Document

DSP
EC-313
Designed and Prepared by

Dr. Dharmendra Dixit
DSP is Everywhere
Sound applications:
• Compression, enhancement, special effects, synthesis, recognition, echo cancellation,…

• Cell Phones, MP3 Players, Movies, Dictation, Text-to-speech,…
Communication:
• Modulation, coding, detection, equalization, echo cancellation,…

• Cell Phones, dial-up modem, DSL modem, Satellite Receiver,…
Automotive:
• Active Noise Cancellation, Cruise Control, Parking, ABS, GPS, …
Medical:
• Electrocardiogram, Magnetic Resonance, Tomography, …
Military:
• Radar, Sonar, Space photographs, remote sensing,…
Image and Video Applications:
• DVD, JPEG, Movie special effects, video conferencing,…
Mechanical:
• Motor control, process control, oil and mineral prospecting,…
Signal Processing
Humans are the most advanced signal processors:
• speech and pattern recognition, speech synthesis,…
We encounter many types of signals in various applications:
• Electrical signals: voltage, current, magnetic and electric fields,…

• Mechanical signals: velocity, force, displacement,…
• Acoustic signals: sound, vibration,…
• Other signals: pressure, temperature,…
1

Most real-world signals are analog:
• They are continuous in time and amplitude

• Convert to voltage or currents using sensors and transducers
Analog circuits process these signals using:
• Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Amplifiers,…
Analog signal processing examples:
• Audio processing in FM radios

• Video processing in traditional TV sets
Limitations of Analog Signal Processing
Accuracy limitations due to:
• Component tolerances
• Undesired nonlinearities
Limited repeatability due to:
• Tolerances
• Changes in environmental conditions: Temperature, Vibration
Sensitivity to electrical noise
Limited dynamic range for voltage and currents
Inflexibility to changes
Difficulty of implementing certain operations
• Nonlinear operations
• Time-varying operations
Difficulty of storing information
2

Digital Signal
S Proceessing
Represen
nt signals by
y a sequencce of numbeers
• Sampling or analog-to-di
a gital conversions
Perform
m processing
g on these nu
umbers with
h a digital processor:
p
• D
Digital signall processing
Reconstrruct analog signal from

m processed numbers:
• R
Reconstructio
on or digital--to-analog coonversion
Analog input
i – anallog output
• D
Digital record
ding of musiic
Analog input
i – digittal output
• T
Touch tone ph
hone dialingg
Digital in
nput – analog output
• T to speecch
Text
Digital in
nput – digittal output
• C
Compression of a file on computer
3

Pros and Cons of Digital Signal Processing
Pros:
• Accuracy can be controlled by choosing word length

• Repeatable
• Sensitivity to electrical noise is minimal
• Dynamic range can be controlled using floating point numbers
• Flexibility can be achieved with software implementations
• Non-linear and time-varying operations are easier to implement
• Digital storage is cheap
• Digital information can be encrypted for security
• Price/performance and reduced time-to-market
Cons:
• Sampling causes loss of information

• A/D and D/A requires mixed-signal hardware
• Limited speed of processors
• Quantization and round-off errors
4

REC503: Digital Signal Processing
Dharmendra Dixit : Assistant Professor
Deparment. of Electronics Engineering,

Rajkiya Engineering College, Sonbhadra, U. P.
August 06, 2018
D. Dixit (REC Sonbhadra ) REC503: Digital Signal Processing August 06, 2018 1 / 66
Why Study Signals and Systems?
Engineers build systems that process/manipulate signals.

Need formal mathematical framework for study of such systems.
Can use framework to ensure system meets required
specifications (performance, safety).
Objectives of Course
To introduce the undergraduate students to the concepts of

continuous and discrete time signals and systems. Our emphasis
is on mathematical abstraction required for describing and
analysis.
To provide a foundation for other courses that deal with signal and
system concepts directly or indirectly : communication, control
and instrumentation and so on.
Course Outcome
After attending this course, students are expected to analyze and

design any signal processing system with ease.
Outline
Formal definitions of the terms “signals and systems"

