctly, they will typically save 70% of annual water heating costs. Products with an Energy
Star have a 10 year warranty on the collector panel, 6 years on the storage tank and 2 years on the
controller.
Code requirements
For general Building Code requirements relating to water heating, see hot water supply in the Water section
of this site. For requirements relating to storage cylinders, see storage cylinders.
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In addition to those general requirements, Clause G12/AS2 provides an acceptable solution for the
installation of solar water heaters provided that:
 the system does not include a cylinder on the roof
 the building is not too windy
 the system has a collector that is no more than 4 m2 and is below weight restrictions
 the system has a collector that is not attached at a angle below 45° to the ground.
The acceptable solution sets out – among other things – requirements for structural support, materials, system
sizing, location of collector panels, and installation.
More information
 www.smarterhomes.org.nz – water heating
 www.smarterhomes.org.nz – solar water heating
 www.energywise.govt.nz – solar water heating
 www.energysavers.gov – water heating
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6.4.4.1 Collector panels
The efficiency and effectiveness of a solar water heating system will depend on the size and
type of panels used, and on positioning them to maximise absorption of solar radiation.
On this page:
 Types of panels
 Sizing panels
 Positioning to maximise solar heat absorption
Types of panels
The two types of solar panel commonly available are:
 a flat plate collector
 an evacuated glass tube collector.
Panels incorporating a heat absorbing surface that transfers the heat to water pipes below are also available.
Flat plate collector
Flat plate solar panels are commonly used collectors. They have a metal plate
with a dark-coloured coating to absorb heat.
Pipes under the plate contain water or some other fluid such as glycol, which
absorbs heat and carries it to the water in the storage cylinder. A transparent
cover, usually glass, admits solar radiation but stops it from escaping.
Flat plate panels have a life expectancy of about 20 years. Their construction is simple, with no moving
parts, which means they’re easily repaired. They are relatively low cost and can supply water at
temperatures up to 95ºC, though efficiency diminishes rapidly above 70ºC, so systems should be sized to
avoid these sorts of temperatures.
Evacuated glass tube collector
Evacuated glass tube solar panels are made up of a number of glass tubes, typically 20 or more. Each tube
has a vacuum to reduce convection and conduction heat losses. Evacuated tubes may contain an absorber
plate connected to pipes through which a heat-absorbing fluid circulates or a heat pipe that contains an
evaporating/condensing fluid to transfer heat.
Individual tubes sometimes fail but can be replaced at relatively low cost.
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glass tube
collecting plate can be
angled to the sun
evacuated collector tubes detail section
through tube
glass cover
cold fluid in
reflector
Evacuated glass tube

solar panels
These are made up of a number of glass tubes (normally
hot fluid out
20 or more). Each tube has a vacuum to reduce
convection and conduction heat losses. Inside the vacuum
a plate (often made of copper) absorbs heat. A tube,
cylinder or pipe connected to the absorber plate contains
water or some other fl uid such as glycol which absorbs
heat and carries it to the water in the storage cylinder.
Sizing the panels
The size of the panel depends on the water storage capacity available and is typically based on a ratio of
about 1 square metre of panel for each 50–70 litres of cylinder volume. Most panels commercially available
are in the 3–8 m² range.
For a home with 3–4 occupants, a 200–275 litre storage cylinder with a 2.5–5 m² panel is recommended.
For 5–6 occupants, the recommendation is for a 270–360 litre cylinder with a 3.75–6 m² panel area.
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The expected output from a solar panel installed to maximise the amount of sun it receives is up to:
 15 kWh/day on a sunny summer day
 7 kWh/day on a sunny winter day (typically, water heating requires an energy input of 6–
10 kWh/day).
Positioning to maximise solar heat absorption
The heating capacity of a solar water heating system is directly proportional to the amount of solar radiation
absorbed, which depends on the following factors:
 Solar intensity: This is determined by the available solar radiation energy (kWh/m²) at a
particular location. Solar intensity is generally higher at more northern latitudes, in summer, in
clearer air and when there is less shading.
 Solar panel area: The larger the area, the more heat can be produced.
 Solar panel tilt angle: The optimum installed angle for solar absorption is perpendicular to the sun.
Determined over the year, this is equal to the latitude (e.g. 41.2º in Wellington), although winter sun
angles are lower and summer sun angles are higher. Panels can be optimised for winter water heating
by increasing the angle over the latitude angle.
 Solar panel orientation: New Zealand sun is always in the north for all locations and all times of the
year. Solar panels should be oriented to the north as much as possible. For maximum solar intensity,
they should be oriented directly to geographic or solar north.
For further details on panel installation including tilt angles, see installation.
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angle of latitude
+15° in
winter
−10° in
summer
angle of solar collector in
winter solar
collector
North
solar collector
angle of solar collector in
should face due
summer
north
Ideal angles for solar collectors in New Zealand

Place Latitude Summer angle Winter angle
Whangarei 35° 45’ 26° 51°
Auckland 36° 50’ 27° 52°
Wellington 41° 15’ 31° 56°
Christchurch 42° 30’ 32° 57°
Dunedin 45° 50’ 36° 61°
Invercargill 46° 30’ 36° 61°
Solar panel tilt angle
The tilt angle is the angle of the solar panels to the ground. The ideal angle will be different in summer and winter.
It may be necessary to change the location, tilt angle or orientation because of shading, aesthetic reasons, lack of
available space, complex roof profile or lack of structural support from the building. However, the orientation
should never be more than 20º from north, as solar absorption will reduce by more than 20% (reductions in heat
gain continue the further the panel is from the geographic north point).
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6.4.4.2 Heat transfer systems
Solar systems offer different options for heat transfer and for circulation of heat exchange
fluids.
On this page:
 Heat transfer systems
 Systems for circulating water or heat exchange fluid
Heat transfer systems
The heat transfer in a solar water heating system may be:
 an open loop system
 a closed loop system.
Water circulates using a thermo-siphon or pump system.
Open loop solar water heating system
In an open loop (direct) system, the solar collector is separate from the storage cylinder, and the water from
the cylinder that is being heated for consumption circulates through the collector panel by natural thermo-
siphon (open loop) or by pump. A system such as a temperature controlled pump to allow hot water to be
circulated through the panel on cold nights to prevent freezing must be integrated into the circuit.
insulated hot water storage heater inside

the roof space NOTE: Valves and controls must comply with the
requirements of the New Zealand Building Code
hot water to
domestic
supply
heating element
hot water to tank

cold water
inlet
solar collectors
mounted on roof
cold water to collector
Open loop solar water heating system
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Closed loop solar water heating system
In a closed loop (indirect) system, the solar collector is separate from the storage cylinder. A heat transfer
fluid such as glycol (which does not freeze) circulates through the collector panel (closed loop) to the
cylinder using either thermo-siphon or a pump. The fluid absorbs heat in the solar panels, which is then
transferred to the water in the cylinder through a heat exchanger. The heat transfer fluid does not come into
direct contact with the water being heated.
fl at panel solar
collector
hot water to domestic fi
hot water xtures (valves not shown)
return to NOTE: Valves and controls
storage must comply with the
requirements of the New
Zealand Building Code.
cold water to
hot solar panel
heat exchange
coil insulated water storage
tank with backup heater if
required
circulating
pump
cold water supply

(valves and controls
not shown)
Closed loop solar water heating system
Closed loop systems are slightly less efficient than open loop systems as there is some heat loss through the
heat exchanger. Their advantage is that they can use a freeze-resistant fluid so are more suitable for frost-
prone areas.
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For both open and closed loop systems, reduce heat loss between the solar panels and the storage cylinder
by:
 keeping the distance between the two as short as possible
 insulating all pipes
 running pipes through warm areas of the house.
Systems for circulating water or heat exchange fluid
Thermo-siphon system
In a thermo-siphon (or passive) system, as water is heated in the solar panel, it rises by convection into a
storage tank located above. Cold water is then drawn into the panel for heating.
This type of system is simple and low-maintenance, and uses no energy, but the cylinder must be located
above the solar collectors and the pipes must have a continuous rise. Water flow with a thermo-siphon
system is relatively slow. This can significantly increase heat losses from the pipes. See installation for more
detail.
Pump system
To optimise performance, a pump controlled by the water temperature can be used to circulate the
water/heat exchange fluid. This can:
 provide flexibility in the location of the panel and the cylinder
 increase the form part of the frost protection system by activating a reverse flow through an open loop
system when there is risk of frost.
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Storage cylinders should be designed to meet household hot water needs, maximise the
amount of water heated by solar radiation, and protect safety.
On this page:
 Cylinder location
 Cylinder size
 Control of temperature
 Temperature and pressure relief valves
Solar water heating cylinders must:
 be able to handle expected temperatures – stainless steel and copper cylinders are frequently used
 have sufficient capacity to meet both peak loads and overall daily demand without requiring
excessive use of a booster heating system.
For general Building Code requirements relating to water heating, see hot water supply in the Water section of
this site. For general requirements relating to storage cylinders, see storage cylinders. Clause G12/AS2 provides
an acceptable solution for solar water heating systems.
Cylinder location
The cylinder location depends on whether heat is transferred by thermo-siphon or pump and whether an
open loop (direct) or closed loop (indirect) system is used (see Heat transfer systems for information on
these system types).
For thermo-siphon systems, relative heights of the cylinder and the panel must be carefully designed to
allow a natural thermo-siphon to occur.
Some open loop solar water heating systems incorporate a solar hot water cylinder, while others can be
used with a remote or existing hot water storage cylinder. The storage cylinder may be on the roof just
above the solar panels or separate, e.g. inside the roof space or fixed to the exterior of the building.
The weight of the water must be considered when sizing framing for roof-mounted or ceiling space cylinders,
and the cylinder must have earthquake restraints.
In buildings with low pitched roofs or limited attic space and in retrofit situations, the cylinder may need to
mounted outside on the roof, which means there may be increased heat losses.
Allow for maintenance access to the cylinder and other components of the water heating system.
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Cylinder size
The storage cylinder should be larger than for a single energy source cylinder such as gas or electric, so that
when there is good solar gain, the cylinder can store the heat that is available.
Control of temperature
The boosting element in a solar water heating cylinder needs to be installed and configured to:
 maximise the proportion of water heated by solar energy, and
 ensure that water is heated to control Legionella.
Maximising the proportion of water heated by solar energy
It is important that the booster system does not heat water when there is solar energy available. Any solar
systems should incorporate a timer to turn the element off in the mornings. In a 2006-08 BRANZ study of
solar water heating systems, only seven of 35 systems had a timer.
The position of the element within the system is also important. If there is an element at the top of the
cylinder, only the water above the element is heated when solar energy is low. In the 2006-08 BRANZ study
found there were three cylinders with elements at the top and bottom and two of these systems were found
to perform well.
Controlling Legionella
Domestic hot water cylinders should reach a temperature of at least 60ºC daily to kill
any Legionella organisms present. Acceptable Solution G12/AS2 Solar water heaters requires that systems
are capable of heating the water to 60ºC either:
 continuously, where the element is in the bottom 55% of the cylinder, or
 once a day, where the element is in the bottom 20% of the cylinder, or
 weekly, where all of the water within the system is heated for at least 1 hour (and the
temperature is measured in the bottom 20% of the cylinder).
While many solar water heating systems can theoretically reach 60ºC in the cylinder, in practice, it requires
careful system configuration and owner operation to achieve this. To prevent scalding, the temperature will
need to be tempered before the water reaches outlets. See storage cylinders for detail.
In the 2006-08 BRANZ study of solar water heaters, many of the operators of solar water heating systems
were not aware of the 60ºC anti-Legionella temperature boost recommendation and were not running their
systems with that in mind.
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Temperature and pressure relief valves
Over-temperature pressure relief valves are essential on solar water heating systems. Water heated by solar
radiation can reach very high temperatures, and if there is an event that stops water circulating (such as an
electricity failure that stops a pump), the temperature and the pressure can rise quickly within the collector
and pipes. While new systems have been tested to confirm they are physically strong enough to contain
very high pressures, this system strength may be reduced in older systems, and the very high pressures
should be avoided.
In the 2006-08 BRANZ study of solar water heating systems, 10 of 31 systems had no apparent over-
temperature relief system. Others depended on roof-top air admittance valves, while others relied on the
temperature/pressure relief (TPR) valve on the storage system itself. BRANZ recommends the installation of
over-temperature pressure relief valves on all solar water heating systems.
See hot water supply for more about valves and controls.
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6.4.4.4 Installation
BRANZ research has found that correct installation is the single most important factor in
determining the efficiency and performance of solar water heating systems.
On this page:
 Panel tilt angles
 Standing losses
 Back circulation
 Information for users
 Installers as quality controllers
 Safety – adequate fastening
 Durability – avoiding corrosion
From 2006 to 2008, BRANZ conducted a study on the performance of solar water heaters and heat pumps in
Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin. On average, the solar water heating systems supplied 38%of
the household’s heating needs.
Correct installation was found to be the most important factor in determining the performance and efficiency
of solar water heating systems.
Installation had a bigger effect on performance than the specific technology used (for example, whether
evacuated tube or flat plate collectors were used, and whether a pump or thermo-siphon effect was used to
circulate the heating fluid). Installation also had a bigger effect than region or climate.
The results are available in BRANZ Study Report 184 and BRANZ Study Report 188. The study pre-dated
Acceptable Solution G12/AS2.
The recommendations on this page reflect the results of that study. Also see solar water heating storage
cylinders for recommendations regarding cylinder and booster systems.
Panel tilt angles
Most of the systems studied had their collectors installed at the same angle as the roof. None had a tilt
angle greater than or equal to the site latitude (which is recommended to maximise solar gain). For the
systems where it was possible to measure winter performance, more than half provided less than 10% of
the winter water heating needs. Generally, those with steeper angles on their collector panels provided more
water heating in winter.
Recommendation:
 Install solar collectors at an angle at least equal to the site latitude.
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Standing losses
Standing losses (when energy is lost through the collector, pipework and walls of the storage cylinder)
formed a sizable part of the energy balance of the studied systems. If standing loss is reduced, more of the
solar energy can go into replacing the heat drawn off by hot water users in the house.
Many of the systems with high standing losses were thermo-siphon systems, with large cylinders installed
outside. Increased thermal insulation of those cylinders may help.
Six of the systems included retrofitted cylinders with B grade insulation.
Recommendation:
 Where retrofitting solar water heating to an existing cylinder, ensure that it is an A grade cylinder (which
frequently has 50 mm of polyurethane foam for insulation). If it isn’t an A grade cylinder, wrap it.
 In a thermo-siphon system, ensure that there is good insulation around the outdoor cylinder.
Back circulation
One system in the study had very high heat losses at night, as the hot water was able to circulate back
through the open-loop system to the flat plate collector.
Recommendation:
 Incorporate piping arrangements to reduce the chance of back circulation at night.
Information for users
The study found many users were not aware of how to get the best out of their solar water heating system.
While 80% were supplied with written instructions, 21% found the manual too difficult to follow. They were
not sure how to monitor performance or how to get help if they thought the system was not working well.
The majority were not shown the different parts of the system, or how to operate or manage the controls.
Most were not told whether the system had a timer or not. Only eight were asked if the settings were
correct for their household.
Recommendations:
 Install system displays in a prominent location in a living space of the house so occupants can monitor
them.
 Give guidance to users about the expected performance of their system so they can actively monitor it.
 Provide guidance to the users so they can operate the timers to minimise booster system use.
 Include an audible alarm with the control system to tell users when there is a fault in the system.
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Installers as quality controllers
Participants in the study had had little contact with the installer after the actual installation. Occupiers were
left without the information or expertise to assess the performance of their system. A review of the system
that was back-circulating water at night may have found that fault much earlier.
Recommendation:
 Review the system after installation to ensure it is working to specification.
Safety – adequate fastening
Roof-based collector panels (and tanks if installed alongside) need to be securely fastened to the building
structure. This is usually done by screwing through the roof to the timber purlins beneath. Similarly, all feed
and return pipes need to be firmly secured.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS2 recommends 10 mm coach screws. None of the systems in the study used that
kind of fastening, instead opting for Tek screws (self-drilling, self-tapping wood screws designed to secure
metal roofing to timber framing).
The compatibility of the metals in frames, brackets, fastenings and roof surfaces is important, to avoid
corrosion.
Durability – avoiding corrosion
Materials used for solar water heating systems can be affected by elements in their environment and need
to be protected from corrosion, as well as prevented from causing damage to the roof itself. Damage can
occur as a result of exposure to UV radiation, sea air, rain and heated water and as a result of inappropriate
combinations of materials.
The two types of damage to guard against are:
 metal corrosion to the frames of collector panels, brackets and fasteners, and the roof surface
 polymer corrosion to plastics, rubbers, paints and sealants such as the gaskets and seals on
collectors and lagging on pipework.
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Metal corrosion can occur in a variety of ways:
 Galvanic corrosion is where dissimilar metals coupled together will corrode rapidly when wet, especially in
the presence of sea salt. In solar water heating systems, this is likely to occur between any of stainless
steel, copper, steel, aluminium and zinc (galvanised steel). The damage can be prevented by avoiding poor
combinations of fasteners, framing, brackets and roof surfaces or using electrically isolating washers.
 Galvanic corrosion can also occur when copper dissolved in water (such as the water out of a hot water
cylinder overflow or header pipe) runs over a galvanised steel roof. This causes rapid corrosion of the zinc,
obvious as highly localised rusting, and should be avoided by redirecting flow from copper pipes away from
the metal roof.
 Waste metal such as swarf from drilling left lying on a roof will cause corrosion. It is important to ensure the
surface is left clean following installation.
 Using unsealed timber framing to support collector panels can increase risk of corrosion, as the wood will
retain water against the roof or other metal surfaces, prolonging any galvanic reaction.
 If collector panels have the same pitch as the roof, they can accumulate salts and dirt underneath that form
a highly corrosive electrolyte, breaking down protective corrosion products and causing rapid degradation.
These areas need to be able to be washed down with fresh water regularly. New Zealand metal roofing
manufacturers recommend at least 100 mm clearance between collectors and metal roof cladding, and
cleaning every 3 months in severe environments.
 An inert catchment effect can occur. The rainwater runoff from the glass covers of the flat plate collectors is
pure, and the zinc of an unpainted galvanised roof under a collector will dissolve more readily in pure water
than in water that already has some zinc dissolved into it.
Exposure zones for New Zealand are identified in NZS 3604:2011 Timber-framed buildings, section 4.
Polymer corrosion can also occur in a variety of ways:
 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation can break the carbon backbone of polymers such as the closed cell foam
commonly used to lag hot water pipes, causing loss of structural integrity, flaking and chalking. Closed-cell
foam pipe lagging needs to be painted with acrylic roof paints or wrapped in PVC tape.
 Heat can also break the carbon backbone of polymers and break off molecules from the carbon chain.
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) will become brittle and, when wet, can create hydrochloric acid, which will corrode
galvanised steel. Solar water heating systems combine heat from the sun with very hot water in pipes
causing seals to become brittle and some plastics may melt. Lagging materials must be able to cope with
the very high pipe temperatures that may be encountered.
 Rainwater can also increase corrosion by washing away the broken down material, and exposing fresh areas.
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6.4.5 Appliances
Energy and water use can be reduced significantly, without any reduction in building
occupants’ quality of life, by specifying efficient appliances.
Appliances such as whiteware, heated towel rails, televisions and DVDs in
an average New Zealand house can account for 29% of energy use.
Therefore, any reduction in energy use associated with appliances can
have a significant impact in terms of both national sustainability and cost
to the householder.
Energy can be saved by:
 selecting energy-efficient appliances
 sizing appliances for the household’s needs
 locating appliances to minimise energy use (e.g. keeping refrigerators out of direct sunlight)
 operating appliances efficiently, e.g. turning them off rather than running in standby mode.
Efficient appliances are making an impact
The move to energy efficient appliances is having a significant impact on household energy use. EECA
quotes data showing that in the 2014–2015 financial year, buying appliances that are more energy efficient
saved New Zealand the equivalent of the amount of electricity used by Invercargill – more than 209
gigawatt-hours. This saved consumers $50 m and reduced greenhouse gas emissions by roughly the amount
of CO2 from 10,000 cars in a year.
EECA says that more than 7 million appliances and products subject to labelling and regulation were sold in
the year to 31 March 2015. Since 2002, energy efficiency labelling and regulation have influenced sales of
54 million products in New Zealand.
Energy costs can also be reduced by shopping around between energy suppliers. The Powerswitch website
can help you compare costs and potentially reduce electricity and gas bills.
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6.4.5.1 Selecting energy-efficient appliances
Energy use can be minimised by the selection of energy efficient appliances.

On this page:
 Energy rating and labeling schemes
 Ovens
 Cooktops
 Microwave ovens
 Fridges and freezers
 Clothes washers and dryers, and dishwashers
There are two factors to consider. The first is the type of appliance – some are more efficient than others
(for example, induction elements are more efficient than other types of electric cooktop element). The
second is to use a rating or labeling scheme to select an efficient model for the type of appliance specified.
Energy rating and labeling schemes
The three main energy labelling schemes operating in New Zealand are:
 energy rating labels
 Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS)
 Energy Star labels.
Energy rating labels
Energy rating labels are compulsory for fridges, freezers, clothes washers, dryers, dishwashers, televisions
and heat pumps/air conditioning units. The labels contain a star rating for energy efficiency – the more
stars, the more energy efficient the appliance. For air heat pumps/air conditioning units, ratings are given
separately for heating and cooling.
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Fridges and freezers and heat pumps/air conditioners can get up to 10 stars – extra stars appear in a crown
above 6-star band.
The labels also show energy consumption per year. This is an important consideration, as a large appliance
with a high star rating will use more power than a smaller appliance with a lower rating for the same level of
use. Use the annual energy consumption figures to compare appliances of a similar type and size. Air
conditioning units/heat pumps have different measures of power use: capacity output is the amount of
heating or cooling (kWh) produced by a heat pump at its rated capacity, at 7˚C; power input is the amount
of electricity the product uses (kWh) to produce cool/hot air. For dishwashers and washing machines, the
labels are also required to show information about standby power.
Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS)
The Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) set minimum energy efficiency requirements for
fridges, freezers, electric hot water storage units, gas water heaters, televisions, air conditioning units/heat
pumps, fluorescent lights and compact fluorescent lights (CFLs). All of these products must meet the MEPS.
Energy Star labels
The most energy efficient appliances qualify for the blue Energy Star mark. There are different criteria that
different products are required to meet. So far, products covered by the Energy Star scheme include fridges
and freezers, dishwashers, washing machines, home theatre systems, televisions, DVD
players/recorders, computers, imaging equipment (including scanners and printers), CFL and LED lights,
gas space heaters, heat pumps, ducted heat pump systems, and solar water heaters.
Ovens
Cooking accounts for around 6% of the average New Zealand household energy use, mostly by
ovens/cooking ranges. Generally, only a small amount of the energy is actually used for cooking – the rest is
in heating the air around the food that is being cooked.
Gas is more efficient than electric for ovens but gas requires a well ventilated kitchen. An air extract system
is also recommended.
An electric oven with a fan heats more efficiently than a standard oven. Self-cleaning ovens are more
efficient than other types because they have more insulation.
Wood-burning stoves tend to be regarded as a sustainable cooking alternative, but a lot of heat is lost up
the flue and much of it also goes into the room. They have less control and produce potentially harmful
emissions.
Solar ovens use the sun’s energy as a free heat source to bake, boil or steam food. They use reflectors to
concentrate sunlight onto a black cooking pot. Glass or plastic may be used to contain the heat. Food can be
baked, boiled or steamed. Solar ovens are the most energy-efficient cooking option, but they are not yet
commercially available in New Zealand.

