Australia’s heritage

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v Why Indigenous people are such a vital part of @e[`^\efljg\fgc\_Xm\]XZ\[
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Australia’s heritage
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regarded each other `eÕl\eZ\[fe^f`e^i\cXk`fej_`gj
v What impact European settlement had on Indigenous people Y\kn\\e@e[`^\efljXe[efe$
v Why the land is so important to Indigenous Australians @e[`^\eflj8ljkiXc`Xej6
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EUROPEANS first settled in Australia in 1788, Indigenous people had been
W HEN
living here for at least 40 000 years. The Indigenous people did not use the land
as most Australians do today, but this did not mean that they did not regard it as theirs.
However, this did not stop the European settlers from taking possession of it.
Origins of Indigenous people Radiocarbon dating of a number of ancient
The origins of Australia’s Indigenous people are human settlement sites in Australia suggests that
strongly debated, and many theories have been Indigenous people may have lived here for up to
proposed. Some say they have been here as long as 100 000 years, possibly much longer. For example, it
the Australian landmass has existed. Others believe has been estimated that the buried skeleton of a man
that they came here from somewhere else, most uncovered in 1975 on the ‘shores’ of Lake Mungo in
probably from lands to Australia’s north. Despite New South Wales (a lake that has been dry for some
these varying opinions, there is, however, unanimous 15 000 years) is about 40 000 years old. Human
agreement that Australia’s Indigenous people were its bones found at Keilor, Melbourne, are estimated to
first human inhabitants. be even older — possibly about 45 000 years old.
30 000 BC New Guinea 20 000 BC New Guinea 9000 BC New Guinea

Torres Strait Torres Strait Torres Strait

Philippines

SOUTH
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SEA

 

Land above sea level N

Present coastline 0 500 1000 km
 

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Land above sea level, 18 000 BC
   
 
 
  
   

Land above sea level, present  
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S O U T H E R N O C E A N

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worksheet 3.1

Language groups Clans

Early European settlers called the people they found Language groups were made up of a number of
living in Australia ‘Aborigines’ or ‘natives’, suggesting clans, each of which owned a part of the group’s
they were all the same. In reality, the Indigenous land. A clan typically had about 100 people, and
people belonged to some 500 different groups, each was made up of one or two extended families, called
with its own separate language (or dialect), laws, bands. Men commonly had more than one wife, and
beliefs and customs. so typically had lots of children. Each band hunted
for and gathered food in a particular section of
Land they
believed was the clan’s land. Clans would often meet to trade,
Own history, given to them by arrange marriages, or hold ceremonies.
beliefs, law ancestral beings

On Totemism
n
do
Ha

which
e Each clan within a language group had a totem
d

they
Liv

that was a sign of its people’s spiritual link to the

Each Hunted land. It might be an animal, a plant or some other
D`e[dXg language group
j_fn`e^jfd\
natural feature such as a particular weather pattern
nXpj`en_`Z_ or rock formation. As well, each individual had a
Kept
cXe^lX^\^iflgj
up links Practised
totem or special land feature with which he or
jljkX`e\[k_\`i
XeZ\jkiXcc`ebjXe[
with their religion she spiritually identified, and hence protected.
jg`i`klXc`kp An individual’s totem was decided by the
Other groups, elders. What that totem was depended on where
especially those
with similar By
the person’s mother was when she first felt the
By
languages person move as a baby in her stomach.
Exchanging Meeting to Respect for common totems helped to
information, songs, organise marriages
goods and and joint bind people together.
artefacts ceremonies

Y @ec`^_kf]n_XkpflXci\X[p
REMEMBER
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I CAN:

appreciate how long Indigenous people might have been

8ljkiXc`X]ifdk_\efik_%
in Australia
SELF-DISCOVERY understand something of the structure of Aboriginal
5 X @jk_\i\Xep`e]fidXk`fe`ek_`j social groups
Z_Xgk\ik_Xk`je\nkfpfl6 defend my own view and reflect on how my opinions
<ogcX`e% might have changed over time.

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EUROPEANS explorers and settlers saw no evidence of settlement or cultivation in
E ARLY
the land we now call Australia. They believed, therefore, that it was land they could
claim. Bit by bit, the continent was claimed in the name of the British monarch, and
declared Crown land.
Under European law in the late eighteenth
century, a people’s sovereignty over land
existed only if they farmed and built permanent
dwellings on it. The Europeans who arrived with
the First Fleet in 1788 saw no buildings or roads, Whose land?
as in England, nor any sign of crops or stock @ek_\cXk\(.''j#Xkc\Xjk(0@e[`^\efljki`Y\jc`m\[
`ek_\i\^`fek_Xk`jefnJp[e\p%K_\cXe[Xifle[
animals. It was for them, therefore, a land over
;Xic`e^?XiYflinXjk_\ki`YXccXe[f]k_\:X[`^Xc
which no-one held sovereign rights. g\fgc\#gXikf]k_\<fiXcXe^lX^\^iflg%
What the new arrivals did not realise was
that Indigenous people had lived here for tens 8e\kZ_`e^Yp
of thousands of years before they arrived. The 8YjXcfdN\jk#
Indigenous culture was different and unfamiliar, glYc`j_\[`e
as was they way they lived. Neither did they (/()#f]Xe
@e[`^\eflj
use the land as most Europeans did at the time; ZXdgXk
however, this did not mean the Indigenous :fZbc\9Xp#
people did not regard the land, and its resources, efn;Xic`e^
?XiYfli%
as theirs. Thus, the seeds were sown for
misunderstanding and conflict from the start.

Approximate 120 000 — Analysis of

number of pollen and charcoal at
0 Lake George (NSW)
120

years before 0
the present 60 suggests people
17 living there Kf[Xp#;Xic`e^?XiYfli#j_fne
000

fek_\c\]k#`jfe\f]k_\nfic[Ëj
dfjkn\cc$befneXe[gfglcXi
116 000–176 000
Evidence of human
nXk\i]ifekgi\Z`eZkj%@k_XjX
00

occupation in the _fjkf]c\`jli\Xe[\ek\ikX`ed\ek

Kimberley (WA)
00

]XZ`c`k`\j#`eZcl[`e^j_fgj#
K_\]fi\Y\Xij
11

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0

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00

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0

Y\]fi\k_\^i\Xk
10

gpiXd`[jf]<^pgk
n\i\Yl`ckXk>`qX%
40 000 — Humans
0
34 000 — Humans around
Hunter River (NSW) First non-Aboriginal
31 000 — Engravings settlers arrive in
10 000 — World’s
carved in Olary Sydney Cove (1788)

in Lake Mungo (NSW) oldest boomerangs

00

region (SA) used in Wyrie

90

23 000 — People in Swamp (SA) 800 — Stone

50 000 — Humans huts built in
40 0 Arnhem Land using
in Arnhem Land semi-permanent
00 ground edge grooved
(NT) using ochre villages in
axes; earliest in the world
0 Victoria
00
50 13 000 — Australia’s
oldest ornaments, 2000 — People
30 fishing with
75 000 — The world’s bone beads, made in
38 000 — Humans reach 00 hooks and lines
80 0

earliest known rock art 0 Devil’s Lair (WA)

south-west WA and 0
carved on rock outcrop
0 camp on upper Swan 00
in the Kimberley 00 10
00