Classification of signals
Elementary signals
Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time systems
Basic system properties
Signal
Definition: Signal is a function of one or more independent

variables that conveys information about the behavior or attributes
of some phenomenon.
For function f (t1 , t2 , . . . , tn ), each {ti ; 1 ≤ i ≤ n} is called
independent variable, function value itself referred to as
dependent variable.
Dimensionality of Signals:
A signal that is a function of only one variable is said to be one
dimensional (1D) signal. Human speech is an example of a 1D
signal.
A signal that is a function of two or more variables is said to be
multidimensional. Monochromatic image is an example of a 2D
signal.
Information in a signal is contained in a pattern of variations of
some form.
Examples of signals
A voltage signal : voltage across two points varying as a function

of time.
A photograph : color and intensity as function of 2-dimensional
space.
A video signal : color and intensity as a function of 2-dimensional
space and time.
System
Definition: System is a physical model that gives out an output

signal in response to an input signal.
Pictorial representation of system
Input Signal Output Signal

System
Examples of system
An oscilloscope : It takes in a voltage signal and outputs a

2-dimensional image characteristic of voltage signal.
A computer monitor : It inputs voltage pulses from CPU and
outputs a time varying display.
A capacitor : Terminal voltage signal may be looked at as input
signal and current signal as the output signal.
Try to identify, some real life examples as models of signals and
systems that would help us in understanding the subject better.
Contd...
Our focus when dealing with signals and systems will be on the
relationship between input and output signals and not really on the
internals of the system.
Issues that will concern us in signals and systems include:
Characterization (description of behavior) of signals and systems
Design of systems with certain desired properties
Modification of existing systems to our advantage.
Classification of signals
1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals

2 Analog and Digital Signals
3 Real and Complex Signals
4 Even and Odd Signals
5 Energy and Power Signals
6 Deterministic and Random Signals
Continuous-Time Signals
Symbol t for independent variable.

Use parentheses (·).
Continuous-time signal: x(t)
Definition: A signal x(t) is said to be a continuous time signal if it
is defined for all time t ∈ (−∞, ∞).
Graphical representation
x(t)
Discrete-Time Signals
Symbol n for independent variable.
Use brackets [·].
Discrete-time signal: x[n]
Definition: A signal x[n] is said to be a discrete time signal if it is
defined only at discrete instants of time n ∈ (. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 . . .).
Graphical representation
x[n]
1.5
0.5
2
−1 0 1 n
−1
Analog and Digital Signals
Analog Signal: If a signal can take on any value in the continuous

interval (a, b), where a may be −∞ and b may be +∞, then the
signal is called an analog signal.
Digital Signal: If a signal can take on only finite number distinct
values, then the signal is called a digital signal.
Analog signal:
Analog continuous-time signal
Analog discrete-time signal
Digital signal:
Digital continuous-time signal
Digital discrete-time signal
Contd...
x(t) x(t)
0 t 0 t
−1
Analog continuous-time signal Digital continuous-time signal
Contd...
x[n] x[n]
1
1 2
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n −1 0 3 4 n
−1
Analog discrete-time signal Digital discrete-time signal
Real and Complex Signal
Definition: A signal is a real signal if its value is a real number

Definition: A signal is a complex signal if its value is a complex
number
Continuous-time
x(t) = x1 (t) + j x2 (t)
and discrete-time
x[n] = x1 [n] + j x2 [n]
√
where j = −1 and x1 (·) and x2 (·) are two real signals.
Signal Energy and Power
Often classification of signals according to energy and power

Terminology energy and power used for any signal x(t), x[n]
Need not necessarily have a physical meaning
Signal energy
Energy of a possibly complex continuous-time signal x(t) in interval
t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 Z t2
E(t1 , t2 ) = | x(t) |2 dt
t1
Energy of a possibly complex discrete-time signal x[n] in interval

n1 ≤ n ≤ n2
n2
X
E(n1 , n2 ) = | x[n] |2
n=n1
Contd...
Total energy
Z ∞
E∞ = E(−∞, ∞) = | x(t) |2 dt
−∞
∞
X
E∞ = E(−∞, ∞) = | x[n] |2
n=−∞
Example: Total energy of the discrete-time signal

n
a , n≥0
x[n] =
0, n ≤ 0
with | a |< 1
∞ ∞
X X 1
E∞ = | x[n] |2 = | an |2 =
n=−∞
1− | a |2
n=0
Signal Power
Consider the time-averaged signal power
Average power of x(t) in interval t1 ≤ t ≤ t2
Z t2
1
P (t1 , t2 ) = | x(t) |2 dt
t2 − t1 t1
Average power of x[n] in interval n1 ≤ n ≤ n2
n2
1 X
P (n1 , n2 ) = | x[n] |2
n2 − n1 + 1 n=n
1
Analogously
Z T
1
P∞ = P (−∞, ∞) = lim | x(t) |2 dt
T →∞ 2T −T
N
1 X
P∞ = P (−∞, ∞) = lim | x[n] |2
N →∞ 2N + 1
n=−N
Contd...
Classification of signals based on their energy and power