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Cooktops
Cooktop (hob) options include gas or electric.
When selecting the energy supply for a cooktop, gas is generally more efficient at transferring heat than
electric. If reticulated gas is not available, bottled gas is a viable alternative.
Electric cooktops are available in a range of element types. Options from most to least efficient, options
include:
 induction elements, which use a strong magnetic field for heating while the element stays relatively cool –
these are currently also the most expensive option
 halogen elements, which have bright halogen lamps under a glass top and give instant heat
 ceramic glass elements, which have electric elements under a glass top
 exposed coil elements, which are the most common but lose heat to the surrounding air
 solid disk elements, which require more energy to heat but do not deliver much more heat to the pan.
Note: Glass tops are easy to clean but can break if a heavy object is dropped on them.
Microwave ovens
About 50% of the energy produced by a microwave oven is used for cooking, making this significantly more
efficient than a conventional oven.
Fridges and freezers
Fridges and freezers account for around 10% of the average New Zealand household’s energy use. They are
the biggest consumers of energy of all household appliances because they operate continuously.
Their efficiency decreases as the temperature of their surroundings increases. Efficiency also depends on the
level of insulation
They should be located in a cool area, not in direct sunlight, and away from cookers, dishwashers and other
heat sources. A 75 mm gap should be left around all sides of a fridge or freezer.
Clothes washers and dryers and dishwashers
Clothes washers and dryers and dishwashers account for around 1% of the average New Zealand
household’s energy use. These appliances should be sized appropriately for the household. If too small, they
will be used more often; if too large, they require more energy to run.
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Considerations when purchasing an appliance:
 Front-loading washing machines are more energy-efficient and water-efficient than top-loaders. They also
generally have a higher spin speed, which means they remove water from clothes more efficiently.
 Gas-fired or heat pump-powered dryers are more energy-efficient than electric dryers, but they are not
readily available.
 Clothes dryers must be vented outside via an exhaust air duct to ensure moist air is removed. This indirectly
reduces space heating load, as extract ventilation does not need to be provided to the whole room.
Condensing clothes dryers do not need to be vented.
 It is more energy-efficient and water-efficient to use a dishwasher than to wash dishes by hand.
Kitchen energy efficiency
The energy efficiency of the kitchen can be improved if:
 it has a rangehood above the cooking area to extract moisture without removing a large quantity of heated
air from the rest of the house
 a heat recovery exchange unit is incorporated in the air extract system, which transfers extracted heat to an
air or water heater
 the oven and cooktop are located on an internal wall so heat may be transferred to other rooms
 the oven is not located beside a refrigerator or freezer.
More information
Energy ratings
 www.smarterhomes.org.nz – appliances
 www.eeca.govt.nz – energy rating labels
 www.energyrating.gov.au
MEPS
 www.eeca.govt.nz – minimum energy performance standards
 www.energywise.govt.nz – minimum energy performance standards (PDF)
Energy Star
 www.eeca.govt.nz – Energy Star
 www.energywise.govt.nz – Energy Star
 www.energystar.gov
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6.4.5.2 Standby mode
Leaving appliances in standby mode can consume a significant amount of energy.
Many appliances have a standby mode during which they are not providing useful output but still consume
energy. Some appliances use standby power to light an LED display while some are waiting for remote
control signals to tell them to start operating, or are sending and/or receiving signals to other appliances
such as home automation systems.
Standby and baseload consumption together can account for 10% of the energy used in an average house –
around $200 per house per year (all electric house @ $0.28/kWh).
Standby power can be saved by turning appliances off at the wall if they are not being used.
Standby power is considered in the calculation of Minimum Energy Performance Standards
(MEPS) and Energy Star. For example, to qualify for an Energy Star rating, a television or DVD player must
use no more than 1 watt in standby mode.
Appliance Average standby power consumption

– watts (W)
Computer 2
Dishwasher 3
DVD player 3
Microwave oven 3
Garage door opener 3
Television 5
Printer 5
Security system 14
More information
 http://standby.lbl.gov/standby.html
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6.4.6 Active ventilation
Ventilation is required to remove moisture and airborne pollutants from a home to protect
the health and comfort of people living there. Ventilation can also be important for
temperature control, particularly in summer.
The ventilation rate for houses is often described as the number of air changes per hour (ach). This is how
many times a volume of air equal to the house volume has entered and left the house in 1 hour. A healthy
ventilation rate is 0.35–0.5 ach. In other words, one third to one half of the volume of air in a house is
replaced each hour. Lower than this risks not removing contaminants properly, while higher ventilation rates
may require more active space heating.
Houses built in the last few decades of last century typically had infiltration rates around 0.3 ach, with
houses built before 1960 having three times this much. These older homes provide the required ventilation
just through their ‘air leaky’ construction.
However, houses built after 2000 are typically much more airtight, with closer to 0.2 ach on average.
In most New Zealand homes, passive ventilation (including opening windows) will still be sufficient for most
of the year and only localised air extraction systems are needed: range hoods in the kitchen and extractor
fans in bathrooms.
However, in some situations, an air supply ventilation system may be necessary where passive ventilation is
not sufficient to meet New Zealand Building Code requirements. Multi-unit blocks where some units have
only one external wall could be an example. Some air supply ventilation systems use solar or heat recovery
technology to provide heating as well as ventilation.
A true heat recovery ventilation system supplies fresh air from outdoors that is warmed by the heat
extracted from the air being removed from indoors; it does not simply recycle roof space air.
Heat pumps are sometimes confused with ventilation systems. A split-cycle heat pump is a heating and
cooling system. A heat pump does not remove indoor air or bring outdoor air indoors and is therefore not a
ventilation system.
More information
 www.energywise.govt.nz – home ventilation systems
 www.smarterhomes.org.nz – ventilation
 www.consumer.org.nz – ventilation systems
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6.4.6.1 Air extraction systems
Air extraction systems remove moist or polluted air, typically from kitchens and
bathrooms, to the outside.
Find out about:
 Extraction rate
 Fans
 Ductwork
 Extract location
 Exhaust location
With an air extraction system, replacement air is drawn in due to reduced indoor pressure through gaps, and
open doors and windows. Air extraction systems must not vent into a ceiling or roof space.
Extraction rate
While overall house ventilation rates are expressed as the number of air changes per hour, mechanical
ventilation systems move particular volumes of air per unit of time – usually the number of litres per second
(l/s) or m3/hour.
NZS 4303:1990 Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality, Table 2 sets out the mechanical extract air flow
rate requirements. In houses, the minimum extract air flow rate is:
 for kitchens – 50 litres per second (l/s) intermittent, 12 l/s continuous
 for bathrooms and toilets – 25 l/s intermittent, 10 l/s continuous.
Typical air flow rates for domestic air extraction systems range from about 30 l/s to about 150 l/s.
Fans
Mechanical air extract ventilation is generally driven by a fan. To minimise energy use, fans should be sized
and controlled to move only the amount of air required for the time required – i.e. air should only be
extracted while pollutants or moisture is being produced.
For rooms used infrequently or intermittently, an extract fan linked to the operation of the light switch
means the fan will only run while the room is occupied. A timer switch can ensure that it runs for a short
time afterwards. Alternatively, a sensor can switch the extract fan on when steam or excessive moisture is
detected.
If the fan noise is a problem, it can be mounted outside the room and connected via ductwork.
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Ductwork
Ductwork may be required if the extract air:
 is coming from an internal room
 is to be discharged via the ceiling space out through the roof or soffit
 cannot be discharged through a suitable space in the external wall
 is to go through a heat exchanger.
If ductwork is needed, it will add to the demand on the fan, so the fan size should be increased accordingly.
Ductwork that passes through a cold air space should be insulated to reduce the condensation created in the
duct.
Extract location
The best location for the extract grille or fan where moist air is being extracted is:
 as high as possible, e.g. ceiling or high on the wall
 as close as possible to the source of the moisture
 opposite the point in the room where replacement air will enter so that the maximum amount of
contaminated air is replaced by fresh air.
Exhaust location
Stale, moist or polluted air must be discharged outside and not into another building space.
Locate the exhaust air outlet so that the discharged air:
 does not re-enter the home’s fresh air supply
 is not drawn inside through a window or other passive ventilation route
 does not enter another dwelling.
Prevent water from entering through the air outlet by installing:
 louvres – although some rattle in the wind, and airflow is reduced by around 30% for fixed louvres and 50%
for gravity louvres
 automatic shutters that open when the fan is switched on
 backflow flaps that are fitted with inline ducted fans.
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6.4.6.2 Air supply ventilation systems
Mechanical ventilation systems may be necessary where passive ventilation is not sufficient
to meet Building Code requirements.
On this page:
 Components of an air supply ventilation system
 Fresh air heating
 Ventilation system types
Some air supply ventilation systems provide heating as well as ventilation. With air supply ventilation systems,
only a small amount of energy is required for air movement.
Components of an air supply ventilation system
Mechanical air supply ventilation is generally by fan, which may be stand-alone or part of an air conditioning
or heat recovery system. To move fresh air from outside to indoors also requires an air intake, an air filter
to remove particulates, ductwork, and room diffusers.
The air intake should be located where it will not draw in polluted air.
To minimise energy use, fans should be sized and controlled to move only the amount of ventilation air
required. Most fresh air ventilation supply systems are designed to run continuously, with fresh air flow
rates at around 3–20 litres per second.
Fresh air heating
Many fresh air supply ventilation systems provide some heat to the supply air flow before it is drawn
indoors. Heating air brought from outside can consume substantial amounts of energy, particularly in winter
when the outdoor air temperature is low. This can be reduced by using a heat recovery ventilation system,
or by designing the system so that the fresh air:
 volume flow rate is kept to appropriate levels
 intake is located to capture warmer outside air, e.g. on the sunny side of the building, near warm
surfaces or from spaces with solar gain storage
 is only heated when the outside air temperature is cold (below about 13ºC) or is 6ºC below the
required room temperature – this depends on the heating system and level of heat gains from
other sources in the room.
 is not heated more than to make the occupants comfortable.
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Ventilation system types
Heat recovery ventilation systems
Heat recovery ventilation (HRV) and energy recovery ventilation (ERV) systems are ducted ventilation
systems consisting of two fans – one to draw air in from outside and one to remove stale internal air. An air-
to-air heat exchanger, generally installed in a roof space, recovers heat from the internal air before it is
discharged to the outside, and uses that heat to warm the incoming air. These are not heating systems but
do reduce heat losses from the building.
See heat recovery ventilation systems for more detail.
Positive pressure/forced air systems
Positive pressure/forced air systems bring air inside to create a positive, internal pressure that forces air
movement outwards. The air will leak out through gaps and open doors and windows.
For these systems to be effective, the supply air flow rate must be higher than the leakage air flow rate. The
more airtight the home, the more effective the system.
Solar energy heating/ventilation systems
Solar energy heating/ventilation systems use solar energy that has been absorbed by solar panels to heat
fresh supply air that runs through the panels. Solar cells can also be used to power the supply air fan. These
systems are very energy-efficient but quite expensive to install in houses.
Ducted warm air transfer systems
Ducted warm air transfer systems take warm air from the roof space or some other interior space and
transfer it to the space to be heated. In BRANZ’s view, these systems do not meet the minimum ventilation
requirements of the NZBC clause G4 Ventilation as they do not introduce outdoor air to indoors.
These systems require adequate sunshine to heat the heat source area, ambient temperatures that are not
too low, sufficient roof space to provide a heat source, limited moist air penetration from the spaces below,
and air filters to ensure particulates from the ceiling space aren’t brought into the home. Filters commonly
require replacing every 12 or 24 months.
A ducted warm air transfer system that utilises roof space air will only provide warm air during the daytime
when the sun has been shining. On overcast days and at night, the heat source (roof space) air
temperature may be colder than the room air temperature. They must therefore be able to be slowed or
stopped to prevent heat loss at these times and supplementary space heating will be required
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6.4.6.2.1 Heat and energy recovery ventilation systems
Heat recovery ventilation (HRV) and energy recovery ventilation (ERV) can provide cost
effective ventilation systems that also reduce moisture and heat loss.
On this page:
 Advantages of heat and energy recovery ventilation systems
 How they work
 Energy recovery ventilation systems
 Sizing an HRV/ERV system
 Ducting
 Supply and exhaust vents or grilles
 Maintenance
Advantages of heat and energy recovery ventilation systems
Advantages of heat recovery ventilation systems include:
 they reduce heat loss so less heat input (from another source) is required to raise the indoor
temperature to a comfortable level
 they are cost-effective, as less energy is required to move air than to heat it
 they provide ventilation where open windows would be a security risk and in windowless rooms
(e.g. interior bathrooms and toilets)
 they can operate as a ventilation system in summer by bypassing the heat transfer system
and simply replacing indoor air with outdoor air
 they reduce indoor moisture in winter, as cooler outdoor air has a lower relative humidity.
How they work

Heat recovery ventilation (HRV) and energy recovery ventilation (ERV) systems are ducted ventilation
systems consisting of two fans – one to draw air in from outside and one to remove stale internal air.
An air-to-air heat exchanger, generally installed in a roof space, recovers heat from the internal air before it
is discharged to the outside, and warms the incoming air with the recovered heat.
There are different ways that the two airflows can be designed. With counter-flow types the airflows enter
the exchanger from opposite ends. This design is more efficient, at 70–90% efficiency. In a cross-flow
exchanger the airflows are at right angles to each other. Cross flow is less efficient, at 50–70%.
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A heat recovery ventilation system is not a heating system but it is typically able to recover between 70–
90% of the heat from the exhaust air before it is discharged to outside.
cold stale air exhaust
duct heat exchanger
warm fresh warm stale

air diffuser air return cold fresh
air inlet
Heat recovery system
These systems utilise a recovery heat exchanger to absorb heat from warm room air that is being
discharged outside to heat the incoming air.
Heat recovery systems meet the requirement of fresh outdoor air ventilation inBuilding Code clause
G4 Ventilation.
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Note: Some systems that draw air into a house from the roof space are advertised or promoted as heat
recovery systems. Air from the roof space is not fresh outdoor air. When selecting a heat recovery
ventilation system, ensure that the proposed system actually incorporates a heat recovery device.
Heat recovery ventilation system
Schematic of typical heat recovery
ventilation system.
Winter operation of heat

recovery system
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Energy recovery ventilation systems
Energy recovery ventilation (ERV) systems are similar to HRV systems but they transfer water vapour as
well as heat energy, thereby controlling humidity levels. In summer, they can remove some of the water
vapour from the moisture-laden outdoor air before it is brought indoors; in the winter, they can transfer
moisture as well as heat energy to the incoming colder, dryer outdoor air.
ERV systems are useful in very low relative humidity environments where additional moisture may be
required, but if moisture removal is required, do not specify a moisture transfer system.
Sizing an HRV system
The Building Code requirement for fresh outdoor air ventilation requires ventilation for occupied spaces in
accordance with NZS 4303 Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality. This sets the rate at 0.35 air
changes per hour, which is equivalent to approximately one-third of all the air in the house being changed
every hour.
To determine the size of the ventilation system required, calculate the internal volume of the house or part
of the house that is required to be ventilated and multiply the volume by 0.35 to get the minimum volume
of air changes per hour.
For example:
 for a house with a floor area of 80 m2 and internal volume of 192 m3 – multiply 192 x 0.35 = 67.2 m3/h
 for a house with a floor area of 250 m2 and internal volume of 600 m3 – multiply 600 x 0.35 = 210 m3/h.
Ducting
Ducting must allow for airflow resistance. Select the largest size ducting possible as the larger the ducting
diameter, the better the airflow performance and the lower the airflow noise.
A typical duct size is 200 mm diameter, which should be used wherever possible, reducing to 150 or 100
mm diameter ducting to the ceiling vents or grilles if required.
For example:
 a 100 mm ceiling vent can supply sufficient fresh air to a room with an internal volume of 40 m3
 for a larger room, both exhaust and supply ceiling vents or grilles should be a minimum 150 mm diameter
–alternatively, two or more 100 mm diameter ceiling vents could be used.
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Ducting should:
 have internal surfaces that are as smooth as possible to minimise air flow resistance
 have the minimum number of bends possible
 where bends are unavoidable, have them as large diameter as possible
 have no tight bends as these can cause significant air flow resistance
 be insulated to reduce heat loss and duct noise
 have a condensate drain for the exhaust ducting to allow the removal of moisture created when
the heat is removed from the air.
Heat recovery ventilation is also an option for a single room. There are units that can be installed on an exterior
wall with no ducting required.
Supply and exhaust vents or grilles
Locate air supply and exhaust vents or grilles to maximise the performance of the system:
 Locate supply vents in living areas, e.g. living room, dining room, study and bedrooms.
 Locate exhaust vents where moisture is generated (kitchen and bathrooms) so that odours and moist
air are not drawn through the living areas before being vented.
 Another option is to locate supply vents on opposite sides of the house with an exhaust vent in the
hallway or a central location in the house so fresh, warmed air is delivered to the perimeter of the
house (e.g. living rooms and bedrooms) and flows through to a central exhaust vent.
 Locate indoor supply and exhaust vents some distance apart within rooms to maximise the fresh,
warm air circulation through the space.
 Locate outdoor air supply and exhaust air discharge vents far enough apart to ensure that exhaust air is
not drawn into the fresh air intake. If possible, locate them on opposite sides of the house.
Maintenance
The system should ideally be serviced annually. In addition, the homeowner should undertake the regular
maintenance requirements specified by the manufacturer, which may include:
 replacing air filters 6 or 12 monthly
 cleaning outside hoods and screens, typically 12  monthly
 cleaning the heat exchange unit either 12 or 24  monthly
 cleaning the condensate drain and pans to remove  mould, bacteria and fungi 12 monthly.
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6.4.7 Electrical design
Electrical design is subject to a range of statutory and regulatory requirements aimed at
ensuring performance and safety.
Power, communication and audiovisual requirements in buildings have changed rapidly in recent times and
are likely to continue to do so.
By trying to anticipate future demands and planning for future access to key areas, building energy
efficiency and sustainability can be ensured. Examples of planning include installing cableways, additional
conduits or draw wires to roof, wall and underfloor spaces during construction or renovation and specifying
trunking systems for solid construction to facilitate future changes.
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6.4.7.1 Statutory requirements
Clause VM/AS Clause relevance to electrical

design/installation
B2Durability B2/VM1 Cites evaluation of durability by taking into account:

• in-service history
• laboratory testing
• performance of similar materials.
B2/AS1 Specifies the durability requirements of building elements that have a

performance requirement under the Building Code based on the difficulty
to detect problems or access or replace them.
C Protection from C/AS1 Part 7: Prevention of fire occurring

fire
E2 External E2/AS1 To maintain weathertightness of roof and wall cladding systems: 9.1.9.3
moisture Pipes and service penetrations.
Refer also to individual cladding sections (9.2 to 9.9 incl.) for specific
requirements.
E3 Internal E3/AS1 Mechanical ventilation, if used, complying with G4Ventilation supply.

moisture Building Code does not specify minimum heating requirements except for
retirement homes and early childhood education centres.
F2Hazardous F2 Performance requirement F2.3.1 states: “concentrations of radiation shall

building materials not be in harmful concentrations”.
G2Laundering G2/AS1 1.1.2 Space provided for a washing machine shall have a cold water
supply, a discharge pipe, a water trap and an adjacent 10 amp power
outlet.
G5 Interior G5/AS1 Methods of providing the heating requirements for habitable spaces,
environment bathrooms and recreation rooms of retirement homes and early childhood
centres.
G6 Airborne and G6/AS1 Prevention of sound transfer through electrical wiring in or adjacent to
impact sound inter-tenancy walls or floors.
G8 Artificial light G8/AS1 To provide a minimum illuminance of 20 lux (lumens per m2 of floor
area) to enable safe movement.
G9Electricity G9/VM1 The following documents shall be accepted as a method of verifying

compliance with the relevant performances of NZBC G9: AS/NZS 3000,
NZECP 34, NZECP 36 and NZECP 54.
G9/AS1 Cites NZECP 51 as an acceptable solution for domestic dwellings.

Sets rules for switches for use by people with disabilities.
H1 Energy H1/AS1 Artificial lighting energy consumption in commercial, communal non-