River near Perth

60 30 800 — Humans in
20 000
8000 — New Guinea
Tasmania and Tasmania
separate from
70 000 the mainland

*
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worksheet 3.2

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fib`ccXepXe`dXc]fijgfik%K_\p[`[
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Traditional Indigenous lifestyle efijZ`\ek`ÔZXccp%K_\pb`cc\[fecpk_fj\
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Australia’s Indigenous people generally lived a stable lifestyle, guided n_\e`knXje\Z\jjXip%K_\pbe\nXcfk
by elders who knew the local Dreaming stories and customs. The XYflkXe[_X[X[\\g$j\Xk\[i\jg\Zk
people worked together, sharing their food and knowledge, and ]fi\XZ_c`m`e^Zi\Xkli\#Y\c`\m`e^k_Xk
living in harmony with their environment. As Captain Cook wrote \XZ_fe\#c`b\k_\dj\cm\j#_X[`kjjg\Z`Xc
gcXZ\`ek_\fm\iXccgcXef]Zi\Xk`feXe[
in his journal about those he observed in 1770: ‘… in reality they c`]\%
are far more happier than we Europeans … In short they seemed to
set no value upon anything we gave them, nor would they part with =ifdA\Xe8%<cc`j#8ljkiXc`XËj8Yfi`^`eXc
?\i`kX^\#:fcc`ej;fm\#D\cYflie\#(00+
anything of their own for one article we could offer them’.

COMMUNICATE
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REMEMBER Xe[`jc`b\cpkf[fjf`ek_\]lkli\%Lj\k_\`dX^\j`e
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dfi\XYflk8ljkiXc`XËjgi\_`jkfip%
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7 K_`ebXYflkk_\[`]]\i\eki\Xjfejn_pgcXZ\jn_\i\
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pfl]\\c6
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 Y 8]k\inXi[j#[`jZljjkfn_Xk\ok\ekk_`jkXjb_\cg\[
lj`e^Xggifgi`Xk\cXe^lX^\Xe[@:KZfem\ek`fej%
pflkfk_`ebXYflkXe[Y\kk\ile[\ijkXe[k_\
gc`^_kf]@e[`^\efljg\fgc\[\Xc`e^n`k_k_\
`dgXZkf]9i`k`j_Zfcfe`jXk`fe% I CAN:

B[Whd_d]

5 N_Xk[fk_\m`\njf]:XgkX`e:ffbXYflkk_\ appreciate how Indigenous people lived prior to their

@e[`^\efljg\fgc\_\jXnjl^^\jkXYflkk_\hlXc`kp contact with Europeans
f]k_\`ic`]\jkpc\k_\e6 empathise with the plight faced by Indigenous people
following European settlement
think about change over time, and how this change affects
people’s lives.

+
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9edjWYj
26 January 1788, eleven British ships carrying about 1000 people sailed into
O N
Port Jackson on Australia’s east coast. Most on board were convicts, about to start
life in a penal colony.
Reaction of
Indigenous people
Aboriginal people thought the first
Europeans they saw might have
been ghosts, or evil spirits. Their
Dreaming provided them with no
clues as to who these pale-skinned,
strangely dressed people might
be. Some wondered if they might
be women, as they had no beards.
Some tried to find a place for them
in their kinship system by treating
them as spirits of their dead, and
offering them food and women.
It soon became clear that the
‘visitors’ planned to stay. They
were clearing land near sacred
sites, fencing off properties,
which cut access to waterholes
and hunting grounds, and fishing
without permission of the elders.
Besides, more and more of them
were arriving. Indigenous people
became increasingly worried.
These ‘spirits of their former dead’
did not speak their language.
Nor did they obey their rules and
respect their rituals and sacred
places. The view that they were
invaders, not visitors, began to
take hold.
Some Indigenous people may
have been puzzled or fascinated
by the first Europeans they
saw; others were undoubtedly
frightened. When exploring the
Lachlan River in 1817, John
Oxley described how two young
Indigenous men reacted to the
sight of his party: ‘They trembled
excessively, and, if the expression
may be used, were absolutely
intoxicated with
fear . . .’.
,
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Reaction of the Europeans
In 1788, Europeans held a
range of views about Australia’s
Indigenous people. In line with
thinking at the time, many of
the more educated would have
regarded them as ‘noble savages’
— primitive people who lived
a contented life in the natural
world without the pressures
of civilisation. The observant
Captain Watkin Tench expressed
a much more insightful view in
1793. He said that those he had
met possessed ‘. . . a considerable
portion of that acumen, or
sharpness of intellect, which
bespeaks genius’.
Df[\ieXik`jkËj
`dgi\jj`fef]
ÔijkZfekXZk
 Most of the new European <okiXZk]ifdX[[i\jj As more towns sprang up,
Yp>fm\iefi>Xnc\i
arrivals, however, were neither `e(/*/kf
Indigenous people often clustered
educated nor sensitive. The @e[`^\efljg\fgc\`e8[\cX`[\ around the edges of these new
majority were convicts, many of settlements. Some found jobs as
whom had been brutalised. For 9cXZbd\e%N\n`j_kfdXb\pfl expedition guides for European
many, the view of the British _Xggp%9lkpflZXeefkY\_Xggp explorers; others became Native
explorer William Dampier might lec\jjpfl`d`kXk\n_`k\d\e% Police under the command
9l`c[_lkj#n\XiZcfk_\jXe[Y\ of British officers. A few, such
have been more acceptable. He lj\]lc%%%pflZXeefkY\_Xggp
wrote in 1688 that Australia’s lec\jjpflcfm\>f[%%%Cfm\ as Arabanoo, Bungaree and
Indigenous people were ‘. . . the n_`k\d\e%%%c\Xiekfjg\Xb Bennelong, were captured and
miserablest people in the world <e^c`j_% coached to act like Europeans,
. . . [who differed] but little from >fm\ied\ek>Xq\kk\# in the hope that they might
brutes’. *Efm\dY\i(/*/ encourage others to become more
Many Europeans would like them.
have been scared by the sight of
advancing dark-skinned, naked
men with bones in their noses
and ears. They would not have
understood that multi-scarred
chests and missing front teeth were
not meant to terrify. They were
signs of initiation the Indigenous
people wore proudly.
Be like us!
Captain Arthur Phillip, Australia’s
first governor, had been instructed
to do everything he could to
make friendly contact with the
‘natives’ and to ‘. . . live in amenity
[friendship] and kindness with
them’. Any Europeans who hurt or
killed Indigenous people were to
be punished.
The problem was that Europeans
expected Indigenous people to act
and live as they did. They could
not, for example, understand
why Indigenous people did not
have a god or churches, towns
or cultivated land. Their kinship
systems seemed especially odd
(where an ‘uncle’, for example, was
also a ‘father’). Most importantly,
they did not understand that the
land they were clearing for farms,
towns and pasture might contain
sacred sites that the traditional
CXk\(/)'jgX`ek`e^f]9le^Xi\\#n_fnXjX_`^_$gifÔc\Ô^li\
owners had tended for generations, Xifle[Jp[e\p]fik_i\\[\ZX[\j%?\jX`c\[n`k_k_\\ogcfi\i
or hunting grounds that provided DXkk_\n=c`e[\ijfeknff]_`jmfpX^\jXe[nXjXg\ijfeXc]i`\e[f]>fm\iefi
their food. Many Europeans DXZhlXi`\%?\nXjjX`[kfY\Zflik\flj#gc\XjXekXe[Xnfe[\i]lcd`d`Z#n_`Z_
assumed the Indigenous people nXjXjfliZ\f]dlZ_]le]fik_\e\nj\kkc\ij%K_fl^_jlggfik\[Yp_`j@e[`^\eflj
ÊYifk_\ijËXe[n_`k\Ê]i`\e[jËlek`c_`j[\Xk_`e(/*'#dXepXi^l\k_Xk9le^Xi\\[`[
could just be moved on. n_Xk_\[`[Y\ZXlj\`knXjk_\fecpnXpkfjlim`m\%