Signals with finite total energy, 0 < E∞ < ∞
Zero average power P∞ = 0
Example: any signal with finite duration
Signals with finite average power, 0 < P∞ < ∞
Infinite total energy E∞ = ∞ if P∞ > 0
Example: periodic signals e.g. x(t) = cos(t), x[n] = sin(5n)
Signals with infinite power P∞ = ∞ and infinite energy E∞ = ∞
Not desirable in engineering applications
Examples: x(t) = et , x[n] = n10
Classification of signals based on their energy and power is
mutually exclusive.
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Periodic continuous-time signal
x(t) = x(t + T ), t ∈ (−∞, ∞)
T > 0: period
x(t) period with T ⇒ x(t) also periodic with mT , m is an integer
constant.
Smallest period of x(t): Fundamental period T0 .
Example: T0 = T
x(t)
−3T −2T −T 0 T 2T 3T t
Contd...
Periodic discrete-time signal
x[n] = x[n + N ], n ∈ {. . . − 2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}
Integer N > 0: period

x[n] period with N ⇒ x[n] also periodic with mN , m is an integer
constant.
Smallest period of x[n]: Fundamental period N0 .
Example: N0 = 4
x[n]
−6 −5 −2 −1 2 3 6
−4 −3 0 1 4 5 n
A signal that is not periodic is referred to as aperiodic.
Even and Odd Signals
Even signal
x(−t) = x(t)
or
x[−n] = x[n]
Example: Graphical representation

x(t)
0 t
Symmetric about the vertical axis or origin
Contd...
Odd signal
x(−t) = −x(t)
or
x[−n] = −x[n]
Example: Graphical representation

x[n]
−3 −2 −1
0 1 2 3 n
Necessarily: x(0) = or x[0] = 0

Antisymmetric about the vertical axis or origin
Contd...
Decomposition of any signal into an even and odd part, i.e.

Continuous-time signal
x(t) = Ev{x(t)} + Od{x(t)}

where
x(t) + x(−t)
Ev{x(t)} =
2
and
x(t) − x(−t)
Od{x(t)} =
2
Contd...
Discrete-time signal
x[n] = Ev{x[n]} + Od{x[n]}

where
x[n] + x[−n]
Ev{x[n]} =
2
and
x[n] − x[−n]
Od{x[n]} =
2
Deterministic and Random Signals
A deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no

uncertainty with respect to its value at any time. Deterministic
signals may be modeled as completely specified function of time.
By contrast, a random signal is a signal about which there is a
uncertainty before it occurs.
Periodic and random signals are usually viewed as power signals
Aperiodic and deterministic are usually viewed as energy signals
Basic operations on independent variable of the Signal
Two continuous-time signals x(t) and y(t) are related as
y(t) = x(a t − b); a 6= 0
where a and b are real constants

y(t) can be formed by two ways
First time scaling x(t) by a and then time shifting the result by ab
First time shifting x(t) by b and then time scaling the result by a
Contd...
y(t) = x(2t − 2)
= x(2(t − 1))
x(t) y1 (t) = x(2t) y(t) = y1 (t − 1) = x(2(t − 1))
1 scaling 1 Shifting right 1

by 2 by 1
−2 −1 0 1 2 t −1 0 1 t 0 1 2 t
x(t) y1 (t) = x(t − 2) y(t) = y1 (2t) = x(2t − 2)
1 Shifting right 1 scaling 1

by 2 by 2
−2 −1 0 1 2 t 0 1 2 3 4 t 0 1 2 t
Contd...
Two discrete-time signals x[n] and y[n] are related as
y[n] = x[a n − b]; a≥1
where a and b are real constants

y[n] can be formed by
First time shifting x[n] by b and then time scaling the result by a
Contd...
y[n] = x [2n − 3]
x[n] y1 [n] = x[n − 3] y[n] = y1 [2n] = x[2n − 3]
1 Shifting right 1 scaling 1

by 3 by 2
−2 −1 0 1 2 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 n 0 1 2 n

3
y[n] = x 2 n −
2
3
a shift 2 is not defined for discrete-time signal
Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Systems
Unified representation of physical processes by systems.