efficiency residential buildings having a net lettable area greater than 300 m2 shall
comply with NZS 4243.2.
Section 3.3 or section 3.4 to satisfy the requirements of Building Code
H1.3.5.
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New Zealand and Australian standards
The current electrical standards include:
NZS 3019:2007 Electrical installations – Periodic verification
NZS 4512:2010 Fire detection and alarm systems in buildings
NZS 6110:2007 Electrical installations – floor and ceiling heating systems
AS/NZS 1102.106:1997 Graphical symbols for electrotechnical documentation – production and conversion
of electrical energy
AS/NZS 2201.1:2007 Intruder alarm systems – Client’s premises – Design, installation, commissioning and
maintenance
AS/NZS 1680.1:2006 Interior lighting – general principles and recommendations
AS/NZS 1768:2007 Lightning protection
AS/NZS 3000:2007 Electrical installations (known as the Australian/New Zealand Wiring Rules)
AS/NZS 3008.1.2:2010 Electrical installations – Selection of cables – Cables for alternating voltages up to
and including 0.6/1 kV – Typical New Zealand conditionsAS/NZS 3012:2010 Electrical installations –
construction and demolition sites
AS/NZS 3013:2005 Electrical installations – classification of fire and mechanical performance of wiring
system elements
AS/NZS 3017:2007 Electrical installations – verification guidelines
AS/NZS 3019:2007 Electrical installations – periodic verification
AS/NZS 3760:2010 In-service safety inspection and testing of electrical equipment
AS/NZS 4218:2004 Energy efficiency – small building envelope
AS/NZS 3010:2005 Electrical installations – generating sets
AS/NZS 4701:2000 Requirements for domestic electrical appliances and equipment for reconditioning or
parts recycling
AS/NZS 4777.2:2015 Grid connection of energy systems via inverters - Part 2: Inverter requirements
AS/NZS 4783.1:2001 Performance of electrical lighting equipment – ballasts for fluorescent lamps – method
of measurement to determine energy consumption and performance of ballasts lamp circuits
AS/NZS 5033:2014 Installation and safety requirements for photovoltaic (PV) arrays
AS/NZS 60598.1:2013 Luminaires – general requirements and tests
AS/NZS 60598.2.4:2005 Luminaires – Particular requirements - Portable general purpose luminaires
AS/NZS 60968:2001 Self-ballasted lamps for general lighting services – safety requirements
AS/NZS 60898.1:2004 Electrical accessories – circuit-breakers for overcurrent protection for household and
similar installations – circuit-breakers for a.c. operation
AS/NZS 60898.2:2004 Electrical accessories – circuit-breakers for overcurrent protection for household and
similar installations – circuit-breakers for a.c. and d.c. operation
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AS/NZS 61046:2001 Auxiliaries for lamps – d.c. or a.c. supplied electronic step-down convertors for filament
lamps – general and safety requirements
AS/NZS 61347.2.2:2007 Lamp controlgear – particular requirements for d.c. or a.c. supplied electronic step-
down convertors for filament lamps
AS/NZS 61347.2.3:2004 Lamp controlgear – particular requirements for a.c. supplied electronic ballasts for
fluorescent lamps
AS/NZS 61347.2.8:2003 Lamp controlgear – particular requirements for ballasts for fluorescent lamps
AS/NZS 61558:2000 Safety of power transformers, power supply units and similar – general requirements
and tests
AS/NZS CISPR 14.1:2003 Electromagnetic compatibility – Requirements for household appliances, electric
tools and similar apparatus – Emission
AS/NZS 4509.2:2010 Stand-alone power systems – System design
AS/NZS 4509.1:2009 Stand-alone power systems – Safety and installation
AS 60529:2004 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code)
New Zealand electrical codes of practice
NZECP 34:2001 Electrical safe distances
NZECP 35:1993 Power system earthing
NZECP 36:1993 Harmonic levels
NZECP 50:2004 Repair and maintenance of domestic electrical appliances by the owner of the appliance
NZECP 51:2004 Homeowner/occupier’s electrical wiring work in domestic Installations
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6.4.7.2 Electrical supply options
While most buildings will be connected to the mains electricity supply, off-grid
options may be suitable in some circumstances.
There are three options for electrical supply:
 Connection to the national electricity grid (mains or grid supply).
 Stand-alone generation (off-grid), which relies solely on generating power on site. Power
generated is stored in batteries.
 On-site generation with grid back-up (distributed generation or DG systems, sometimes called
on-grid). With a distributed generation system, the property owner, or groups of property
owners, generate their own power and also connect into the grid network. The generated power
is used on site, but if more power is generated than being used, the excess may be sold to the
grid through a different meter to the one measuring electricity coming in and the supplier is
given a credit for the power they have supplied.
Future supply changes
The uncertainty of supply may have an impact on design considerations regarding whether to opt for a grid
connection or to design a stand-alone energy system.
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6.4.7.2.1 Mains or grid supply
Where supply lines are nearby, mains or grid-connected power is generally the most
cost-effective option. In urban and many rural areas, supply is reliable and easily
connected.
On this page:
 grid-connection costs
 mains cable sizing
 mains cable installation
 cables
 mains supply to multiple households.
Grid-connection costs
Current grid-connection costs vary considerably depending on energy requirements and distance to
connection.
For example:
 a single-phase urban house with 20 metres of underground mains cable and connection to a pillar will
have a cost of approximately $1,000
 a rural lifestyle block connection with a supply transformer installed and 800 metres of three-phase
mains cable may cost over $50,000.
Reticulated power is generally installed as part of a development, but in some situations, the owner may be
required to contribute to transformer installation and lines upgrading. In these situations, the ownership tends
to remain with the lines company.
Mains cable sizing
Cable size depends on the maximum demand, the length and the current-carrying capacity of the cable, and
any supply requirement by the company for a pilot cable to control a hot water control relay. (This is
becoming less common as most supply companies use frequency-controlled or ripple relays.)
To size a mains cable for a domestic property:
 calculate the maximum demand of the house from AS/NZS 3000:2007 2.2.2.
 allow for possible future house and outbuilding loads.
 based on the maximum demand, select the size and type of cable in accordance with AS/NZS
3008.1.2:2010 Electrical installations – selection of cables.
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Mains cable installation
New houses are typically connected to the mains supply by an underground cable while older houses more
commonly have an aerial connection. Underground installation is preferred to reduce on-going maintenance,
and for safety and aesthetics. In some areas, the cost for long runs may necessitate an overhead cable.
The service connection cost can be minimised by using a common trench for all incoming services, which
may include water, gas, telecoms, sewerage, stormwater, gate power, camera and intercom, gate or
driveway lighting and landscape lighting. Minimum separation distances between services in the trench and
the minimum cover to cables are specified in AS/NZS 3000:2007, Table 3.7.
When a common trench is used, the installation of the electrical supply system may need to be coordinated
on site with a range of other trades.
Local or supply authority clearance, coverage and bedding requirements may differ from the standard in
some areas.
Common services trench
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Plan of typical services arrangement to a single dwelling
Cables
Cables may be copper or aluminium. Aluminium cables tend to be large diameter, so longer cable runs
are generally aluminium and shorter runs are copper.
Cables must be installed in accordance with one of the options given in AS/NZS 3000:2007 3.11:
 Mains cable for urban or suburban installations with cable runs up to 50 metres is often single-core
16 mm2 neutral screen or three-core 16 mm2 neutral screen.
 Mains cable for rural installations and cable runs up to 200 metres is 95 mm2 four-core aluminium
with high impact sheathing.
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Protection and separation requirements for power and telecommunications cables
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Cross-section of telecommunication lead-in installation
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Mains supply to multiple households
Multiple households, such as a retirement village or a small subdivision, may share a common mains cable.
The mains supply from the grid is metered at the point of entry to the group of properties, then each
household will have a check meter to measure individual power use. The advantage is there is only one
supply connection charge, shared amongst all households.
Schematic layout of a common power supply
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Wiring schematic for common power supply
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6.4.7.3 Internal electrical power services
Internal electrical power services include meter boxes and distribution boards, and methods
of surge and RCD protection and earthing.
On this page:
 Smoke alarms are compulsory in all new construction
 meter box
 distribution board
 surge protection
 residual current device (RCD) protection
 earthing
 labelling
 working on existing buildings.
There are also important considerations when working on existing buildings.
Meter box
Meter boxes (for mains supply only) can be metal, fibreglass or PVC-U. In coastal areas, PVC-U, fibreglass or
stainless steel are the best options.
Meter boxes that are open to inside, with a window to the outside for meter reading are becoming more
popular. These should be installed in a garage or utility area. Alternatively, locate the meter behind an
aluminium window that is able to be opened from the outside.
The meter box must be:
 adequately flashed around the opening in the cladding (see E2/AS1 Figure 69)
 located for easy access to read the meter
 located for easy digger access for mains cable excavation
 located centrally in the building for shorter internal cable runs
 located for a short mains cable route.
BRANZ recommends the meter box is located as far away as possible from sleeping areas, as AC power may
have an effect on the human body.
If added security to the power system is required, select a lockable meter box or install a lock. If lockable,
the box must have a window for meter reading.
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6.4.7.4.3 Wiring installation
Wiring requirements differ depending on the construction type and building element.
On this page:
 timber framing
 steel framing
 concrete and polystyrene block
 straw bale
 earth construction
 roof spaces
 skillion roofs
 concrete floors
 timber floors.
For all types of construction:
 Do not damage the insulation around the wires during installation.
 Install a conduit or sleeve in the concrete floor slab at the entry point for
underground supply cables.
 Install a sleeve for wiring that passes through polystyrene insulation.
Timber framing
 Ensure that holes are large enough for the size/number of cables being installed – if the hole is
too small, the insulation may be damaged as the cable is pulled through.
 Ensure that drilling and notching does not exceed the limits set by NZS 3604 for the framing
size and location. The key rules are set out in the standard at 7.1.7 (floor joists), 8.5.2
(trimming studs) and 8.7.5 (top and bottom plates).
Steel framing
 Holes are generally predrilled.
 Install wiring as for timber framing
 Install grommets in holes that cables are to be run through to protect cables from damage
(some framing has grommets preinstalled).
 Use self-drilling screws to attach flush boxes, distribution boards and meter boards.
 Ensure that framing is earthed.
BRANZ recommends that frames be temporarily earthed during installation for additional protection.
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Concrete and polystyrene block
 Plan wiring layout before construction commences so locations of all conduit, flush boxes, and so on have
been determined.
 Install PVC conduits in the walls before the concrete or grout is placed.
 Protect surface-mounted wiring by running in trunking.
 Install wooden blocks in polystyrene block construction to provide a solid fixing for wall-mounted fittings
such as lights, heated towel rails, heaters.
Straw bale
 Install PVC conduits through walls to flush boxes and wall light locations.
 Install a large conduit for mains access to the meter box.
 Specify the installation of wooden blocks with flush boxes screwed to them into the straw bale construction
to provide a solid fixing for wall-mounted fittings such as lights, heated towel rails, heaters, and so on.
Earth construction
 Install PVC conduit through walls to flush boxes and wall light locations.
 Install a large conduit for mains access to the meter box.
 Cut conduit channels with a chainsaw.
 Use flush boxes designed for use with concrete or concrete masonry.
 Install wooden blocks for flush boxes to provide solid fixing for wall-mounted fittings such as lights, heated
towel rails and heaters.
Roof spaces
 Keep major cableways away from the manhole access – any cables within 2 metres of the manhole cover
and where there is more than 600 mm access space must be clipped.
 Locate extra low voltage and communications cables at least 300 mm from power cable routes (further is
better).
 Do not install power cables over trusses, to avoid the likelihood of a roofing nail penetrating a cable.
 Clip all wiring to timber battens where the cable is laid at right angles to the main framing.
BRANZ recommends installing lights and power outlets in the roof space to provide power for installations such as
a ventilation system, a solar panel pump or for tradespeople to use when working in the roof space.
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Skillion roofs
Preplanning is essential, as the installation of additional cables is difficult once the ceilings are lined.
 Feed cables through holes in the centre of ceiling joists to minimise the likelihood of a roofing nail
penetrating a cable.
 Before installing downlights, check dimension of the roof space to ensure they fit.
 Specify IC and IC-F labelled downlights which can be covered with insulation.
Concrete floors
 Conduits that need to be located within the concrete slab generally use 25 mm conduit for power, phone,
data and TV.
 The mains cable duct from the meter box is typically 50 mm diameter with a swept bend to allow for the
main earth to be installed into it as well. (Note that, if the underground mains cable is long, it may be a
multi-core aluminium conductor requiring a 100 mm duct and swept bend).
 Locate telephone or cable connection conduits a minimum of 300 mm away from the power duct – generally
use 25–32 mm conduit.
Timber floors
 Run cable under the floor wherever possible, as this gives easier access.
 Sleeve all wiring that passes through polystyrene underfloor insulation (alternatively specify TPS
cable that is not affected by the polystyrene).
 Clip wires to framing.
BRANZ recommends installing lights and power outlets under the floor if access to the space is
needed for maintenance work.
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6.4.7.5 Internal and external extra low voltage services
Schematic drawing of cable layout for home network system
There are many proprietary communications distribution boards and systems on the market. Most have a
modular system for the addition of patch panels and power supplies and generally incorporate infrared (IR)
control for remote players.
Bus lighting and power control systems
A bus lighting and power control system allows control and monitoring of:
 switching and dimming of lights – most systems are capable of dimming both fluorescent
and incandescent loads
 split-system air conditioning units – most systems can support fan speed, mode and temperature
adjustment
 power points – some power points may have timed or remote dial-in control to perform a range
of control tasks
 hot water – the on/off switching and water temperature may be controlled remotely via phone
or internet
 pumps, motors and irrigation may be controlled remotely or via timed settings
 motorised blinds may be controlled remotely or via a daylight switch
 automatic gates – most systems are able to integrate the residential gateway controller
with the home automation and security system.
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Most systems include a network of input and output units, each with a microprocessor built into the control device.
Output units typically include a bypass feature to allow them to be manually over-ridden in the event of a device or
system failure. Systems typically have a number of infrared remote control devices to remotely control different
areas of the house.
Smart house wiring systems
‘Smart houses’ usually feature a monitored security system and an intelligent lighting control (such as scene
control, occupancy sensors for energy savings, and dimmer facilities) and may include a structured wiring
system for data, telephone and audio-visual distribution. They may also be connected to the internet to
enable control and monitoring, including access to video camera output from a web browser anywhere in the
world, of the home’s electrical and security systems.
Benefits of a fully integrated wiring system include enhanced security, automatic lighting control, energy
savings and automation of irrigation, curtains, heating and cooling.
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6.4.7.6 Additional on-site electrical demand
Rural properties (most typically the properties that utilise stand-alone or distributed
generation systems) generally have specific features that will increase the electrical load.
On this page:
 outbuildings
 sewage disposal systems
 water pumps
 small-scale irrigation systems
 fire sprinkler pumps
 landscape lighting
 automatic gates and security features.
Outbuildings
Outbuildings may include garage, shed, workshop, granny flat and sleepout. They typically require a
submain to be installed from the main meter box or the distribution board. If possible, use a common trench
for conduit and cabling to connect the main and the outbuilding. Maximum demand and possible future loads
should be calculated and the submain and cabling sized to suit the current and cable length.
Sewage disposal system
Most rural and lifestyle blocks require a pumped on-site wastewater disposal system. These will require a
power supply, typically a 2.5 mm2 two-core plus earth TPS. Some systems also include an alarm at the
house for a high tank level, loss of air or pump motor failure (some local authorities require an alarm),
requiring a 1.5 mm2two-core plus earth TPS cable. Cables may be run in the trench with the sewer pipes,
but the correct cover and separation from the sewer must be maintained.
Investigate the power consumption and the likely on-going maintenance costs before specifying a particular
model of sewage disposal system.
Water pump
Most rural properties require a power supply to operate a bore pump or a pumped rainwater system. The
trench for the water pipes may also have the power cables laid in it.
Fire sprinkler pump
Fire sprinkler systems generally require a pump, which may be the water pump if it is sized correctly.
However, the sprinkler system security can be increased by powering the pump directly from the meter box,
so if a fire starts inside the house, the pump power supply is not affected.
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Security and landscape lighting and power
Rural properties generally require security lighting and may include feature lighting. Utilise existing trenches
to install cables for landscape and security lighting and external power.
Security and landscape lighting considerations include:
 light pathways and stairs with discreet low-level lighting
 avoid glare and direct lights away from the main viewing points
 minimise light pollution and wasted light, e.g. when using uplighting, use glare controllers and suitable
reflectors to avoid excessive uplighting, which can affect birdlife and the view of the night sky
 locate control switches in convenient places, e.g. adjacent to an external door leading to the area to be lit
 specify cut-off luminaires and warm white light sources
 highlight entertainment areas and silhouette sculptural plants or forms
 light the background to give additional depth and distance to the night view.
Automatic gates, audio and video links and cameras
The installation of a security system often includes controlled gates, an intercom system and security
cameras. Where these are required, cabling can usually be included in the mains trench, so planning
for these should be carried out in the early stages of the design. If they are planned for a future
installation, the prewiring should be carried out during the initial installation.
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6.4.8 Renewable electricity generation
By far the most common renewable system for on-site electricity generation in New
Zealand is a photovoltaic grid-connected system.
Properties can generate their own electricity from renewable sources such as photovoltaics, wind, and hydro.
On this page:
 Buying electricity from renewable sources
 Generating electricity from renewable sources
 Key design decisions
 Property type
 Security of supply
Around 69% of New Zealand residential energy use is electricity and approximately 80% of electricity comes
from renewable sources, including hydro, geothermal and wind. Property owners who want to use renewable
energy sources have two options: buy from renewable energy sources, or generate their own energy using
renewable sources.
Buying energy from renewable sources
Homeowners can buy electricity from a carboNZero retailer, which means that an equivalent amount of
electricity to what they purchase is generated through renewable means. Where this is not possible, e.g. at
times when demand exceeds supply of renewable energy, emissions are offset through investment in
renewable energy projects.
Some companies generate more renewable electricity than others, and not all companies are both retailers
and generators – some retailers buy electricity from the national grid.
Generating energy from renewable sources
Remote area power systems can be used to meet the electricity needs of an individual property or group of
properties, by generating electricity close to where it will be used and using sustainable energy sources such
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as wind, sun and water. A renewable energy generation system involves a significant up-front capital outlay,
which will then be offset by the benefits of self-sufficiency in electricity generation.
Interest in renewable energy generation is growing in urban areas too, especially as photovoltaic systems
are rapidly falling in price, making them increasingly affordable.
Installed PV capacity as of December 2014 was 18.8 MW. The total generation from small solar PV panels in
2014 was estimated at 16 GWh, more than double the 2013 figure. This does not include off-grid
generation.
Homeowners who want to future-proof their new house should install the necessary electrical cabling from
their roof to their fuse box (or similar) at the time of construction, even if they don’t plan to install a PV
system. This saves money later on, as internal wall access is simplified and no remedial work is required.
Key design decisions
For renewable electricity generation, decisions include:
 which energy source or sources to use, e.g. photovoltaic, wind, micro-hydro or a combination of
all of these
 energy requirements, i.e. how much electricity is needed to meet peak and overall demand
 type of electricity storage and/or backup options to use
 stand-alone or distributed generation system.
Systems must be designed to take account of local conditions (rainfall, wind and town planning) and capacity to meet
demand (on-going and peak).
Cost-effectiveness and security of supply should be enhanced by also utilising other energy efficiency measures
such as:
 solar water heating
 using energy-efficient appliances
 passive solar space heating
 high levels of insulation
Property type
Wind and hydro systems are generally suitable only for larger rural sites or remote locations. Photovoltaics
and small-scale wind generation (if permitted) may be used in urban areas.
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Security of supply
An electricity supply must be available at all times, able to meet peak demand and cope with the irregular
supply of renewable of renewable energy sources. Batteries for storage of electricity are therefore an
integral part of the system.
Alternatively, a diesel generator or connection to the grid is required to ensure a continuous supply of
electricity.
More information
 www.energywise.govt.nz – generating renewable energy
 www.seanz.org.nz
 www.eeca.govt.nz – renewable energy
 www.eeca.govt.nz – bioenergy
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6.4.8.1 Stand-alone generation
A stand-alone power system is not connected to the grid power and relies solely on
generating power on site. Power generated is stored in batteries.
On this page:
 Components and power sources
 Costs
 Converting DC to AC power
wind turbine
photovoltaic cells
regulator
AC-DC inverter
micro-hydro
batteries
generator
Stand-alone system
Backup should be provided by batteries or a fossil fuel generator.
Find out:
 what stand-alone power generation systems are
 costs for stand-alone power generation
 about converting DC to AC power.
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Components and power sources
 power source(s)
 batteries
 inverter.
A back-up power source may also be included
Schematic of stand-alone domestic system
The power sources for stand-alone generation systems include:
 solar panels
 wind turbines
 micro-hydro
 micro-CHP (combined heat and power) units
 diesel or petrol generators
 a combination of any of the above.
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Costs for stand-alone power generation
Costs for grid connection and stand-alone systems vary considerably. Rural grid connections typically cost
tens of thousands of dollars – over $50,000 is not uncommon in some situations. Stand-alone systems
typically cost tens of thousands of dollars too, so the capital investment may be similar to a mains
connection. But with a stand-alone system the owner controls the system, and ongoing costs may be lower.
Converting DC to AC power
A stand-alone system typically generates power as direct current (DC) supply whereas most appliances
require an alternating current (AC) power supply.
DC power may be reticulated to lights and small DC-powered appliances as a means of providing a cost-
effective and energy-efficient supply to a small demand system (12 or 24 volts) such as to a remote hut,
caravan or house bus.
Most households require AC reticulation as AC is at a higher voltage and appliances are generally designed
to use AC current. An inverter converts the DC power generated and stored in the batteries to AC power
(normal grid power) for reticulation around the house.
More information
 www.energywise.govt.nz – stand alone power systems
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6.4.8.2 Distributed generation (DG)
With distributed electricity generation systems, property owners generate their own
electricity using a system that is also connected to the grid.
On this page:
 how a distributed generation (DG) system works
 requirements for a DG system
 considerations and limitations of DGs
 buy-back arrangements.
How a distributed generation system works
With distributed generation systems, the property owner or a group of property owners generate their own
power and also connect into the national grid network.
wind turbine
photovoltaic cells
regulator
AC-DC switchboard electricity power supply

grid connect meter from grid
inverter
micro-hydro
batteries
Grid-connected, distributed generation system
Security of supply is generally provided by connection to the local electricity network.
The on-site generation is provided by the same means as the stand-alone systems and include:
 solar panels
 wind turbines
 micro-hydro
 micro-CHP (combined heat and power) units
 diesel or petrol generators
 a combination of any of the above.
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Requirements for a DG system
The system will need to be installed by a registered electrician, and a certificate of compliance will be
required that covers the scope of the installation and confirms its compliance with AS/NZS 4777.2:2015 Grid
connection of energy systems via inverters – Part 2: Inverter requirements. The standard specifies minimum
performance and safety requirements for “the design, construction and operation of inverters intended for
use in inverter energy systems for the injection of electric power through an electrical installation into the
grid.” Lists of inverters that meet the requirements of AS/NZS 4777.2:2015 are available – some power
distribution companies have them on their websites.
In addition to meeting the specific requirements of AS/NZS 4777.2:2015 and those of the power distribution
company the system will be connected to, installations must comply with:
 The Electricity Industry Participation Code 2010 (‘the Code’), in particular Part 6, which covers
connection of distributed generation
 The Electricity (Safety) Regulations 2010
 AS/NZS 3000:2007 Electrical installations (the Australian/New Zealand Wiring Rules)
 The Resource Management Act 1991
 Any local government rules.
Some councils require building consent for PV systems while others don’t. The distributed generation
system must have a number of specific features, such as an isolating switch or circuit breaker that
the distribution company’s service teams can access to disconnect the DG system from the lines.
There will be separate meters for power being delivered to the property and power that the property
is exporting to the grid.
(A new joint standard, AS/NZS 4777.1 Grid connection of energy systems via inverters, Part 1: Installation
requirements, is currently being prepared. This is a revision of AS 4777.1.2005.)
Considerations and limitations
The mains wiring design and installation for self-generated systems is similar to a normal grid-supplied
installation but there are additional mains cable and main board design considerations, such as the inclusion
of two-pole lockable isolation.
A disadvantage of distributed generation systems is that the self-generated power supply stops if the
national grid fails as the self-generated system must disconnect from the grid so it does not cause lines
somewhere else from becoming live during a grid failure.
This situation can be overcome by incorporating a control system that activates the grid connection when
the mains power is available but provides power from a battery bank via the inverter when the grid fails.
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Schematic of a typical grid-tied system
Schematic of an alternative grid-tied system with grid cr meter and generator back-up
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Schematic of an alternative grid-tied system with grid credit meter but without generator back-up
Buy-back arrangements
A householder wanting to sell surplus electricity they generate will need agreements with both the power
distribution (lines) company and the electricity retailer they will be selling the power to. The requirements
around buy-back deals are slightly different for systems with capacity 10 kWh or less, and those that are
larger. The vast majority of residential installations will be in the smaller bracket (a 10 kWh system could
potentially power eight households).
Electricity retailers are not compelled by law to buy power from small suppliers, and they don’t have to
provide a fixed-term contract. There is no New Zealand standard or set of rules regulating the small-scale
buy-back of electricity. Each retailer sets its own buy-back policy.
Retailers quote their buy-back rates in cents/kWh, the same was as their electricity selling price. There
tends to be a slight variation in prices between companies, and there may be a difference between summer
and winter rates. Prices can change from time to time – one company’s paperwork gives it the right to
change the price with 30 days’ notice.
Ideally, renewably generated electricity should be used on site. This is due to the electricity retailers paying
considerably less for the excess electricity exported back to the grid than they charge for supplying.
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6.4.8.3 Photovoltaic (PV) systems
Photovoltaic systems (PV systems) absorb sunlight and convert it into electricity. They
can be used as part of a stand-alone power system in remote locations, or as a
supplement for mains supply.
On this page
 Configuration
 Capacity
 Maximising sunlight absorption
 Types of solar cell
 Efficiency
 Array frames
 Electrical connections
 Consents and permits
 Insurance
 Costs
 Warranties
Advantages of photovoltaic systems are that they:
 can provide a sizeable amount of electricity
 are quiet
 are non-polluting
 have low operating and maintenance costs
 contribute to reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
Disadvantages of photovoltaic systems are that they:
 have high initial capital costs
 electricity production is dependent on availability of sun
 electricity production may not match when household requires electricity requiring either batteries
to store electricity (especially if there is no grid connection and/or an agreement with your
electricity retailer to purchase surplus electricity from you).
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Configuration
A photovoltaic array is made up of solar PV panels that contain solar cells. The cells consist of layers of
semi-conductor material (typically silicon), generally sandwiched between glass and another robust material
and are sealed against moisture.
Solar radiation striking the cells cause electrons to move between the semi-conductor layers, creating an
electric current. Cells are connected to produce a voltage output from the panel.
Capacity
The electricity generation capacity of photovoltaic panels is measured in Watts peak (Wp), which is the
panel’s power output rating under standard test conditions.
Panels come in output capacity sizes ranging from 5–300 Wp and can be configured in any array size. An
array of panels with a 2,000 Wp rating may produce between 4 kWh and 10 kWh per day on sunny days
with good solar gain (New Zealand households use an average of 22 kWh of electricity per day). Residential
installations range from 500 W to 10 kWp with most between 1–5 kWp of output.
PV systems should ideally be considered for use in conjunction with other options, such as solid fuel heaters
for space heating.
Maximising sunlight absorption
The capacity of any given photovoltaic system is directly proportional to the amount of sunlight absorbed,
which depends on these factors:
• Solar irradiance – This is generally higher at more northern latitudes, in summer, in clearer air and when there
is less shading. Avoid shading – shade on even a single cell can disproportionately affect the power output of a
panel. Photovoltaic cells can still generate electricity in cloudy conditions, though at a lower output.
• Solar panel area – Approximately 1 kWp requires 5–17 m2 of solar panel, depending on type.
• Solar panel orientation – In New Zealand, the sun follows an arc to the North. Solar panels should, in general,
be oriented to the North. It may also be necessary to change the orientation because of shading, aesthetic
reasons, lack of available space or poor building orientation. Facing the panels away from true North will result
in a drop-off in performance. To assess the significance of this reduction, check here.
• Solar panel tilt angle – The tilt angle is the angle of the solar panels to the ground. For a grid-connected
system that aims to generate the maximum amount of energy on an annual basis, the tilt angle should be at
the local latitude minus 10º. Off-grid systems are usually designed to maximise output in winter when power
need is greatest, so tilt angle should be local latitude plus 10º. Some systems allow the tilt angle to be
adjusted maximise efficiency throughout the year. Where the PV array is oriented away from North, a lower
tilt angle may be more effective and this will extend the time the panels receive sunlight.
The NIWA webtool solarview provides a convenient way to examine the available solar resource. This webtool
can produce a skymap for locations around New Zealand, providing estimates of the solar energy available for
different times of the year as well as direction and tilt.

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angle of latitude
+10° in winter
angle of photo voltaic

panel for off-grid photo voltaic
panel
system
North
photo voltaic
angle of photo voltaic
panel should
panel for grid-
face due north
connected system
Ideal angles for photo voltaic panel in

Pla New Zealand
Latitu Summer Winter
ce
Whang de
35° angle26 angle
51
arei
Auckla 45’
36° °
27 °
52
nd
Wellingt 50’
41° °
31 °
56
on
Christchu 15’
42° °
32 °
57
rch
Dune 30’
45° °
36 °
61
din
Invercar 50’
46° °
36 °
61
gill 30’ ° °
Tilt angle
The tilt angle is the angle of the photovoltaic panels to the ground. The ideal angle will be different
in summer and winter, and depends particularly on how the system is used.
Types of Solar cell
There are two common types of solar cell panel:
 Crystalline silicon solar cells have a solid silicon wafer as the semi-conductor. The cells are sandwiched
between tempered glass and a backing of tough ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA). These cells are protected from
moisture. They need to remain cool as their output efficiency can drop by about 0.5% for every degree
Celsius above a standard test temperature of 25ºC. They typically incorporate a gap of approximately 100
mm behind the panels to allow for cooling.
 Amorphous silicon thin film solar cells have silicon in a thin film as the semi-conductor. The silicon thin film
is deposited on a low-cost substrate such as glass or a thin metal foil. The coating on top may be a flexible
material (as opposed to glass), and they may use a flexible mounting system. This type of cell is generally
cheaper. They are being developed for integration with materials so they can be part of the building fabric.
Efficiency
From a consumer’s point of view, the efficiency of a PV panel merely reflects the size of the panel required
for a particular output. (A system with high efficiency panels will require less roof area for the same power
output.) The average efficiency of a well-located photovoltaic panel ranges from 5–18%. Efficiency varies
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depending on the type of cell used: multi and mono crystalline cells are generally between 12–18%
efficient; amorphous silicon and thin film PV are around 5–9% efficient.
Using 15% efficient panels, 6.6 m2 of solar panel produces approximately 1 kW of power under standard
conditions.
Array frames
Array frames allow the solar panels to be tilted to the optimum angle for receiving solar energy. They can
be:
 fixed (permanently oriented in one direction, frequently at the roof angle)
 adjustable (so the orientation can be changed to suit the time of year)
 tracking (which move to follow the sun).
Tracking array frames are normally controlled by an electric motor or a refrigerant gas. They are designed to provide
more electrical power output throughout every day of the year (there may be some power used to provide the
tracking, but this will normally be less than the additional power output obtained). However, they work better in dry
desert climates than in New Zealand’s wetter and cloudier climates. They are more expensive than the alternatives,
require more maintenance and may be less reliable. Therefore, it is almost always more economical to use more
array frames to increase power output than to employ tracking frames.
The array frame must be installed to ensure it:
 meets wind and seismic loading requirements
 is isolated to prevent electrochemical corrosion with different metals in the solar panels or the building
fabric - New Zealand metal roof manufacturers specify a 100 mm gap so that panel installations allow
for roof washing and do not void roof warranties
 allows adequate airflow behind the panels to provide cooling – approximately a 100 mm gap for crystalline
silicon panels.
Electricial connections
The output of a PV panel is DC electricity. DC electricity needs to be converted to AC electricity before it can
be used within the house or sent back into the electricity grid. DC electricity is converted into AC electricity
by a device known as an inverter. An inverter used in PV systems also include additional control functions as
well.
The wiring between the PV array and the inverter needs to be isolated from other household wiring and
needs to be in its own trunking.
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Consents and permits
Building or resource consents are generally not required for photovoltaic systems.The property owner will
need to apply to the local lines company to allow the solar PV system to be connected to the grid.
In the case of grid-connected systems, in order to receive money for the surplus generation, an agreement
needs to be reached with the electricity retailer. Systems must meet the requirements of AS/NZS
4777.2:2015 Grid connection of energy systems via inverters – Part 2: Inverter requirements and AS/NZS
5033:2012Installation and safety requirements of Photovoltaic (PV) arrays.
Stand-alone power systems must meet the requirements of AS/NZS 4509 and battery installations must
meet AS 4086 as well as NZS 4219.
The design and installation of the system should be carried out by skilled tradespeople to ensure safety and
energy-efficient outcomes, and work must meet the requirements of AS/NZS 3000:2007 Wiring rules.
Insurance
Insurance coverage is as for all other electrical equipment, although the building owner may want to check
the limits of coverage with their insurer.
Costs
In 2004, the costs of photovoltaic systems were up to NZ$17 per watt installed, which meant that fitting a 2
kWp system cost almost $40,000. By 2013 costs had fallen significantly making a 3 kWh system cost about
$10,000 (incl GST) installed. (This will produce around 3,562 kWh per annum in Auckland, around half the
power used by an average mid sized New Zealand household.)
Those costs will include cabling, metering apparatus, mountings and frame for panels, and any consents
required.
Another way of looking at the cost issue is this: On a 25 year system life, electricity from PV (grid
connected) can be about one third less than the cost of electricity purchased from the grid.
In remote locations, the cost of connection to the electricity distribution grid (which can be between $20,000
and $25,000 per kilometre) makes photovoltaic systems more immediately economic.
Warranties
System warranties are likely to be for 5 years, including a workmanship warranty on the panels plus a 25-
year limited warranty of power supply, and a 5–10-year warranty on the inverter.
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6.4.8.4 Wind turbine systems
Wind turbine systems provide a source of renewable energy. They are most suited to
windy rural locations.
Find out about:
 wind generator system configuration
 wind generator system capacity
 wind speed and power
 cut-out controls
 factors affecting generation capacity
 wind generator system installation
 electricity supply connection
 wind generator pollution.
Under optimal conditions, the efficiency of a wind generator in converting energy to electricity is about 45%,
although New Zealand research shows efficiency of 10–40% is more common in day-to-day operation.
Studies have found that average wind speeds in a particular location need to exceed at least 6–8 metres per
second (m/s) for a small wind turbine to be economically viable.
When considering costs and economic viability, be aware that additional costs – consent costs, freight, the
concrete foundations, wiring – can be the equivalent of 30–80 percent of the cost of the turbine itself.
They are more suitable in remote locations as they can produce noise and may be regarded as unsightly.
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Wind generator system configuration
gearing and generator
tail fin turns generator

