MINTAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL

MINTAL, DAVAO CITY

GENERAL PHYSICS 2
MODULE 1
EXPLORING OUR POTENTIAL

Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of
1. Electric potential energy
2. Electric potential
3. Equipotential surfaces
4. Electric field as a potential gradient
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to use theoretical and experimental approaches to solve multi-concept and
rich-context problems involving electricity and magnetism.
Learning Competencies
At the end of the session, the students should be able to
1. Define operationally the electric potential;
2. Relate the electric potential with work, potential energy, and electric field (STEM_GP12EM-IIIb-15)
3. Evaluate the potential at any point in a region containing point charges (STEM_GP12EM-IIIb-16)
4. Draw and represent equipotential lines or equipotential curves.
5. Calculate the electric potential due to a charge distribution.
Learning Objectives:
1. Define electric potential energy, electric potential, and capacitance;
2. Compute the electric potential in a uniform electric field;
3. Compute the electric potential created by point charges and continuous charge distribution;
4. Relate equipotential surfaces to electric field;
5. Compute the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor;
6. Compute the equivalent capacitance of capacitors when connected in series, parallel, or a
combination of series and parallel;
7. Determine the energy stored in a capacitor.
Values:
1. Appreciate the efforts of scientists and researchers in making lives more comfortable
2. Develop resourcefulness and creativity
3. Observe safety precautions in handling circuit components.

A Closer Look Explained

All living things are made up of cells. The cell is considered the building block of life. The human
body is made up of trillions of cells. Cells have bilayer membranes composed of highly mobile
phospholipid molecules that electrically act as an insulator (dielectric). Cell membranes separate the
intracellular fluid from the extracellular fluid. The extracellular and intracellular fluids are aqueous salt
solutions of potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl). The potassium (K+), and chloride (Cl-
) ions are the major charge carrier. They have different concentrations inside and outside the cell.
Potassium ions are more concentrated inside the cell that outside it by of 30:1. Sodium and chlorine
ions are more concentrated outside than inside by a ratio of 10:1 and 20:1, respectively.
The cell membrane is semipermeable to sodium and potassium ions. Because of high
concentrations the potassium ions diffuse outward through the membrane, leaving a net negative charge
near the interior and a net positive charge near the exterior of the cell membrane. This separation of
charges causes the membrane potential.
The cell maybe considered a capacitor with the extracellular and intracellular fluids as conductors
and the cell membrane as the dielectric. The cell membrane is approximately 6nm thick. The cell
capacitance per unit area is more or less 1 x 10-2 F/m2.
All cells have potential across their cell membrane. The inner surface of a healthy cell has a
membrane potential of 70 V to 90 V. Cancerous cells have a lower membrane potential. This fact is now
being researched as a diagnostic tool for cancer.

CONCEPT IN A BOX

1 |Prepared by Jovy A. Dulay

 MINTAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL
MINTAL, DAVAO CITY

INTRODUCTION

Recall from the Chapter 1 that gravitational force and electrostatic force are both conservative
forces. For a conservative force, there is an associated potential energy U. The associated potential
energy for gravitational force is the gravitational potential energy. Thus, an electric potential energy that
is analogous to the gravitational potential energy exists.

LESSON 2.1 – ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD

(potential energy at apoint)
Recall that for a conservative force F acting along the x-direction, F = - ∆U or F∆x = - ∆U
∆x (distance)
But F∆x is equal to work. Thus, when a particle moves from point A to point B,
WA B = - ∆U = - (UB – UA) = UA – UB Eq. (2.1)
Where W A B is the work done from A to B, UA is the potential energy at point A, and UB is the potential
energy at UB.
Figure 2-1a shows a positive test charge q0 in a form downward electric field E produced by two
parallel plates. The field exerts a downward force F = q0E.Work is done by the electric force on the
charge as it moves from point A to point B (figure 2-1b).
W=Fd =q0Ed = UA – UB

Note that if the test charge moves in the

direction of the electric field, its potential energy
decreases. On the other hand, if it moves
against the direction of the electric field, the
potential energy increases.

Using the work-energy theorem, W = ∆K. therefore,

UA – UB = ∆K
UA – UB = KA – KB
Rearranging terms, KA + UA = KB + UB
Thus, conservation of mechanical energy also applies.