An audio system takes a recorded audio signal and generates a
reproduction of that signal.
System: Entity that transforms input signals into new output
signals
One or more input and output signals
Continuous-time system transforms continuous-time input signals
into new continuous-time output signals.
Discrete-time system transforms discrete-time input signals into
new discrete-time output signals.
Contd...
Formal notation of input-output relation

Continuous-time system
x(t) → y(t)
Discrete-time system
x[n] → y[n]
Another popular notation that you may find in books is
y(t) = S{x(t)}, where S{·} represents the system operator.
Contd..
Pictorial representation of systems
x(t) y(t)
Continuous-time System
x[n] Discrete-time System y[n]
Simple Examples of Systems
Quadratic system
y(t) = (x(t))2
System represented by a first order differential equation
dy(t)
+ ay(t) = bx(t)
dt
with constants a and b.
Delay system
y[n] = x[n − 1]
System described by a first order difference equation
y[n] = ay[n − 1] + bx[n]
with constants a and b

Interconnections of Systems
Many real systems are built as interconnects of several

subsystems.
An audio system can be viewed as an interconnection of a radio
receiver, compact disc (CD) player or tape deck with an amplifier
and one or more speakers.
Often break down a complex system into smaller subsystems to
facilitate the analysis and design of that system.
Series (Cascade)Interconnection
Input Signal Output Signal

System 1 System 2
Example: Communication channel and receiver, detector and

decoder in communications.
Parallel Interconnection
System 1
Input Output
System 2
Example: Diversity transmission: transmission of the same signal

over two antennas and receiving it with one antenna
Feedback Interconnection
Input Output
System 1
System 2
Examples: Closed-loop frequency/phase/timing synchronization in

communications, human motion control, line follower robot.
Basic System Properties
Simple mathematical formulation of basic system properties.

For conciseness only definitions for continuous-time systems
Replacing “(t)” by “[n]” ⇒ definitions for discrete-time systems.
Classification of systems based on their properties
Memory ⇒ System with and without Memory (Memoryless
system)
Causality ⇒ Causal System and Noncausal System
Stability ⇒ Stable System and Unstable System.
Time Invariance ⇒ Time Invariant System and Time Variant
System
Invertibility ⇒ Invertible System (Inverse System) and
Non-invertible System
Linearity ⇒ Linear System and Non-linear System
System with and without Memory (Memoryless
system)
Memory is a property relevant only to systems whose input and
output signals have the same independent variable.
Memoryless system if output signal depends only on present
value of input signal.
Otherwise, a system is said to be system with memory.
Example:
Memoryless systems

 x[n], −A ≤ x[n] ≤ A
1 Limiter: y[n] = −A, x[n] < −A
A, x[n] > A

2 Amplifier: y(t) = Ax(t)
Systems with memory
Accumulator: y[n] = n
P
k=−∞ x[k] = x[n] + y[n − 1]
1
2 Delay: y(t) = x(t − tR0 )

t
3 Capacitor: v(t) = C1 −∞ i(τ )dτ
Causality
Causality is a property relevant only to systems whose input and

output signals have the same independent variable. Further this
independent variable must be ordered (It makes no sense to talk
of “past" and future when the independent variable is not ordered.)
Causal system if the output at any time depends only on past and
present values of the input. Such a system is often referred to as
being non-anticipative, as the system output does not anticipative
future values of the input.
Contd...
Example:
Causal system Pn
Accumulator: y[n] = k=−∞ x[k] = x[n] + y[n − 1]
Noncausal system PN
Averager: y[n] = 2N1+1 k=−N x[n − k]
All memoryless systems are causal.
Generally all real time systems are causal systems; because in
real time applications only present and past samples are present.
Stability
Consider bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stability.

BIBO stable system if for any bounded input signal
|x(t)| ≤ Bx < ∞, for all values of t
the output signal is bounded
|y(t)| ≤ By < ∞, for all values of t
Contd...
Example:
Stable system PN
Averger: y[n] = 2N1+1 k=−N x[n − k]
Bounded input |x[n]| < Bx ⇒ bounded output |y[n]| < By = Bx
Unstable system R
t
Integrator: y(t) = −∞ x(τ )dτ
Bounded input x(t) = u(t) ⇒ unbounded output y(t) = tu(t)
System stability is important in engineering applications, unstable
systems need to be stabilized.
Example: The first Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge collapsed
due to wind-induced vibrations, November 1940.
Time Invariance
Time invariant system if behavior and characteristics are

time-invariant, i.e., identical response to same input signal no
matter when input signal is applied
x(t) → y(t)
x(t − t0 ) → y(t − t0 )
Which of the following is time-invariant?