to face the wind
blades
Typical wind turbine for electricity generation
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Wind turbine components
generator
mast
stays
winch so that generator can

be lowered for servicing
guy attachment to foundation
pivot support
A wind turbine includes:
 turbine blades – propellers with two, three or five blades mounted on the horizontal shaft (this gives higher
output than when they are mounted on the vertical shaft) and made of a lightweight material such as
carbon fibre, fibreglass or wood, that is strong enough to resist wind forces.
 a tail section – generally a fin that rotates the body of the wind generator to turn the turbine into the
direction of the wind, with the fin directly downwind
 an alternator – AC electricity is generated by rotor windings connected to the shaft from the turbine
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A wind turbine includes:
 a rectifier – converts AC to DC for electricity that is being sent to a battery storage system (the rectifier may
be located in the alternator or in a separate control box away from the tower)
 electricity cables – transfer the electricity from the generator to the electricity supply or battery storage
system
 slip rings – stop the cables twisting as they will otherwise twist within the tower as the turbine body rotates
 electric element – power is always produced when the turbine spins, so if the power is excess to storage
capacity, it must be redirected to a dummy load (generally an electric element that gets very hot) or sold (if
permitted under the district plan) to an electricity retailer
 tower – the structure (usually steel, concrete or wood) that holds the turbine high in the air, and allows the
turbine assembly on top to rotate into the wind – for residential applications, it is typically a mast pole with
guy wires
 guy wires – hold the mast pole in operating position
 gin pole and winch – allow the turbine to be lowered for maintenance
 concrete foundation – a 2–3 kW turbine on a 10–15 m tower will typically require a 3–5 m3 reinforced
concrete foundation.
Wind generator system capacity
Typical domestic wind generators have a capacity between 0.2–5 kW, but farms or small groups of houses
may install turbines with 10–20 kW output. The turbines’ actual energy output is typically about 25% to
30% of its rated theoretical maximum output. The output of a wind generator will normally be rated at a
specified wind speed, and the rated wind speed may vary between systems and manufacturers.
The electricity generation capacity of wind generator systems is directly proportional to the amount of
usable wind, which is itself a function of wind speed and cleanliness.
Wind speed and power
The wind power density is the number of watts of electrical energy produced per square metre of air space
(W/m²). This value is normally given at 10 m or 50 m above the ground.
In general, the available wind generation capacity is determined by the average wind speed over the year
for each location. Around New Zealand, the average wind speed is typically greater in regions:
 along the coasts between the North and South Islands
 in the mountain ranges and immediately east of them
 towards the tops of ridges or the heads of valleys.
With large turbines, increases in wind speed lead to considerably larger increases in energy
output – when the wind speed doubles, the energy produced can increase up to eight times.
However, New Zealand studies
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with small domestic turbines have found the increase is usually more linear – when wind speed doubles, the
energy produced doubles.
Wind speed fluctuates, which has an impact on wind electricity generation capacity and operating
characteristics. In general, wind speeds are as follows:
 8 kph (2 m/s) minimum is required to start rotating most small wind turbines.
 12.6 kph (3.5 m/s) is the typical cut-in speed, when a small turbine starts generating power.
 36–54 kph (10–15 m/s) produces maximum generation power.
 At 90 kph (25 m/s) maximum, the turbine is stopped or braked (cut-out speed).
The wind power at a site can be obtained by a measurement device mounted on a pole at the height of the future
wind generator. Collecting data for a whole year is not generally viable, so a couple of months of data can be taken
and compared with data from a local weather station and then extrapolated for the year.
Devices include:
 an anemometer – giving average daily wind speed
 a wind totaliser – giving instantaneous wind speed and total wind over an extended period.
Cut-out controls
Cut-out control options are available that:
 apply a brake to stop the turbine completely and feather the blades (reduce their angle to the wind) to turn
it to face away from the wind
 tilt back or lie down the turbine (this is known as ‘tilt-up governing’)
 steer the turbine out of the wind through aerodynamics and gravity (this is known as ‘autofurl’)
 govern the rotational speed with an air brake to produce constant power
 feather the blades (reduce their angle to the wind) to reduce turbine speed.
Factors affecting generation capacity
A system’s generation capacity depends on its effectiveness at converting wind pressure into turbine rotary
inertia – data should be available from the system supplier.
This increases with:
 larger turbine diameter – there is more turbine blade area for the wind to impact on and also greater risk of
intrusive noise
 appropriate blade profile for the local wind speed – this varies depending on average wind speed and also on
whether the wind is constant or comes in short periods of high velocity
 lower friction losses in the turbine shaft assembly.
Generation capacity will decrease if the turbine is located:
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 lower to the ground – wind speed increases with height above the ground, with a minimum of 10 metres
recommended
 within the turbulent airspace downwind of an obstacle (for example, trees, hills, buildings, structures) –
downwind turbulence will extend to twice the obstacle height for a distance around 20 times the obstacle
height
 a distance from an upwind obstacle of more than 10 times an obstacles height.
poor site preferred site
prevailing wind
2H region of highly
disturbed air flow
obstruction
H. Height of
obstruction
20H
Siting of a wind turbine
Wind turbines work best when a turbulence-free airflow is available to power the turbine blades.
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Wind generator system installation
A wind generator system:
 will require a building consent and a resource consent
 should be installed within 100 m of the electricity supply or storage system, to reduce line losses
 must withstand the wind and seismic loads
 usually has a concrete footing for the tower (and each guy wire)
 must have vibrations in the tower (from turbine rotating forces) dampened if it is connected to a building
 must have protection from large animals at ground level – they like scratching themselves on
the tower and guy wires
 should have lightning arresters to protect electronic components from lightning strikes
 needs sufficient area to lower and raise the tower for maintenance and repairs.
Meeting electricity demand

Electrical power from the wind generator system may be available at all times of the day, but the output
levels will vary according to wind speed. Excess output, generated as AC, is converted to DC by a rectifier
for storage in batteries. This will allow for peak demand that is greater than the generator capacity.
Very small turbines are unlikely to meet total household demand for energy. Using a solid fuel burner for
space heating and solar panels for water heating will help reduce demand for electricity, but for systems
that are not grid-connected, a diesel generator may still be required sometimes.
Wind generator pollution
Wind generators can produce noise and vibration and have a significant visual impact. Noise can be from the
turbine blades, gearbox (if used) and brush gear, as well as from wind moving past the tower and guy
wires. Noise and the visual impact may be an issue with neighbours, and vibration may be a problem
particularly if a turbine is located on a roof.
These factors should influence decisions about the wind generator location, size and height.
More information
 www.smarterhomes.org.nz – wind power
 www.windenergy.org.nz
 www.nzwindfarms.co.nz – Wind Energy (PDF)
 www.niwa.co.nz – wind and wind energy
 www.energywise.govt.nz – small wind turbines
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6.4.8.5 Micro-hydro systems
Micro-hydro systems use flowing water to turn a water turbine that generates electricity
in an alternator.
On this page:
 Micro-hydro system configuration
 Types of turbine
 Penstocks
 Static head
 Dynamic head
 Water flow rate
 Installation
 Electricity supply connection
 Environmental impact
Few houses have micro-hydro as an option: typically, only those on or near hills that have access to a stream
that never dries up. However, because power can be produced 24 hours a day 7 days a week, hydro may be
a better option for these houses than wind or photovoltaic generation.
Micro-hydro system configuration
water store and intake

governer and controls
pipeline
isolating valve
supply to household
loads
used water returned to stream
shunt loads
micro hydro generator
Typical micro-hydro electricity generation system
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A micro-hydro system typically includes:
 a water source – a continuous flow of water such as a creek, stream, waterfall, small dam or spring-fed
dam, with a drop in level, and that can be wholly or partially redirected through a micro-hydro system
 a turbine – turned by water acting on the blades of a runner or wheel
 a water intake or forebay – a catchment area that directs water into the turbine inlet pipe, while allowing
sediment to settle and maintaining the water pressure head – examples of intakes include a dam, weir, bin,
box or channel race from a stream
 a filter – mesh to catch leaves, sticks, stones and debris and stop them entering the water intake pipe,
where they may otherwise block the pipe, reduce water pressure, cause rapid pressure fluctuations, or
damage the turbine
 water inlet pipeline or penstock – the pipe transferring water from the water intake pipe to the turbine,
which should be fully submerged at the inlet
 water outlet pipeline or tailrace or draft pipe – the pipe discharging water from the turbine back to the
stream or creek – note that a water outlet pipeline may not be required with an impulse turbine as it
generally sprays out water
 alternator – alternating current is generated by rotor windings connected to the shaft from the turbine
turning inside the stator windings of the alternator body
 rectifier – converts AC to DC for electricity that is being sent to a battery storage system – the generator
initially produces AC, but is called a DC generator if the output electricity is immediately sent through the
rectifier
 electricity cables –transfer the electricity from the generator to the electricity supply or storage system
 a spill way or bypass – for excess water to be able to flow past the system or allow the system to be shut
down.
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Types of turbine
The two main types of micro-hydro turbine are
 impulse turbines
 reaction turbines.
The system may also include an inverter to allow connection to the grid.
electricity generator
nozzle
Pelton wheel
nozzle
water supply
used water
An impulse turbine
Typical impulse turbines operate when a jet of water is directed at cups mounted around the edge
of a wheel. These turbines are sometimes called Pelton wheels after their inventor. They run in an
open (i.e. not sealed) unit, and with an open-air connection to the water inlet pipe. An impulse
turbine may or may not have a connection to a water outlet pipe. This type of turbine needs
protection from water flooding. They are typically installed in higher water head applications, of
up to 10 metres water pressure head, and are more common than reaction turbines for domestic
applications.
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water flow
turbine
water outlet
A reaction turbine
Reaction turbines have runners as their turbine blade unit. They are fully immersed in the water
flow, and have a sealed case around the runner blade unit and a closed connection to the water
inlet and water outlet pipes. They are typically installed in low water head applications.
Penstocks
The penstock inlet should be located as low as possible in the water so that it remains submerged when
water levels are low. However, if it is too low, it may get blocked by sediment building up in front of it. An
air vent may be required near the intake to prevent damage if the intake blocks and a vacuum is created.
Penstocks must slope downwards or an air lock may form, affecting performance.
A penstock should include a shut-off valve to stop water flow during maintenance of the turbine. They must
be strong enough to resist the design water pressures and be protected from rapid starting and stopping of
the water flow. They must also be protected from impact damage and exposure to the sun by being buried
or enclosed in a box structure.
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Static head
The static head (or gross head) is the vertical distance between the water level at the intake and the
discharge point. Both these levels are where the water has contact with air. The water discharge level for an
impulse turbine is where the water leaves the inlet pipe and enters the turbine. For a reaction turbine, the
discharge level is where the water is discharged from the outlet pipe.
The static head increases as the water level at the intake increases. Minimum static head is where the water
level aligns with the top of the inlet pipe – keeping in mind the inlet pipe entry needs to remain submerged.
water storage
gross head to turbine

(impulse system)
pipeline or penstock
turbine
draft pipe
gross head to tail water tail water level

level (reaction system)
Micro-hydro static head
The static head (or gross head) is the vertical distance between the water level at the intake and
the point at which the water is discharged.
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Dynamic head
The dynamic head (in metres) is the static head (or gross head) less the losses in the pipework. The losses
are summed and converted to a pressure head value in metres. The dynamic head is therefore the actual
amount of water pressure head available to generate electricity.
Friction losses should be minimised by:
 short pipe lengths
 large pipe diameters
 few pipe bends
 high-radius pipe bends
 steep gradient.
Friction losses will also occur when the intake gets blocked.
Water flow rate
The water flow rate (in litres per second) is the amount of water moving through a pipe in a specific period
of time. As the water flow rate increases, the turbine spins faster and more electricity is generated.
The main water flow will typically vary during the year and between years and may be dependent on:
 seasonal rainfall
 snow and ice melt in the mountains
 cycles of flooding or drought
 blockages higher up the water source.
Micro-hydro generators work best where there is reasonably continuous water supply, giving a reasonably
constant static head. It is important to determine what the average year-round water level is at the intake,
as this will be used for the static head to determine the year-round power output.
Any intake water storage system (e.g. dam, bin) with a reasonably constant water flow into it will maintain a
consistent or equilibrium water level. When storage water levels are:
 higher, the generator flow rate increases until the level drops
 lower, the generator flow rate decreases until the level rises.
This equilibrium water level will be the design static head for the system. However, it can be difficult to determine
initially as it is related to the water flow rate through the generator and in the main water source. The water flow
rate at a site is not simple to measure and may require the temporary installation of a weir. The water flow rate
through the generator can be determined by iterative design techniques for different water heads.
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Calculating potential generation from micro-hydro
The amount of electricity that can be generated depends on the water flow, the change in height between
inlet and outlet (the head), and the efficiency of the system.
For example, if a 20 litre container takes 1 second to fill, the flow is 20 L/s.
Variations in efficiency must be considered – units can have an efficiency of 30–70%; for this calculation,
50% will be assumed.
Finally, the effect of gravity is taken into account, using a gravity constant of 9.8 m/s2.
A rough calculation is:
Flow (L/s) x head (m) x efficiency (%) x gravity constant (9.8 m/s2) = power (W).
typical example: 20 L/s x 15 m x 0.5 x 9.8 m/s2 = 1.47 kW
The same power generation can potentially be achieved with a low head and high water flow rate (gently
sloping terrain with a large water catchment) or a high head and low water flow rate (steeper terrain with
less water catchment area).
Micro-hydro units generating 5kW or more are available, but for a single household, units of 1–1.2 kW are
more common.
If there is seasonal variation in water flow, this can also be factored in to work out potential energy output
over a year. The power output calculated above is multiplied by the number of hours in a year (8,760 h) and
a capacity factor (a percentage by which usage is reduced) – in this case, 50%.
The energy calculation is:
1.47 kW x 8,760 h x 0.5 = 6,438 kWh.
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Installation
The micro-hydro system:
 will require a building consent and a resource consent
 should be installed as close as possible to the electricity supply or storage system, to reduce line power
losses
 must withstand the water loads
 must have protection from impact, particularly for the less solid pipework
 generally requires little maintenance as it has few moving parts – the main issue is normally having to
replace the alternator brushes and flushing the turbine
 may need regular cleaning of the filter, depending on the amount of debris in the water supply
 must incorporate a means of restricting the natural outward flow of water to build up reserve capacity
 must incorporate a bypass overflow in case of flooding of the reservoir.
Electricity supply connection
Electrical power from the micro-hydro generator system can be available continuously at consistent output
levels. The output AC may be:
 transferred as AC to the building for immediate use, via a controller that gives a 240V AC at 50 Hz power
supply, or
 converted by a rectifier to DC for storage in batteries.
The choice between AC supply and DC storage is dependent on the reliability of electrical generation and the
capacity of the generator to meet peak demand.
Options include:
 output all the AC directly to the building, where electrical generation is continuously guaranteed and
generator capacity is greater than peak demand
 output some of the AC directly to the building, with the rest converted to DC storage, where peak demand
is occasionally a little higher than generator capacity or there is occasional reduced electrical generation
 convert all of the AC to DC storage, where electrical generation is inconsistent, or peak demand greatly
exceeds generator capacity.
Micro-hydro schemes work most effectively where a home is energy-efficient, and where other options reduce electricity
demand, such as using solid fuel heaters for space heating and solar or wet-back units for water heating.
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Environmental impact
Micro-hydro generator systems have an impact on the water course. They may potentially affect:
 plant and fish life in the water
 plant and animal life beside the water
 other users of the water further down stream
 the stability of the surrounding land through the excavation for a reservoir if there is one.
There are many design possibilities that can be chosen to reduce environmental impact. For example, if a weir
or dam is required, a fish ladder can be included so that fish that migrate up-river are able to pass the weir.
filter
power line to house
water reserve
overflow
pipeline
used water fl ows back to stream micro hydro generating

equipment
Water diversion for micro-hydro system
Even small dams can have a significant impact both downstream and upstream as they are a break-
point in the water system. It is therefore more usual, and more acceptable to the consenting
authorities, to temporarily divert a portion of the main water flow into the micro-hydro generator.
The water is returned downstream, and there is no block in movement up or down stream.  In
general, the amount of water used for the micro-hydro system should be no more than 50% of the
minimum seasonal flow rate of the water source.
More information
 www.energywise.govt.nz – small-scale hydro generation
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6.4.8.6 Micro-combined heat and power (micro-CHP) systems
Micro-combined heat and power (micro-CHP) units are small power generators, similar to
a boiler, that generate electricity and produce waste heat that may be used to produce
hot water.
The hot water produced by micro-CHP units may be used for:
 domestic hot water supply
 reticulated hot water heating such as hydronic embedded floor heating or radiator systems.
Micro-CHP units typically use gas as their fuel, and have a far higher level of efficiency than gas-fired power
stations. Models produced for houses are about the size of a dishwasher. They can produce 7.5–14 kW of water
heating energy and 1 kW of electricity.
The best location for the unit is in a garage or basement against an outside wall and as close to the hot water
cylinder as possible.
Schematic fuel efficiency diagram for a micro-CHP unit
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Schematic of wiring for micro-CHP unit
Schematic of a hot water supply and hot water heating system using a micro-CHP unit
More information
 www.microchap.info  microchp.msstate.edu 459

