Architectural Theories and Design Methodologies

Investigating the nature of relation

Yasmeen Mohamed ELSemary
Teacher Assistant, Modern Academy for Engineering and Technology

Abstract
Throughout its years of development, the understanding of design problems and
design process has been revised considerably but still our current understanding of
design is incomplete. Yet architectural theory is considered to be the act of thinking,
discussing, or most importantly writing about architecture. It is taught in most
architecture schools and is practiced by the world's leading architects. It is often
didactic, and theorists tend to stay close to or work from within schools. It has
existed in some form since antiquity, and as publishing became more common, then
architectural theory gained an increased richness. Books, magazines, and journals
published an amount of works by architects and critics in the 20th century. As a
result, styles and movements formed and dissolved much more quickly than other
modes in earlier history.

The paper expounds the relation between architectural theories and design
methodologies, and how do theory influence design methodology. The paper is
analysing the relation between them, discussing the designers’ supporting and
practicing architectural theories in their designs, yet some of them can’t fulfil or
practice the theories which they admit in architecture, but can’t be fulfilled in the
practical field due to many factors; owners’ requirements, site constraints…..etc.

The paper will spot light on the first influence, mainly in the period of post
modernism and how many theories had been shifted and changed to match this
period and had been affecting in its architecture. The paper will introduce and
analyse some examples which illustrate using architectural theories in design.

KEYWORDS Architectural Theory – Design Methodology – Architectural

Practice – Theory of Signs
1-Introduction

Theories and theoretical work are of great importance to architecture, as they form
the bases in which architecture depends on, or supposed to be. Yet the thinking
methods; design methodologies form the bases of the design process. For that every
design process has its own design methodology and may be depending on one or
more than one architectural theory.

Two issues will be discussed in this paper: architectural theories; its categories, its
types, and its pioneers and design methodologies used by designers. The paper is an
attempt to show in brief anthology of architectural theories and will spot light on
different theorists which adopt these theories from Vitruvius to present, will
introduce and analyse some examples which illustrate using architectural theories in
design, hence will introduce and analyse how architectural theories would influence
the design methodologies. So the paper will be summarized as follow:

- Terminology’s definitions (architectural theory – design methodology)

- Anthology of Architectural Theory
- Variations of Design Methodology
- Difference between Architectural Theory and Design Theory
- Analytical case studies and applied projects

2-Terminology’s definitions

The word 'theory' comes from the Latin theoria, in turn adopted from the Greek
theoros, which means 'spectator, envoy'. Its base, theasthai, means to 'look upon,
contemplate', while the English meaning of it is as a conception or mental scheme
of something to be done, or of the method of doing it, and a systematic statement of
rules or principles to be followed[1].

The architectural theory doesn’t have a specific definition, the longer one studies
the subject, the clearer it becomes that an abstract, normative definition of such a
kind is both impracticable and historically indefensible [2].

Paul Alan Johnson argued that “theory” is the channel through which distinct
architectural beliefs, values, and attitudes are transmitted or actions are filtered, and
out of which arise any qualities architecture is seen having [1].Yet Vitruvius
explained “theory” as the ability to demonstrate and explain the productions of
dexterity on the principles of proportion. Yet Roger Scruton, a theory of
architecture for him impinges on aesthetics only if it claims a universal validity, for
then it must aim to capture the essence, and not the accidents, of architectural
beauty [1, 16].
While Michael Brawne argues that, in order to make a scientific theory, we start
with the recognition of a problem, and then put forward a hypothesis which needs to
be tested in order to eliminate errors and end with a corroborated theory which is,
however, the start of a new sequence in which it becomes the initial problem [3]. It
is connected somewhat to what have been stated by Aldo Rossi, when he asserts
that the first principle of a theory is the necessity to persist with the same themes
and he believes that it is the nature of artists and particularly architects to focus in
on the theme to be developed, to choose a method of analysis internal to
architecture and to try always to solve the same problems, that what he believes to
be the basic principle of a theory of architectural education and therefore of design
[1].