Sample Problem 1:

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 MINTAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL
MINTAL, DAVAO CITY

A point charge of 3.0 nC with a mass of 4.0 g is moved from x= 1.0 m to x = 1.5 m in an electric field of
5.0 N/C with the same direction as the motion of the charge.
a.) How much work is done on the charge by the electric force?
b.) What is the change in the potential energy of the charge?
c.) Assuming that the charge started from rest, what is its speed at x = 1.5 m?
Given: q = 3.0 nC = 3.0 x 10-9 C
m = 4.0 g = 4.0 x 10-3 kg
E = 5.0 N/C
d = 1.5 m – 1.0 m = 0.5 m
Solution:
a. W=Fd
Since F=qE. Therfore,
W = qEd
= (3.0 x 10-9 C)(5.0 N/C) (0.5 m)
= 7.5 x 10-9 N.m
= 7.5 x 10 -9 J
b. ∆U = - W = 7.5 x 10 -9 J
c. Using the work-energy theorem,
W = K – K0
W = ½ mv2 – ½ mv02
Since v0 = 0 (assuming that the charge started from rest),
W = ½ mv2
7.5 x 10 -9 J = ½ (4.0 x 10-3 kg) v2
v = 1.9 x 10-3 m/s

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

The electric potential (also called electrostatic potential or simply potential) at any point in an
electric field E is electric potential energy per unit charge at that point. Electric potential is designated
as V.
V=U
q0 Eq. (2.2)
Electric potential is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is the volt named after Alessadro Volta who
devised one of the first electric cells. Note that 1 V is equal to 1 joule/coulomb (J/C).

potential is also defined as the work done to move

a unit charge from infinity to an arbitrary point B. on
the other hand, if point A is neither the ground nor
infinity, then the work done by the electric force in
moving a unit positive test charge from point A to
point B is called the potential difference between
points A and B. the potential difference between A
and B, is designated as VAB, is determined by
subtracting the potential at point A from potential at
point B.
Using equation (2.1) and considering point
A at infinity or ground (zero potential energy),
VAB = W A B = ∆U = - UB – UA = - (VB – VA) = VA – VB Eq. (2.3)
q0 q0 q0 q0
Where VA and VB are electric potentials at points A and B, respectively. Note that the work done is not
dependent on the path taken in getting from point A to point B.

Self-check√
What is the difference between electric potential energy and electric potential?

Sample Problem 2

A charge of 6 x 10-7 C is transferred from infinity to point B. If the work done by the electric force
to do this is 1.2 x 10-5 J, what is the potential at point B?
Given: q0 = 6 x 10-7 C W∞ B = 1.2 x 10-5 J
Solution:
W∞ B = V∞– VB

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 MINTAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL
MINTAL, DAVAO CITY

1.2 x 10-5 J = 0 – VB
6 x 10-7 C
VB = 20 V
CALCULATING ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The electric potential at a point is a scalar quantity. It could be negative, positive, or zero
depending on the sign of the charge. At a point near a positive charge, the potential is positive; near a
negative charge, it is negative. From Eq ( 2.2), the electric potential at a point due to a charged
particle is given by
V = U = q0Ed = Ed
q0 q0
Using Eq (2.4) and noting that d = r (distance from the point charge),
V = kqr = kq Eq. (2.4)
r2 r
Where k is the Coulomb’s constant, q is the test charge of the particle (including the sign), and r is the
distance of the point from the charge. Eq. (2.4) shows that the electric field may also be expressed in
volt/meter, thus, 1 N/C = 1 V/m.

Sample Problem 3
A point charge of -6.00 x 10-9 C is 3.00 m from A and 5.00 m from point B.
A. Find the potential at point A and point B.
B. How much work is done by the electric field in moving a 2.00 nC particle from point A to B?
Given: q = -6.00 x 10-9 C distance rA of point a from charge = 3.00 m
distance rB of point B from charge = 5.00 m
Solution:
a. VA = kq = (9 x 109 N.m2/C2) (-6.00 x 10-9 C) = -18.0 V
rA 3.00 m
VB = kq = (9 x 10 N.m /C ) (-6.00 x 10-9 C) = -10.8 V
9 2 2

rB 5.00 m
b. Using Eq (2.3)
W/q = (VA-VB)
W = q(VA-VB) = (2.00 x 10-9 C) [(-18.0 V) – (-10.8 V )] = 1.44 x 10-8 J
If there are several charges, the potential at a point due to these charges is simply the
algebraic sum of the potential due to each charge. This is because V can be written in terms of E and
E follows the superposition principle. In figure 2-4, the potential V at point P due to charges q1, q2,
and q3, with distances r1, r2, and r3 respectively, from point p is
V = V1 + V2 + V3
= kq1 + kq2 + kq3
r1 r2 r3