6.4.8.7 Additional components
Stand-alone power supply sstems ̀ ill ̀ most likely need batteries and ma ̀ also need
components such as inverters, rectifiers and controllers.
There are two types of electric current: alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). Household grid
supply in New Zealand is AC, and therefore most household appliances work on AC electricity. Micro-hydro
and micro-wind systems produce AC electricity. However, photovoltaic cells produce DC electricity, and
battery banks that store electricity from small generating units also work on DC.Three main types of
additional components are used in small-scale renewable electricity generation:
 Inverters convert DC electricity (from photovoltaic cells or batteries) to AC electricity for
household use or sale to an electricity company
 Rectifiers with micro-hydro or micro-wind schemes convert some or all of the AC power to DC
so it can be stored in batteries
 Controllers take AC electricity and control it so the power is delivered at the required
240 volts 50 Hz. Inverters and controllers can be combined in a single unit.
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6.4.8.7.1 Batteries
Battery banks help ensure reliability of power supply for stand-alone renewable electricity
generation systems, especially wind or photovoltaic systems which can have periods of
low generation.
On this page:
 Battery storage systems
 Charging batteries
 Battery options
 Maintenance and disposal
Battery storage systems
Battery storage systems require:
 batteries
 a connection to DC electrical cables for input and output
 a regulator or controller on the input side to ensure the batteries are not overcharged
 an associated dummy load for redirecting excess power if the batteries are fully charged
(this is usually an electrical element which can get very hot)
 an inverter.
The battery storage capacity should be able to maintain a charge of at least 50%. Rechargeable, deep cycle
batteries, which are designed to be discharged to 50% or less without damage, will provide the optimum
battery life. A battery bank will usually cost over $10,000. Batteries require replacement every 5–12 years,
depending on the type and how they are used.
Charging batteries
When charging batteries, the process requires:
 manual or automatic monitoring of charge level
 protection against overcharging
 supplementary charging when battery charge is low or load is high, e.g. a generator starts
automatically
 charge equalisation – often done by a diesel generator
 consideration of the average daily depth of discharge (DOD) – it is lower with a larger capacity
battery bank, which gives longer battery life.
A supplementary battery charger may be required.
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Battery options
Most renewable energy system storage batteries are:
 composed of a number of cells
 supplied as any of 12 V, 24 V, 48 V or 120 V
 built as a block of many individual 2 V cells – though occasionally from mono-blocks of 6 V or 12 V batteries.
Lead acid batteries are most commonly used in renewable electricity systems. They are wet batteries, containing
sulphuric acid and can be valve-regulated (sealed or gel) batteries. These are very different from car or truck
batteries.
Nickel-cadmium batteries are less common and much more expensive, but last longer.
 The battery room storage for the batteries must be well ventilated to the outside (using either passive or
mechanical ventilation) because batteries contain a flammable and corrosive mixture of oxygen and
hydrogen during the last stage of charging. The amount of ventilation needed depends on the size of the
battery pack.
 Do not locate electronic components above the batteries as they can corrode or cause an explosion.
 Mount batteries on stands or on thermal insulation if they are floor-mounted – they can react to cold
surfaces such as cold floors, causing the electrolytes to stratify, which can reduce battery life and
performance.
 Batteries must be able to be readily disconnected for maintenance, repair or replacement by including an
isolating switch or fuse between the batteries and the electrical system.
 Locate batteries out of direct sunlight as sunlight can buckle the electrodes.
 Specify drip trays to capture any spilled acid.
 Provide space above the batteries for a hydrometer to check their charge levels.
 Install a cover or shroud over the batteries to prevent accidental shorting.
 Provide an adjacent space to store water and sodium bicarbonate in the event of an acid spill.
Maintenance and disposal
 Maintain battery life and performance by keeping the terminals clean and tight.
 Ensure the electrolyte is above minimum levels using only distilled water.
 Protect against acid burns (for wet lead-acid batteries) by wearing protective clothing and eye protection
 Dilute spilt acid with water and neutralise with sodium bicarbonate.
Disposal of batteries should be at recycling stations, not in landfills (because they contain lead and acid).
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6.4.8.7.2 Inverters
An inverter converts DC electricity to AC electricity and is required where electricity is a DC
current such as from photovoltaic generation or where electricity has been stored in
batteries, to convert the DC into AC.
On this page:
 Requirements for provision of AC or DC power
 Inverter types
 Installation
The inverter can supply AC current at any voltage or frequency by transformers, switches and control circuits.
Requirements for provision of AC or DC power
Electricity supply to buildings must be provided as:
 AC at 240 V and 50 Hz for single-phase power – for most household applications and wiring circuits
 AC at 415 V and 50 Hz for three-phase power – for permanently wired and heavy load systems
 DC if there are appliances with a DC supply.
There are losses each time power is converted from AC to DC and vice versa.
Inverter types
Several options are available:
 True sine wave inverters produce voltage equal to or better than the grid supply. They may
incorporate a battery charger, which allows a generator or CHP unit to be used to charge up the
batteries when natural charging conditions are poor.
 Modified sine wave inverters are less complicated but they may not successfully run some
appliances, and they may produce a hum.
 Grid-connected inverters allow for a connection to the grid, they may incorporate a battery charger
and they can provide back-up power if the grid power fails.
 AC coupled inverters are designed for use for a micro-grid, i.e. a property with several houses or a
remote rural settlement with no national grid connection.
Some inverters can be programmed to start a generator if the battery voltage gets too low or household
power demand goes above a pre-set level.
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Installation
Inverters should:
 be mounted above the floor and on a wall or shelf
 have ventilation or cooled air flow
 be protected from sunlight
 be easy to access for emergency operation
 have a switch or fuse to isolate the inverter from the electrical systems
 be in close proximity to the batteries.
They must also be:
 protected from dust
 protected from overheating
 electrically isolated in case of an emergency
 protected from damage by lightning
 connected to the batteries with large cables, as there may be substantial current flows, voltage drops and
heat dissipation.
The system will need to be installed by a registered electrician, and a certificate of compliance will be required
that covers the scope of the installation and confirms its compliance with AS/NZS 4777.2:2015 Grid connection
of energy systems via inverters – Part 2: Inverter requirements.
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6.4.8.8 Back-up power generation
Back-up power, typically in the form of a generator, is included in most systems to
top-up battery storage or meet electricity requirements during periods of low
generation, maintenance, or very high energy demand.
On this page:
 Generators
 UPS (uninterruptable power supply) systems
Generators
Generators are often used as back-up power supply. They are commonly installed with photovoltaic and
wind systems, but not necessarily with micro-hydro systems. Back-up generators give out heat and exhaust
gases, may be noisy and need maintenance. Many run on non-renewable fossil fuels, although ones that run
on biodiesel or a biodiesel blend are available.
When installing a generator, considerations include:
 fuel type (diesel, petrol, biodiesel or a biodiesel blend) and storage
 whether to have manual or automatic operation
 sound-proofing of the enclosure to mitigate operating noise
 providing protection from the weather
 separation provision from the batteries and inverters
 an effective exhaust and silencer system
 good access for maintenance.
A 3–5 kW (or 6–10 kW for higher demand situations) inverter-type petrol generator will suit a household back-
up power requirement. As the frequency is generated by the inverter, only load varies the RPM, so it is quieter,
relatively fuel-efficient and gives good quality power to run electronic items. It should be wired through a plug-
in connection into a three-position main switch on the distribution board.
It is usually more efficient to use a generator to charge a battery bank when it is low, rather than powering
the household directly, because the generator can be run at close to its optimum load.
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UPS (uninterruptable power supply) systems
UPS units vary in size from a plug-in multi-box that can power a computer for 10–30 minutes to large units
that will provide power for several hours. UPS systems are typically used to protect sensitive electronic
equipment.
There are two main types available:
 An online UPS generally offers the best protection as it powers the appliances continuously using grid power
to charge the batteries and the inverter that supply power to the appliances. If critical power is required,
this is the most appropriate option.
 An interactive UPS has the battery and inverter on standby. As soon as the power fails or goes outside the
normal parameters, the inverter will start supplying power to the appliances. Some inverters will switch to
battery power within 20 milliseconds and will act as a standby UPS for all the circuits connected to them.
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6.4.9 Bioenergy and Biofuels
Solid, liquid and gaseous biofuels are becoming more widely used in New Zealand, and
have the potential to meet a lot more of our energy demands. In the construction sector
they can be used to fuel vehicles and generators and can be used in some domestic space
heating and water heating appliances.
Find out about:
 Solid biofuel
 Liquid biofuels
 Biogas
 Environmental benefits
Solid biofuel
Solid biofuel in the form of firewood, wood chips or wood pellets is commonly used in residential and
commercial applications for the production of heat.
Pellets are made from wood shavings and sawdust with a standardised density and moisture level, which
means that they burn with lower emissions than logs. (Some low emission pellet burners can be used in
areas where new wood burners are not permitted, but this depends on the local authority.)
A few models of wood pellet burner can heat water through a wetback.
Liquid biofuels
Liquid biofuels have the potential to replace petroleum-based fuels in many uses, chiefly transport and
machinery. But there are other uses too – architects and designers whose client brief includes
indoor/outdoor flow and lifestyle might consider outdoor fires that run on bioethanol, for example. The most
widely available liquid biofuels in New Zealand are biodiesel (an alternative to diesel) and bioethanol (an
alternative to petrol).
Bio-ethanol production is highest. In 2014 there were 3.2 million litres produced, 78% of New Zealand’s
liquid biofuel production.
Biofuels are produced from biomass, and this can range from plants grown especially for the purpose, to
waste products from industry and commerce, or from forestry and wood processing operations.
In New Zealand biodiesel is currently produced from biomass such as used cooking oil, tallow, and canola oil
from rapeseed grown as a break-crop (not competing with food production).
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Z Energy Ltd is building a $26 million biodiesel plant at Wiri, Auckland, the first commercial-scale biofuel
production facility in New Zealand. The biodiesel will be produced from inedible tallow, a meat industry by-
product. The fuel will initially be available in Auckland, Waikato and Bay of Plenty, and will be 5% biodiesel
blended with ordinary diesel.
Bioethanol is produced from whey. However, the production of advanced liquid biofuels from the residues of
forestry and wood processing has the greatest potential as a source of transport fuel in New Zealand.
In 2013/2014, Norske Skog and Z Energy (with assistance from the Ministry for Primary Industries and
Scion) carried out the Stump to Pump feasibility study, looking at the options for converting forest industry
residues to liquid fuels. The findings:
 Enough forest residues exist for domestic biofuel production, and the volume will grow over time.
 The technology to convert forestry residues to liquid biofuels already exists, but the resulting fuels do not
yet meet New Zealand fuel specifications.
 More research and development is needed, and this will take time. Building a test plant may take longer
than expected, especially as the significant fall in the price of oil has added a new challenge to biofuel
development.
While a lot of research is going into transport biofuel development both here and around the world, running
vehicles and machinery on biofuels is not a new idea – at the Paris Exhibition of 1900 there was a working
engine that ran on peanut oil.
Currently available transport biofuels are often used in a blend with petroleum-based petrol or diesel.
Bioethanol-blended petrol is available from a few petrol stations in blends of 10% bioethanol (E10). This
blend results in 5–6.5% lower greenhouse gas emissions per litre compared with standard petrol. B5 is a
biodiesel blend with 5% biodiesel. Blends such as B5 must meet the same requirements as petroleum diesel,
such as those relating to performance in cold temperatures. However, the new advanced liquid biofuels will
be a 100% replacement for petroleum-based fuel.
All solid and liquid biofuels should be stored in closed containers, in cool and dark spaces, protected from
the weather to reduce the moisture they may draw from the air as moisture may degrade the quality of the
fuel and thus its efficiency of use.
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Biogas
Biogas from landfills and sewage/wastewater treatment facilities is produced around the country.
For example, since 2008 Nova Energy has generated electricity from gases collected from Wellington’s
Southern Landfill, providing enough power today to serve up to 1,000 homes. There is another benefit too:
regulations introduced under the Emissions Trading Scheme in 2013 brought in a financial liability around
landfill gas emissions. By having the gas captured and converted to electricity, Wellington City Council gets
a significant reduction in that liability, saving ratepayers from increased rates or tip fees.
Biogas can also be produced on farms from manure. The gas can be used to run machinery directly to
replace mineral diesel or can be used to generate electricity. One biogas system on a Landcorp dairy farm in
Canterbury produces enough gas to meet a third of the farm’s energy nee
Environmental benefits
The various biofuels and blends can produce from around 4% to over 80% less greenhouse gas emissions
compared to mineral diesel or petrol. The carbon dioxide produced when the biofuel is burnt is effectively
balanced by the carbon dioxide the biomass (such as the rapeseed crop) earlier took out of the atmosphere.
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7.0 Wet Areas
Wet areas are the rooms or spaces containing sanitary fixtures and appliances –
including bathrooms and en suites, toilets, laundries, kitchens, entries and garages.
They and are subject to high levels of moisture from:
 direct wetting
 high humidity levels
 condensation
Poor wet area design or installation can increase the risk of slips and other safety hazards, and can
compromise accessibility and occupant comfort
Design and building faults can also lead to damage in building structure or finishes – such as rot in framing;
deterioration/disintegration of linings, flooring, and cabinetry; and peeling paint. Structural damage in wet
areas is becoming more common. It is often not immediately obvious, but can be substantial.
With good design, detailing and installation of waterproof membranes and impervious finishes to manage
the moisture generated, wet areas can be durable, healthy, safe and comfortable, and should not result in
damage to the building structure, surface finishes and fixtures.
This section of the Level website is a summary of the BRANZ publication Wet areas.
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7.1 Statutory requirements
The design and installation of wet areas must comply with NZBC clause E3 Internal moisture.
The objectives of clause E3 are that wet areas must:
 safeguard against illness, injury and loss of amenity from the accumulation of moisture
 protect adjacent household units from water damage.
The objectives require that:
 spaces have adequate thermal resistance, ventilation and space temperature
 any overflow must be disposed of appropriately
 surfaces are impervious and easy to clean.
The Acceptable Solution E3/AS1 provides a means of meeting clause E3 Internal moisture requirements.
Currently, E3/AS1 contains minimal information, is outdated and is limited as a compliance document.
Therefore means of compliance with E3 Internal moisture will often be Alternative Solutions.
Other Building Code clauses that may be applicable to wet areas are summarised in the following table
(see http://www.building.govt.nz/building-code-compliance/).
Clause VM/AS Relevance to wet areas
B1Structure B1/AS1 Cites NZS 4223.3:1999 Glazing in buildings – Part 3: Human

Impact Safety Requirements. This Standard gives minimum
requirements for glazing where it could be subject to human
impact, aiming to reduce the risk of personal injury. An
updated version of this standard was released in 2016.
B2Durability B2/VM1 Cites evaluation of durability by taking into account:

• in-service history
• laboratory testing
• performance of similar materials.
B2/AS1 Specifies the durability requirements of building elements

based on the difficulty to detect or access problems, or replace
them.
C Protection C/AS1 Part 7: Prevention of fire occurring.

from Fire
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F2Hazardous F2/AS1 Cites NZS 4223 Part 3 Human impact safety requirements
building with modifications. Applies to glazed panels and glazing in
materials windows and doors.
G1 Personal G1/AS1 Sets the numbers of sanitary fixtures to be provided for

hygiene residential and non-residential buildings. Specifies:
• methods of sanitary towel disposal
• fixture construction and installation
• location of sanitary fixtures
• sanitary fixture requirements for people with disabilities.
F2Hazardous F2/AS1 Cites NZS 4223 Part 3 Human impact safety requirements
building with modifications. Applies to glazed panels and glazing in
materials windows and doors.
G1 Personal G1/AS1 Sets the numbers of sanitary fixtures to be provided for

hygiene residential and non-residential buildings. Specifies:
• methods of sanitary towel disposal
• fixture construction and installation
• location of sanitary fixtures
• sanitary fixture requirements for people with disabilities.
G2Laundering G2/AS1 Specifies laundry requirements for various defined uses.
G4Ventilation G4/VM1 Specifies methods of:

• measuring ventilation rates
• demonstrating air purity.
G4/AS1 Sets rules for and limitations on natural ventilation using

opening windows.
G5 Interior G5/AS1 Specifies methods of providing the heating requirements for

environment habitable spaces, bathrooms and recreation rooms of
retirement homes and early childhood centres.
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G6 Airborne and G6/VM1 Specifies the performance requirements for airborne and
impact sound impact sound transmission between abutting occupancies.
G6/AS1 Specifies acceptable building element assemblies for

minimising sound transmission.
G7 Natural light G7/VM1 Cites NZS 6703:1984 Code of practice for interior lighting
design, Appendix A as a method of assessing illumination.
G7/AS1 Specifies rules for obtaining a satisfactory illuminance level in

habitable rooms, but excludes bathroom, laundries and so on,
for which there are no special requirements.
G8 Artificial G8/AS1 To provide a minimum illuminance of 20 lux per square metre

light of floor area to enable safe movement.
G9Electricity G9/VM1 Cites AS/NZS 3000, NZECP 34, NZECP 36 and NZECP 54
as methods of verifying compliance.
G9Electricity G9/AS1 Cites NZECP 51 as an acceptable solution for dwellings.

Sets rules for light switches and socket outlets for use by
people with disabilities.
G12 Water G12/VM1 Cites AS/NZS 3500.1 and AS/NZS 3500.4 as a means of
supplies compliance.
G12/AS1 Specifies rules for piped water supply systems.
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G13 Foul water G13/VM1 Cites BS EN 12056.2 as a means of compliance.
G13/AS1 Sets out rules for sanitary plumbing for buildings up to three
levels.
G13 Foul water G13/AS3 “Cites AS/NZS 3500.2 (as modified by paragraph 1.0.3 of
G13/AS3) as an Acceptable Solution for plumbing and
drainage.
H1 Energy H1/VM1 Specifies methods of determining the insulation requirements

efficiency using:
• N S 4218:2004 Energy efficiency – Small building
envelope section 3.3 (as modified by paragraphs 1.1.2 and
1.1.3 of H1/VM1)
• bui ding performance index for housing
• N S 4243.1:2007 Energy efficiency – Large buildings –
Building thermal envelope section 4.4
H1/AS1 Specifies a method for determining the required minimum R-

values for all building envelope components including
glazing.
While not cited in Building Code compliance documents, AS 3740-2010 Waterproofing of domestic wet
areas is a reference standard for the waterproofing of wet areas.
AS/NZS 4858:2004 Wet area membranes is another key document.
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7.2 Wet area design
Wet areas should be designed to be safe, accessible, comfortable and convenient for users
– and to be durable and meet all relevant Code requirements.
On this page:
 Health and safety
 Accessibility
 Comfort
 Preventing damage to structure and finishes.
Wet areas must be designed to meet statutory requirements, including the requirements of
Building Code clause E3 Internal Moisture, which aims to safeguard building users against
illness, injury and loss of amenity, and to protect the rest of the building from water
damage.
Key sustainable building considerations affecting wet areas include efficient use of Energy and Water, and
assuring the performance and durability of the structure and finishes by preventing water damage.
Health and safety
Of the many potential safety problems with wet areas, the most obvious is the risk of slips and falls if floors
(or other surfaces such as bathtubs or shower trays) become slippery when wet.
The potential harm from a fall is heightened if there are sharp edges in the area that might injure a person
who falls, or if there is glass that might shatter if someone falls against it. To reduce these risks:
 select a textured floor finish or floor finish with a slip resistance coefficient of 0.4 maximum when wet
– Table 2 of D1/AS1 gives details of flooring materials and finishes with acceptable slip resistance
 avoid using a highly reflective floor finish
 select a shower and/or bath with a textured/slip-resistant surface and a level base
 install grab rails in and beside the shower cubicle and bath area
 avoid sharp edges that may injure people if they fall
 specify grade A safety glass in accordance with NZS 4223.3:2016 Glazing in buildings - Part 3:
Human impact safety requirements. This Standard requires grade A safety glass in framed and
unframed shower doors, screens and bath enclosures, and all glazing less than 1500 mm from the
floor.
If a person falls across the door to a wet area, this may prevent others from getting in to provide
help. To reduce this risk, specify a bathroom lockset that allows emergency access, and if possible
install an outward opening door or a door with lift-off hinges.
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Other potential safety risks include:
 scalding, if the temperature at hot water outlet is too high – Building Code clauseG12 Water
supplies requires that Hot water supply be designed and installed to protect users from scalding; see Hot
water supply for details
 risk of electrical faults from incorrectly wired or used appliances – to minimise this risk: ensure that
bathroom heaters and heated towel rails are permanently wired; locate power outlets (for shaving) a safe
distance from the bath, basin and shower; and in kitchens and laundries specify an adequate number of
power outlets so there is no need for messy cords and multi-boxes.
Lighting
Wet areas must be adequately lit, both for safety reasons and for the convenience of building users. Lighting
must comply with the requirements of Building Code clausesG7 Natural light and G8 Artificial light.
For natural lighting, G7/VM1 provides a method for assessing illumination andG7/AS1 specifies rules for
obtaining satisfactory lighting levels; however, these don’t apply to any bathroom, laundry, toilet ‘or other
space of a specialized nature occupied neither frequently nor for extended periods’. Compliance
document G8/AS1provides a means of compliance for artificial lighting.
Wet area light fittings should be located so they:
 illuminate work surfaces without creating shadows (kitchen bench, vanity top)
 provide light in front of mirrors to illuminate the user (bathrooms).
Light fittings should be durable in a damp environment and not allow moist air to pass into concealed spaces
(such as a skillion floor or inter-floor spaces).
To reduce the risks of water damage, specify suitable substrates, impervious finishes and/or waterproofing
(see Wet area flooring and floor finishes, Wet area wall structure, and Wet area wall and ceiling linings and
finishes).
Also take steps to manage water overflow and splashing.
As noted above, all wet areas must comply with Building Code clause E3, which requires that water overflow
is disposed of appropriately and that surfaces are impervious and easy to clean.
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Comfort
Wet areas, particularly bathrooms, should not be uncomfortable or unpleasant spaces to use. Conditions
that that will compromise occupant comfort include:
 cold air/surfaces – see Managing temperature and condensation
 high humidity (which might cause mirrors to steam up) – see Managing temperature and condensation
 lack of acoustic privacy (bathroom/toilet) – see Minimising noise and odours
 lack of hanging or storage space
 unpleasant odours (e.g. from toilet, residual damp smell in bathroom, cooking smells in kitchen) –
see Minimising noise and odours.

Preventing fungal growth
Condensation, which provides the environment for the fungal growth, can be minimised by maintaining an
appropriate balance between temperature and ventilation. Insulation helps further by maintaining the
internal temperature at a suitable level. See Managing temperature and condensation for details.
Preventing damage to structure and finishes

Water damage can cause:
 rot to timber wall and floor framing
 rust in steel fixings
 deterioration or disintegration of wall linings, flooring (especially particleboard) and cabinetry (especially
MDF)
 paint to peel
 water to pool in the subfloor.
Water damage may be caused by design issues such as inappropriate material selection, or poor design of
junctions and wall penetrations.
Damage may also be caused by faults in installation or use, such as:
 poor construction of plumbing, particularly at junctions and penetrations
 failure of waterproofing membranes
 overflowing or spillage from baths, showers and other fixtures
 no floor drain
 leaks
 blockages in WC pans and water traps.
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7.2.1 Managing water overflow and splashing
Wet areas should be designed to minimise damage from water overflow and splashing.
On this page:
 preventing overflow damage
 preventing damage from splashing
Acceptable Solution E3/AS1 provides a means of compliance for three aspects of wet area design.
Preventing overflow damage
Overflow or flooding is generally the result of user error such as leaving a tap running, a blocked outlet, a
leaking pipe or joint or a faulty appliance. Flooding is often not considered during the design of a wet area
but, if uncontained, water can damage adjacent rooms or occupancies. Flooding can be contained by:
 a floor waste to drain water safely away
 continuous, impervious floor coverings
 coved or sealed floor-wall junctions.
Floor wastes should be installed in all:
 upper floor wet areas
 wet areas with a high risk of flooding, e.g. facilities for children or elderly
It is a statutory requirement to provide floor wastes or drains in multi-unit dwellings.
Other measures to minimise the risk of flooding include:
 ensuring that the floor falls to the floor waste (this is a mandatory requirement within the shower area)
 incorporating a water barrier at doorways to wet areas
 specifying fixtures with inbuilt overflows
 ensuring subtrades know where pipes are located (to reduce the likelihood of a
tradesperson inadvertently damaging a pipe during construction)
 specifying fixtures for hand washing only with spray taps and no plugs
 specifying taps with a timer or automatic turn-off for some situations
 fitting pressure reducing valves or flow restrictors in facilities such as accommodation for the elderly
 specifying hose burst valves for high water use appliances such as washing machines and dishwashers.
Preventing damage from splashing
E3/AS1 requires impervious and easily cleaned finishes to floors and walls subject to water splash, within
showers and around urinals. This will prevent damage from splashing.
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7.2.2 Managing temperature and condensation
Condensation can damage surfaces and materials, and lead to fungal growth. but it can
be controlled through a combination of ventilation, heating and insulation.
On this page:
 Passive ventilation
 Active ventilation
 Heating
 Insulation
Wet area use, particularly showering, bathing, cooking and clothes drying, generates high levels of moisture
into the air. If it is not removed, moisture in the air will condense as water when it comes into contact with
cold surfaces.
Condensation:
 creates the potential for fungal growth
 steams up windows and mirrors
 causes deterioration of moisture-sensitive materials, fittings and fixtures.
Condensation can be managed by a combination of ventilation, heating and insulation.
Compliance document E3/AS1 provides a means of preventing fungal growth by requiring: minimum R-
values for walls, roof or ceiling; ventilation to comply with Compliance Document G4/AS1; and condensation
control for metal windows. Applying this Acceptable Solution will also help to reduce deterioration of
materials and other problems arising from condensation.
Passive ventilation
Passive ventilation by opening windows meets the minimum Building Code requirement for ventilation if the
opening area of the window(s) is at least 5% of the floor area. Cross-flow ventilation from two windows on
different walls is more effective but generally not possible. The disadvantage of opening windows, especially
in winter, is that cold air is also let in, which lowers the indoor temperature.
Active ventilation
A mechanical air extract ventilation system is the most effective method of moisture removal for wet areas.
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Bathroom ventilation
Principles of mechanical bathroom ventilation
BRANZ recommends the air extract fan is operated by an automatic control such as:
 connected to the light switch (where the bathroom is an internal room)
 a timer switch that runs for a short period of time after the room is vacated
 an infrared sensor switch that responds to the room’s occupant
 a humidity sensor switch that responds to the room’s humidity levels.
En suite bathrooms are sometimes designed to be open to the bedroom and/or the walk-in wardrobe and
require good direction ventilation to prevent high humidity air from migrating to these spaces. BRANZ
recommends a mechanical air extract ventilation system to be used in open, en suite bathrooms.
Also see active ventilation.
Heating
As air warms up, it can hold more moisture - so using heaters in wet areas can reduce condensation.
Ideally, bathrooms require two types of heating:
 Background heat to lower the relative humidity.
 Short period heat during use.
When considering options, performance should be considered alongside energy use. See space heating for
more detail.
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Options for bathroom heating
Type of heating and heat delivered Points to consider
In-slab • Warms the whole room for personal comfort.

• Heats the slab and may be part of a whole-house • Takes up no wall space.
heating system. • May be expensive depending on how it is used
• Can heat the whole room to the required
temperature all the time.
• May use off-peak energy for electric cable
systems.
Under floor tile heating • Provides a warm floor, but does not necessarily
• Thin electrical heating elements built in between heat the room space.
the structural floor and the tiled surface. • Can be used with a timer for more energy
efficiency.
• Takes up no wall space.
Panel radiators • Warms the whole room for personal comfort.

• Part of whole-house hot water radiator system or • Can work on a thermostat to reduce power
individual electric heater. consumption.
• Radiated heat and some convected heat - • Can be used with a timer for more energy
proportions differ with the type. efficiency but then does not heat the room.
• Takes up wall space.
Radiant heaters – electric bar heaters or • Gives personal comfort by an immediate warming
infrared heat lamps effect.
• Radiated heat. • Uses power only when the heater is in use.
• Some proprietary infrared types are combined • Mounted at high level so takes up no wall space.
with an extract fan. • Does not heat the room.
Warm air heating – electric fan type heater • Heats the space fairly quickly
• Warmed air is circulated by fan. • Uses power only when the heater is in use.
Warm air heating – gas, heat pump or oil • Not an efficient use of energy because full
fuelled bathroom heating is not required all the time.
• Part of a whole-house ducted air system. • Does not take up wall space.
• Warmed air is delivered from the positive • Warms the whole room.
pressure system.
Heated towel rail – oil filled electric • Can give sufficient background heat to a well
• Convected heat. insulated room.
• Dries towels.
• Does not deliver sufficient heat for personal
comfort.
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Insulation
Building Code clause H1 Energy efficiency sets minimum R-values for the whole building. Compliance
document E3/AS1 sets out minimum R-values for walls, roofs and ceilings, which may be less than that
required to comply with clause H1.
BRANZ recommends that R-values should be maximised wherever possible. In addition, insulation must be
correctly fitted and have cold bridges minimised. Seeinsulation for details.
Changing from single glazed windows to double glazing with standard aluminium frames may not get rid of
condensation problems. Aluminium is a good conductor of heat. On very cold days, the inside of the frame
can be almost as cold as the outside, and moist air inside the house then condenses on the frames and runs
down.
Thermally-broken aluminium frames have a spacer with a higher level of thermal performance between the
inner and outer parts of the metal frame. BRANZ testing has shown that frames with this feature can be
almost 60% more thermally efficient than those with a metal spacer. This can significantly reduce the risk of
condensation.
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7.2.3 Accessibility
Accessible design makes wet areas safer, and allows them to be used by a wider range of
people.
On this page:
 Barriers to access in wet areas
 Designing for bathroom accessibility
If wet area facilities are designed to be fully accessible for people with disabilities, they will also:
 meet the needs of most people throughout their lives
 be suitable for able-bodied people with short-term injuries or disabilities
 be safer for use
 suit a wide range of potential home buyers.
Section 10 of NZS 4121:2001 Design for access and mobility: Buildings and associated facilities, sets out design
requirements for accessible toilets and bathrooms.
Barriers to access in wet areas
Wet areas can present a number of barriers to access for elderly and people with disabilities such as:
 bath edge height too high
 WC pan height too high or too low
 a shower hob
 awkward or narrow access
 insufficient manoeuvring space
 insufficient number or placement of grab rails
 poorly located fixtures and fittings
 poorly selected fittings (such as taps that are difficult for people with arthritis to use).
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Level access enclosed shower
Level entry shower for wheelchair and ambulant users.
Designing for bathroom accessibility

