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Surface runoff in a torrent catchment area in Middle Europe and its

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Article  in  Geotechnical and Geological Engineering · January 2006

DOI: 10.1007/s10706-005-2633-5

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Geotechnical and Geological Engineering (2006) 24: 1403–1424
Springer 2006
DOI 10.1007/s10706-005-2633-5

Surface runoff in a torrent catchment area in Middle

Europe and its prevention

G. MARKART1,w, B. KOHL1, R. KIRNBAUER2, H. PIRKL3, H. BERTLE4,

R. STERN5, A. REITERER6 and P. ZANETTI7
1
Department of Natural Hazards and Alpine Timberline, Federal Research and Training Centre
for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape (BFW), Rennweg 1, A-6020 Innsbruck/Tyrol,
Austria
2
Institute of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Water Resources Management, Faculty of Civil Engi-
neering, University of Technology, Karlsplatz 13/223, A-1040 Vienna, Austria
3
Bureau for Geology and Geo-Ecology, Gentzgasse 17/1/6, 1180 Vienna, Austria
4
GEOGNOS Bertle Techn. Geologie ZT GmbH, Kronengasse 6, 6780 Schruns, Austria
5
Botanikerstraße, 5a, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
6
Austrian Service for Avalanche and Torrent Control, Section Vorarlberg, Rheinstraße 32/4,
A-6900 Bregenz, Austria
7
Territorium Online – Geoinformatics, Siemensstraße 19, I-39100 Bozen, Italy

(Received 3 December 2004; accepted 1 September 2005)

Abstract. The Schesa, a sinister contributory torrent to the Ill river near Bludenz (federal
province of Vorarlberg) is the largest basin-shaped gully of Middle Europe and endangers the
underlying villages by torrential debris flow and gigantic mass movements. The catchment is
characterized by a complex geological situation, high annual precipitation and torrential rains
from spring to early autumn, which cause enormous amounts of surface runoff. Based on field
investigations comprising rain simulation experiments on representative plots, investigations
on land-use, vegetation cover, soil physical characteristics, geology, hydrogeology and other
features of the catchment area, surface runoff coefficient maps were developed. They formed
the basis for assessment of runoff potential for different scenarios in vegetation cover and
land-use intensity. Calculation of runoff for the recurrent design event by use of an improved
run-time method showed the urgent necessity of runoff reduction measures in large parts of
the catchment area above the gully. Based on the modelling results a concept for reduction of
both, surface runoff and amount of deep percolating water has been elaborated.
Key words. erosion, grazing impact, gully, interception, land-use, simulation of torrential
rain, surface runoff.

1. Introduction
Results of numerous rain simulation experiments in the Eastern Alps indicate that
runoff in torrent catchments besides geological and soil physical characteristics is

w
Corresponding author: Dr. Gerhard Markart, Department of Natural Hazards and Alpine Tim-
berline, Federal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape (BFW),
Rennweg 1, Hofburg, A-6020, Innsbruck/Tyrol, Austria. Tel: +43-512-573933-5130; Fax: +43-512-
573933-5250/5135; E-mail: Gerhard.Markart@uibk.ac.at.
1404 G. MARKART ET AL.

depending on plant cover as well as on way and intensity of cultivation (Bunza, 1978;
Bunza and Schauer, 1989; Markart and Kohl, 1995; Bunza et al., 1996; Markart
et al., 1996, 1999, 2004a; Scherrer, 1997, 2003; Löhmansröben et al., 2000; and
others).
The steering effect of forest vegetation and dwarf shrubs on surface runoff in
torrential rain has been investigated and documented by Markart et al. (1996),
Markart et al. (2002) in the Prevention ‘‘Northern Ziller Valley’’ (Tyrol). The
measures taken under this project from the fifties of the 20th century onwards have
included the implementation of urgent technical measures, silvicultural-hydrological
measures (improvement of forest stands in the catchment area, successive abolition
of grazing in large parts of the catchments, additional afforestations at the timberline
and above) and accompanying economic and infrastructural measures.
Examination of the measures by use of a simple runoff model – ZEMOKOST
discussed by Stepanek et al. (2004) – for a small test-sub-catchment of a 2 km2 area
showed a reduction of peak runoff from 32 m3 s)1 in 1953 to about 14 m3 s)1 at the
current state.
So it made sense to try to advance the successful concept developed in the Ziller-
Valley to other complex torrent catchments. The focus of this attempt was the
catchment of the Schesa, a sinister contributory torrent to the Ill river near Bludenz
(federal province of Vorarlberg), which is the largest bowl-like gully of Middle
Europe. In the 18th century a quiet rill flew harmlessly along the forest covered
slopes on the moraines of the Ill-glacier and the sediments deposited from contrib-
utory rivers to the Ill.
The development of the gully might have been initialized by the breakdown of a
gypsum karst funnel. Man-made damages on vegetation cover and upper soil during
logging operations are considered to be an additional factor for beginning of linear
erosion processes. Since 1899 efforts have been undertaken to slow down erosion in
the largest bedload donator of the Rhine-river, to stabilize the bed and minimize
erosion from the extremely steep slopes.
Two groups of erosion processes are dominant:
(1) Concentrated surface runoff in the upper part of the catchment causing retro-
grade erosion at the head scarp of the gully and linear erosion in the preflooders.
(2) A high potential for mass movements und conditions with high pore water
content in the glacial loose sediments, e.g. in spring during snowmelt, with
presumed transportable volumes >>100,000 m3 at the head scarp.
After a longer observation-phase in the 20th century, discussions about the further
way of restoration of the Schesa-gully were held again in the eighties due to the
limited success of the measures taken so far. A new suggestion for restoration of the
Schesa-gully favoured the idea of partial excavation of the moraine sediments. The
material was to be used as gravel, e.g. for road construction. Main intention was to
achieve a reduction of slope increment using this measure.
SURFACE RUNOFF IN A TORRENT CATCHMENT AREA IN MIDDLE EUROPE 1405