4 |Prepared by Jovy A. Dulay

 MINTAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL
MINTAL, DAVAO CITY

For a continuous charge distribution along a line, surface area, or through a volume, the
potential maybe computed by determining the potential due to each element, and summing them
(integrate) over all the contributions.
V = k ∫ dq/ r

Equipotential Surfaces and Field Lines

An equipotential surface is a three-dimensional surface on which the potential is the same at

every point on that space. Since the potential energy does not change as charge is moved over an
equipotential surface, the electric field cannot do work on such charge. Recalling the definition of work
as the dot product of force and displacement, the work is zero if the force and displacement are
perpendicular to each other. Thus, the electric field lines and equipotential surfaces are always
perpendicular to each other. Figure 2-5 shows equipotential surfaces and electric field lines for
different charge configurations. The red lines are electric field lines and the blue lines are equipotential
surfaces.

LESSONS 2.2

CAPACITORS

One important element in an electric circuit is a capacitor. A capacitor is a device for storing
charges. The standard symbols for capacitor are shown in figure 2.6.
There are several types of capacitors. One of the simplest types of capacitors consists of two
equally but oppositely charged parallel conducting plates separated from each other by thin sheet of
insulating material or dielectric. When connected to a source of charge, such as a battery, the positive
terminal of the source removes electrons from the plate connected to it and transfers them to the other
plate. As a result, the two plates are equally but oppositely charged. Figure 2-7 shows the basic parts
of a parallel plate capacitor.
A capacitor is usually named after the dielectric material used. Common dielectric materials
used in a capacitor are mica, glass, air, ceramic, and paper. Some commercially available capacitors
are shown in Figure 2-8.

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 MINTAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL
MINTAL, DAVAO CITY

CAPACITANCE

Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to store charges. The capacitance C of a capacitor is

mathematically defined as the ratio of the amount of charge q in one plate to the potential difference V
between the plates. In symbols.
C=q/V Eq. (2.6)
The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F) named after Michael Faraday. Note that 1 is equal to
1 coulomb per volt.
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is affected by the following factors:
a. The area of plates. The bigger the area of the plates, the greater the capacitance.
b. The distance between the plates. The closer the plates to one another, the greater the
capacitance.
c. The insulating material or dielectric between them. The capacitance is determined in terms of
the material’s permittivity constant Ꞓ - the higher the Ꞓ , the greater the capacitance.

The dependence of the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor on the factors cited above is
mathematically expressed as
C = Ꞓ A/d Eq. (2.7)
Where A is the area of one plate, d is the distance between the plates, and Ꞓ is the permittivity of
the insulating material or dielectric. Table 2-1 lists the permittivity of some common dielectrics.
Sometimes, the relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the dielectric material is given instead
of its permittivity. The relative permittivity or dielectric constant Ꞓ R is the ratio of the permittivity Ꞓ
of the dielectric to the permittivity Ꞓ 0 of vacuum or air.
Ꞓ R = Ꞓ /Ꞓ 0 Eq. (2.8)

Note that Ꞓ R has no unit. Also the relative permittivity is greater than or equal to one.
Rewritting Eq (2.7) using Eq (2.8)
C = Ꞓ A/d = Ꞓ R Ꞓ 0 A/d
Note that C0 = Ꞓ 0 A/d (capacitance with air or vacuum as the dielectric). Therefore,
C = Ꞓ RꞒ 0
Inserting a dielectric other than air or vacuum increases the capacitance to an amount equal to
Ꞓ R times its original value.

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 MINTAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL
MINTAL, DAVAO CITY

There is a limit to the potential difference between the plates of the capacitor. When the
maximum potential difference is exceeded, the dielectric becomes a conductor, allowing the flow of
charges. These moving charges form sparks or discharge. This condition is known as dielectric
breakdown. Lightning is an example of dielectric breakdown.
Self-check
What is capacitance?
On what factors does the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depend?