1 y(t) = x(2t)
2 y(t) = x(t − 1)
3 y[n] = nx[n]
Graphical Explanation
x(t) → y(t) = x(2t) : time-variant

To see this let
x(t) y(t)
1 scaling 1
by 2
−2 −1 0 1 2 t −1 0 1 t
Shifting right
by 2
x1 (t) = x(t − 2) y1 (t)
1 Scaling 1
by 2
0 1 2 3 4 t 0 1 2 t
Contd...
x(t) y(t) y(t − 2)
1 scaling 1 Shifting right 1

by 2 by 2
−2 −1 0 1 2 t −1 0 1 t 1 2 3 t
Shifting right
by 2
x1 (t) = x(t − 2) y1 (t)
1 Scaling 1 y1 (t) 6= y(t − 2)
by 2 y1 (t) = y(t − 1)
0 1 2 3 4 t 0 1 2 t
It is obvious that a shift 2 in the input does not lead to a same shift
in the output. This implies that the system is time-variant.
Analytical Explanation
x(t) → y(t) = x(2t)

x1 (t) → y1 (t) = x1 (2t)
Let x1 (t) = x(t − t0 )
x1 (2t) = x(2t − t0 );
First shifting operation is perform and then scaling is done
y1 (t) = x1 (2t) = x(2t − t0 )
Contd...
y(t) = x(2t)
y(t − t0 ) = x(2t − 2t0 )

= x(2(t − t0 ))
First scaling operation is perform and then shifting is done
y1 (t) = x(2t − t0 )
6= y(t − t0 )
This implies that the system is not time-invariant.
Graphical Explanation
x(t) → y(t) = x(t − 1): time invariant
x(t) y(t)
1 Shifting right 1
by 1
−2 −1 0 1 2 t −1 0 1 2 3 t
Shifting right
by 2
x1 (t) = x(t − 2) y1 (t)
1 Shifting Right 1
by 1
0 1 2 3 4 t 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Contd..
x(t) y(t)
1 Shifting right 1
by 1
−2 −1 0 1 2 t −1 0 1 2 3 t
Shifting right Shifting right

by 2 by 2
x1 (t) = x(t − 2) y1 (t) = y(t − 2)
1 Shifting Right 1
by 1
0 1 2 3 4 t 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
It is obvious that a shift 2 in the input leads to a same shift in the

output. This implies that the system is time-invariant.
Invertibility and Inverse Systems
Invertible system if distinct input leads to distinct output.

If a system is invertible, then an inverse system exists which when
cascaded with original system gives an output same as the
original input to the first system.
x(t) y(t) Inverse w(t) = x(t)

System
System
Contd...
Invertible systems
1 Amplifier: y(t) = Ax(t), A 6= 0
Inverse system: w(t) = A1 y(t) (=Amplifier)
2 Accumulator: y[n] = y[n − 1] + x[n]
Inverse system: w[n] = y[n] − y[n − 1] (=Differentiator)
Non-invertible systems

 x[n], −A ≤ x[n] ≤ A
1 Limiter: y[n] = −A, x[n] < −A
A, x[n] > A


1, x[n] ≥ 0
2 Slicer: y[n] =
−1, elsewhere
Linearity
No need to input and output signals have same independent

variable.
Linearity can be thought of as consisting of two properties:
additivity and homogeneity (scaling)
Additivity ⇒ Additive system if output corresponding to sum of any
two inputs is the sum of the corresponding two outputs.
x1 (t) → y1 (t)
x2 (t) → y2 (t)
x3 (t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) → y3 (t) = y1 (t) + y2 (t)
Contd...
Homogeneity ⇒ Homogeneous system if scaling any input signals

scales the output signal by the same factor.
x(t) → y(t)
a x(t) → a y(t)
where a is any complex constant.
Contd...
Linearity ⇒ Linear system obeys both additivity and homogeneity.
x1 (t) → y1 (t)
x2 (t) → y2 (t)
a x1 (t) + b x2 (t) → a y1 (t) + b y2 (t)
where a and b are any complex constant.

Linear systems possess property of superposition.
Let xk (t) → yk (t), then
N
X N
X
ak xk (t) = x(t) → y(t) = ak yk (t)
k=1 k=1
“Not linear" systems are referred to as nonlinear.

Contd...
Additivity and homogeneity are independent properties

Example of system which is additive but not homogeneous
y(t) = (x(t))∗
It is homogeneous for real constants but for not complex constant.

Example of system which is homogeneous but not additive
(x(t))2
y(t) =
x(t − 1)
Contd...
Which of the following is liner system?