In order to prove the applicability of this approach a team of scientists from

different research disciplines was engaged by the Federal Ministry for Agriculture
and Forestry, Environment and Water Management. They had the task to study the
technical basics for this new phase in the Schesa restoration process. One part of the
complex programme – namely the investigations on possibility of steering water
balance in the upper part of the catchment area as a basis for reduction of surface
runoff and interflow – is presented in this paper.

2. Site Description
Investigations for the theme discussed in this paper concentrated on the catchment
area of the Schesa above the gully. The site is situated approximately 4 km south
from the village of Bürs near Bludenz (Figure 1), embedded between Burtscha–Alpe

Figure 1. Location of the Schesa gully in Vorarlberg (Austria).

1406 G. MARKART ET AL.

Figure 2. The research area (1.3 km2 large) and the Schesa gully with the three sub-catchments
Burtschabach BURB, Schesa brook (SCHB) and Hölltobel (HOET). Air photograph:
Austrian Service
for Avalanche and Torrent Control, Section Vorarlberg.

in the north and Klamperer–Alpe in the south, bordered by Burtschakopf in the east
and Loischkopf in the west (Figure 2).
The research area is situated in the Northern Limestone Alps (Permomesozoikum
– Rhätikon). An overview about the geological situation and land-cover is given by
the map of Pirkl (1994, Figure 3). The left side with the slopes down from the
Loischkopf consists of silty, sandy-loamy talus of the Arosa-zone. In the chadded
forest belt on the Arosa-zone material loosely structured brown earth soils (cam-
bisols) have developed. The intensively grazed grassland above the forest belt lies on
gley-like brown earth (gley-like cambisols) and gley-like soils (pseudogley-soils).
Dominant soil texture is silty loam.
SURFACE RUNOFF IN A TORRENT CATCHMENT AREA IN MIDDLE EUROPE 1407

Figure 3. Different geological units in the Schesa catchment above the gully, types of land-use and runoff
characteristics including dominant vegetation units. Overview: Sub-catchments, location of the research
plots (numbers from 1 to 14) – rain simulation, soil physical properties, plant biomass, etc.).

At the valley head south of the Klamperer–Alpe gypsum is dominant. Down the
valley follow pleistocenic loose sediments which have formed the basis for the
development of (silty loamy) terra fusca soils, most of them gley-like.
The west exposed slopes of the Burtschakopf (Daleu), covered by loose Norway
spruce consist of dolomite and pleistocenic loose sediments which form shallow and
medium-deep rendzina soils, further downwards geared with terra fusca. The central
parts near the Schesa-brook are covered with low-moors (histosols) on silty-loamy
weathering products of the Arosa-zone and moraines. The central part is intensively
grazed.

3. Investigations and Methods

Besides a detailed survey of geological and hydrogeological characteristics (simulta-
neous measurement of runoff, use of tracer techniques...), hydrological monitoring,
vegetation mapping and investigations concerning land-use, runoff and infiltration
behaviour of the soil/vegetation complexes above the head scarp of the gully were
investigated.
The hydrogeological survey contained hydrogeological mapping (scale 1:5000),
multiple sampling on springs for hydrochemical characterization, multiple mea-
surements of discharge or runoff on more than 20 sites by salt tracer dilution method
1408 G. MARKART ET AL.