-
<_hij
7kijhWb_Wdi
 Analyse art as evidence
K_`j(/*'gX`ek`e^Yp8l^ljklj<Xic\\ek`kc\[ÊEXk`m\jf]E%J%NXc\j#
Xjj\\e`ek_\jki\\kjf]Jp[e\pËj_fnj@e[`^\efljg\fgc\`e]ifekf]X
<lifg\Xej$fecp_fk\c%@k`jXgi`dXipjfliZ\%
With the passage of time, many
Indigenous people were ordered
to live on special reserves. They
were told it was to protect them.
Christian missionaries at first,
and later government officers,
administered these reserves,
which included the Lake Condah
(Portland) and Coranderrk
(Healesville) reserves in Victoria
(see pages 16–17). Well-meaning
efforts to make the Indigenous
people ‘European’, however, cut
across kinship rules and traditional
cultural practices. For instance,
the people were forbidden to speak
their language or to take part in
Indigenous cultural events.
At this time in history, there
were no sustained efforts to
preserve Indigenous culture or
the basic rights of the Indigenous
people to fair and equal treatment.
More compassionate Europeans
saw the land’s original inhabitants
as a race that would sadly, but
inevitably, die out, and tried to
make the process as painless as
possible. More heartless settlers
saw them as ‘pests’ who kept
‘camping’ on their farms and
‘hunting’ their stock animals.
Control and conquer
In the decades that followed the
arrival of the first Europeans,
tensions were growing on both
sides. Indigenous people were
being shot at when they ventured
onto European farms to get food
— many of which were on their
traditional hunting grounds — or
when they tried to get to nearby
rivers. In turn, European settlers
and convicts were being attacked
by raiding parties of Indigenous
warriors.
In the end, the Indigenous
people had no chance of resisting
the growing flood of European
.
>kcWd_j_[i
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)
What are the Indigenous
people doing? What does
this tell you?
Does their appearance or
behaviour suggest some
adherence to traditional
Indigenous practices?
How are the Indigenous
people and Europeans
interacting? What does
this suggest?
Is there anything to
suggest the artist was
influenced by stereotypes?
If an Indigenous artist had
painted this scene in 1830,
what differences (if any)
might there have been?
Would some things have
been included or left out?
How differently might the
people have been drawn?
Think about what this
reveals about point of
view.
settlers, with their guns and
horses. They did try to fight back,
but had difficulty in sustaining
their efforts. Their numbers were
also being very rapidly reduced
by introduced diseases, against
which they had no resistance.
These included measles, whooping
cough, influenza and smallpox.
Fg`e`fef]
I\m\i\e[AXd\j
>lek_\i(/*'j 
f]k_\8Yfi`^`e\j
K_\`i`ek\cc\ZklXc]XZ`c`k`\jXi\Yp
efd\Xej`e]\i`fiXj`j^\e\iXccp
jlggfj\[2k_\`id`e[`jhl`k\
ZXgXYc\f]Zlckli\2f]k_`j@_Xm\
dXep[\Z`j`m\giff]j%%%Xk
c\Xjkk_\pfle^d\eXe[Yfpj
m\ipjffeXZhl`i\Xe[jg\Xb
k_\<e^c`j_cXe^lX^\Zfii\Zkcp
Xe[Õl\ekcp%
=ifdI`Z_Xi[9iffd\#8Yfi`^`eXc
8ljkiXc`Xej#8cc\eXe[Len`e#(0/)
 Cfjjf]k_\cXe[

@knXjk_\cfjjf]k_\cXe[n_`Z_nXjnfijk%8jk`d\
n\ekfe#k_\8Yfi`^`e\ji\ki\Xk\[fin\i\[i`m\e
flkf]n_fc\k\ii`kfi`\j`ekfk_\`e_fjg`kXYc\]ffk_`ccj
n_`Z_]fid\[k_\`iYfle[Xi`\j%%%K_\jljkX`e`e^
Z\i\dfe`\jZflc[efkY\_\c[#d\eXe[nfd\e
Zflc[efkm`j`kk_\`ifneY`ik_gcXZ\jfiZXiipflkk_\`i
[lk`\jkfk_\jg`i`kj%K_\\o`c\[ZXdgjn\i\iXZb\[Yp
e\nj`Zbe\jj\j2gXc\le]Xd`c`XiYXY\jn\i\Yfiekf
k_\nfd\e%%%K_\Yc`^_k\[ZXdgj[n`e[c\[#k_\`i
]ff[`eXZZ\jj`Yc\fik_\_lek\ijXe[^Xk_\i\ij
kffn\XbkfÔe[Xe[Yi`e^`k`e%K_\\c[\ijXe[k_\
Z_`c[i\e[`\[%Jfd\Y\^Xekfc\Xm\k_\ZXdgjXe[
Zc`e^kfk_\j\kkc\d\ekjn_\i\YpZcfne`e^#Y\^^`e^#
Xe[j\cc`e^k_\`infd\ek_\pZflc[jlim`m\%;`j\Xj\
Xe[c`jkc\jje\jj`eZi\Xj\[%K_\iX^jk_\pn\i\^`m\e
Y\ZXd\ef`jfd\#[XdgXe[Ôck_p#]fik_\p_X[efk
Y\\ekXl^_kkfnXj_k_\d2jc\gk`eYpe`^_kk_\p
Yi\[dfi\[`j\Xj\#Xe[k_\jlim`mfijZfl^_\[k_\`i
nXpkf[\Xk_%Ë
=ifdAl[`k_Ni`^_k#K_\:ip]fik_\;\X[#Fo]fi[
Le`m\ij`kpGi\jj#D\cYflie\#(0/(#g%).%Al[`k_Ni`^_knXj
Xn\cc$befnegf\kXe[Xn_`k\8ljkiXc`Xen_f]fl^_k
gXjj`feXk\cp]fik_\i`^_kjf]@e[`^\efljg\fgc\%

REMEMBER
1 N_XknXjXÊefYc\jXmX^\Ë6N_pd`^_kjfd\_Xm\
i\^Xi[\[8ljkiXc`XËj@e[`^\efljg\fgc\k_`jnXp6
2 <ogcX`ek_\Z_Xe^`e^eXkli\f]k_\@e[`^\eflj
i\XZk`fekfk_\<lifg\XeXii`mXcj%
THINK
3 K_`ebf]k_i\\i\Xjfej`e\XZ_ZXj\ n_p<lifg\Xej
Xe[@e[`^\efljg\fgc\n\i\glqqc\[Yp\XZ_fk_\i%
Jl^^\jkn_pk_\j\d`jle[\ijkXe[`e^jc\[kfZfeÕ`Zk%
I\gi\j\ekpflii\jgfej\Xj\`k_\iXd`e[dXgj\\
gX^\*]fiXe\oXdgc\ fiXkXYc\%
SELF-DISCOVERY
4 @]pfl_X[Y\\eXe@e[`^\efljg\ijfec`m`e^Xkk_`j
k`d\#n_XkXkk`kl[\fiXZk`fekXb\eYp<lifg\Xej
nflc[_Xm\lgj\kXe[Xe^\i\[pfldfjk6N_p6