1 y(t) = tx(t)
2 y[n] = (x[n])2
Contd...
System y(t) = tx(t) is linear.
To see this let
x1 (t) → y1 (t) = tx1 (t)

x2 (t) → y2 (t) = tx2 (t)
and
x3 (t) = ax1 (t) + bx2 (t)
and check
y3 (t) = tx3 (t) = tax1 (t) + tbx2 (t) = ay1 (t) + by2 (t)
i.e.,
ax1 (t) + bx2 (t) → ay1 (t) + by2 (t)
Contd...
System y[n] = (x[n])2 is nonlinear.

To see this let
x1 [n] → y1 [n] = (x1 [n])2

x2 [n] → y2 [n] = (x2 [n])2
and
x3 [n] = ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]
and check
y3 [n] = (x3 [n])2 = a2 y1 [n] + b2 y2 [n] + 2abx1 [n]x2 [n]

6= ay1 [n] + by2 [n]
Remark:
Linear time-invariant (LTI) systems play a prominent role for

system modeling and analysis.
Many physical processes have linearity and time-invariance
properties and thus can be modeled as LTI systems.
Classification of LTI systems
1 Discrete-Time LTI Systems
2 Continuous-Time LTI Systems
References
J. G. Proakis, and D. G. Manolakis, Digital Signal Processing: Principles, Algorithms, and Applications, 4th Edition
Pearson, 2007.
A. V. Oppenheim, A. S. Willsky and S. H. Nawab, Signals and Systems, PHI, 1997.
The University of British Columbia, Course Notes for EECE 359 : Signals and Communications, Fall 2011.
M. D. Adams, Lecture Slides for Continuous-Time Signals and Systems Version: 2013-09-11.
V. M. Gadre, Lecture Slides for Signals and Systems
QUESTIONS ?
THANK YOU

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DSP

Designed and Prepared by

• Compression, enhancement, special effects, synthesis, recognition, echo cancellation,…

• Modulation, coding, detection, equalization, echo cancellation,…

• Active Noise Cancellation, Cruise Control, Parking, ABS, GPS, …

• Electrocardiogram, Magnetic Resonance, Tomography, …

• Radar, Sonar, Space photographs, remote sensing,…

Image and Video Applications:

• DVD, JPEG, Movie special effects, video conferencing,…

• Motor control, process control, oil and mineral prospecting,…

Humans are the most advanced signal processors:

• speech and pattern recognition, speech synthesis,…

We encounter many types of signals in various applications:

• Electrical signals: voltage, current, magnetic and electric fields,…

• They are continuous in time and amplitude

Analog circuits process these signals using:

• Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Amplifiers,…

Analog signal processing examples:

• Audio processing in FM radios

Limitations of Analog Signal Processing

Accuracy limitations due to:

Limited repeatability due to:

Sensitivity to electrical noise

Limited dynamic range for voltage and currents

Difficulty of implementing certain operations

Difficulty of storing information

Reconstrruct analog signal from

• Accuracy can be controlled by choosing word length

• Sampling causes loss of information

Dharmendra Dixit : Assistant Professor

Deparment. of Electronics Engineering,

August 06, 2018

Engineers build systems that process/manipulate signals.

To introduce the undergraduate students to the concepts of

After attending this course, students are expected to analyze and

Formal definitions of the terms “signals and systems"

Definition: Signal is a function of one or more independent

A voltage signal : voltage across two points varying as a function

Definition: System is a physical model that gives out an output

Input Signal Output Signal

An oscilloscope : It takes in a voltage signal and outputs a

1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals

Symbol t for independent variable.

Analog Signal: If a signal can take on any value in the continuous

Analog continuous-time signal Digital continuous-time signal

Analog discrete-time signal Digital discrete-time signal

Definition: A signal is a real signal if its value is a real number

Often classification of signals according to energy and power

Energy of a possibly complex discrete-time signal x[n] in interval

Example: Total energy of the discrete-time signal

Classification of signals based on their energy and power

x(t) = x(t + T ), t ∈ (−∞, ∞)

Periodic discrete-time signal

x[n] = x[n + N ], n ∈ {. . . − 2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}

Integer N > 0: period

A signal that is not periodic is referred to as aperiodic.

Example: Graphical representation

Symmetric about the vertical axis or origin

Example: Graphical representation

Necessarily: x(0) = or x[0] = 0

Decomposition of any signal into an even and odd part, i.e.

x(t) = Ev{x(t)} + Od{x(t)}

x[n] = Ev{x[n]} + Od{x[n]}