(Benischke and Harum, 1990) and determination of underground-percolation rates

in fluvio-glacial sediments by one dye tracer experiment (uranin).
Simulation of heavy rain is an established method for studying infiltration
characteristics, runoff and erosion behaviour of soils under field and laboratory
conditions (Agassi and Levy, 1991; Rogers and Schumm, 1991; Faeh, 1997). So for
characterization and differentiation of the various runoff producing areas above the
head scarp 12 representative research plots for the runoff characteristics of the dif-
ferent soil/vegetation complexes in the catchment were chosen and irrigated by use of
a transportable spray irrigation installation for large plots. In difference to the
standard plot size of 100 m2 (5 m wide along the contour line, 20 m long) as defined
by Bunza et al. (1985), whose group did most of such experiments in Middle Europe,
a plot size of 75 m2 (5 m wide, 15 m long) was chosen to achieve a better fit of the
plots to the vivid landscape. Water intensities applied were about 100 mm h)1 and
30 mm h)1. Water for the rain simulation experiments was taken from the Schesa
brook. Due to the weak water supply – about 14 m3 h)1 were needed – construction
of a temporary dam was necessary. A more detailed description of the used spray
installation is given by Markart and Kohl (1995), Kohl and Markart (2002).
Soil water status was monitored by use of TDR-probes installed in several profiles
at the 12 plots at different depths, from 5 to 40 cm at maximum. Deeper installation
of the 20 cm long three-pole waveguides was not possible due to increasing content
of skeleton. At the lower side of each plot a trench was dug for quantification of
runoff. Surface runoff on all plots was quantified by insertion of a plastic sheet in 5–
10 cm soil depth, from which the water flew into a plastic gutter and was led to
calibrated containers – with a volume of 300 l each – by use of a flexible tube. In
addition near surface interflow was measured in the trench on four plots using a
similar technique at a maximum depth of 50 cm.
Detailed characterization of vegetation as description of abundance, dominance,
frequency on all plots, analysis of plant biomass on the grassy plots as well as
analysis of the most important soil physical properties on the 12 irrigated plots and
two additional sites completed the research programme at the plot scale.
On the irrigated plots disturbed and undisturbed soil cores down to 50 cm depth
were taken for analysis of most indicative soil physical characteristics (texture, sat-
urated hydraulic conductivity, pore volume, etc.). Analysis of pF-curves up to
150 hpa was done by desorption under negative pressure (capillarimeter method) by
use of undisturbed soil cylinder cores (200 cm3 volume). Analysis of the branch of the
pF-curves over 300 hpa under excess pressure in the RICHARDS-aperture was
carried out according to Ö-Norm L-1063 (1988).
The plot data were supplemented by results of former investigations from com-
parable watersheds and similar sites, e.g. Bunza (1978), Bunza and Schauer (1989),
Markart and Kohl (1995), Markart et al. (1996).
Extrapolation of plot runoff data to the catchment area, i.e. development of dif-
ferent runoff scenarios, was done on the basis of an overview map of the vegetation.
Additional information was acquired on the intensity of man made mechanical
SURFACE RUNOFF IN A TORRENT CATCHMENT AREA IN MIDDLE EUROPE 1409

impact (roads, ski tracks, water logging) and grazing intensity (mechanical impact by
cattle and horses).
The cited data and information allowed creation of a map of surface runoff
coefficients after the method of Dunne and Black (1970). Runoff in case of the
recurrent design runoff event was calculated by use of the runtime method of Zeller
(1981), which has been improved by Stepanek et al. (2004).
Finally, the data mentioned above served as a fundament for development of a
management concept comprising specific runoff preventative measures for the dif-
ferent runoff contributing areas. This concept forms part of the whole project for the
restoration of the Schesa-gully.

4. Results
4.1. RUNOFF BEHAVIOUR OF DIFFERENT VEGETATION/SOIL COMPLEXES
AT THE PLOT SCALE

A detailed overview about the results of rain simulation experiments and the soil
physical investigations is given by Markart et al. (1997). Some results of the rain
simulation experiments are shown in Figure 4. The highest equilibrium runoff coef-

Figure 4. Surface runoff coefficients (C=wconst=ratio of runoff depth to precipitation depth, when
runoff is constant) for the 12 irrigated plots: Plot size=75 m2, rain Intensity ‡ 90 mm/h. Plot no. 9
(P9)=70 mm/h due to prevention of soil slip.
1410 G. MARKART ET AL.