Analyse art as evidence

5 J\c\Zk\`k_\ijfliZ\8#:fi;%:fdgc\k\k_\]fccfn`e^
]fipfliZ_fj\egX`ek`e^1
 X  @jpflij\c\Zk`feXgi`dXipfij\Zfe[XipjfliZ\6
N_p6
 Y ;\jZi`Y\k_\[i\jjXe[XepYf[p[\ZfiXk`fejf]
k_\@e[`^\efljg\fgc\`ek_\Xik%N_Xk[f\jk_`j
k\ccpfl6
 Z  N _Xk\m`[\eZ\[f\jk_\XikZfekX`e#`]Xep#XYflk
`ek\iXZk`fejY\kn\\e@e[`^\efljg\fgc\Xe[k_\
\Xicp<lifg\Xej\kkc\ij6N_Xk`ek\igi\kXk`fejZXe
pfl[iXn6
 [ ;f\jk_\Xikj_fnXepjl^^\jk`fef]Y`Xjfek_\
gXikf]k_\Xik`jk#fii\gi\j\ekXk`fef]n_XkXi\
Zfej`[\i\[kfY\jk\i\fkpg\j6<ogcX`e%
6 Nfib`ek\Xdjf]Ôm\g\fgc\%NfibflkXZi\Xk`m\
nfi[j% Fe\d\dY\in`ccjcfncpeXiiXk\k_\k\ok
[li`e^k_\gi\j\ekXk`fe%E\^fk`Xk\ifc\jXZZfi[`e^
kfjb`ccjXe[`ek\i\jkjf]^iflgd\dY\ij%8]k\ik_\
gi\j\ekXk`fej#i\Õ\ZkXjXZcXjjfen_Xke\n`ej`^_kj
k_\j\gi\j\ekXk`fej^Xm\Xe[_fn\]]\Zk`m\k_\pn\i\
`e_\cg`e^pflkfc\Xie%
COMMUNICATE
7 K_\e`e\k\\ek_$Z\eklipZXikffeXYfm\j_fnjknf
@e[`^\efljg\fgc\d`d`Zb`e^<lifg\Xej%8kk_\k`d\#
<lifg\Xejk_fl^_kk_Xkk_`jY\_Xm`flinXjgiff]f]
k_\c\jj\i`ek\cc`^\eZ\f]@e[`^\efljg\fgc\%N_Xk[f
pflk_`eb6J_Xi\pflim`\njn`k_XgXike\i%
I CAN:

B[Whd_d]

nXp#lj`e^Yf[pcXe^lX^\#gifgjXe[dlj`Z#kf understand how cultural misunderstandings can lead

Zfem\p]fik_\ZcXjjk_\`e]fidXk`feZfekX`e\[ to conflict
`ejfliZ\=%:_\Zbk_\d\Xe`e^f]Xccle]Xd`c`Xi roleplay the presentation of a text, as an alternative
learning strategy to demonstrate empathy
analyse a painting to consider aspects of early
Indigenous–European contact.
/
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7kijhWb_Wdi
 :[WZbo
[dYekdj[hi
Europeans was to prove deadly for Australia’s
C ONTACT WITH
Indigenous people. A great many died: introduced diseases
against which they had no immunity, alcohol, starvation and
depression all took their toll. Many others were killed. Estimates
vary, but some historians suggest that around 20 000 Indigenous
people may have been killed during raids and frontier battles.
The good intentions of Captain Phillip, and the friendliness
initially shown by many Indigenous people towards European
settlers, soon soured into bitterness on both sides.
At the heart of most of the killings in Western Australia, is quoted as
was a struggle for land. European saying, ‘A black man claims nothing
settlers saw the land as an economic as his own but his cloak, his weapons
resource they could exploit. As and his name . . . He does not
they pushed out the frontiers understand that animals or plants
of their settlements, they came can belong to one person more than
increasingly into contact with those to another’.
who believed they owned the land. Not all new settlers were heartless
Conflict was inevitable. European though. Records report the kindness
settlers generally resented the fact and friendship shown, for example, to
that Indigenous people were the Bangerang people by the pioneer
blocking the progress of what the Edward Curr, who settled on the
settlers considered was a ‘superior Murray River around 1840.
race’. Indigenous people found such
Jfd\@e[`^\efljZXgk`m\jn\i\
attitudes confusing. Yagan, a k`\[lg`eZ_X`ejXe[_X[k_\`i]\\k
notable Indigenous resistance fighter Yliekjfk_\pZflc[efk\jZXg\%

K_\dfm`e^]ifek`\i
f]<lifg\Xe
j\kkc\d\ek`e
8ljkiXc`X





Before 1820

1820–40 1860–80

1840–60 Sparsely settled @]@e[`^\efljg\fgc\i\klie\[kfk\e[k_\`ijXZi\[j`k\j#

after 1880
_lekfi[i`eb]ifdnXk\i_fc\j#k_\pn\i\f]k\eb`cc\[%
0 250 500 km NXk\i_fc\jn\i\jfd\k`d\jgf`jfe\[#XjnXjk_\Õflifi


d\Xkjfd\j\kkc\ijf]]\i\[kfjkXim`e^@e[`^\efljg\fgc\%

'&
>kcWd_j_[i
7b_l[
)

