15

D.C. Circuits
Practical Circuits Potential Difference

Common electrical symbols used in circuit Across any path in a circuit, total p.d. V of
diagrams: resistors always add up to total e.m.f.
Junction of conductors Switch
In series arrangement, p.d. across resistor R
according to V = IR. Potential divider principle: in

Earth or ground Cell series circuit, V ∝ R. In parallel arrangement, p.d.
connector across each path is identical.

Potential Divider

Fixed resistor Variable resistor
A potential divider consists of two or more

resistors connected in series across a fixed

voltage source. It can be shown that
Bulb Ammeter
R2

Vout =
R1 + R2
Vin
Voltmeter Galvanometer By varying the values of R1
and R2, one can obtain the

desired value of V out.
Thermistor Light dependent
resistor In practice, a long linear-
varying resistor and sliding
contact is used. It can be
Vout 𝓵
shown that =
Series and Parallel Arrangements Vin L

Combined (Effective) Resistance Balanced Potentials
In the potentiometer
Resistors in series: setup shown, balance
In general, Reff = R1 + R2 +… (given) length L0 is when the
galvanometer shows a
Resistors in parallel: null-deflection. If p.d.
1 1 1
In general, = R + R +… (given) across wire L is E, then = .
E L
Reff 1 2
E0 L0

Current

Total current through e.m.f. is given by
e.m.f.
. Current in series
total circuit resistance
arrangement stays constant, while current in
Connecting across R1/R2, V1/V2 = IR1/IR2 ∝ L1/L2.
parallel arrangement splits, with larger current R1 L1
towards smaller resistance. Taking ratio, = .

R2 L2

© Dawn Teo. 2018. Consultant: Raymond Cai @jcphysics.com