ficients (C>0.9; C stands for mean maximum runoff, when runoff is constant) were
observed on wet stands (histosols, gleysols) and high runoff values (0.48<C<1.1) in
intensively grazed pastures (gley-like soils, silty, loamy terra fusca-rendzina soils).
Very low surface runoff (C<0.2) was observed on forested sites stocking on loose
cambisols and rendzinas. The highest runoff value under forest cover was found at
P12, a 25 year old afforestation of spruce (former pasture) on a gleyic cambisol.
Surface runoff coefficients (C>1.0) originate either from inflowing water from
outside of the plots depending on the used test facility – especially on convex slopes,
the outsides of the plots in view of the contour line were irrigated too – or from direct
natural water supply to the slope.
Besides vegetation cover, way and intensity of cultivation, soil physical properties
can at least partially be used to explain differences in surface runoff at the irrigated
plots. Especially wet stands and some plots of irrigated pastures show a decrease of
large soil pores (diameter >50lm) with increasing soil depth (>5 cm depth, see
Table 1). Except P7, a grazed loose spruce forest on dolomite rendzina, drain pore
volume in the upper soil (0–10 cm depth) under forest cover is noticeable higher than
on wet sites and pastures.
Many macro pores are not included by the analysis of cylinder cores with a
volume of only 200 cm3. Despite this fact the results indicate that especially on
cohesive soils which in addition are wet and/or suffer from an additional mechanical
impact (e.g. from grazing) deep seepage is limited due to reduced drain pore volume
in the upper soil. Decrease in macro pores in top soil often is the result of actual
mechanical compaction (use of heavy machines, grazing, etc.), and/or former
mechanical impact. Annual structural regeneration of soil by freezing effects or
growth of vegetation decreases with soil depth. In comparison to unstressed, loose
soils, e.g. under forest vegetation, highly loaded soils show a significant decrease in
drain pore volume in 8–10 cm soil depth (Czell, 1972; Liss, 1989).
Storage of water in different soil depth was determined from the moisture content
before and after the rain simulations and set in relation to total pore volume derived
from the pF-curves. The data indicate that at eight of twelve irrigated plots – mainly
the terra fusca – rendzina soils under grazing influence and the gley-like soils – the
upper soil (0–20 cm depth) was pre-filled to a high extent already before beginning of
the irrigation experiments, with 10% of total soil pore volume free at most. The
other four sites (cambisols, rendzina soils under forest vegetation) showed free pore
space up to more than 30%. After irrigation most of the plots did not show any
significant increase in water content.

4.2. RUNOFF CONTRIBUTING AREAS AT THE CATCHMENT SCALE – RUNOFF

SCENARIOS

Assessment of runoff coefficients and surface roughness coefficients on one side is

based on the results of the rain simulations and, on the other side, on the synopsis of
results from hundreds of other experiments in the Eastern Alps, summarized in
Table 1. Drain pore volume (pore diameter >50 lm) in % of total soil volume at the irrigated plots in 0–50 cm soil depth

Soil depth (cm) Wet stands Pastures Forest stands

P2 P4 P5 P1 P8 P9 P10 P14 P3 P6 P7 P11 P12 P13

0–5 11.6 16.58 14.91 11.1 10.71 8.5 12.09 11.66 15.45 15.33 10.74 16.4 17.36 16.97
5–10 7.67 5.9 10.13 7.61 9.55 8.96 13.67 15.1 14.5 9.44 14.38 15.33
10–20 7.4 4.65 5.37 11.18 13.15 9.5 17.32 6.66 18.62 13.44 8.26 11.23
20–30 4.97 5.2 5.28 14.8 9.47 14.04 7.2 7.77 4.18 6.25
30–50 7.9 5.15 3.12 7.9 7.76 6.01 10.9 4.58 6.19
SURFACE RUNOFF IN A TORRENT CATCHMENT AREA IN MIDDLE EUROPE
1411
1412 G. MARKART ET AL.

Markart et al. (2004a). In addition, other results such as the criteria suggested by
Löhmannsröben et al. (2000), Naef et al. (2002), Scherrer (1997) or Scherrer (2003)
for process based assessment of dominant runoff processes were considered in the
conception of a map of the surface runoff coefficients. Such maps were developed for
different system conditions:
Actual situation in 1995/1996 – scenario 1 (Figure 5a): Except of the low-moors
(histosols), and the wet meadow in the center of the catchment (see location in

Figure 5. Distribution of surface runoff producing areas in the upper Schesa catchment. (a) Scenario
1 – surface runoff coefficients under high antecedent moisture conditions and intensively grazed pastures in
summer 1995. (b) Scenario 2 – development of surface runoff from scenario 1 under maintenance of
grazing intensity and further reduced regeneration potential of soils. (c) Scenario 3 – runoff conditions
approx. 5 years after abandonment of grazing at the left side of the Schesa brook and noticeable reduction
of number of cattle at the right side. (d) Scenario 4 – best case: Surface Runoff conditions about
15–20 years after afforestation on reforestable areas, improvement of drainage measures on wet stands
and no pastures any more. SRC=Surface runoff coefficient class SRC1=0–10%, SRC2=11–30%,
SRC3=31–50%, SRC4=51–75%, SRC5=>75%.
SURFACE RUNOFF IN A TORRENT CATCHMENT AREA IN MIDDLE EUROPE 1413