Moreover Kate Nesbitt stated that within the discipline of architecture, theory is a
discourse that describes the practice and production of architecture and identifies
challenges to it [4]. Additionally John Lang summarizes the Successful Theories as
being consisting of simple but powerful generalisations about the world and how it
operates that enable us to predict accurately future operations, he added that theory
must address issues of practice; if theory does not do this; it is irrelevant [5].

Scientific investigations in design theory are much more recent, having their origin
in the 1950ies. They are based on systems theory which evolved out of a need to
deal with complex problems, for which tried and tested existing methods were
inadequate, in general the field was called design methodology.

Design methods are relevant when trying to find a design solution, this will take a
long time (for example because the architect works a design that he has no
experience with, when the cost is very high; when the design task is very complex,
when a number of conflicts are involved in the design project) [11]. Design methods
are a somewhat controversial subject for architects. Many architects dislike these
methods, because they suggest a repetitiveness that is contradictory to creativeness.

Moreover for the architect, it is necessary to understand when and how a design
method can make a useful contribution in the design, because any method always
leaves out aspects which later may turn out to be important to a project [13].

Additionally the use of a design method does not necessarily guarantee a good
outcome. But unfortunately a design method by definition leaves out many aspects
about a design problem that ultimately have to be solved. What a design method
does, yet, is indicate which steps are critical, and in which order to deal with these
steps [6].

And about the relation between theory and methodology, the theory is a non-
prescriptive explanation which does not have an architectural end in view, while
design methodology, on the other hand, describes specific operations which are
believed to be helpful in the design sequence. Such operations might include
matrixes, flow charts or brainstorming. These are, yet, tools which one may employ
but which are neither essential nor in any way an analysis of the design process
itself [3].

Moreover The Theory would seem of limited utility, for example the idea that form
arises from the function becomes from a theory and to be performed in a building,
this can be underpinned by the notion of determinism [3].

3- Anthology of Architectural Theory

Here are some architectural theories stated by different architects and theorists,
some of them had a great range in architecture. They fall under several fields in
architecture, some related to context, others related to region, functionalism, etc. as
shown below.

3-1-Le Corbusier: Five points of Architecture

Le Corbusier formulated in 1926 five points of architecture included (1)thepilotis,
elevating the mass off the ground, (2) the free plan, achieved through the separation
of theload-bearing columns from the walls subdividing the space, (3) the free
facade, the corollary of the free plan in the vertical plane, (4) the long horizontal
sliding window, (5) the roof garden,restoring, supposedly, the area of ground
covered by the house [4].

Figure (01) the 5 points appear in Villa SavoyFigure (02) the free plan

3-2-Robert Venturi: Complexity and Contradiction in architecture

This approach emerged after modernists substituting abstraction for applied
decorations; it was an attack on the limited reductionist position adopted by many
modernists. Venturi explains that simplicity cannot work, in which he sees that
(Less is a bore) and insisted on the complexity, yet he added that complexity is
coming from the nature of architecture which includes program, construction,
context, perception,…etc. and insisted on quotations as Both- and, more is not less,
double functioning elements. He also approved the relation between architecture
and history and historical forms [7].

Figure (03) plan and elevation of Ronchamp Figure (04) side view of Ronchamp

Figure (05) Complexity and Contradiction appear in Ronchamp interior design

3-3- Christian Norberg Schulz: The Phenomenon of Place

Schulz illustrated Architecture through phenomenology, as it is converting the
environment into meaning through inventing new places, insisting on the spirit of
the place and the sensuous qualities of the space including materials, lighting,
colours and symbolism,...etc.