8glYc`j_\[
fYj\imXk`fe(/,0 
f]:%?%D%?lcc#Xj\e`fiKXjdXe`Xe
glYc`Zj\imXek
%%%X[Xpnflc[Y\j\c\Zk\[Xe[k_\
e\`^_Yfli`e^j\kkc\ij`em`k\[#n`k_
k_\`i]Xd`c`\jkfXg`Ze`Z%%%8]k\i
[`ee\i%%%k_\^\ekc\d\ef]k_\
gXikpnflc[kXb\k_\`i^lejXe[
[f^j#Xe[XZZfdgXe`\[Ypknf
fik_i\\Zfem`Zkj\imXekj#nXe[\i
k_ifl^_k_\Ylj_`ej\XiZ_f]
YcXZb]\ccfnj%Jfd\k`d\jk_\pnflc[
i\klien`k_flkjgfik2Xkfk_\ijk_\p
nflc[jlZZ\\[`eb`cc`e^XnfdXe#
fi#`]clZbp#XdXefiknf%
Native troopers
In 1842, the Victorian
Government set up a body of
Native Police, made up of
Indigenous troopers under the
control of European officers.
Similar forces were set up in
New South Wales in 1855, and
in Queensland in 1859. Native
Police usually worked in areas
other than those where their own
communities lived. This meant
they did not have to attack their
own people. Because officers
frequently led from the rear
during a raid, those attacked did
not always associate the attack
with Europeans. This lessened
the likelihood of survivors taking
revenge on settlers.
Af_eFoc\pC`YiXipe\^%ef1/0++
EXk`m\Gfc`Z\Xk:f\e`eHl\\ejcXe[`ek_\(/0'j%DXepEXk`m\Gfc`Z\\e[\[lg
X[fgk`e^<lifg\XemXcl\jXe[Xkk`kl[\j#Ylkn\i\e\m\ii\XccpXZZ\gk\[YpÊn_`k\
jfZ`\kpË%8^i\XkdXep[`\[cfe\cp[\Xk_j[l\kfXcZf_fcgf`jfe`e^%
Smallpox
JdXccgfo#X[`j\Xj\
ZXlj\[Ypk_\mXi`fcX
m`ilj#b`ccj`eXYflk
*'g\iZ\ekf]ZXj\j#
c\Xm`e^jlim`mfijYX[cp
jZXii\[%K_\[`j\Xj\nXj[\ZcXi\[
\c`d`eXk\[]ifdk_\nfic[`e(0..%
K_\Z_XiXZk\i`jk`Zc\j`fejf]
jdXccgfo
JdXccgfonXjZXii`\[kfk_\e\n
ZfcfepYpk_\j\kkc\ijf]k_\=`ijk
=c\\k%@e[`^\efljg\fgc\_X[ef
`ddle`kpX^X`ejk`k%9pDXp(./0#
`k_X[b`cc\[_Xc]k_\@e[`^\eflj
g\fgc\Xifle[GfikAXZbjfe%
''
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:lckli\ZcXj_
worksheet 3.3
REMEMBER
1 N_pnXjcXe[jlZ_XjfliZ\f]
ZfeÕ`Zk`ek_\[\ZX[\j]fccfn`e^
k_\Xii`mXcf]<lifg\Xej6
2 <ogcX`en_pjdXccgfonXj
jlZ_X[\mXjkXk`e^[`j\Xj\]fi
@e[`^\efljg\fgc\%:fej`[\i
_fn`kd`^_k_Xm\X]]\Zk\[k_\d
Yfk_g_pj`ZXccpXe[\dfk`feXccp%
COMMUNICATE
3 Ni`k\XgXiX^iXg_`epfli
efk\Yffbj`ei\jgfej\kf\XZ_
f]k_\j\hl\jk`fej%
 X N_pnXjlj`e^EXk`m\Gfc`Z\
`eiX`[jfe@e[`^\eflj
ZXdgjXZc\m\ikXZk`ZYpk_\
<lifg\Xej6
 Y N_pd`^_k@e[`^\eflj
d\e_Xm\Y\\egi\gXi\[
kfY\lj\[`ek_`jnXp6=fi
\oXdgc\#n_XkY\e\Ôkj
d`^_kk_\i\_Xm\Y\\e
`eY\`e^XEXk`m\Gfc`Z\
f]ÔZ\i6
 Z N_Xkcfe^$k\id`dgXZk
d`^_kk_\`iafYj#Xe[k_\
ifc\jk_\p_X[kfg\i]fid#
_Xm\_X[feEXk`m\Gfc`Z\6
<ogcX`e%
4 :fejkilZkXk`d\c`e\f]jfd\
b\p\m\ekjk_XkfZZlii\[[li`e^
k_\\Xicp[\ZX[\jf]<lifg\XeÆ
@e[`^\eflj`ek\iXZk`fe%
THINK
5 ;`jZljjXjXZcXjjkfn_Xk\ok\ek
k_\e\^Xk`m\`ek\iXZk`fej
Y\kn\\edXepf]k_\<lifg\Xe
j\kkc\ijXe[@e[`^\efljg\fgc\
Xi\kpg`ZXcf]_ldXeY\_Xm`fli
n_\e\m\ik_\i\`jXjkil^^c\]fi
gfn\iXe[Zfekifc%
ICT
6 ;iXnXd`e[dXg#lj`e^
jf]knXi\jlZ_Xj@ejg`iXk`fe#kf
i\gi\j\ekÕfn$fe\]]\Zkj]ifd
k_\`e`k`Xc`dgXZkf]<lifg\Xe
j\kkc\d\ekfe@e[`^\eflj
g\fgc\\%^%XÕfn$fe\]]\Zk
f]ÊjdXccgfo\g`[\d`ZËd`^_k
Y\ÊdXepZ_`c[i\efig_Xe\[Ë %
JnXgpfliZfdgc\k\[dXg
n`k_XgXike\iXe[[`jZljjXep
[`]]\i\eZ\j%
I CAN:

B[Whd_d]
appreciate why conflict occurred
following European settlement
appreciate the impact of European
settlement on Aborigines
empathise with the way Indigenous
people felt at their treatment.
CWiiWYh[
gained control of most habitable Australian land by the end of
E UROPEANS HAD
the nineteenth century. But this did not happen without a number of battles and
massacres. Some were in retaliation for attacks on settlers by Indigenous warriors, who
were angered by the loss of their land and the treatment of their people. Two Indigenous
massacres are briefly presented here.
Myall Creek massacre Kurnai massacres KiX[`k`feXccXe[jf]
k_\Ôm\ZcXejk_Xk
In June 1838, 12 local stockmen By 1858, the Kurnai population dX[\lgk_\BlieX`
(11 of whom were ex-convicts) had reduced from about 2000 g\fgc\%K_`jj\Zk`fef]k_\M`Zkfi`Xe
ZfXjkc`e\#]ifek`e^9XjjJkiX`k#c`\j\Xjk
were on the hunt around the New (in 1840) to only 80 as a result of f]D\cYflie\%
South Wales town of Inverell for settler attacks and massacres and
Indigenous people they suspected the new diseases introduced by Traditional
had stolen cattle. They rode to the sealers and whalers. The official land of the
Kurnai
nearby Myall Creek Station, where reasons given by the Victorian

Clan
a stockman, Andrew Eaton, had Government for this decline were boundaries
befriended a clan of Indigenous starvation due to ‘scarcity of game’, Vic.
people and offered them shelter. alcoholism, and ‘in some cases’
The younger men of the clan cruelty and poor treatment by
were away cutting bark at the settlers.
time. The stockmen tied up the
28 people they found there
— women, children and a few
older men — and herded them
into a stockyard. There they were
brutally beaten and hacked to
death, and their bodies burnt. After
being acquitted following an initial
murder trial, seven of the attackers
were later retried and hanged.
8Zfek\dgfiXipXik`jkËj`dgi\jj`fe
f]fe\f]k_\dXepdXjjXZi\jf]
k_\BlieX`g\fgc\befnekf_Xm\
fZZlii\[Y\kn\\e(/+'Xe[(/,'%
K_`j`ccljkiXk`fei\$Zi\Xk\jXeXkkXZb
[\jZi`Y\[Xkk_\k`d\`ek_\cfZXc
gXg\i#K_\>`ggjcXe[\i%

K_\BlieX`g\fgc\#>`ggjcXe[ËjÔijk
`e_XY`kXekj#c`m\[`e]fi\jkjXe[Xifle[k_\
i`m\ijXe[cXb\j`eM`Zkfi`XËjjflk_$\Xjk%
'(
>kcWd_j_[i
7b_l[
)