Sample Problem 4

A capacitor consists of two square metal plates, each measuring 5.00 x 10-2 m on a side. In between
the plates is a sheet of mica measuring 1.00 x 10-4 m thick.
a. What is the capacitance of this capacitor?
b. If the charge in one plate is 2.00 x 10-8 C, what is the potential difference?
c. What is the electric field between the plates?
Given: side of the square plate = 5.00 x 10-2 m d = 1.00 x 10-4 m q = 2.00 x 10-8 C
Solution:
a. From table 2-1, the permittivity of mica is 4.8 x 10-11 C2/N.m2. Therefore using Eq. (2.7)
C = Ꞓ A/d = Ꞓ (side)2/d = (4.8 x 10-11 C2/N.m2 ) [(5.00 x 10-2 m)2 / 1.00 x 10-4 m]
= 1.2 x 10-9 F
b. The potential difference between the plates may be computed using Eq. (2.6).
V = q/C = 2.00 x 10-8 C/1.2 x 10-9 F = 16.7 V or 17 V
c. Using Eq. (2.4)
E = V/d = 16.7 V/1.00 x 10-4 m = 16.7 x 105 V/m or 1.7 x 105 V/m
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
Capacitors may be connected in series or in parallel. Figure 2-11 shows these connections.

Referring to figure 2-11a, the series combination of capacitors is characterized by only one path for
charge transfer through terminals A and B. all the series capacitors acquire the same charge. The
charges in each capacitor are equivalent, and are all equal to the total charge in the combination. But
because they have different capacitances, the potential differences between the plates of the
capacitor are different. In summary, the following relationships apply for capacitors in series.
a. Charge: qtotal= q1 =q2 = q3 = …. = qn
b. Potential difference: Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 + … + Vn
c. Capacitance: Using Eq (2.6) and the above relationships between charges and voltages
qtotal = q1 + q2 + q3 +…. + qn
Ctotal C1 C2 C3 Cn
1__ = _1 + _1 + _1 +…. + 1_
Ctotal C1 C2 C3 Cn
For parallel capacitors, there are several paths for the transfer of charges through the voltage
terminals A and B. since the capacitors are connected to the same terminals A and b, then the
potential differences between their plates are equivalent, and are equal to Vtotal.
In summary, the following relationships apply for capacitors in parallel.
a. Charge: qtotal = q1 + q2 + q3 + … + qn
b. Potential difference: Vtotal = V1 = V2 = V3 = … = Vn
c. Capacitance: using Eq (2.6) and the above relationship[s between charges and voltages.
CtotalVtotal = C1V1 + C2V2 + C3V3 + … + Cn
Ctotal = C1 + C2 + C3 + … + Cn

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 MINTAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL
MINTAL, DAVAO CITY

Self-check √
What are the rules for series and parallel combinations of capacitors?
Sample Problem 5
Given that C1 = 10.0 F, C2 = 5.0 F, and C3 = 4.0 F, find the total capacitance for each connection
shown.

Given: C1 = 10.0 F C2 = 5.0 F C3 = 4.0 F

Solution:
a. C1, C2, and C3 are in series. Therefore,
1__ = _1 + _1 + _1
Ctotal C1 C2 C3

1__ = _1____ + _1___ + _1___

Ctotal 10.0 F 5.0 F 4.0 F
= _0.10 + _0.20_ + _0.25
F F F
1__ = 0.55
Ctotal F
Ctotal = 1.8 F

b. C1, C2, and C3 are parallel. Therefore,

Ctotal = C1 + C2 + C3
Ctotal = 10.0 F + 5.0 F + 4.0 F = 19 F
C. C1 and C2 are in series. Therefore, their combined capacitance C 1+2 is
1__ = _1 + _1 = _1____ + _1___ = 0.10 + _0.20_ = 0.30
C1+2 C1 C2 10.0 F 5.0 F F F F
C1+2 = 3.3 F
This series combination of C1 and C2 is parallel to C3. Therefore, the total capacitance is
Ctotal = C1+2 + C3 =3.3 F + 4.0 F = 7.3 F
ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITOR
In charging a capacitor, the charges simply move from one plate directly onto the other plate.
The charges move against a potential difference V between the plates, such that has +q on it, while
the other plate has –q. This potential difference increases as more charges are transferred. If the
capacitor is initially uncharged, the potential difference is zero. Assuming that after a total charge q
has been transferred, the final difference between the plates is V; thus, the average potential
difference that the total charge q was moved is V/2.
Recall that the definition of potential difference is the work done to move a charge from point A
to point B. thus, the work done to move a total charge q against the average potential difference V/2 is
the product of q and V/2. The energy U stored in a capacitance is equal to this work.
W = U = ½ qV
Based on the definition of capacitance, Eq (2.10) may be written in the following alternative forms.
U = ½ qV = ½ CV2 = ½ q2/C
Sample Problem 6
a. How much energy is stored by a 35 µF capacitor when charge on each plate is 2500 µC?
b. What is the potential difference between the plates of the capacitor?
Given : C = 35 µF = 35 x 10-6 F q = 2500 µC = 2500 x 10-6 C