Include features that facilitate shower accessibility:
 Allow sufficient space for manoeuvrability and assistance.
 Provide a level access (i.e. no hob) to provide easier access.
 Install a hand-held shower head.
 Install a vertical grab rail on a side wall.
 If installing a seat, locate on the wall adjacent to the shower head and ensure that controls
are within reach.
 Select a textured or slip-resistant finish.
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Barriers to access in wet areas
Wet areas can present a number of barriers to access for elderly and people with disabilities such as:
 bath edge height too high
 WC pan height too high or too low
 a shower hob
 awkward or narrow access
 insufficient manoeuvring space
 insufficient number or placement of grab rails
 poorly located fixtures and fittings
 poorly selected fittings (such as taps that are difficult for people with arthritis to use).
Include features that facilitate toilet accessibility:
 Install the toilet at a height to suit the predominant use, i.e. people in wheelchairs prefer to transfer at the
same height as the seat of their wheelchair; older people prefer a higher seat.
 Allow a clear space on one side to transfer to the toilet.
 Locate the toilet at the correct distance to enable grab rail use
 Not having a slope on the area of floor that is used to allow the occupant to transfer from the wheelchair to
the toilet.
 Locate the toilet paper dispenser below the grab rail so it does not interfere with grab rail use.
 Ensure the grab rail is securely fixed to the structure.
Include features that facilitate basin or vanity accessibility:
 Set the vanity or basin height at 750 mm or to suit.
 Allow leg space underneath to suit.
 Install a single, lever-action tap.
 Avoid using pop-up plugs as they can be difficult to operate.
 Ensure that water supply pipes and waste outlets do not encroach on the required leg space underneath.
More information
www.barrierfreenz.org.nz
BRANZ publication Homes without barriers
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7.2.4 Wet area floor structure
Wet area floors can be concrete, or timber or steel framed. Each has pros and cons.
On this page:
 Concrete floors
 Framed floors
The floor structure is the rigid support that forms the substrate for the finished surface, or it may be the
finished surface itself.
In addition to meeting the structural requirements of NZBC clauses B1 Structure andB2 Durability, where
the floor is between separate tenancies, it must also meet the requirements of clause G6 Airborne and
impact sound and clause C Protection from fire.
The floor structure for wet areas may be:
 concrete – slab-on-ground or suspended
 framed in timber or steel.
Concrete floors
Both slab-on-ground and suspended concrete floors for wet areas:
 are deemed impervious when steel trowel finished or polished
 provide a good substrate for a wide range of wet area finishes
 can be laid with falls and set downs
 can be insulated and heated (insulation is mandatory if heated)
 require careful planning and coordination of construction to accommodate sanitary plumbing
 must have sanitary drainage pipes installed before the concrete is poured
 are not easy to alter or retrofit for sanitary plumbing and drainage.
Concrete suspended floors should also incorporate a floor waste and require the floor/ceiling space below to be
deep enough to accommodate pipe falls and bends.
Framed floors
Timber-framed floors:
 provide a good substrate for a wide range of wet area finishes
 require protection from water damage, e.g. use of treated timber
 are difficult to lay with falls
 easily accommodate sanitary plumbing and drainage changes
 allow easy alteration or retrofitting of sanitary plumbing and drainage
 can be insulated and heated.
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BRANZ recommends that all timber framing for wet area floors is treated H1.2 (boric) as a minimum,
regardless of Code requirements. BRANZ also recommends that, where there is risk of water damage to
framing surrounding or supporting a shower, the framing should be treated to H3.1 to provide an additional
level of safety in case the waterproofing is compromised.
Where the flooring will be covered with a waterproof membrane and tiles, the substrate should be
compressed fibre-cement sheet, fibre-cement sheet tile underlay, or plywood (treated to H3.2 with CCA, not
LOSP).
Flooring-grade particleboard is not permitted as a new substrate in any wet area under the membrane
manufacturers’ Code of Practice for Internal Wet Area Membranes. NZS 3602:2003 Timber use in building
recommends H3 treated plywood rather than particleboard in this situation. Use of particleboard is at the
building consent authority’s discretion.
If particleboard is used, it should be H3.1-treated, and particleboard manufacturers require the whole wet
area floor to be waterproofed, including under baths and vanities.
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7.2.4.1 Minimising noise and odours
Wet areas should be designed to minimise noise and odours.
On this page:
 Noise
 Odours
Noise
People generally prefer not to be heard – and not to hear others – carrying out ablutions. Location and
layout are the main factors in reducing noise from bathrooms and toilets.
Measures to reduce noise transfer:
 Locate WC pans on outside walls wherever possible.
 Don’t locate sanitary fixtures on the wall between a bathroom and habitable room such as bedroom.
 Don’t locate a WC pan on an upper floor where it is directly above a habitable room.
 Don’t locate pipes or services close to bedrooms and living rooms.
 Install tightly fitting doors.
 Install sound-rated insulation in the walls or floor of wet areas adjacent to or above habitable rooms.
Another type of wet area noise is water hammer (or pressure surge). This generally occurs in a high pressure
system, typically with metal pipes, when the flow of water is suddenly stopped. A sudden fluctuation in flow
velocity sets up shockwaves through the pipework, causing the pipe to vibrate and make a hammering sound.
Certain types of taps and valves in appliances such as washing machines may cause water hammer.
To reduce the risk:
 specify that pipes be clipped with rubber insulated clips or be clipped over the pipe insulation
 specify relief bends or flexible sections of pipe to absorb shock
 specify grommets or cushioned packers where pipes pass through structural members.
Odours
Odours in wet areas may be generated by:
 damp towels (bathrooms)
 surfaces that remain wet
 water loss in traps that admit odours from drains
 cooking smells (kitchens).
The most effective way to avoid odours is with adequate ventilation (passive or active) to:
 Remove odours such as those generated from cooking by specifying an externally-vented fan
such as a rangehood over the cooktop.
 dry out surfaces to eliminate the conditions for mould growth.
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7.2.5 Wet area flooring and floor finishes
A wide range of wet area flooring and floor finishes is available, each with pros and cons
Find out about:
 Timber strip and overlay flooring
 Particleboard
 Plywood
 Compressed sheet (fibre-cement)
 Vinyl
 Terrazzo, concrete and cement plaster
 Ceramic and stone tiles
 Timber treatment
 Waterproof membrane
 Substrate preparation
 Sheet rubber
Code requirements
In accordance with NZBC clause E3 Internal moisture, finished floors within wet areas must be impervious,
maintain the integrity of the system and use materials and finishes suitable for wet areas.
Flooring materials that are not impervious may provide the substrate for an impervious floor finish while,
with appropriate treatment, other flooring materials provide the floor finish.
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Acceptable Solution E3/AS1 lists suitable finishes for wet areas as:
• timber and timber-based materials, such as timber strip and overlay flooring, particleboard or
plywood, if they are sealed with a waterproof applied coating
• compressed sheet (fibre-cement) used as a substrate
• waterproof sheet material such as vinyl
• terrazzo, concrete or cement plaster with steel trowel or polished finish
• ceramic and stone tiles with 6% maximum absorption (joints must be waterproof and bedding material
specified as suitable for wet area use)
• cork tile or sheet with a waterproof coating and sealed joints.
Floor finishes that may be suitable for wet areas but are not listed in E3/AS1 (so must be consented as an
Alternative Solution) include:
• synthetic or natural rubber sheet with welded seams
• linoleum (not suitable for use in showers)
• epoxy-based coating systems
• polyester resins with mineral aggregate
• polyurethane-based systems.
See the Quick reference guide for wet area floor finishes. While the main criteria for selecting a wet area floor
finish must be its performance and durability, also consider the sustainability of the materials used. See Material
use for more detail.
Timber strip and overlay flooring
Timber is susceptible to moisture damage so it must have an applied waterproof coating when used as
wet area flooring. Normal movement in the boards of timber strip flooring and overlay flooring may lead
to the joints between the boards opening up and cracking the applied finish, which can allow water to
enter the timber. Therefore, BRANZ does not recommend timber strip or overlay flooring in areas subject
to water splash or wet cleaning.
Particleboard
Although a commonly used flooring material, particleboard is very easily damaged by moisture. Its use as
a wet area floor substrate is permitted under E3/AS1, but it must have an applied waterproof coating.
Where it is considered the coating may be not well maintained (e.g. it is not easily accessible and therefore
maintenance unlikely to be carried out), an alternative floor substrate should be selected.
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Plywood
Plywood provides a very rigid substrate for other finishes but is not usually used as finished flooring. As it
can be treated to H3, giving it good resilience to water damage, it may be used in situations where access
and maintenance of a particleboard floor is not practical. When used as the finished flooring, it must have an
applied waterproof coating. Note that, because of the solvents used in the treatment, LOSP treated material
is not suitable for use with applied waterproofing membranes used under tiles and a number of other
impervious finishes – use CCA-treated plywood instead.
Compressed sheet (fibre-cement)
Compressed sheet is not used as finished flooring, but it provides a stable substrate for floor finishes.
Although less susceptible to moisture damage than timber or timber-based products, it is not an impervious
material.
Vinyl
Vinyl is an impervious, water-resistant material that is ideal as a wet area floor finish. It is also suitable for
use in showers. It is available in sheet and tile form but only sheet vinyl is permitted under E3/AS1. Vinyl
must be laid with heat or solvent-welded joints to be fully watertight. It must be laid over a rigid substrate
such as concrete, particleboard, plywood or compressed sheet, as cracking may occur if there is substrate
movement, and it should be coved up walls and the front panels and toe spaces of built-in fittings. A profiled
surface should be selected, as it can be slippery when wet.
Wall/floor detail
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Terrazzo, concrete and cement plaster
Wet areas finished in terrazzo, concrete or cement plaster require a steel trowelled surface finish or a
surface that has been ground and polished to be impervious. These floor finishes may require surface
profiling to give slip resistance to the floor.
Ceramic and stone tiles
Ceramic and stone tiles are popular finishes for wet areas and for showers in particular. They must have 6%
maximum water absorption, and glazed tiles should have glazed edges. A tiled finish requires:
 a firm, stable, rigid substrate such as concrete, plywood or fibre-cement sheet
 a waterproof membrane laid underneath the tiles in accordance with AS/NZS 4858:2004 Wet area
membranes – a membrane is required behind all tiles within the shower and recommended for all bathroom
laundry and kitchen tiled floors, as cement-based grout joints are not waterproof
 a fall of 1:50 to the waste outlet in showers
 flexible (mould inhibiting sealant) movement joints at the floor/wall and wall/wall junctions.
Although tiles may have an impervious finish, if they are not installed correctly, the joints and substrate may
not be waterproof.
See Good Practice Guide: Tiling for more information.
Timber treatment
Treatment levels for timber and timber-based materials used under tiles in wet areas where the
waterproofing membrane cannot easily be inspected or maintained should be:
 H1.2 for timber floor joists and wall framing around showers

H3 (CCA treated) for plywood.
Waterproof membrane
Substrates must be protected by:
 a waterproof applied coating such as liquid applied acrylic or polymer coating, glass-fibre reinforced resin,
water- or solvent-borne polyurethane, cementitious two-part coating, or peel and stick modified
asphalt/bitumen sheet membrane
 an impervious finish such as vinyl sheet.
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BRANZ recommends that waterproofing membranes should be:
 continuous under floor-mounted vanity units, baths and shower trays and extend at least 150 mm up the
adjoining walls when walls are not waterproofed
 under all tiling in areas subject to regular water splash
 sealed around penetrations so there is no path for water to migrate to adjacent spaces.
Enclosed tiled shower
Enclosed tiled shower – minimum extent of waterproof membrane
Unenclosed tiled shower
Unenclosed tiled shower – minimum extent of waterproof membrane
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Bath with shower over
Bath with shower over – minimum extent of waterproof membrane under tiled surfaces
Bath
Bath – minimum extent of waterproof membrane under tiled surfaces
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Tiling
Tiling and recommended waterproof membrane to vanity units
Substrate preparation
Before placing the membrane, the substrate must be clean and have a moisture content of:
 concrete or mortar - 75% or less RH
 plywood - 20% or less moisture content.
Waterproof membranes must be installed according to manufacturers’ instructions.
Waterproof membrane failures occur because there is:
 a lack of curing
 insufficient thickness of the membrane (liquid)
 incorrect membrane selected
 dilution of liquid-applied membrane
 no reinforcing
 poor installation
 damage from subtrades
 incompatible adhesive
 underfloor heating that is too hot or incompatible with the membrane
 water migration around the edge of the membrane.
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wall substrate
H1.2 boric sealant joint

treated framing Note: Membrane to cover entire floor if tiling over
recommended absorbent substrates in showers, bathrooms,
laundries and kitchens.
tiles
Floor membrane may terminate at dotted line if
floor steel-trowel finished concrete.
sealant
wall/floor junction preparation in membrane

accordance with membrane supplier’s
specific instructions
Membrane detailing
floor substrate Tiles
(see note)
Sheet rubber
Sheet rubber is an impervious material and generally unaffected by water. Manufacturers’ recommendations
should be checked for suitability of use. It must be laid over a rigid substrate. Joints must be heat-welded to
be fully impervious, and it should be coved up walls and front panels and toe spaces of built-in fittings. It
should be continuous if laid under floor-mounted fittings such as vanity units, baths and shower trays.
Epoxy and resin-based finishes
Although not common in domestic wet areas, epoxy and resin-based waterproof coatings are an option to
provide an impervious surface. These finishes can be applied to most substrates. They should be applied
before floor-mounted fittings such as vanity units, baths and shower trays are installed.
More information
BRANZ Good Practice Guide: Tiling
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7.1.5.1 Quick reference guide for wet area floor finishes
Characteristics and performance of wet area floor finishes.
Carpet – synthetic
 Not damaged by water.
 Supports bacterial and fungal growth.
 Allows water to percolate.
 Slip-resistant when wet.
 Suitable for areas not normally wet.
 Suitable for splash areas.
 Not suitable for shower floor.
Carpet – wool and natural fibre
 Damaged by water.
 Supports bacterial and fungal growth.
 Slip-resistant when wet.
 Not suitable for splash areas
 Not recommended for wet areas.
Cement plaster
 Doesn’t support bacterial and fungal growth.
 May absorb water if not sealed.
 Slip-resistance when wet depends on surface finish.
 Suitable for splash areas if sealed.
 Suitable for shower floor if has impervious coating system.
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Concrete
 A rough surface may support bacterial and fungal growth unless cleaned regularly.
 Doesn’t allow water to percolate.
 Slip-resistant when wet if has textured surface.
 Suitable for splash areas if steel-trowelled dense finish.
 Suitable for shower floor if steel-trowelled dense finish.
 Installation must include control joints.
Cork
 Not damaged by water if correctly coated.
 Doesn’t support bacterial and fungal growth if correctly coated.
 Doesn’t allow water to percolate if correctly coated.
 Slippery if has a gloss coating.
 Suitable for splash areas if correctly coated.
 Correct coating is critical.
Linoleum
 Can be damaged by continual wetting.
 Doesn’t support bacterial and fungal growth when dry.
 Allows water to percolate through joints.
 Slippery when wet.
 Not suitable for splash areas.
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PVC (vinyl)
 Doesn’t allow water to percolate if has welded joints.
 Slip-resistant when wet if has profiled surface.
 Suitable for shower floor if has welded joints.
 Generally requires 2 mm thickness to allow welding of joints.
Rubber
 Doesn’t allow water to percolate if has sealed or welded joints.
 Slip-resistant when wet if has profiled surface.
Terrazzo
 Suitable for shower floor.
 Installation must include control joints.
Tiles – ceramic
 Allows water to percolate – requires waterproof membrane.
 Slip-resistant when wet if has slip-resistant surface.
 Suitable for splash areas – membrane required for wood-based flooring.
 Suitable for shower floor if has waterproof membrane and impervious joints.
 Installation must include control joints on a rigid base.
 Ceramic tiles must have a moisture absorption of no more than 6%.

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Tiles – stone and marble
 Allows water to percolate – requires waterproof membrane.
 Suitable for splash areas – may require sealing.
 Suitable for shower floor if has waterproof membrane and impervious joints – may require sealing.
 Installation must include control joints on a rigid base.
 Stone and marble tiles must have a moisture absorption of no more than 6%.
Timber and particleboard
 Damaged by water.
 Supports bacterial and fungal growth if wetted.
 Water may enter though joints.
 Applied coatings require slip-resistant additive.
 Suitable for areas not normally wet when sealed.
 Can be used for splash areas if coated but risk of water entry at joints.
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7.2.6 Wet area wall structure
Wet area walls may be concrete, or timber or steel framed. Each has different requirements.
On this page:
 timber and steel framing
 concrete and concrete masonry.
Timber and steel framing
Timber and steel framing must:
 have sufficient depth to install plumbing services (pipes)
 include dwangs and support for fixtures (e.g. wall-mounted WC, cabinets, built-in cistern, grab rails,
plumbing outlets)
 be insulated on external walls
 have an appropriate level of treatment for the risk of water damage
 be sufficiently rigid for the selected finish.
Framed walls are not good sound insulators – wall linings need to be carefully considered and specified to reduce
sound travelling from bathrooms to other parts of the house.
Steel frames must include a thermal break on external faces of the framing on exterior walls.
Concrete and concrete masonry
Concrete and concrete masonry provide a firm base for wet area finishes such as plaster, terrazzo and tiles.
They must:
• for concrete masonry and plastered finishes, have a waterproof finish to prevent moisture
absorption (e.g. paint finish in accordance with E3/AS1) – a steel trowelled concrete surface finish
is deemed impervious as for floors
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7.2.7 Wet area wall and ceiling linings and finishes
A wide range of wet areas flooring and floor finishes is available, each with pros and cons.
Find out about:
 Timber boards
 Plywood
 Particleboard and MDF
 Compressed sheet
 Sheet vinyl
 Ceramic and stone tiles
 Ceramic-based solid plaster and concrete
 Cork tiles
 Monolithic applied coatings
 Plasterboard sheet linings
 Vinyl and vinyl-coated wallpaper
 Paint and clear finishes
 Decorative panels
Code requirements
In accordance with NZBC clause E3 Internal moisture, wall linings and finishes exposed to water splash must
be impervious and easy to clean.
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Acceptable Solution E3/AS1 lists suitable linings and finishes for wet areas as:
 timber and timber-based materials (such as timber boards, plywood, particleboard, MDF or compressed
sheet) if sealed with a waterproof applied coating
 waterproof sheet material such as vinyl with sealed joints
 ceramic and stone tiles with 6% maximum absorption (joints must be waterproof and bedding material
specified as suitable for wet area use)
 cement-based solid plaster and concrete with steel trowel or polished finish
 cork tile or sheet with a waterproof coating and sealed joints
 monolithic applied coatings (e.g. terrazzo) with a polished, non-absorbent finish
 sheet materials (e.g. plasterboard) with vinyl-coated wallpaper or semi-gloss or gloss paint finishes
 water-resistant sheet linings with decorative, high-pressure laminate or factory-applied polyurethane or
resin finishes
 modular lining units that are impervious and are easy to clean with impervious joints.
E3/AS1 specifically excludes the use of the following in showers:
 Cork tile or sheet with a waterproof applied coating.
 Sheet materials (e.g. plasterboard) with vinyl-coated wallpaper or semi-gloss or gloss finish.
 Ceramic and stone tiles that have not been laid over a continuous, waterproof membrane.
See Quick reference guide for wet area wall finishes.
Other wet area wall linings that are not listed in E3/AS1 (so must be consented as an Alternative Solution) include:
 profiled and sheet metals (provided the material has an air barrier behind it to prevent moisture migrating
into the framing behind)
 acrylic panels
 polyurethane and epoxy-based coating systems.
Timber boards
Timber has been commonly used in wet areas since the opening years of the 20th Century and is permitted
under E3/AS1 if finished with a waterproof applied coating. Timber is not suitable for shower areas.
An impervious finish can be a minimum of three coats of semi-gloss or full-gloss paint (oiled finishes are not
recommended in wet areas). Timber should also be sealed or primed on the edges and back face before
installation
Timber is dimensionally unstable and susceptible to moisture. Movement of the timber may crack an applied
finish, allowing moisture ingress that can lead to swelling, staining and premature coating deterioration. If
untreated, timber is also more susceptible to borer attack.
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Plywood
Plywood is not commonly used as a wall lining in wet areas, but it is more stable than timber and wood-
based products. It can be treated, but treatment must be compatible with waterproofing membranes or
coatings applied and should be a water-based preservative such as CCA (LOSP is not suitable because of the
solvents used). It has a high resistance to impact, is a suitable substrate for tiling and may be used in water
splash areas if it has an appropriate finish. It is not suitable as an exposed finish in showers.
Plywood must:
 be a minimum of 9 mm thick
 have edges sealed prior to installation
 have a minimum of three coats of water- or oil-based, semi-gloss or full-gloss paint (oiled finishes are not
recommended in wet areas).
Particleboard and MDF
Particleboard and MDF are not generally recommended as wet area wall linings, as they are very easily damaged by
moisture.
Compressed sheet
Compressed sheet is commonly used as a substrate for a tiled finish. It is very stable but must remain dry.
It may also be finished with vinyl wallpaper or wall covering. A paint finish is not a suitable finish for
compressed sheet lining.
Sheet vinyl
Sheet vinyl has excellent resistance to water and is suitable for use in showers (open showers). It must be
laid over a rigid substrate such as concrete, particleboard, plywood or compressed sheet and requires heat-
or solvent-welded joints to be fully watertight. Sheet vinyl for wall coverings is typically around 1 mm thick.
It is not generally used for ceiling lining.
Ceramic and stone tiles
Ceramic and stone tiles are popular finishes for wet areas and for showers in particular. They must have 6%
maximum water absorption, and glazed tiles should have glazed edges. A tiled finish for a splash zone
under E3/AS1 requires:
 waterproof grout joints
 a firm, stable, rigid substrate such as concrete, plywood or fibre-cement sheet
 flexible (mould inhibiting sealant) movement joints at the floor/wall and wall/wall junctions
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In showers, a waterproof membrane laid underneath the tiles in accordance withAS/NZS 4858:2004 Wet area
membranes is required.
BRANZ recommends waterproofing membranes be installed under tiles on surfaces that are vulnerable to
wetting, whether or not required by E3/AS1.
Cement-based solid plaster and concrete
Cement-based plaster to concrete walls can provide a suitable lining if it has a steel trowelled or polished
finish, or has a semi-gloss or gloss paint finish.
Cork tiles
Cork tiles must be laid over a rigid sheet lining substrate. They are not usually used for ceilings and are not
suitable for shower areas as they absorb water when wet. They are permitted to be used in water splash
areas under E3/AS1 if they have a waterproof applied finish.
Monolithic applied coatings
Terrazzo with marble or stone aggregate can be ground to a hard-wearing finish. Prefabricated terrazzo
panels may also be used for partitions or screens.
Plasterboard sheet lining
Plasterboard is a commonly used wall and ceiling lining, and water-resistant grades are available for use in
wet areas. It can be applied directly to timber or steel framing, or to strapped concrete or concrete masonry
walls. It must be protected from direct wetting.
Water-resistant plasterboard must be protected by a waterproofing system when used as a substrate for
tiling in a shower or other high risk areas such as around the bath and hand basin. BRANZ recommends
protecting plasterboard behind tiles with a waterproof membrane in all water splash areas.
Standard grade plasterboard is suitable for areas that are normally dry or subject to occasional splashing.
An oil-based sealer coat and a minimum of three coats of water- or oil-based, semi-gloss or full-gloss paint
should be used.
Plasterboard should be stopped to level 4 or 5 for a paint finish, and level 3 for a flexible sheet or tiled
finish.
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Vinyl-coated wallpaper
Vinyl-coated wallpaper may lose adhesion at joints in high levels of moisture so should only be used in areas
that have minimal wetting. A plasterboard flush-stopped finish must be to at least level 3, or an equivalent
finish for fibre-cement sheet, as imperfections may be visible in the substrate.
Plasterboard and cement-fibre sheet substrates require sealing with a water-resistant sealer before applying
vinyl-coated wallpaper.
Paint and clear finishes
Paints and clear finishes should not be used on surfaces that are continually wet. In areas where occasional
wetting occurs in well-ventilated kitchens and bathrooms, water-based acrylic enamel paint applied over a
solvent-based sealer coat is generally satisfactory. The ability to withstand moisture is better if water-
resistant grade plasterboard is used.
High-gloss coatings should be used in areas of high wear and where regular cleaning is required. Semi-gloss
coatings may be used in areas of low wearing or wetting. Matt finish coatings should only be used in dry
areas.
In comparison to semi-gloss and matt-finish coatings, high-gloss coatings:
 are generally more durable
 have a higher resistance to abrasion and staining
 tend to highlight substrate imperfections
 increase glare and diffuse light less
 are easier to clean
 are less affected by mould growth.
Decorative panels
Factory-finished decorative wall panels for wet areas can be based on wood fibre, plywood, fibre-cement or
high pressure laminate (solid) board. Finishes include:
 high-pressure laminate comprising multiple layers of kraft paper impregnated with phenolic resin on
hardboard, particleboard and MDF
 factory-applied polyurethane coating on fibre-cement or hardboard.
Low pressure melamine laminate on hardboard is not suitable for wet zones and splash areas.
Pre-finished panels have visible joints connected by aluminium or PVC jointer sections. Bottom edges must
be separated from the floor or shower by a gap, and edges must be sealed before installation.
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7.2.7.1 Quick reference guide for wet area wall finishes
Characteristics and performance of wet area wall finishes.
Cement plaster
 May support bacterial and fungal growth as roughness of surface may make the wall difficult to clean.
 May absorb water if not sealed.
 Suitable for splash areas if coated.
 Suitable for shower if it has an impervious coating system.
Concrete
 Suitable for splash areas if it has a steel-trowelled dense finish.
 Suitable for shower if it has a steel-trowelled dense finish.
 A robust finish.
Concrete masonry
 May support bacterial and fungal growth as roughness of surface may be difficult to clean.
 Suitable for areas not normally wet if suitably coated.
 Suitable for splash areas if suitably coated.
 Suitable for shower if suitably coated.
Cork tiles
 Not damaged by water if adequately coated.
 Doesn’t support bacterial and fungal growth if adequately coated.
 Doesn’t allow water to percolate if correctly coated.
 Suitable for splash areas if suitably coated.
 Not suitable for showers.
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Decorative panels with proprietary jointing
 Not damaged by water, but material performs better when substrate sheet kept dry.
 Moisture may enter at sheet joints.
 Doesn’t allow water to percolate but must have proprietary jointers or expressed sealant joints.
 Suitable for areas not normally wet with correct coating.
 Suitable for showers.
 Seal sheets into jointer.
 Maintain clearance at bottom of sheets.
Fibre-cement sheet
 Not damaged by water, but material performs better when kept dry.
 Can absorb moisture if unprotected
 Suitable for splash areas with correct coating.
• Can be suitable substrate for tiling or impervious coating in showers - tiles must be installed
over suitable waterproofing membrane.
Particleboard
 Damaged by water if inadequately coated.
 Can absorb moisture if unprotected, and moisture may enter at sheet joints.
Plasterboard – standard grade
 Damaged by water if unprotected.
 Supports bacterial and fungal growth if becomes wet.
 Can absorb moisture if unprotected.
 Suitable for areas not normally wet if painted or as tile substrate.
 Suitable for splash areas as a tile substrate with waterproof membrane.
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Plasterboard – water-resistant
 Can absorb moisture if unprotected.
 Suitable for areas not normally wet if painted or as tile substrate.
 Suitable for splash areas as a tile substrate – a waterproof membrane is recommended.
 Suitable for showers as a tile substrate with waterproof membrane.
 Cannot be used as bracing when installed in a shower.
Plywood
 Not damaged by water, but material performs better when kept dry.
 Moisture may enter at sheet joints.
 Can be suitable substrate for tiling in showers – tiles must be installed over suitable waterproofing
membrane.
PVC (vinyl)
 Doesn’t allow water to percolate with welded joints.
 Suitable for showers with welded joints.
 Can be homogeneous with PVC floor
 Welding normally HD quality.
Terrazzo
 Suitable for showers.
 A robust finish when applied to concrete walls.
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Tiles – ceramic
 Doesn’t allow water to percolate if tiles 6% or less moisture absorption, but does through grouted joints.
 Suitable for splash areas – waterproof membrane recommended.
 Suitable for showers with waterproof membrane and durable substrate.
 Must include control joints.
 Must be on a rigid substrate.
Tiles – stone
 Allows water to percolate through grouted joints.
 Suitable for splash areas – waterproof membrane recommended.
 Suitable for showers with waterproof membrane.
 Must include control joints.
 Must be on a rigid substrate.
 Stone must be of a non-porous type.
Timber boarding
 Damaged by water if inadequately coated.
 Moisture may enter through board joints.
 Suitable for areas not normally wet if suitably coated.
 Not recommended for splash areas.
 Opening of joints due to movement may allow moisture entry.
Vinyl-coated wallpaper on plasterboard