Identify gaps in the evidence
Primary sources are important documents for
historians. Yet a primary source does not necessarily
provide a true or complete picture of what happened
in the past. Some facts might be distorted; others
might be left out (leaving gaps). The following
two primary sources each describe reasons for the disappearance of
Australia’s Indigenous people.
8m`\n# K_\m`\nf]
\ogi\jj\[Yp ;XcX`g`#Xe
X<lifg\Xe @e[`^\eflj
^fm\ied\ekjgfb\jg\ijfe`e g\ijfe]ifdHl\\ejcXe[#\ogi\jj\[
D\cYflie\Ëj8^\`e(/0- `ek_\cXk\(/''j
K_\]Xmfli`k\k_\fip%%%`jk_Xk N\n\i\_lek\[]ifdfli
k_\[`jXgg\XiXeZ\f]k_\eXk`m\ ^ifle[#j_fk#gf`jfe\[#Xe[
iXZ\j`j[l\kfk_\Zil\ckpXe[ _X[fli[Xl^_k\ij#j`jk\ijXe[
dXc`^e`kpf]k_\n_`k\j\kkc\ij% n`m\jkXb\e]ifdlj%%%N_Xk
K_fj\n_fXi\XZhlX`ek\[n`k_ XeldY\in\i\gf`jfe\[
k_\_`jkfipf]k_`jZfcfep]ifd XkB`cZfp%%%K_\pjkfc\fli
`kjÔijkj\kkc\d\ekXi\XnXi\k_Xk ^ifle[n_\i\n\lj\[kf
efjlZ_Z_Xi^\ZXeY\Xcc\^\[ ^\k]ff[#Xe[n_\en\^fk
X^X`ejkk_\M`Zkfi`Xeg\fgc\#Xe[ _le^ipXe[kffbXY`kf]Õfli
k_Xkk_\YcXZbiXZ\_Xj[\ZXp\[ fib`cc\[XYlccfZbkf\Xk#k_\p
Xe[`jiXg`[cp[p`e^flk]ifd j_fkljfigf`jfe\[lj%8cc
ZXlj\jhl`k\flkj`[\k_\gfn\i k_\p^`m\ljefn]fiflicXe[
f]k_\n_`k\dXekfZfekifc% `jXYcXeb\kfeZ\Xp\Xi%
Who is the speaker in each case? Was each speaking from a position of strength or
weakness?
Who do you think might have been the audience of each ‘speaker’? What reaction
might each speaker be hoping his words will create in the audience? Think about
how this would influence what was said and what was not said.
Based on what you know, can you identify any gaps (left-out facts) in what each
speaker says? Why might these details have been left out?
The article on this attack reported that
‘every man who could find a gun or
a horse’ joined in. The Kurnai people
were surrounded as they gathered
around a large waterhole. The attackers
kept shooting until they had run out of
ammunition. The report concludes: ‘More
than a hundred of the blacks were killed’.
There was no European law-enforcement
body in Gippsland until 1844. It was a
time of attack and counterattack: Kurnai
warriors plundered European barns and
crops and speared cattle (as access to
food sources on their traditional lands
had been denied) and Europeans formed
hunting parties to massacre groups of
Kurnai people.
Kurnai contact with Europeans was at
first limited to a few sealers, sailors
and shipwreck survivors. After 1840,
they came increasingly into contact with
European settlers wanting to develop
Kurnai traditional lands.
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CD-
the R
OM
J`k\jkl[p1=ifek`\i
on
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I CAN:

B[Whd_d]
appreciate how brutally many
Indigenous people were treated
research details of some
Indigenous massacres
use ICT tools to research and
document a report.
?dZ_][deki
h[i_ijWdY[
about the conflict between European colonists and Aboriginal people
M ANY STORIES
suggest the latter were easy targets. Indigenous people may not have had the
guns of the Europeans, or often their manpower, but they did not lack courage or skill.
Their bush skills, for example, could not be matched by the Europeans. Here are the
stories of two Indigenous men who fought back.
Pemulwuy At first, his tribe lived in harmony with the
The Bidjigal warrior Pemulwuy, sometimes called the Europeans, who had established a colony on the
Rainbow Warrior, belonged to the Eora language Swan River in 1829. However, arguments soon arose
group (the area surrounding Sydney). Between over land and resources. The British mistook the
1790 and 1802, he led many attacks against colonial Nyungar tradition of burning the land as an act of
farms and settlements, some of which were highly aggression. In 1831, a Nyungar was shot while taking
organised, large-scale guerrilla operations. He and potatoes from a settler’s garden. The settler saw it
his men fought so fiercely in a battle in 1797 that he as theft; the Nyungar would have seen it as taking
almost gained control of the newly settled town of the land’s resources, to which he was entitled. Yagan
Parramatta. sought revenge for this killing. After more battles, a
reward was offered for his head.
When Yagan was finally captured, a European
;\jg`k\Y\`e^Zfek`elXccp
named Robert Lyon fought hard to spare his life. He
jfl^_kYpjfc[`\ij# admired Yagan’s courage and wished to study him.
G\dlcnlpb\gk\cl[`e^ Yagan was exiled to a small rocky island, but escaped
k_\d2feZ\_\\jZXg\[ after six weeks. The colonists were angry about this;
]ifdX_fjg`kXcjk`cc`e
c\^`ifej%?\Xcjfjlim`m\[ as punishment, they killed Yagan’s father and brother,
i\g\Xk\[nfle[j#Y\`e^ and increased the reward on Yagan’s head.
_`k`efe\XkkXZbYpj\m\e
Ylcc\kj%Jfd\@e[`^\eflj
g\fgc\Y\c`\m\[_\\jZXg\[
Ypklie`e^_`dj\c]`ekf
XY`i[%

Governor King became increasingly frustrated

by Pemulwuy. He offered rewards, including a
free pardon, to any convict who would bring him
his head. That happened in 1802; Pemulwuy was
murdered. His decapitated head was sent to England
to be studied by scientists. They had heard a lot
about the native Australians, but had never seen one.
Although glad he was dead, Governor King had a
grudging respect for Pemulwuy. He said of him:
‘Altho’ a terrible pest to the colony, he was a brave
and independent character and an active, daring
leader of his people’.

Yagan
Yagan (see also page 10) was part of the Nyungar
tribe of south-western Western Australia. A tall man
(described as being over 1.8 metres), he was both K_`jjkXkl\f]PX^XenXj\i\Zk\[fe?\ii`jfe@jcXe[`ek_\
feared and admired by the British colonists. JnXeI`m\i%

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)
 For 12 months, Yagan managed
to avoid capture, continuing to
fight for his people. Then, in July
1833, he approached two shepherds
he knew, asking for flour. When
his back was turned, one of them,
William Keats, shot him. A
reward was given for the killing
of Yagan, but the editorial of the
Perth Gazette described it as a ‘wild
and treacherous act’: ‘We are not
vindicating [forgiving] the outlaw,
but, we maintain it is revolting
to hear this lauded [praised] as a
meritorious [good] deed.’
Yagan’s head was sent to
England in 1835. The hair was
combed, and black and red
cockatoo feathers were tied to
the head as decoration. It was
exhibited in Liverpool until 1964
when it was buried in Everton
Cemetery. In 1997, almost 165
years after being sent to England,
Yagan’s head was returned to
Australia for a proper burial.
Today, the remains of a great
many Aboriginal people are still
scattered throughout British
museums, causing great distress
to Aboriginal communities.
They believe the souls of their
ancestors cannot rest until their
bodies are returned. So far, British
museums have been reluctant to K_\_\X[f]PX^Xe#gX`ek\[Yp
oblige. IfY\ik?Xm\cc