Schulz emphasizes the importance of basic architectural elements like wall, floor, or
ceiling, experienced as horizon, boundary, and frame for nature. This theory could
be categorised as a descriptive theory as it tries to differentiate between place and
space, also a prescriptive theory as it spots the light on the phenomenology from the
early times, and then after it phenomenology has proven an extremely influential
school of thought for contemporary designers such as Tadao Ando, Peter Waldman,
it has led to a renewed interest in the sensuous qualities of materials, light, and
colour and in the symbolic, tactile significance of the joint [4].
Figure (06)Phenomenon of Place appears in the church of light, Tadao Ando

3-4- Peter Eisenman: Post Functionalism

He states that post functionalism has the properties of functionalism, but added a
new feature to it, which is the post humanism in which the architectural form in this
period became a mark that holds a message and a meaning. The various theories of
architecture which properly can be called “humanist” are characterized by a
dialectical opposition: a concern for internal accommodation-the program and the
way it is materialized- and a concern for articulation of ideal themes in form-for
example, as shown in the significance of the plan. These concerns were understood
as two poles of a single, continuous experience.This theory is also a prescriptive and
affirmative one, as it describes an idea and gives support to it [4].

Figure (07) Post Functionalism appears in Fish Dance Restaurant, Frank Gehry

3-5- Louis Sullivan: Form ever follows function

Louis Sullivan coined the phrase "form ever follows function", which, shortened to
"form follows function," which became the great battle-cry of modernist architects,
which later had been taken by influential designers to imply that decorative
elements, which architects call "ornament,” [12] The principle is that the shape of a
building or object should be primarily based upon its intended function or purpose.

Because of Sullivan's remarkable accomplishments in design and construction at

such a critical point in architectural history, he has sometimes been described as the
"father" of the American skyscraper. This theory had been adopted by Modernists
and Bauhaus designers such as Mies Van der Rohe(less is more), and Walter
Gropuis and others [4].

Figure (08)Form follows function in American skyscraper,Louis Sullivan

3-6- Mies Van Der Rohe: Universal Space theory

The theory of universal space starts with the opposite assumption in which we all
know; aspects of the uses and that in any case these are going to change overtime.
What is therefore required is undifferentiated space within which a great number of
activities can take place with only minimal adjustment. This theory devises a whole
rather than analyse the atoms [3].

Figure (09) sketches done by Mies Van Der Rohe showing Universal Space Theory

3-7- Kenneth Frampton: Critical Regionalism Theory

Frampton put forward a context theory which he described as critical
regionalism to help consider the relationship between new architecture and its
context. He believed that designers should make a critical response, rather
than a sentimental or copyist response, to local design traditions [8].

It is considered as a critical theory, which can be ideologically based in

Marxism. Kate Nesbittstated that the architect and theorist Kenneth Frampton
in Critical Regionalism proposes resistance to the homogenization of the
visual environment through the particularities of mediated, local building
traditions [4].
 Figure (10) Bilbao museum, an interpretation of Critical Regionalism Theory

3-8-Geoffrey Broadbent: Theory of Signs

Geoffrey Broadbent offers a simple and plain guide to the theory of signs in
architecture by offering a considered discussion of architectural semiotics and
presents an argument for architects intentionally designing meaning into their
buildings. Moreover he said that architects such as Le Corbusier, Walter Gropuis,
Mies, Charles Moore, Brent Brolin, Charles Jencks, and historians such as Giedion,
Nikolaus Pevsner, and J.M. Richards, had told us most forcibly that architecture
shouldn’t be a matter of mere styling, applied cosmetically to the outside of
buildings. He admits that all buildings symbolise or at least “carry” meaning. He
referred to Even Pevsner when he admits this and says:

“Every building creates associations in the mind of the beholder, whether the
architect wanted it or not.” [4]

Yet Broadbent illustrated his point of view towards meaning in architecture, and
how to get benefits from this theory, by saying that if the buildings are going to
symbolise anyway, despite the architects’ best or worst intentions, then he thought
that an understanding of how they do so may help the architects design them to do it
better [4].