 Not damaged by water if correctly applied.
 Edges of wallpaper are at risk of water penetration.
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7.2.8 Waterproofing tiled showers
Tiled showers require good detailing and application of membranes and careful plumbing
installation to remain waterproof. Poor work can lead to leaks and expensive repairs.
On this page:
 Standards
 Code of practice for wet area membranes
 Waterproof membranes
 Extent of waterproofing
 Design considerations
 Application of waterproofing
 Plumbing and penetrations
Installing a tiled wet area shower requires a building consent.
Under Building Code clause B2 Durability, waterproofing systems under wet area tiling must have a
durability of at least 15 years.
Points in Acceptable Solution E3/AS1 include:
 Tiles must have a water absorbency of no more than 6%.
 All shower floor and wall finishes must be impervious – in other words, they must not allow water to
pass through.
 When enclosures, such as walls, screens, doors or curtains are used they shall be continuous from
floor level or top of upstand to 1800 mm minimum above floor level and not less than 300 mm
above the shower rose.
 If a sanitary fixture is located where accidental overflow could damage an adjoining household unit,
containment and a floor waste must be provided.
 Floor wastes shall comply with G13/AS1.
 The floor of open showers shall have a fall of no less than 1:50 towards the floor waste, within a
radius of 1500 mm taken from a point vertically below the shower rose, or from any wall within that
radius.
Standards
AS/NZS 4858:2004 Wet area membranes divides membranes into three classes: Class I are the least
flexible, suited to substrates with little movement, such as concrete slabs. Class III cope with the greatest
movement, and are suitable for timber-framed construction. Class II falls between I and III.
AS 3740–2010 Waterproofing of domestic wet areas gives requirements for materials and installations.
Following this is good practice.
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Code of practice for internal wet area membranes
The Waterproof Membrane Association Inc., an industry body, published this document in 2014. Some
general requirements:
 Wet area membranes must comply with AS/NZS 4858:2004.
 All components must come from the same supplier.
 All wet areas containing a water supply must be protected with a membrane, be contained by a waterstop,
and have all penetrations sealed.
 Membranes must be installed by or under the supervision of approved applicators.
Waterproof membranes
A waterproof membrane must be installed behind and underneath shower tiling, the only exception being a
steel-trowelled or polished concrete substrate.
Flooring-grade particleboard is not permitted as a new substrate in any wet area under the Code of Practice,
and NZS 3602:2003 Timber use in building recommends H3 treated plywood rather than particleboard in
this situation.
A membrane should be selected on the basis of:
 substrate – some membranes adhere better to a particular substrate
 whether or not there will be underfloor heating
 potential for movement
 detailing complexity – in complex situations liquid-applied membranes may be the only option
 time or other constraints
 temperature and humidity – some membranes have requirements that may not be possible to achieve in a
particular space.
Use a single membrane type on all areas. Follow manufacturers’ instructions in product selection and application.
Extent of waterproofing
Figure 1 shows waterproofing requirements. AS 3740–2010 requires the entire floor to be waterproofed if
the substrate is timber, particleboard or plywood.
BRANZ recommends that the entire tiled floor be waterproofed and that membrane upstands of at least 150
mm are specified around the perimeter.
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• 1500 mm minimum from centreline of showerhead for fixed
showerheads • 1500 mm minimum for fixed showerheads
• 1500 mm plus the length of the hose for removable showerheads • 1500 mm plus the length of the flexible hose for
removable showerheads
waterproofing • 1800 mm minimum above

membrane floor level to finish 300 mm
minimum above showerhead
• to ceiling for removable
showerheads
fall 1:50 to floor waste
waterproofing
membrane
• 1500 mm radius
• 1500 mm radius plus the length of the flexible hose for
removable showerheads
1. Waterproofing the entire floor when the floor is tiled is recommended.

2. The entire floor should be waterproofed if the substrate is timber,
particleboard or plywood (AS 3740-2010).
3. The edge of the waterproofing membrane should be terminated at a
waterstop.
Required extent of waterproofing (E3/AS1)
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Design considerations
Design documents and drawings should specify:
 falls
 the waterproofing system
 the extent of the waterproofing
 minimum penetrations through waterproofing and sealing of all penetrations
 cable entry points for under-tile heating are above the flood level
 where a thick-bed sand/cement mortar or plaster is used, the membrane is installed over it
 movement control joints be waterproof
 tiles with low moisture absorption. E3/AS1 sets a maximum of 6%, but 3% or less is preferable.
Good detailing and application of waterproofing at junctions is critical. Leaks are commonly traced to
floor-to-wall or hob-to-wall junctions and around drains. Ensure that hobs are constructed from
material unaffected by moisture – not timber. Carry the membrane over the hob.
Application of waterproofing
Concrete slabs should have a relative humidity no greater than 75% and plywood should have a moisture
content no higher than 18%.
Surfaces should be clean, smooth and sound. A primer may be required to seal porous substrates and
enhance membrane adhesion.
Leave membranes to fully cure before tiling. Building consent authorities commonly require an inspection
after application of the membrane and before tiling.
Areas of floor waterproofing should be flood tested before installing tile finishes.
Plumbing and penetrations
Ensure co-ordination between the main contractor, plumber, membrane applicator and tiler to ensure
waterproofing integrity is maintained and the membrane warranty continues to apply.
Make the shower mixer penetration through the wall lining before the membrane is applied. Correct sealing
is crucial.
Ensure floor waste outlets have a sufficiently wide flange and are designed for use with membranes and
tiles. Prepare the flange as recommended by the membrane manufacturer. Rebate the flange into the
substrate so that the surface is flush for effective drainage, and seal the waterproofing system onto the
flange. Some manufacturers make outlets with low-profile traps for tiled shower floors.
Tell building occupants to keep tiled surfaces and drains clean and clear and get any damage repaired
immediately.
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8.1 Health and Safety at Work Act
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The new law is part of a package of measures that aims to reduce workplace deaths and injuries by 25% by
2020. All businesses, regardless of size, will need to engage their staff in safety issues. The new law
stresses that everyone at work is responsible for health and safety.
The law brings some major changes from the old legislation. You can’t contract out.
Under the new law, a ‘person conducting a business or undertaking’ (PCBU – which could be an individual or
a company) must ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, the health and safety of employees,
contractors, subcontractors and other workers they engage.
The law also has a new duty of consultation. This means that all those with a duty under the law – the
builder, subcontractors and others – must consult, cooperate and coordinate as far as reasonably practicable
to ensure compliance with the duty.
Workers or officers, including directors, are not the PCBU but will have separate personal liability. Directors
can be prosecuted if they don’t exercise due diligence to ensure the PCBU complies with its duties and
obligations, so they will need to know about how health and safety is being taken care of on the job.
The new law puts safety ahead of cost unless it the cost is ‘grossly disproportionate’ to the risk.
Small businesses will need to think hard about how to spend money ensuring health and safety. It may
mean giving up some jobs if the risks are too great.
If penalties are imposed on company directors and the firm itself, that could be a huge challenge for a small
building company.
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8.2 Personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is used to minimise the exposure to hazards (but is
not a solution for controlling hazards by elimination or isolation).
On this page:
 uses for personal protective equipment
 types of personal protective equipment
 selecting PPE
 Responsibility for PPE.
Uses for personal protective equipment
Personal protection in the workplace may be used against:
 chemicals – risk of inhalation, skin exposure and eye splash
 temperature – causing burns
 UV – exposure to weather
 airborne pollutants – dust, solvents and vapours
 radiation
 infection – bacteria, fungi
 physical injuries – cuts, falls, being struck by falling objects
 equipment use – power tools, plant and machinery
 electrical faults – power tool use, cables
 noise generally
 falls or slips when working at height.
Types of personal protective equipment
 Eyes – safety glasses, goggles, face shields.
 Hearing – ear plugs, ear muffs.
 Respiratory – masks, respirators, cartridge filters.
 Head – hard hat.
 Body – overalls, safety harness, high-visibility clothing, gloves.
 Foot – steel-capped boots/shoes.
 Safety at heights – harnesses (installed anchors or restraining cables), roof edge barriers.
 Visibility – hi-visibility vests, jackets.
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Selecting PPE
When selecting appropriate clothing or equipment for a task:
 talk to experts, i.e. those who use the clothing or equipment
 ensure clothing or equipment carries a standards mark
 ensure that clothing or equipment fits and looks ok (or it will not be used).
Responsibility for PPE
Under the Health and Safety at Work Act:
 Employers must provide protective equipment and ensure that the clothing or equipment is worn.
 Employees must wear/use the protective equipment.
 Employers cannot pay extra money instead of providing the equipment.
 Employers cannot require employees to provide their own equipment as a condition of employment.
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8.3 Airborne and other pollutants
Airborne and other pollutants may not be obvious, but exposure to them can be extremely
dangerous. Exposure to asbestos is the single-biggest cause of work-related death in New
Zealand. An estimated 170 people die each year from asbestos-related diseases, and this
number is expected to rise. Silica dust is also a risk on construction sites.
Pollutants from building sites include:
 asbestos
 silica dust
 lead paint
 solvents
 timber preservative chemicals
 sediment and run-off
 wet concrete
 cement dust
 general construction dust
 general construction chemicals
 welding fumes.
Masks and respirators
Masks and respirators protect you when you are sanding, cutting, spraypainting, paint stripping, or carrying
out other tasks that produce dust or fumes that could be harmful – demolition is an obvious example.. There
are different types of mask for different hazards and different levels of protection. Some come with
exhalation valves to stop hot air buildup against your face and are more comfortable to use.
These masks are suitable for nuisance dust or mist sprays that are non-
toxic or of very low toxicity. They don’t give protection against gases or
solvent fumes.
Unvalved P1 mist/dust mask
These masks are suitable for cutting/sanding timber as well as welding and
brazing. They will not protect against toxic gases or fumes, although some
have added features that reduce the nuisance levels of gases, vapours and
oil-free aerosols.
Valved P2 toxic dust mask
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These masks have changeable filters and pre-filters for protection against
paint mists and vapours – select the appropriate filter for the job.
Half-mask respirator
 Chemical filters are available to protect against solvent fumes from things like degreasing fluids, thinners,
lacquers and enamel paints.
 P2 toxic dust filters protect against fine dust and welding fumes.
 P3 filters protect against more highly toxic fumes and particles.
 Many other types of filter and pre-filter are available – seek advice from a specialist supplier
Half-masks are not suitable for use in highly toxic areas or if the paints contain iso-cyanates. In these cases
use a full mask with air supply.
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8.3.1 Asbestos
Asbestos-based products were widely used in construction from the 1920s to the mid-1980s.
Commonly used products that contained asbestos included roof tiles, wall claddings, vinyl
floor coverings, sprayed fire protection, decorative ceilings, roofing membranes, adhesives
and paints.
On this page:
 health risks from asbestos
 testing for asbestos
 Asbestos Regulations 2016
 new licensing system for asbestos removal
 working with asbestos
 cleaning up
Health risks from asbestos

Asbestos can cause asbestosis (lung disease) and lung cancer when inhaled. However, as symptoms often
do not appear until 15–20 years after exposure, the danger of asbestos is easily underestimated.
Most work-related deaths in in the building industry are the result of exposure to asbestos during demolition
or renovation.
Both groups of asbestos minerals present health risks:
 the serpentine group (commonly called white asbestos)
 the amphibole group (including blue and brown asbestos).
Removing asbestos during demolition work is carefully regulated. Ignoring the rules can be costly – in 2015
a Christchurch company was fined $45,000 for failing to properly identify and manage asbestos at a
demolition site.
Testing for asbestos
If you suspect asbestos may be present, the following laboratories are able to test the material:
 Dowdell and Associates, Auckland (09 526 0246)
 Capital Environmental Services, Wellington (04 566 3311)
 K2 Environmental Ltd, Christchurch (03 384 8966) or Auckland (09 275 1261)
 Precise Consulting and Laboratory Ltd, Christchurch (03 943 5394)
 Environmental and Industrial Analysis Group, Christchurch (03 377 4314).
For cladding or flooring, a sample approximately the size of a $2 coin is required. For decorative ceiling finishes,
a minimum of one teaspoonful is required, and this should include any sparkly material. Samples should be
obtained in accordance withOccupational Safety and Health Guidelines for the Management and Removal of
Asbestos.
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Asbestos Regulations 2016
The Health and Safety at Work (Asbestos) Regulations 2016 came into force on 4 April 2016. They set out
the new rules around the removal of asbestos, and the circumstances where WorkSafe must be notified.
New licensing system for asbestos removal
A national licensing system for asbestos removal was introduced on 4 April 2016. The licences available
under the new asbestos regulations are:
Type of licence What asbestos can be removed?
Class A Any type or quantity of asbestos or asbestos containing material, including:
• any amount of friable asbestos or asbestos containing material (ACM)
• any amount of asbestos contaminated dust or debris (ACD)
• any amount of non-friable asbestos or ACM.
Class B Any amount of non-friable asbestos or ACM
ACD associated with removing any amount of non-friable asbestos or ACM.
No licence is required for removing:
 up to 10 m2 of non-friable asbestos or asbestos-containing material over the whole course of the removal
project for the site
 asbestos-contaminated dust that is associated with this volume of asbestos or asbestos-containing
material, and/or any associated minor volume of asbestos-contaminated dust or debris.
A new role of asbestos assessor has been developed. A licensed asbestos assessor will provide air
quality monitoring during removal work, inspect the finished job and provide a clearance certificate. A
licensed asbestos assessor will be required to assess Class A asbestos removal work from 2018
onwards.
Current Certificate of Competence holders will be able to continue removing asbestos (in the categories
specified on their certificate), and supervise asbestos removal, until their certificate expires.
Working with asbestos
Work with asbestos that does not require a licence must nevertheless be carried out with care. If products
containing asbestos are in sound condition and left alone, they do not pose a major risk. The risk occurs
when materials are cut, sanded, waterblasted or broken up, resulting in asbestos fibres being released.
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When working with asbestos, precautions include:
 sealing off the work area to minimise exposure to others
 wearing disposable overalls and cap
 using a half-facepiece respirator with a class P1 filter suitable for asbestos dust
 keeping asbestos-based material damp while handling it
 cleaning up at the completion of each day’s work.
Do not:
 waterblast the asbestos-based material
 break sheets or drop them, causing them to break.
Cleaning up
 Collect residue from the washing or other work with asbestos while it is still wet and bag in plastic or a
closed container.
 Clearly mark bags/containers ‘Asbestos Hazard – wear respirator and protective clothing while handling the
contents’.
 Dispose of asbestos at a place approved by the local authority and cover immediately with at least 1 m of
earth.
 Vacuum residue and dust from all surfaces (including unsealed drawers and cupboards) using a vacuum
cleaner fitted with a HEPA filter.
 Wet mop after vacuuming.
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8.3.2 Silica dust
Silica dust is produced when polishing and grinding concrete, and also when cutting concrete
or masonry, or drilling, crushing and cutting some types of fibre-cement board. Breathing in
fine silica dust over prolonged periods can cause shortness of breath, coughing and, in
extreme cases, serious lung disease. Recent research shows it is a risk for New Zealand
builders, with many being exposed to silica dust with little knowledge about it.
A report into this commissioned by WorkSafe New Zealand was released in 2015. The main findings were:
 a lack of knowledge of the risk of silica dust
 a lack of efficient dust suppression methods
 a large number of construction workers not using respiratory protection.
Sample testing of workers performing selected ‘at risk’ tasks showed that they are being exposed to levels of
silica dust which exceed national and international standards.
Protection required
Exposure to silica dust should be eliminated, isolated or minimised. Dust control is top priority:
 Wet any dust before it can become airborne, and frequently clean work areas and equipment
with water.
 Never sweep up dry dust. Use a vacuum cleaner with a HEPA filter that takes particles out of the
air.
 When buying equipment for cutting and grinding, look for dust control features such as a dust
collection device or a water system to the blade. Then make sure those operating the equipment
use these features. The appropriate masks should always be available. Where dust levels are
low, disposable masks may be sufficient. Make sure they have two straps and fit securely around
the face. Half-face or full-face masks will be required where dust levels are greater.
Make sure dusty clothes are cleaned and they do not carry dust into vehicles or homes.
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8.3.3 Lead paint
Until the mid-1960s when the health hazard of lead became more fully understood, lead
pigments in oil-type binders were the most commonly used house paints in New Zealand.
The use of white lead in paint was banned in 1979, but some special-purpose
paints still contain red lead – these should be clearly labelled.
The greatest risk occurs from older buildings that may still have a lead-based paint coating as they may
have been repainted without previous layers of paint being removed.
Lead poisoning
Lead poisoning occurs when paint residue containing lead is swallowed or fumes are inhaled, for example
when old lead paint is burnt off timber weatherboards. The effect of lead is cumulative – it builds up in the
body, and if left untreated, can lead to brain damage and death. Symptoms of lead poisoning may include
tiredness, poor sleeping patterns, moodiness, lack of appetite and stomach pains.
Lead-based paint removal
The removal of lead-based paint can result in harm to both the person removing the paint and people in the
vicinity. Young children are particularly at risk from lead poisoning.
It is not possible to identify lead-based paint by its appearance. If a building is over 35 years old, assume
that it has been painted with lead-based paint.
Inhalation of dust and fumes is the principal way lead enters the body, so paint debris must be prevented
from becoming airborne during removal and clean-up.
Take the following precautions when removing lead-based paint:
 Use drop sheets when removing paint (they should be fireproof if the paint is being burnt off)
 Keep children and pets away from the work area
 Wet sand to reduce dust
 Fit a power sander with a vacuum dust bag
 Wear a dust mask at all times
 Collect dust and debris as work proceeds and bag or contain in a suitable closed container (e.g. in
strong plastic bags)
 Dispose in a place approved by the local authority.
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8.3.4 Solvents
Solvents can have serious adverse health effects. Just how serious depends on the type,
amount and frequency of exposure to the solvent, so all solvents should be considered
hazardous. Common sources of solvents are LOSP treated timber, thinners and coatings.
On this page:
 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
 general safety precautions
 solvent poisoning.
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) provided by manufacturers and suppliers detail the hazards and
precautions to take for particular chemicals and should be available at workplaces where solvents are used.
The MSDS should include:
 the components that are in the solvent
 the toxic properties of the solvent
 safety precautions to follow when using the solvent.
Before using any solvent, you should be familiar with the information on the MSDS.
General safety precautions
When handling solvents, the following precautions should be carried out:
 Store solvents in strong, sealed containers.
 Clearly identify and labels the containers.
 Establish procedures and evacuation routes in case of a fire or a solvent spill.
 Wear protective clothing.
 Use a respirator.
Solvent poisoning
The three ways solvents can enter the body are:
 inhalation into the lungs – acute (immediate) or chronic (long-term)
 absorption through the skin
 swallowing.
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Acute inhalation poisoning
Effects of acute inhalation poisoning may include:
 dizziness
 slow reactions
 poor co-ordination, balance and reasoning
 nausea
 loss of consciousness.
If acute inhalation poisoning is suspected:
 remove the person from the solvent exposure
 check the product label and MSDS for further instructions.
Once a person is moved to clear, fresh air, the effects of inhalation poisoning will generally rapidly
disappear.
Solvent on skin/eyes
If a solvent is spilt on the skin:
 dilute the solvent immediately with a lot of water
 remove contaminated clothing – use appropriate gloves if necessary
 wash the contaminated skin thoroughly with soap and water.
If solvent has splashed into a person’s eye:
 wash with clean, running water for a minimum of 15 minutes
 if irritation persists after this time, seek medical help.
Swallowed solvent
If solvent has been swallowed and the person is conscious:
 give them a lot of water to drink
 do not cause the person to vomit
 take them to a doctor for a checkup.
If solvent has been swallowed and the person is unconscious:
 clear the mouth of mucous and vomit and remove false teeth if necessary
 place the person in the recovery position
 ensure the airways are open
 administer CPR if necessary
 Dial 111 and ask for an ambulance.
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8.3.5 Sediment and run-off
If loose materials and bare soil on site are wet by heavy rain or large amounts of water
from any other source, it may become run-off, which can enter and clog waterways, drains
and the stormwater system. It may also be carried onto adjacent properties.
Run-off can also carry harmful waste such as paints and chemicals which will
cause damage to wildlife in waterways, and clog water drainage systems.
On this page:
 preventing run-off
 sediment control
 pollution from concrete, asphalt and bitumen.
Preventing run-off
Methods of preventing soil erosion include:
 avoiding doing earthworks during the wet season
 using the natural ground contours to avoid earthworks if possible
 designing using poles or piles rather than excavations
 using tarpaulins or shotcrete to protect exposed soil
 removing the minimum amount of vegetation possible
 having one stabilised accessway onto the site only
 diverting any water away from earthworks and onto stable ground (e.g. grass,
semi-permeable or paved), other than what falls on it as rain
 stabilising bare soil with mulch, paving, planting or grass as soon as possible
 controlling the flow of water with channels or contour drains.
Sediment control
Control sediment run-off with:
 vegetation
 silt fences to screen and filter sediment
 hay or straw bales to trap sediment
 sediment ponds.
Keep silt control devices clear and ensure that cleared material cannot run into waterways or drains.
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Pollution from concrete, asphalt and bitumen
Concrete, asphalt and bitumen run-off can be damaging if it gets into waterways. It occurs when:
 new concrete, asphalt or bitumen is laid
 concrete pouring/laying equipment is washed
 concrete is waterblasted to expose aggregate.
Run-off from concrete, asphalt and bitumen must be contained on the site by:
 diverting onto onsite grass or soil
 containment in an appropriate storage tank if possible.
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8.4 Electrical safety
Electrical power use on building sites is particularly hazardous because of the need to use
cables and flexible extension cords, and the power is often used in damp conditions.
Precautions must be taken to protect workers from electric shock, electrocution,