Figure 3) the whole catchment above the gully is intensively grazed by cattle and
horses in summer. Repeatedly, about 60 cattle per 0.03 km2 were observed. Thus,
very high amounts of surface runoff (SF) from the wet stands (>>75%) and high
amount (>>50%) from the pastures on terra fusca-rendzina and gleysols must be
expected in the current situation.
As a next step three further scenarios for runoff behaviour under the aspect of
changes in cultivation and vegetation cover can be distinguished:
Scenario 2 (Figure 5b): Analysis of vegetation on pastures showed that only few
plants indicate a high mechanical impact. This can be interpreted as a signal that the
extreme grazing intensity observed during the field investigations could not have
lasted for a very long time, between ten and fifteen years at maximum. Repetition of
rain simulation experiments on three pasture plots in spring 1996 before driving
cattle to the pastures showed a reduction of C of about 50%.
Antecedent moisture content was comparable to the conditions in late summer
1995 (88–100% of total pore volume). If the high grazing intensity had lasted for a
longer time, e.g. half a century or longer, the structural regeneration effect of the
upper soil would have been lost to a higher extent and seasonal differences in
infiltration characteristics would not have reached the level observed in 1995/1996.
Increase of grazing impact was also asserted by questioning inhabitants of the
community of Bürserberg. So the conclusion seems obvious that in case of main-
tenance of the extreme grazing intensity, runoff behaviour especially on terra fusca-
rendzina soils and gley-like soils will get worse, i.e. surface runoff potential in central
parts of the catchment will increase from >50% to >75%.
Scenario 3 (Figure 5c) assumes partial reduction of grazing intensity on pastures,
and forest stands free from grazing as well as closure of loose forest parts on the
Loischkopf-side.
Maximum improvement of runoff characteristics would be achieved by Scenario 4
(Figure 5d):
• Complete abandonment of grazing in the catchment above the gully.
• Drainage of the wet stands surrounding the Schesa brook in the center of the
catchment.
• Complete afforestation of wet stands with deep rooted trees and shrubs (high
part of deciduous trees).
Scenario 4 (Figure 5d) presumes circumstances as they will be reached 15–20 years
after implementation of the measures, full cover by trees and shrub vegetation is
given, drainage measures are fully effective. After-effects of grazing will be still
noticeable, e.g. limited infiltration due to compaction in 5–10 cm soil depth, as can
be derived from the results of the investigations done by Wheeler et al. (2002).
Table 2. Surface runoff calculated for four different scenarios in the upper part of the Schesa catchment

Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 1414

Actual conditions 1995/ Further deterioration in Partial reduction of Free from cattle, whole
1996 comparison to 1996 grazing intensity catchment afforested

Sub-catchments 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Area of sub-catchments (km2) 0.30 0.781 0.23 0.30 0.781 0.23 0.30 0.781 0.23 0.30 0.781 0.23
Yconst=C 0.36 0.49 0.34 0.36 0.53 0.42 0.26 0.38 0.22 0.24 0.25 0.14
Channel run-time
DL (km) 0.50 1.07 0.60 0.50 1.07 0.60 0.50 1.07 0.60 0.50 1.07 0.60
DH (m) 180 240 190 180 240 190 180 240 190 180 240 190
 t Kirpich (s) 270 438 306 270 438 306 270 438 306 270 438 306
Slope
c [-] 0.045 0.052 0.050 0.045 0.052 0.050 0.045 0.052 0.050 0.045 0.052 0.050
Lob (m) 460 410 440 460 410 440 460 410 440 460 410 440
Iob (-) 0.36 0.43 0.50 0.36 0.43 0.50 0.36 0.43 0.50 0.36 0.43 0.50
 tcIzzard [s] 1716 1458 1734 1716 1392 1518 2130 1740 2340 2262 2262 3210
 tctotal [s] 1986 1890 2040 1986 1830 1818 2400 2178 2646 2532 2700 3510
i (mm/h) 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0
Peak runoff (m3 s)1) 2.3 8.1 1.7 2.3 8.6 2.0 1.6 6.2 1.1 1.5 4.2 0.7
Peak runoff whole 12.1 12.9 8.9 6.4
catchment
Runoff freight (m3) 700 3600 600 700 3800 700 500 2700 400 500 1900 300
Total runoff freight (m3) 4900 5200 3600 2700
Sub-catchments: 1=Hölltobel (HOET). 2=Schesa-brook (SCHB). 3=Burtscha-brook (BURB). Yconst=C=runoff coefficient, when runoff is constant.
DL=length of the channel from highest to lowest point. DH=Difference in height from highest to lowest point. tcKirpich=Concentration time after Kirpich
(1940) – channel flow. c=surface roughness coefficient (Markart et al. 2004). Lob =flow length for sheet flow over the surface. IOb=slope inclination.
tcIzzard=Concentration time after Izzard (1946) – surface flow. tctotal=tcKirpich+tcIzzard. i=Rainfall intensity in mm h)1.
G. MARKART ET AL.
SURFACE RUNOFF IN A TORRENT CATCHMENT AREA IN MIDDLE EUROPE 1415