In his discussion, he introduced Peirce and Saussure’s theory, they both wanted to
set up a general theory of signification, for that they wanted to state how one thing,
anything - a word, a picture, a diagram, rain clouds, smoke, or a building – “stands
for” or “reminds us for”, a theory which they called Semiotic, or Semiology. And
then came, Charles Morris who divided this field (semiotic) to three levels,
pragmatic, semantic, and syntactic; the pragmatic: deals with the origins uses (by
those who actually make them) and the effects of signs on those who interpret them
within the total range of behaviour in which they occur, the semantic: deals with the
signification of signs in all modes of signifying, with the ways in which they
actually “carry” meanings, and the syntactic: deals with the combination of signs
(such as the ways in which words are put together to form sentences) without regard
to their specific significations or meanings or their relations to the behaviour in
which they occur [4].
Figure (11) theory of signs appear in Charles Jencks sketches towards Swiss Re building

Figure (12) theory of signs appear in Charles Jencks sketches towardsRonchamp

4- Variations of Design Methodology

Many Design methodologies are familiar to designers, known as design phases or

steps, which the architect should pass by almost all of these steps, figure (13).

Figure (13) Aspects of Design Methodology, Design steps

Additionally the designer’s selection of some problems to solve and leaving others;
considered also as one of the design methodologies. Yet Paul Rudolph refers to the
architect’s selection in solving the problems he meets in designing several buildings
and refers to the ignorance of many aspects in the building.
“More recent rationalizations for simplicity in architecture—subtler than the earlier arguments of
modern architecture—are the various expansions of Mies's magnificent paradox, "less is
more." Paul Rudolph has recently stated the implications of Mies's point of view: "All
problems can never be solved; indeed it is a characteristic of the twentieth century that
architects are highly selective in determining which problems they want to solve. Mies, for
instance, makes wonderful buildings only because he ignores many aspects of a building. If he
solved more problems, his buildings would be far less potent.” [4]

5- Difference between Architectural Theory and Design Theory

Architectural theory is taught in most architecture schools, is often didactic, and

theorists tend to stay close to or work from within schools. Yet the architectural
theory must be categorised to one of the types; prescriptive, proscriptive,
affirmative, or critical, and also the most popular one the descriptive
theory.Moreover many theorists and architects see that the architectural theory
governs the architectural practice by legislating rules and criteria of building, one of
them is Scruton, says:

“Architectural theory consists in the attempt to formulate the maxims, rules and precepts
which govern, or ought to govern, the practice of builder.” [9]

While theory of design argues about reasons that can explain, dictate or prove a
design decision, such as the creation of a shape in an architectural work, related
more to the investigations of systems of decision making in design than to the
verbalization of different design decisions as such [1, 14].

Additionallythe design theory is considered to;help in design or change concepts of

design or rearrange design phases.After all, it is to design with; it is to address
aspects of imagination and creativity and introduces the channels one can use to
achieve creativity in architectural design [17].

Such as the theory of design illustrated by Anthony Antioniades in which he called

Poetics of Architecture. Antioniades presented some factors that could help in the
design process in order to reach creativity in architecture. He tried by this theory to
navigate the channels of creativity through which one can move, in order to
stimulate one’s imagination and create design. He identified and divided the
metaphor used in architectural design into three broad categories: Intangible
metaphors, those in which the metaphorical departure for the creation is a concept,
an idea, a human condition, or a particular quality (individuality, naturalness,
community, tradition, and culture), Tangible metaphors, those in which the
metaphorical departure stems strictly from some visual or material character.
Combined metaphors, those in which the conceptual and the visual overlap as
ingredients of the point of departure [10].
 Figure (14) A Summary of applied metaphors, Theory of Design

7- Analytical case studies and applied projects

In general, postmodern architectural theory addresses crisis of meaning in the

discipline. Since the mid-1960s, architectural theory has become truly
interdisciplinary; it depends upon a vast array of critical paradigms. So the paper
has selected this period specifically to study their architectural theories, showing the
influence of theories on design methodologies. A series of case studies is selected to
reveal the influence of architectural theory on design methodology; they are all
existing projects containing one or more architectural theory as shown in the
following table.
 Architectural Theory Cases Study Analysis of Design
Thinking
Geoffrey Broadbent : Eisenmanstarted with a
Theory of signs cube of space, and then he
Peter Eisenmanhad been subdivided it with a 3*3
influenced by thetheory of grid to give a total of nine
syntax in the theory of on each floor. This grid
semiotic. had been built with
Peter Eisenman has drawn columns or parallel walls,
directly on Chomsky to he then looked at the
describe the way in which negative spaces thus
he has developed a allocated them to various
complex of rules for the functions of living.
generation and Although the result looks
transformation of like a le Corbusier villa,
architectural forms. but Eisenman developed
his design according to a
According to what have set of syntactic
been stated by Broadbent, rules.Eisenman links
Eisenman was the first between architectural
architect to deal in such thinking and practice very
complex syntax, as shown well.
House II (Vermont House) by Peter Eisenman
in the figures.