fires and explosions.
On this page:
 precautions when using power
 safeguards for electrical supply
 temporary supply switchboards
 electrical equipment inspection
 underground and overhead power lines
 fitting insulation under a suspended floor.
Precautions when using power
Precautions when using power on a building site include:
 do not overload circuits
 do not used damaged flexible extension cords
 keep flexible extension cords away from sharp edges
 do not use electrical equipment in wet conditions
 use equipment suitable for the working environment, e.g. cordless tools for damp conditions.
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Safeguards for electrical supply
If a portable electrical appliance is used in damp situations, it must have the following safeguards:
 An isolating transformer with a voltage between conductors not exceeding 230 volts.
 Double insulation to the appliance.
 A source to earth connection so that the earth voltage does not exceed 55 volts.
 A residual current device (RCD). An RCD monitors the electric current flowing through a circuit. If you
touch a live wire or faulty equipment and electricity flows through you to the ground, the RCD senses
the reduction in current and shuts off the electricity. This reduces the risk of a serious or fatal injury.
Temporary supply switchboards
Temporary supply switchboards on building sites should:
 be solidly constructed
 be fixed to a permanent or specifically designed structure
 should be weathertight for safe operation where installed outdoors
 include an insulated slot in the bottom for cables and leads to feed through
 provide a stand for the support of cables and flexible extension cords
 have a door that can be locked, will not damage flexible cords and protect switches from mechanical
damage.
Zealanders have died after doing this, and others have been injured. The practice of retrofitting foil
insulation under floors is likely to be banned from 1 July 2016.
Electrical equipment inspection
Electrical equipment on building sites must be tested and tagged every 3 months. See standard AS/NZS
3012:2010 Electrical installations - Construction and demolition sites. The tag should give the date of the
inspection and the next date an inspection is due.
Underground and overhead power lines
When carrying out an excavation, always assume that cables will be present. Take precautions against
striking underground cables by confirming the location of underground cables (and other services) and
obtaining up-to-date electrical plans for adjacent buildings.
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If working close to underground or overhead cables:
 have the power temporarily disconnected by the utility company
 do not allow any part of a crane, digger, excavator, drill rig or other mechanical plant, structure or
scaffold closer than 4.0 m to an overhead line without the written consent of the power line owner.
Fitting insulation under a suspended floor
Power cables are often run along bearers and joists under a suspended floor. When installing underfloor
insulation with steel staples turn off the power at the mains if there are electric cables present as it is
extremely important not to staple through a live electricity cable – electrocution can result. Four New
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8.5 Construction noise
Work-related hearing loss affects thousands of builders in New Zealand. Good ear
protection on construction sites is crucial.
Noise-induced hearing loss – permanent deafness – happens when your ears are exposed to loud sounds for
a long period of time. It is one of the most common health and safety problems in the construction industry.
Of construction industry claims to ACC, claims for ear damage (mostly noise-related hearing loss) have the
highest average cost. Around 71,000 New Zealanders have deafness that comes from being exposed to
noise, and 95% of them are male.
This type of hearing loss makes it hard to understand speech when you are chatting with a group of people.
You may also get tinnitus, which is ringing in your ears. It can take years to develop, but by the time you
notice it is a problem, it is too late to do anything. You cannot cure the problem, you can only stop it getting
worse.
The best approach is to use protection before it becomes a problem.
Preventing noise-induced hearing loss
1. Wear proper hearing protection (ear muffs or plugs) in noisy environments or when doing noisy jobs.
Wear earmuffs directly on your head – not over a beanie or other clothing.
2. Choose protection that fits and feels comfortable for long periods of wear.
3. Choose protection that gives the right level of protection for the level of noise you are exposed to (see
below).
4. When buying tools or equipment, ask the supplier or retailer about noise levels, and look for quieter
models.
5. Keep tools and equipment maintained – some equipment is noisier when not kept in good order.
6. Employees exposed to loud noise levels over long periods should undergo annual hearing tests to ensure
their protection is sufficient.
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Hearing protection classes
Earmuffs and earplugs are tested to the standard AS/NZS 1270:2002 Acoustics – Hearing protectors. Once
tested, hearing protectors get a rating from Class 1 to 5, where Class 5 gives the highest protection from
noise exposure. (The actual measure is maximum 8-hour time-weighted average noise exposure.)
 Class 1 – less than 90 decibels (dB)
 Class 2 – 90 to less than 100 dB
 Class 5 – 105 to less than 110 dB.
Both earmuffs and earplugs are available in all classes up to Class 5. Talk to your safety equipment supplier
about what is most appropriate for your type of work.
For general information about noise in construction, see Noise: basic concepts.
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8.6 Working at height
Nearly a third of serious harm accidents in the building industry come
from falls or trips. The most common type of fall is from a temporary
structure: scaffolding, trestles, or a ladder used as a work platform.
Where there is any danger of falling, there are some fundamental safety procedures that should be followed:
 Use the hierarchy of control to select a fall prevention system appropriate for the situation.
 Install and use the fall prevention system correctly.
 Provide training in the correct selection, use and maintenance of the fall prevention system.
Employers must follow certain requirements under the Health and Safety in Employment Act to protect workers
on construction sites from potential falling hazards.
An analysis of falls in construction show several common contributing factors:
 poor hazard management and a lack of a system to identify hazards
 lack of best practice training and awareness
 inadequate work standards such as messy work areas or hazardous landing surfaces
 equipment or structure failures
 not following instructions.
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8.6.1 Guard rails
Guard rails should be used at all unprotected edges of working platforms and floor
openings where any possibility of falling exists.
Guard rail systems should:
 have a top rail height between 900-1100 mm above working/walking level
 have a midrail (Acceptable Solution F4/AS1, para 1.2.6 requires a maximum vertical opening of
460 mm between intermediate rails)
 have a toeboard wherever there is a risk of tools or materials falling (Acceptable Solution F4/
AS1, para 1.2.6 requires a minimum toeboard height of 225 mm)
 be able to withstand a 0.89 kN force applied outwards or downwards within 50 mm of the top
edge of the guard rail system (US Department of Labor recommendation)
 not cause puncturing or lacerations to workers or clothing to snag
 not cause a projection hazard, for example by overhanging an end baluster
 be installed as a chain, gate or removable section where access for personnel or hoisting
materials is required.
Where a working platform is located above a public thoroughfare, screens or projecting platforms should be
erected to prevent the possibility of tools or materials falling down onto people using the thoroughfare.
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8.6.2 Ladders
Before using a ladder, confirm that the ladder:
 is the safest and most effective piece of equipment for the job
 is in good condition
 is rated for industrial use
 is the appropriate length for the job
 can be secured and restrained at the top and the bottom
 is on a level surface.
If the ladder meets these requirements, carry out the following safety measures:
 Set the ladder on a solid, level base.
 Set the ladder at the correct angle – 1.0 m out from the wall for every 4.0 m of height.
 Check to ensure the treads are horizontal.
 Leave 1.0 m of the ladder above the level to be climbed.
 Secure the top of the ladder.
 Reposition the ladder rather than stretching to reach.
 Face the ladder at all times and use both hands when climbing up or down.
Do not:
 lean the ladder directly against glass or plastic spouting
 use the ladder as a work platform
 position more than one person on the ladder.
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8.6.3 Scaffolds
Scaffolding is often a practical option for working at a height as it

provides a permanent (for the duration of the project), secure
and stable working surface. The most commonly used scaffolding
systems are free-standing or suspended.
Free-standing scaffolds
Free-standing scaffolds must:
 be erected level and plumb
 be on solid footings or supports
 be braced
 be tied to the structure if possible
 have guardrails and toe boards
 have the planks or decks secured to the scaffold structure.
Suspended scaffolds
Suspended scaffolds must:
 be securely supported and anchored
 be easily accessible 600 mm above or below the working level
 have guardrails to prevent a fall
 be able to carry the required loads.
Workers on suspended scaffolding must wear a safety harness that is secured to a fixed support or
preferably an independent lifeline.
Notification and supervision
All suspended scaffolds and all free-standing scaffolds where a person or object could fall more than 5
metres should be erected, altered and dismantled by (or directly supervised by) someone with a Certificate
of Competency for this. The erection must be notified to the Ministry of Business, Innovation and
Employment.
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8.6.4 Excavations and trenches
An excavation is any manmade cut, cavity or trench formed by earth removal.

All excavations must be made safe against collapse.
A trench is an excavation that is deeper than it is wide at the top. This presents a particular hazard if not
shored up as there is nowhere that workers can be safe from collapse. Trenches that are to be entered by
workers must have shoring or a trench shield to prevent the trench sides from collapsing onto them.
Alternatively, workers may be protected from engulfment in a collapse by benching or battering the sides of
the trench.
Trench safety practices:
 Support the trench sides with shoring or a trench shield.
 Bench or batter the trench sides.
 Keep the trench edges clear of spoil, materials or plant for a minimum of 600 mm.
 Provide barricades and warning signs around the trench.
 Ensure the trench remains safe from exhaust gases from nearby machinery.
 Ensure pumping is available where flooding could occur.
 Ensure that a safe access and egress are provided.
In July 2016, WorkSafe New Zealand issued Excavation safety – Good practice guidelines. This supercedes the
old Approved Code of Practice for excavation and shafts for foundations.
8.6.5 Working on roofs
Consideration must be given to safety when working on a roof:
 Consider the location and provision of anchorage points for safety harness systems or safety nets.
 Provide a guardrail around the perimeter.
 Prepare the area below the roof to provide a firm and level support for mobile elevating
equipment such as a scissor lift or cherry picker.
 Consider providing permanent access and edge guard railing to the roof.
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8.7 Tools and machinery
Hand and power tools and machinery are common on almost

every construction site.
Tools
People using hand and power tools may be exposed to falling, flying or splashing objects, harmful fumes or
electrical hazards.
To be effective and safe for use, tools must:
 be kept in good working order
 be regularly maintained – electric tools require regular inspection and tagging as safe.
See Electrical safety
 be checked for damage before use – do not use damaged tools.
 if used for cutting, have cutting edges properly sharpened
 only be used for the purpose for which the tool is designed
 be operated according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
For operator safety:
 use dust masks when sanding, cutting or otherwise creating dust. See Personal protective
equipment
 use face shields when using grinders
 use eye protection with power-cutting tools and hand tools where flying chips are a risk
 wear good quality ear muffs when operating power tools and equipment
 feed all electrical tools used outside through an earth leakage protection device or an
isolating transformer.
Machinery
Construction site machinery includes: Machinery must generally be:
 personnel and material hoists  used by qualified operators
 cranes and lifting appliances  used with appropriate safety gear
 power-operated elevating working platforms  be maintained in a safe operating condition
 earth-moving machinery.  have a current operating certificate, if required
 used only for the work for which it is intended
 be fitted with a roll-over protective structure

(ROPS) in earth-moving machinery.
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8.8 Mould
Moulds are a type of fungi that require moisture and a food

source to grow. They reproduce by releasing vast numbers of
tiny spores into the air which can be inhaled.
If inhaled in large quantities, some mould spores can cause health problems such as allergic reactions
similar to hay fever, breathing difficulties, eye irritation, skin rashes and occasionally, more serious
symptoms.
On this page
 mould, moisture and ventilation
 Stachybotrys chartarum (SC)
 testing for Stachybotrys.
 removing and cleaning up procedures for moulds.
Mould, moisture and ventilation
Mould growth can often be seen as surface discolouration on ceilings, walls and furniture. There may also be
a musty smell. If there is any evidence of water damage, there is likely to be mould growth.
Visible mould in houses is typically the result of high levels of indoor moisture and insufficient ventilation
and/or heating. The best solutions are to install a rangehood over the stove in the kitchen and an exhaust
fan in the bathroom. Both should be vented to the outside. Building occupants should be encouraged to
increase ventilation through opening windows, to keep the space warm, and to avoid using unflued gas
heaters, which produce a lot of moisture.
Stachybotrys chartarum
Some types of moulds produce toxic compounds. Stachybotrys chartarum is a toxic mould that is associated
with leaking buildings in New Zealand in recent years. The mould is caused by leaks that originate outside
the building and from leaks within wet areas in buildings.
Stachybotrys is a greenish-black mould that grows on materials that contain cellulose such as wood
fibreboard, fibre-cement, the paper lining of gypsum board, kraft paper wall and roof underlays, wallpaper
and timber, when the material is subject to wetting.
Finding Stachybotrys in a building does not immediately mean that the building occupants have been
exposed to allergens or toxins. While Stachybotrys is growing, a wet slime covers the spores, preventing
them from becoming airborne. Exposure will only occur when the mould has died and dried up.
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If you are working where Stachybotrys is suspected, investigate from outside, if possible, by removing a
small portion of lining to determine the type of mould present.
Do not carry out demolition with a crowbar as this will spread the spores.
Testing for Stachybotrys
If any black mould is found, it is recommended that it be tested to determine if it isStachybotrys chartarum.
Carefully take a sample by the following process:
1. Work with a mask or breathing filter and disposable gloves.
2. Ensure that no skin is exposed.
3. With a strip of clear adhesive tape about 100 mm long, place the tape over the mould and press firmly.
4. Remove the tape and place it in a plastic bag.
5. Securely seal the bag.
6. Send the sample to a testing laboratory such as Biodet Services Ltd (www.biodet.co.nz), Airlab Ltd
(www.airlab.co.nz) or Plantwise Services (www.plantwise.co.nz)
Removing and cleaning up procedures for toxic moulds
When toxic mould is found, it usually affects a significant area of the building and employing a specialist
contractor to carry out the removal is recommended.
For small areas, the mould may be removed provided the workers undertaking the removal follow these
procedures:
 Seal off the space from other parts of the building by taping up all openings.
 Wear a respirator with a P1 filter (minimum protection).
 Wear protective clothing that is disposable or easily washable.
 Remove any materials from which the mould cannot be removed such as wallpaper,
timber products, ceiling tiles, gypsum board, carpet, drapes and furniture (carpet that is
contaminated may be difficult to clean completely).
 Place removed materials in plastic bags that can be sealed.
 For materials such as glass, plastic and metal from which the mould can be removed completely, clean
the affected area using hot water and chlorine bleach, then rinse and allow to dry completely.
 Use a stiff brush on rough or uneven surfaces.
 On completion, thoroughly vacuum all surfaces of the sealed area using a vacuum with a fine particulate
(HEPA) filter. Once this is done, the room seals can be removed.
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8.9 Fire safety
Smoke and toxic fumes – not the flames from house fires –
generally cause fatalities. Fires from upholstery foam, bedding
materials and plastics will smoulder and produce toxic gases but
few flames, while fires from burning wood or cooking oil will
produce hot, fierce flames.
The design process of a new house or alteration work must include fire safety consideration. Smoke alarms
are compulsory in all new construction, and a law passed in May 2016 requires all rental properties to be
fitted with smoke alarms from 1 July 2019. Alarms must be the 10-year, long-life models. Other options
may include:
 installing heat detectors
 specification of a domestic fire sprinkler system
 the selection and specification of materials to lower the potential fire hazard.
Heaters and other appliances
All appliances that burn gas, oil, solid fuel or any other combustible material must be installed to ensure
that:
 the combustion process does not raise the temperature of any adjacent building element to a
level where its performance is affected
 the accumulation of combustion gases within the building is avoided (see passive ventilation
and mechanical ventilation).
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8.9.1 Smoke alarms
People who are sleeping do not smell smoke and are unlikely to wake up in the event of
a fire, so the most effective way to ensure they do wake up is by installing smoke
alarms.
On this page:
 types of smoke alarm
 domestic smoke alarm requirements
 installation
 maintenance of smoke alarms.
Types of smoke alarm
Smoke alarms detect the smoke particles from a fire. There are two common types:
• A photo-electric smoke alarm, which uses a beam of light and a light sensor. When smoke
particles affect the amount of light reaching the sensor, an alarm will sound.
 An ionisation smoke alarm, which monitors the ions (electrically charged particles). When the
electrical balance of the air is altered by the smoke particles, the alarm will sound.
The NZ Fire Service recommends that photo-electric alarms be installed in households or, if ionisation
alarms are currently installed, they should be supplemented with photo-electric alarms as these provide
more effective, all-round detection.
Smoke alarms are available with extra loud alarms, flashing lights or vibrating devices for people with
hearing loss.
To be effective, an installed smoke alarm must be operating properly, audible through closed doors and able
to detect smoke from all types of fires.
Domestic smoke alarms are typically battery-powered and provide good warning of the presence of smoke
and fire as long as batteries are replaced regularly. Mains-connected systems (with battery back-up in the
event of a power failure) are also available.
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Domestic smoke alarm requirements
The New Zealand Building Code requires that all new houses and all existing houses undergoing alteration
have smoke alarms installed. Domestic smoke alarms must be Type 1, which has:
 a hush button so the alarm can be cleared without shutting off power (i.e. by removing the battery)
 a test button.
Smoke alarms are compulsory in all new construction, and a law change in May 2016 requires all rental
properties to be fitted with smoke alarms from 1 July 2019. Alarms must be the 10-year, long-life models.
While landlords are required to install smoke alarms, the law places the responsibility on tenants to ensure
alarms are kept in working order. This includes replacing batteries.
Installation
Smoke alarms should be installed
 on (preferably) or near the ceiling
 on the escape route of each floor level of a household unit
 in every sleeping space or within 3.0 m of a sleeping space door
 in sleep-outs.
Note: The NZ Fire Service recommends installing them in every sleeping and living space.
If a smoke alarm must be located on a wall, install it 100 mm from the ceiling and 600 mm from a corner to
avoid dead air pockets.
Do not:
 install in a kitchen, garage or bathroom unless specifically designed for these spaces. Heat
detectors can be installed in these spaces instead.
 install close to a heater flue or an extract fan.
544
Larger homes
At least two smoke alarms will be needed in an extended plan home.
LAUNDRY
M
OO
DINING KITCHEN BEDROOM BEDROOM
R
TH
BA
LIVING ROOM
ENTRY BEDROOM BEDROOM
Separated sleeping areas
At least two smoke alarms will be needed if there is more than one sleeping area.
DINING KITCHEN LAUNDRY BEDROOM BEDROOM
BATH
LIVING ROOM ENTRY BEDROOM
BEDROOM
545
Placement of smoke alarms
If you’re placing a smoke alarm in a hallway, it should be between living areas and sleeping areas.
DINING KITCHEN LAUNDRY BEDROOM BEDROOM
BATH
LIVING ROOM ENTRY BEDROOM
More than one storey
If a home has more than one storey, there should be a smoke alarm on every level.
Maintenance of smoke alarms
Maintenance of smoke alarms includes:
 monthly testing of the alarm test facility
 annual, in situ cleaning with a vacuum cleaner (no disassembly required)
 replacement every 10 years.
546
8.9.2 Heat detectors
Heat detectors detect heat and smoke, but different types of heat detectors have a more
specific range of operation. Some detectors, for example, can detect heat:
 for a wide range of types of fires
 in spaces where normal temperatures have a limited range
 in spaces where rapid temperature changes may occur.
Heat detectors must be appropriate to the type of detection required.
Smoke alarms generally provide earlier warning of a fire so they are preferred in domestic situations.
547
8.9.3 Automatic fire sprinklers
Automatic fire sprinklers provide the most effective protection against fire damage. If a
fire starts in a sprinkler-protected building, the sprinkler heads immediately above the
fire will operate by discharging water to control the fire.
The most common domestic fire sprinkler systems:
 use a glass bulb, heat-sensitive element
 activate at about 68oC
 have a flat and wide spray pattern with small and medium droplet sizes
 have sprinkler heads that may be concealed, flush-mounted, side-wall or pendant type
 require a 20 mm diameter pipe connection.
If a fire develops, not all sprinkler heads will operate, but only those closest to the fire. (65% of fires are
controlled by a single sprinkler head and 95% are controlled by five sprinkler heads or less).
When a sprinkler head is set off, the fire brigade is also called.
Installation and maintenance
The design and installation of a domestic sprinkler system must be carried out by a qualified practitioner,
with independent inspection and certification.
Maintenance and testing should be in accordance with the relevant standards and in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.
8.10 Materials handling
Whether handling or moving materials, there are many potential hazards.
It’s important all workers understand how to minimise the risks when:
 manual and mechanical lifting
 working with treated timber
 handling hazardous materials.
548
8.10.1 Manual and mechanical lifting
Lifting and handling strategies – whether manual lifting or mechanical lifting or

lowering – must be considered on a building site.
Manual lifting
Before beginning any handling procedure (lifting, lowering, pushing, pulling or carrying) of heavy or large
objects, assess the situation:
 Check the overall size and shape of the load.
 Check the weight of the load. If too heavy, use a lifting device such as a forklift.
 Consider how you can grasp the load.
Lifting heavy objects incorrectly can put unnecessary strain on the back. Two common errors when
lifting are:
 using the wrong muscles, i.e. back muscles instead of leg and buttock muscles
 holding the object too far away from the body – the closer the object, the less the
pressure on the body.
When manually lifting an object, carry out the following procedure:
1. Assess the load.
2. Stand close to the load, centred over it and with feet set shoulder width apart for balance.
3. Bend your hips and knees, but keep your back straight.
4. Firmly grasp the object with both hands to keep the load balanced.
5. Keep the load close to your body.
6. Raise your head to look ahead.
7. Straighten your legs and make sure your back also remains straight.
549
Do not lift:
 with a rounded back
 while bent from the waist
 with feet close together
 with a tense or arched neck
 if the load is too heavy for you
 with an unbalanced load.
Mechanical lifting
Minimise the possibility of back strain, damaged fingers or other injuries by using mechanical lifting
equipment such as a pulley block or an electrically powered hoist. Move heavy objects with a forklift, crane
or other mechanical lifting equipment.
Mechanical lifting equipment must only be used by fully qualified people.
Mechanically lifting a load
Before lifting a load:
 warn anyone nearby to keep clear
 check that all slings, ropes or chains are securely attached to the load and the hook
 slowly start to raise the load to gently take the slack
 raise steadily until the load is just off the ground
 check that the load is stable and has not accidentally become hooked up
 ensure everyone is standing well clear before continuing the lift.
Mechanically lowering a load
Do not work underneath a load.
Before lowering a load:
 check that the ground is clear of obstacles
 use suitable supports to load the load onto – supports facilitate sling removal
 place supports on the ground where the load is to be lowered down to
 lower the load gently onto the supports
 guide the load manually as necessary.
550
8.10.2 Working with treated timber
Timber treatment preserves timber but can also be hazardous to health.
On this page:
 types of timber treatment
 Boron preservative
 LOSP preservative
 CCA preservative
 alternative timber preservatives
 alternatives to treated timber.
Timber treatment prevents deterioration by insect or fungal attack and preserves the quality of the timber.
Unfortunately, the chemicals that are used to preserve timber can also be harmful to people.
Precautions must be taken by anyone working with treated timber including those who carry out the
treatment and those who work with treated timber.
Types of timber treatment
The level of treatment selected must be appropriate for the intended use of the timber. The most commonly
used preservatives for timber treatments are:
 Boron compounds
 CCA compounds (copper chromium arsenic)
 LOSP (light organic solvent preservative) – commonly tributyl tin oxide (TBTO).
All fine wood dust is hazardous – protection to eyes, respiratory system and skin must be provided and worn.
Boron preservative
Boron is a water-based preservative frequently used for H1.2 framing timber. It is commonly dyed pink
(although where it is used for certain H3.1 applications, it is pre-primed in grey.)
Under normal conditions with good building practice, boron from boron-treated timber has no reported long-
term health effects.
551
LOSP preservative
Preservation involves the use of solvents to impregnate timber with chemicals such as TBTO (tributyltin
oxide), TBTN (tributyltin napthenate), IBPC (iodo propynyl butyl carbamate), and CuN (copper
naphthenate), although timber treated with these can no longer be used as enclosed framing under
Amendment 7 to B2/AS1. The solvents give off gas (evaporate) for some time after treatment.
Tributyl tin oxide (TBTO), a commonly used preservative with LOSP, is a strong skin irritant, so skin and eye
protection must be worn in conjunction with its use.
Use and handling
 Store in a well-ventilated, covered area.
 Remove wrapping to allow vapour to evaporate.
 Wear gloves and long sleeves when handling timber.
 Wear safety glasses and a filter mask when cutting and sanding.
 Work in a well-ventilated environment and carry out cutting, sanding and so on outside.
 Avoid working with solvent-damp timber.
 Always wash hands after handling LOSP timber.
 Wash clothes separately if there is sawdust on them.
CCA preservative
CCA treated timber (also commonly called tanalised timber) contains copper, chromium and arsenic, which
is a toxic chemical mixture but is relatively inert once fixed in the timber. However, it is not recommended in
skin contact use such as children’s playground equipment and hand rails. Treatments such as ACQ and
copper azole do not have the chrome and the arsenic but the higher levels of copper increase the corrosion
potential with steel and galvanised steel fixings.
Use and handling
 Carry out all cutting, sanding and so on outside.
 Wear a filter mask, safety glasses and gloves when cutting and sawing.
 Take particular care when the timber surface is wet or has crystalline chemical deposits on it.
 Clean up (timber scraps, sawdust) thoroughly afterwards.
 Dispose of waste to an approved (municipal) waste disposal area.
 Do not compost or mulch waste.
 Do not burn waste.
 Wash your hands before eating, drinking or smoking.
 Wash exposed areas of your body after working with treated timber.
 Wash work clothes separately from other clothes.
552
Environmental effects
Small quantities of chemicals can leach out over time so it should not be used where it may come into
contact with public drinking water.
Alternative timber preservatives
Other timber preservatives that are marketed as more environmentally friendly alternatives include:
 copper azole-based (CuAz)
 alkaline or ammoniacal copper quarternary-based (ACQ).
These treatments are approved for used for H3.1, H3.2, H4 and H5 hazard treatment levels. They contain
higher levels of copper than the CCA preservatives, which mean they are more corrosive to metals. Care must
be taken when selecting fixings, and consideration must be given to run-off from timber onto other materials.
Alternatives to treated timber

Alternatives to using treated timber may include substitution with other materials where possible. For
example:
 use concrete piles, strip foundations, recycled hardwood (e.g. jarrah telephone poles) or
concrete block retaining walls instead of piles or posts
 use heartwood timbers such as western red cedar or redwood for weatherboards, decking,
and so on instead of LOSP treated timber
 use Douglas fir, Lawson cypress or kiln-dried radiata pine instead of boric-treated timber
where the in-service moisture content will always be 18% or less.
553
8.10.3 Handling hazardous materials
Hazardous materials and wastes from construction or demolition of buildings includes:
 fluorescent light ballasts manufactured prior to 1978 – contain PCBs
 fluorescent lamps – contain mercury
 refrigeration, air conditioning, and other equipment that contain refrigerants made using CFCs
 batteries – contain lead, mercury and acid
 paints, solvents and other hazardous fluids
 asbestos-based materials
 materials with lead-based finishes.
If you are handling any of these materials (for example, for recycling), its important to know and follow the
correct procedures and to use appropriate personal protective equipment. You may also need to check the
removal and disposal requirements of hazardous materials with your city or district council.
554

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1st Edition, Sept.

2.0 Site Use

3.0 Passive Design

5.0 Material Use

7.0 Wet Areas

8.1 Health and Safety

2.0 Site Use

3.0 Passive Design 042

3.11 Controlling noise 124

4.0 Water 147

4.1.4 Appliances and fixtures 205

4.2 Waste water 208

4.2.5 Stormwater control and landscaping 275

5.0 Material Use 282

6.0 Energy 308

6.2 Cooling 336

7.0 Wet Areas 470

8.0 Health and Safety 515

1.1 New Zealand climate and environmental zones

 wind, earthquake, snow and exposure zones

 specific design standards.

Climate zones for energy efficiency

compliance document H1/AS1 Energy efficiency.

Zone boundaries are aligned with those of territorial authorities.

 Zone 2: The North Island except the Central Plateau

exposure zone and earthquake zone.

environmental features including wind, earthquake, snow load and exposure.

Wind regions and lee zone Snow zones

Exposure zones – North Island Exposure zones – South Island

Design factor Map NZ standard Design for…

Bracing Wind zone NZS 3604: Bracing requirements

Earthquake zone NZS 3604: Bracing requirements

Durability Corrosion zone NZS 3604: Timber treatment levels

 assessing a site for sun

 altitude and azimuth

 building material durability

 sites with limited solar gain

Assessing a site for sun

 the sun's path at different times of the day and year

on and around the site.

thermal performance of the house.

noon on 21/22 December (longest days of the year).

site depends on the latitude and the sunlight hours received.

levels around New Zealand since 1960.

considering installing a solar energy system.

Building material durability

degradation (such as fading).

Obstructions on a site may block sunlight access at times when it is required.

Alternatively, existing trees may be retained for summer shade.

Sites with limited solar access

can maximise the benefits of solar access.

Sun impact information is also available:

 obtaining plans of neighbouring buildings from local councils.

 designing for wind

 wind regions and zones

 gathering information about local wind conditions.

Designing for wind

Regional and site Comments

General wind speeds Source from:

Level of site Determine from on-site observation

Terrain Wind speed will:

 the direction of the strongest wind

 the direction of the coldest wind