4.3. RUNOFF CALCULATIONS

Peak runoff and runoff freight were calculated using the runtime method presented
by Zeller (1981) improved by Stepanek et al. (2004) for the three sub-catchments
Hölltobel (HOET), Schesa-brook (SCHB) and Burtscha-brook (BURB – see
locations in Figures 2 and 3 and Results in Table 2). Accuracy of runoff data
normally depends on accurate precipitation data. Data from the nearest gauging
stations lacked sufficient observation time to assess the precipitation for the recur-
rent design event.
Therefore, a detailed analysis on the precipitation characteristics of the Schesa-
tobel region was done by Kirnbauer (1997). The investigations showed that pre-
cipitation conditions in the Schesa-region are similar to the region of St. Gallen in
Switzerland. Based on this information a rainfall intensity value of 75 mm h)1 was
found appropriate for the recurrent design event.
Time of concentration (tc) for the overland flow was derived from Equation 1
(Izzard 1946):
527
c
L0:33
Ob
tc ¼ 0:66
ð1Þ
I0:33
Ob
ðC
iT Þ

where c is the surface roughness coefficient which can be assessed by use of the simple
code of practice of Markart et al. (2004a, b). For very smooth surfaces (e.g. concrete,
compacted bare soil) c=0)0.02, on the contrary for very rough surfaces (e.g. stands
covered with dwarf shrubs) ranges from 0.10 to 0.12. LOb means the mean length for

Figure 6. Uppermost slope line after restoration (according to Bertle 2002).

1416 G. MARKART ET AL.

the surface flow distance in each sub-catchment, IOb defines slope inclination, C is
runoff coefficient and iT the intensity of precipitation.
The approach formulated by Kirpich (1940) was used to assess the concentration
time tc of runoff in the channel (Equation 2):
0:0195
L1:155
tc ¼ ð2Þ
DH0:385
In this formula L means slope length and DH stands for slope inclination.
Results of the calculations after the formulas of Izzard and Kirpich and the values
used are listed in Table 2.
There are not many differences in channel runtime between the sub-catchments
but strong distinctions concerning surface flow in the field (flumeless runoff). Despite
an area of more than the double, flumeless runoff reaches the discharge system much
quicker in the SCHB-sub-catchment than in the other two sub-catchments.
The results cited in Table 2 show that the central sub-catchment SCHB produces
the highest runoff: 4.2 m3 s)1 for the best scenario, 8.6 m3 s)1 for the worst situation.
This is not only due to the larger area – with 0.781 km2 SCHB covers 2.6 times the
area of HOET and 3.4 times the area of BURB. But peak runoff in SCHB for the
actual scenario 1995/1996 exceeds 3.5 times peak runoff in HOET and 4.8 times
outflow from BURB. Runoff therefore is not only an effect of the catchment area but
also dependent on the number of sites with high runoff potential (histosols, wet
pasture stands, pastures on terra fusca-rendzina) and their position to the receiving
water course (Bent, 2001; Markart et al., 2002).

4.4. CHANCES FOR REDUCTION OF SURFACE RUNOFF POTENTIAL

The restoration of the Schesa-gully is already in progress. The main part of the
programme is the excavation of an area of 0.36 km2, comprising about 7,400,000 m3
of moraine sediments for gravel production (see concerned area in Figure 6). Slope
inclination shall be £1:2 for sediments fine-grained and susceptible to slope failure,
2:3 for the gross of the loose sediments and >2:3 for steady stone. Channels in the
Schesa-brook (SCHB) and Hölltobel (HOET) will get an inclination of 1:2 and a bed
width up to 6 m (Pirkl, 2003).
The sediments show high contents of silt, which cannot be used by the building
industry, so about 30% of the material must be deposited in the catchment area after
processing. Consequently, for prevention of new erosion processes, runoff must be
reduced to the absolute minimum. Therefore a concept for reduction of surface
runoff and erosion due to surface runoff on the one hand, and for reduction of deep
seepage and interflow as the driving force of disequilibrating effects, on the other
hand, is essential.
Complete abandonment of grazing in the whole part above the gully would lead to
a bisection of runoff for the recurrent design event (see Table 2). According to
Kirnbauer (1997) this might be a precipitation event of about 75 mm h)1 and
SURFACE RUNOFF IN A TORRENT CATCHMENT AREA IN MIDDLE EUROPE 1417