Geoffrey Broadbent: Post modernism is a period

Theory of signs of pluralism. This theory
It is noticeable that Cesar of signs consists of three
Pelli had been affected by parts; the pragmatic: the
the theory of semiotics effects of signs on those
which had been drawn by who interpret them, people
Broadbent perceive this element on
top of tower as minarets,
the semantic: the
Robert Venturi: signification of signs in
Complexity and which they carry the same
Contradiction in meanings of minarets, it is
Architecture a direct metaphor, and the
Post modernism is a period syntactic: deals with the
of complexity and combination of signs
contradiction, Cesar Pelli together, for that being the
had been influenced by this height of the tower, the
theory, also influenced by minaret, and the lighting
the site his design will atmosphere, all give the
stand in same meaning.
Petronas Twin Tower by Cesar Pelli
Schulz: The
Phenomenon of Place
converting the
environment into meaning
through inventing new
places
Mies Van Der Rohe:
Universal Space
theory
undifferentiated space
devises the whole, rather
than analyse the atoms
Frampton: Critical
Regionalism Theory
A theory proposes
resistance to the
homogenization of the
visual environment
Peter Eisenman: Post
Functionalism
Post functionalism has the
properties of
functionalism, but added a
new feature to it, which is
the post humanism in
which the architectural
form in this period became
a mark that holds a
message and a meaning.
Louis Sullivan: Form
ever follows function
The principle of this theory
is that the shape of a
building or object should
be primarily based upon its
intended function or
purpose.
Holocaust Memorial by Peter Eisenman
Reichtag, Berlin Dome, by Norman Foster
Peter Eisenman had been
affected by Schulz theory
trying to design a new
place with a specific spirit.
Eisenman also had been
affected by the universal
space theory, designing a
huge one space to
symbolise the meaning of
isolation.
Peter Eisenman had been
affected by the Critical
theory: Expression of
material and structure
assured the critical
regionalism theory,
making a new architecture
in the context, a critical
response, rather than a
sentimental or copyist
response.
The two theories have
almost the same approach,
they had been elaborated
mainly in the post-modern
period, the meaning of post
functionalism in this
building is the
transparency representing
some sort of surveillance.
Form ever follows function
in another way, or another
meaning that was known
before in the sky scrapers
of America. Here form
follows function, in the
new dome of the
parliament, where the
humans can make direct
surveillance over their
representatives of
Parliament; they can keep
walking and see them
while negotiations.
8- Conclusion
The different architectural theories that had been analysed in this paper, several
techniques of measuring and evaluatingcould be applied to them, in order to be
more understood and perceived, then more used by designers, or at least could
analyse the meanings they carry, so that discovering how people interpret them.
Conclusion could be summarized as follows:

1-Monitoring, measuring and evaluating architectural theories should be done, to be

applied in the design processes.
2-Architectural theories had been elaborated to help in design, not as theoretical
studies only.
3-Theory can change practice by legitimizing usages condemned by previous
theories.

9-Recommendations
In general and for the topic of the paper, there are recommendations for the architect
or the designer, by which when understanding the architectural theory and its types
and categories, could be more effective for him in the design process, and could
draw from it a theory of design, or could affect his methodologies in design. The
recommendations could be as follows:

1-Presenting new approaches for developing the architectural design process in

Egypt depending on a great number of studies.
2-Understanding, upgrading and analysingall processes related to architectural
design.
3-When theory and practice are united in one person; the ideal condition of art is
attained, because art is enriched and perfected by knowledge.
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