REMEMBER
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kf[`jgcXpjlZ_i\dX`ej6
 Z  ? fnnflc[pfl]\\c`]k_\i\dX`ejf]Xd\dY\if] I CAN:

B[Whd_d]

f]pfli]Xd`cpn\i\[`jgcXp\[`eXdlj\ld6N_Xk appreciate the contribution of people such as Yagan and

le[\icp`e^Y\c`\]j[fpfl_Xm\k_XkdXb\pfl]\\c Pemulwuy in fighting for their rights
k_`jnXp6 recognise that there will always be two or more
perspectives about historical events
use my creative thinking and skills to design a
commemorative monument to Pemulwuy.
'+
<_hij
7kijhWb_Wdi
J^[
ijeho
e\
9ehWdZ[hha
an Aboriginal reserve set up in 1863. It was home for nearly
C ORANDERRK WAS
60 years to many Kulin people, who came from around the present-day Port
Phillip area. Farming, baking, schooling and house building were commonplace
activities during much of the reserve’s often thriving existence. Its closure in 1924 was
a severe blow to the Indigenous people.
Coranderrk was established when the Victorian
Government set aside land near present-day New South Wales
Healesville. The decision followed a petition
presented by Aboriginal people which read, in part: A.C.T.

South Australia
‘could we have our freedom to go away shearing and
Cummeragunja
harvesting, and come home when we wish’. Ebenezer Echuca

A thriving settlement Coranderrk

Lake
In 1863, around 40 Indigenous people moved to live Lake
Condah Tyers
on what was then uncleared bushland at Coranderrk. Framlingham
By 1874, the population had grown and the rich land
had been largely cleared, fenced and sown with crops. Aboriginal reserve

Hop production began in 1872; two years later the
people were also managing 450 head of cattle and
running a dairy. The reserve’s superintendent, a
lay preacher named John Green, had been donating
money from his own salary to help the Indigenous
people develop their settlement. In 1874, however,
he was forced to resign after an argument with the
Victorian Government. He wanted the Indigenous
people to retain more of the profits from the reserve’s
hops farms.
Bass Strait
0 125 250 km
:fiXe[\iibnXjfe\f]j`ojlZ_i\j\im\jj\klg`eM`Zkfi`X2
k_\fk_\ijn\i\Xk=iXdc`e^_Xd#CXb\:fe[X_#<Y\e\q\i#
:ldd\iX^leaXXe[CXb\Kp\ij%
By the 1880s, Coranderrk was making enough
money, and harvesting enough food, to support itself.
In fact, it did so well that local European farmers and
landholders were envious of its success. The problem
this posed for the residents of Coranderrk was that
they did not legally own the land. There was also
the view, popular at the time among many European
colonists, that it was the ‘manifold destiny’ (obvious
fate) of the Aboriginal people to eventually die out.
Hence, encouraging and promoting their efforts to
be self-sufficient and successful would be counter-
productive.

Jfd\f]:fiXe[\iibËji\j`[\ekj
Coranderrk closes
The Board for the Protection of Aborigines had
wanted to close down Coranderrk since 1874. When
this prospect became an imminent risk, residents of
Coranderrk marched on the Victorian Parliament
in protest. Their actions prompted a government
inquiry and subsequent report, lodged in 1882. The
report criticised the board, recommending that the
reserve be helped, not closed.

',
>kcWd_j_[i
7b_l[
)

Disease was a recurring
problem at Coranderrk,
and tuberculosis, smallpox and venereal
disease all took their toll. As well as
causing deaths, these diseases deprived
the reserve of labour and children. In
fact, half of all children born on Aboriginal
reserves before 1900 died in infancy.
Fred Kruger: born Germany 1831; arrived
Australia early 1860s; died 1888.
No title (Aboriginal group at Coranderrk ) c. 1866 –87
albumen silver photograph 13.2 x 20.2 cm
Gift of Mrs Beryl M. Curl, 1979
National Gallery of Victoria
Four years later, however, the Victorian Aborigines
Act of 1886 was passed, which did what the board
had been unable to do. People of mixed descent
under the age of 34 were no longer allowed to live
on reserves. This order reduced Coranderrk’s able-
bodied and enthusiastic workforce. Stock was sold,
and most of the remaining people on the reserve were
REMEMBER
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2 EXd\knf]XZkfijk_Xknfib\[X^X`ejk:fiXe[\iibËj
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COMMUNICATE
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[XpkfneZcfj\jkkf\XZ_f]k_\j\j`oi\j\im\j%
SELF-DISCOVERY
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'-
<_hij
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K_\:fiXe[\iibjkfip
worksheet 3.4
The Indigenous people grew (and sold)
arrowroot, prize-winning hops and
vegetables. The farming was organised
by the men of the reserve. As well as
tending the fields, these men earned money working
on nearby properties. Their enthusiasm was a key
part of the reserve’s early success.
moved to the mission station at Lake Tyers. In 1924,
Coranderrk was officially closed.
But the story continues. In recent years, Aboriginal
people have made efforts to reclaim Coranderrk.
In 1998, the Indigenous Land Corporation bought
some land on the old reserve, which was returned to
descendants of the original community.
jfliZ\ji\m\XcXYflk@e[`^\efljg\fgc\`ek_\cXk\
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k_\[Xe^\ijf]XZZ\gk`e^jk\i\fkpg\jn_\ejkl[p`e^
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m`\njf]fk_\ij#\m\e`]k_\pXi\[`]]\i\ek]ifdpfli
fne%
I CAN:

B[Whd_d]
appreciate why Coranderrk was such a successful
Indigenous venture
understand the demoralising impact that the closure
of the reserve had on its residents
recognise the importance of keeping an open mind about
stereotypes.
SATURDAY, 1 MAY 1976
Truganini now at peace
One hundred years after Truganini’s
death, her skeleton was cremated
yesterday, following the Tasmanian
Government’s decision to return it to
the Indigenous people. It has been
stored in the Tasmanian Museum for
the last 29 years.
Kil^Xe`e`nXjXgifl[#jkife^Xe[m\ip
i\jfliZ\]lcnfdXe#k_fl^_g\k`k\j_\
nXjfecp(*'Z\ek`d\ki\jkXcc %
Truganini’s body was buried in
a women’s jail in Hobart in 1876.
Two years later, the Royal Society
of Tasmania obtained her remains,
and her skeleton was displayed in
the Tasmanian Museum until 1947.
This gross indignity was something
Truganini had greatly feared. Museums
and medical scientists had argued over
the rights to the remains of her friend
William Lanney, who died in 1868.
She had been promised this would not
happen to her.
So why was there such an interest
in Indigenous remains? Nineteenth-
century scientists thought they were
witnessing a human species becoming
extinct. (Many then agreed with
Robert Knox who argued in his 1850
publication The Races of Man that
Asians and dark-skinned people were
a different race to Europeans.)
Truganini was the daughter of
Mangerner, who was the chief of the
people of Recherche Bay in Tasmania.
By the time she was 18, she had seen
European sealers kill her mother
and her uncle, abduct her sisters and
mutilate the man she was to marry
before leaving him to drown. She was
also raped.
Between 1830 and 1834, she
and her then partner Wooraddy
accompanied George Robinson on
several expeditions into the wilds of
Tasmania. Robinson, a lay preacher
and builder, had been appointed
by Governor Arthur to persuade
Indigenous people to come and live
I\j`[\eZ\f]k_\8Yfi`^`e\j#=c`e[\ij@jcXe[#(/+-YpAf_eJb`ee\iGiflk
WEATHER: HOBART, COLD 12°C
on missions. Robinson gave Truganini
food, shelter and blankets to be his
guide and interpreter.
In 1835, the 200 or so survivors
of those people Robinson had rounded
up were transported to a makeshift
settlement called Wybalenna on cold,
windy Flinders Island. Here Robinson
set about teaching them to dress, speak
and behave like Europeans.
The people thought their move to
Flinders Island was temporary. When
it became clear this was not so, they
became resentful and depressed. Their
links with their ancestral lands were
broken. They tried to hold onto some
of their traditions, but were continually
being forced to adopt a new culture and
new ways of thinking. New diseases
were killing them. Three years later,
only 93 people remained.
By 1847, Wooraddy had died
and there were only 45 people left.
That year, Truganini and the other
survivors were moved to Oyster
Cove in Hobart.
 THINK
1 ?fnnflc[pfl[\jZi`Y\k_\
XZk`fejf]IfY`ejfekfnXi[j
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SELF-DISCOVERY