12.1 m3 s)1 runoff (sum of all three sub-catchments). As can be seen from Figure 3,
HOET and SCHB comprise many more wet areas. So, there, the tendency for quick
runoff in torrential rain will be higher than in BURB. The calculations in Table 2
also show that runoff preventive measures would be most effective in sub-catchments
with a high percentage of saturation areas (HOET and SCHB), a trait observed for
years by Kirnbauer and Haas (1998) in the Löhnersbach catchment (federal province
of Salzburg).
Reduction of surface runoff shall be reached by a combination of measures which
are outlined in Figure 7.

4.4.1. Sub-catchments SCHB and HOET

Surface runoff in alpine catchments is dominated by soil cover and soil character-
istics (Dunne et al., 1991). These factors in turn are modified by way and intensity of

Figure 7. Management map forming a basis for reduction of surface runoff in torrential rain and
reduction of amount of deep percolating water.
1418 G. MARKART ET AL.

cultivation (Markart et al., 1999; Markart et al., 2002). Therefore best effects in
minimization of surface runoff at the study site will be reached by focussing measures
on areas with high initial moisture content, at the one hand, and on areas suffering
from high mechanical impact (grazing, grading), like pastures, intensively grazed
forests or levelled skiing grounds, at the other hand.
Wet stands: According to the outcomes of the rain simulation experiments (see
Figure 4) and the results of Kirnbauer and Haas (1998), for the wet stands, resto-
ration of the old dilapidated ring-drainage system above the large wet areas located
at the left side of the Schesa brook will be compellent. This will increase basic runoff
but allow better infiltration and storage behaviour of the soils in case of intensive
precipitation.
In addition, reduction of interflow and deep seepage as well as an increase of
surface roughness on the wet stands and histosols (low moors) shall be achieved by
afforestation with intensively perspiring tree species like fraxinus excelsior, acer
pseudoplatanus, alnus incana. After the results of Bogenrieder and Sengbush (2001)
on moorland in the southern Black Forest (Germany) and Braun-Blanquet et al.
(1954) in Switzerland use of pinus uncinata seems reasonable on more elevated parts
of wet stands.
Pastures and grazed forests: The data in Table 1 confirm the results of the rain
simulation experiments in Figure 4 (Runoff coefficient C on pastures:
0.24<C<1.09; for forest vegetation: C £ 0.3). Though significance of soil physical
characteristics derived from laboratory analysis is limited due to the high hetero-
geneity of alpine soils within small areas (Markart, 2002), these parameters at least
can be used as an indicator. At the study site most pasture soils show lower drain
pore volume than soils under forest vegetation (see Table 1). Such conditions are
also reported by other authors (Dadkhah and Gifford, 1980; Bunza et al., 1996;
Wilcox and Wood, 1988; Yates et al., 2000; Markart et al., 2002; Wheeler et al.,
2002).
In addition, grazing effects reduce the effects of micro topography as discussed by
Dunne et al. (1991) or Bergkamp (1998). More vivid micro topography, e.g. of the
forest sites, allows easier infiltration into loose soils nearly free from mechanical
impact, resulting in shorter flow paths than on dense, uniform and intensively loaded
or shallow stands.
In the loose forest soils (rendzinas, cambisols) macro pores allow rapid deep
seepage without great changes of soil water content, an effect also observed by
Simorangkir (1994) on sandy pinus stands. Soils compacted by machinery or animals
show restricted infiltration due to lack of macro pores and tend to produce imme-
diate Hortonian overland flow (Naef et al., 2002).
Therefore, the management plan foresees total abandonment of impact by
livestock in SCHB and HOET. In these sub-catchments water input into the soil
shall be reduced to a minimum by an increase of the interception and perspiration
capacity of the vegetation.
SURFACE RUNOFF IN A TORRENT CATCHMENT AREA IN MIDDLE EUROPE 1419