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 MINTAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL
MINTAL, DAVAO CITY

Solution;
a. U = ½ q2/C = ½ (2500 x 10-6 C)2 = 8.9 x 10-2 J
35 x 10-6 F
b. V = q/C = 2500 x 10-6 C = 71.43 or 71 V
35 x 10-6 F
Summative Test
A. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.
1. Which is the SI unit of capacitor?
a. Coulomb b. Farad c. faraday d. joule
2. Which unit is equivalent to newton/coulomb?
a. Coulomb/volt b. farad/meter c. joule/coulomb d. volt/meter
3. What is the value of the electric potential energy at an infinite distance from a point charge?
a. 0 b. 1.0 V c. 100 V d. ∞
4. Who determined the charge of an electron?
a. Ewald Georg von Kleist c. Michael Faraday
b. James Prescott Joules d. Robert Andrews Millikan
5. The cell is considered a capacitor with the _______ as the dielectric.
a. Cell membrane b. extracellular fluid c. intracellular fluid d. muscles
6. The volt is a unit of ______.
a. Electric field b. electric potential energy c. electrostatic force d. potential
7. Charges of +q and –q are situated at the two vertices of an equilateral triangle. What can be said of
the electric field E and potential V at the unoccupied vertex?
a. E=0, V=0 b. E=0, V<0 c. E=0, V>0 d. E≠0, V≠0
For items 8 to 10, the series combination of 5.0 F and 20.0 F capacitors is connected in parallel
to a 40.0 F capacitor.
8. The equivalent capacitance is ________.
a. 3.6 F b. 15 F c. 44 F d. 65 F
9. What is the total charge stored in the combination of capacitors hen connected to 100 V?
a. 360 C b. 1500 C c. 4400 C d. 6500 C
10. What is the energy stored in the combination of capacitors?
a. 2200 J b. 4400 J c. 220 000 J d. 440 000 J
For items 11 to 13, a parallel plate air capacitor has a capacitance of 5.0 F.
11. What is its capacitance if the separation between the plates is decreased to one-half its original
value while keeping all other factors constant?
a. 1.25 F b. 2.5 F c. 5.0 f d. 10.0 F
12. What is its capacitance if the area of the plates is decreased to one-half its original value while
keeping all other factors constant?
a. 1.25 F b. 2.5 F c. 5.0 f d. 10.0 F
13. What is the capacitance if a dielectric of relative permeability of 2 is inserted between the plates of
the original air capacitor?
a. 1.25 F b. 2.5 F c. 5.0 f d. 10.0 F
14. Electric lines of force and equipotential surfaces are always ______.
a. Curved b. straight c. parallel to each other d. perpendicular to each other
15. What is the electric filed between two parallel metal plates separated by 2.5 cm with a potential
difference of 3000 V?
a. 830 N/C b. 1200 N/C c. 7500 N/C d. 120 000 N/C

B. Critical Thinking. Answer the following items. Show your computation if necessary. Use additional
sheets of paper if necessary.
1. Four charges, q1 = 5.00 x 10-7 C, q2 = -3.00 x 10-7 C, q3 = -2.00 x 10-7 C, and q4 = 6.00 x
10-7 C, are situated at the corners of a square of side 4.00 m. Find the potential at the center
of the square.

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 MINTAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL
MINTAL, DAVAO CITY

q1 - 4m q2

4m 4m

q3 4m q4

2. The capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor is 350.0 µF. When a sheet of a dielectric is
inserted between the plates, the capacitance increases to 2100.0 µF. What is the permittivity of
the dielectric?
3. A parallel plate capacitor is made up of two plates each having an area of 8.0 x 10-4 m2 and
separated from each other by 5.0 mm. Half of the space between the plates is filled with glass
and the other with mica. Find the capacitance of this capacitor.

+++++++++++++++++++++
glass mica
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

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