Between 2 and 6 mm interception rate per single rain event are reported for
conifers, about 40% and more of total annual precipitation, by Gash et al. (1980),
Kelliher et al. (1992), Leyton et al. (1967), Tallaksen et al. (1996) and others. For
high grassland vegetation less interception losses with maximum values of 2.5 mm
per rainfall event are cited in literature (Fardjah and Lemee, 1980; Millbacher, 1992).
So interception potential of forest and dwarf shrub stands is higher with these
two types of vegetation showing a higher water ‘‘pumping’’ effect than mountain
grassland.
Evapotranspiration increases in the order: Farmland – grassland – coniferous
forest (Renger et al., 1986). Mixed species stands show both higher and deeper
reaching soil water depletion (Schume et al., 2003). Consequently, during vegetation
period, higher free soil pore volume and drainage potential can be expected on soils
covered with mixed forests accompanied by dwarf shrubs. In addition, these vege-
tation forms are more effective in reduction of the kinetic impact of rain drops in
torrential rain as has been shown in several rain simulation experiments by the
Bavarian State Agency for Water Management (LfW) in Munich and the Federal
Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape in
Austria (Markart, 2000; Markart et al., 2004a).
Therefore, pastures shall be afforested, stands with loose forest cover shall be
completed by use of picea abies and pinus uncinata. Abies alba, sorbus aucuparia and
acer pseudoplatanus may be added, for humid and wet sites alnus incana and alnus
viridis are suitable (Markart et al., 2004b; Schiechtl and Stern, 1996).
Levelled skiing grounds: Abandonment of grazing shall prevent further deterio-
ration of upper soil and vegetation cover. In addition, these areas shall be mowed
once a year to achieve a mulching effect and improvement of structure in the upper
soil. Further on, erosion by surface runoff shall be reduced by construction of
drainage ditches in distances of about 30 m.

4.4.2. Sub-catchment BURB

The calculations presented under Table 2 indicate a very limited runoff reduction
potential for the smallest sub-catchment BURB (0.23 km2) from 1.7 m3 s)1 under
actual conditions to 0.7 m3s)1 in the best case (total abandonment of livestock im-
pact, afforestation of pastures).
As agricultural use of a minimal area is also a question of survival for the farmers
in the community of Bürserberg, the pastures in BURB shall remain alpine grassland
also in the future. Arising surface runoff must be catched in drainage ditches and led
by a mounted channel to the Schesa-torrent (see Figure 7), which itself will be
secured in form of a channel construction.
1420 G. MARKART ET AL.

5. Conclusions
(1) The investigations treated in the Schesa catchment show that simulation of
heavy rain by use of transportable spray irrigation installations for large plots
(>50 m2) is a useful tool to assess surface runoff characteristics in torrent
catchments. In combination with information on precipitation characteristics,
hydrogeological and geological features, the soil/vegetation complex and
land-use extrapolation of the plot data gives sufficient information for detection
of diverse runoff contributing areas in the catchment.
(2) In the last years new knowledge on behaviour of runoff contributing areas in
torrent catchments has been generated, based on numerous studies in torrent
catchments in Middle Europe and compiled in manuals for assessment of
runoff characteristics in catchments areas (Scherrer, 1997; Löhmannsröben et
al., 2000; Pirkl et al., 2000; Naef et al., 2002; or Scherrer, 2003). The com-
prehensive research work done in the Schesa catchment also has been
incorporated in such a code of practice by Markart et al. (2004a), which now
allows easier acquisition of data for runoff calculation in alpine catchments.
(3) The simple precipitation/runoff-model which has been used for calculation of
runoff in torrential rain in the presented study – the runtime method of Zeller
(1981) improved by Stepanek et al. (2004) – offers new opportunities for
practitioners. It requires only few data, which can be easily collected in the
field – see parameter list in Table 2 – and delivers more reproducible results in
comparison to convenient runoff formulas, on the one hand, and many
complex physically based precipitation/runoff models, on the other hand.
(4) Runoff in torrential rain is not always directly related to the catchment area.
Runoff behaviour is highly determined by the number of sites with high
runoff potential and their position to the receiving water course. This
knowledge should convince practitioners to invest more in steering runoff
generation in torrent catchments:

• by use of biological methods (changes of plant cover, afforestation, increase

of the pumping effect and breaking of kinetic energy of rain drops – reduc-
tion of splash effect).
• Adaptation of land-use to runoff characteristics of a catchment. This may
include concentration of intensive cultivation on sites far from the receiving
water course, arrangement of runoff preventing buffer-strips as well as
concentration of intensive land-use in parts of the catchments where only
little reduction of surface runoff by use of biological measures will be
achieved.
SURFACE RUNOFF IN A TORRENT CATCHMENT AREA IN MIDDLE EUROPE 1421

Acknowledgements
Research for this paper was funded by the Federal Ministery of Agriculture and
Forestry, Environment and Water Management, Department Vc7, since 2000
Departments IV/4 and IV/5, Marxergasse 2, A-1020 Vienna, Austria. In this context,
the fund raising efforts of Werner Rachoy (y) and Wolfgang Schweighofer are
gratefully acknowledged. In addition, the authors would like to thank Margarete
Wöhrer, Reinhard Fromm and Margareta Khorchidi for corrections, useful
comments and suggestions for improvements.

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