The Black Fingal

6 ?fnnflc[pfl]\\ckfnXi[j
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<lifg\Xejki\Xk\[Kil^Xe`e``e
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Line 

 



Campbell Town
]\\c`e^j`eXeXYjkiXZkgX`ek`e^#
Xgf\d#jfe^fi[XeZ\%;`jgcXp
fig\i]fid`k]fik_\ZcXjj%
Robinson’s mission was another 


 COMMUNICATE
 
attempt by Governor Arthur to Oatlands
7 @ek_\c`^_kf]pflii\jgfej\
Bothwell
‘round up’ the country’s remaining kfXZk`m`kp+#jl^^\jkn_p



Indigenous people. In 1830, Arthur  Hamilton Kil^Xe`e`nXjgi\gXi\[kf_\cg



had ordered the Black Line — a  IfY`ejfe%N_Xk[f\jk_`jk\cc







Richmond pflXYflk_\i6
‘sweep’ of the south-east region.


New Norfolk Sorell

8 @e)'')#i\dX`ejf]Kil^Xe`e`Ëj
More than 2000 European men formed Hobart

_X`iXe[jb`e#_\c[`e9i`kX`e
a human chain to herd any Indigenous 0 25 50 km
Eaglehawk Neck ]fifm\i(''p\Xij#n\i\

people they found in this area down   Tasman ÔeXccpi\klie\[kfKXjdXe`X
Peninsula
into the Tasman Peninsula. But they ]fiZi\dXk`fe%;`jZljjXjX
captured only an old man and a boy. 7 October 20 October 18 November ZcXjjn_Xkk_`ji\m\XcjXYflk
12 October 24 October 22 November k_\nXpXkk`kl[\jkfnXi[j
Governor Arthur’s actions were 16 October 1 November 25 November
k_\@e[`^\efljg\fgc\
a response to the growing unease _Xm\Z_Xe^\[fm\ik_\cXjk
K_\9cXZbC`e\
of many new settlers, who feared Z\eklip%Gi\gXi\knffik_i\\
attacks by Indigenous people. Many i\c\mXekhl\jk`fejY\]fi\fi
of these attacks, however, were a [li`e^[`jZljj`fekf_\cgpfl
retaliation against the Europeans for Zfeki`Ylk\d\Xe`e^]lccpkf
killing Indigenous people and taking n_Xk`jjX`[%
Truganini’s ashes will today
over their land. Over the 27 years since
be cast over the waters of I CAN:
Tasmania’s first convict settlement

B[Whd_d]

D’Entrecasteaux Channel, appreciate why Truganini was

was established on the Derwent River such a significant Australian
in 1803, the Indigenous population which lap her ancestral discuss how attitudes
was rapidly reduced by murder and home of Bruny Island. towards Indigenous people
have changed
introduced disease.
contribute to a class discussion.
J^[
Jehh[i
IjhW_j
?ibWdZ[hi
TORRES Strait Islands are the hundreds of islands, many tiny, scattered between
T HE
the tip of Cape York, in Queensland, and Papua New Guinea. Many have been
inhabited for thousands of years. Their
Indigenous people are a culturally unique PAPUA NEW GUINEA Daru Island

group, distinct from the Indigenous Bristow Island

d
an
Isl l

d
Aborigines of mainland Australia. Little is

an
wa Is Boigu Kaumag Island
Ka awa Island
t a K Dauan Stephens
Ma Island Saibai Island
known of them prior to 1871, as written Turnagain Island
Island Dalrymple
Islet
Darnley
Island

records do not exist and detailed study Torres Strait Gabba Island
Tudu Island
Zagai Island
Yorke
Islands

of them and their culture was not carried Mabuiag Island

Moa
Yam Island
Sassie Island
Murray
Islands

out until the early 1900s. ARAFURA

Badu Island Island
Suarji Island
Getullai Island
Mt Ernest Island
SEA West Island
Before the Europeans arrived, it is known that the Hawkesbury Island
CORAL
Hammond Island Wednesday Island SEA
Torres Strait Islanders (hereafter called Islanders) Goods Island
Friday Island Horn Island
Mt Adolphus Island
traded with Cape York Aborigines and the people Prince of Wales

t
r Albany Island

ai
Island St
o ur
of Papua New Guinea in goods such as turtle oil, End
e av Turtle Head Island

shells, spears and red ochre. They also had their CAPE YORK
PENINSULA
own religious cults; some practised calling up the AUSTRALIA 0 40 80 km
spirits of the recently dead, ritual beheadings and
cannibalism. It seems Island society was brutal Jfd\f]k_\Kfii\jJkiX`k@jcXe[jk_\
and violent at times, particularly when raiding Y`^^\ife\j
surrounding islands for food.
what is now called the Torres Strait. Although it is
Here come the visitors … likely that others passed through these waters earlier,
Initial European contact was made in 1606 when the there is no evidence to support association with the
Spanish navigator Luis Vaez de Torres sailed through Islander people.

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 After 1770, when Captain Cook
proclaimed part of Australia’s
eastern coast as Crown land (see
page 29 for more details), many
British ships favoured Torres
Strait as a passage to the Pacific.
It was not long, therefore, before
European pearlers and fishermen
began occupying the resource-rich
waters. Their competition with
Islanders for the sea’s resources
caused many confrontations.

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k_\DliiXp@jcXe[j

Europeans as permanent
residents
There was no significant
European impact on Islander life
until the arrival of the London
Missionary Society on Darnley
Island in 1871. The Islanders
generally embraced Christianity;
but this decision had a significant
impact on the way they lived.
For example, women now had to
completely cover their bodies and
discard any traditional accessories.
In the hot, equatorial climate,
such clothing would have been
uncomfortable; however, they
risked being disciplined by the
mission court if they did not
conform.
Missionary teachers also G_fkf^iXg_kXb\e`e(0)(f]Xm`ccX^\fek_\`jcXe[f]DXYl`X^
discouraged traditional songs Yp=iXeb?lic\p
and dances in order to minimise
adherence to the ‘old ways’. Some with a type of job (for example, Controller, John Douglas, would
destroyed Islanders’ artefacts; Cook, Captain) and some from not allow Islanders to be classified
others were sold to passing ships or the Bible (for example, David, as Aboriginal people under the
buried. Matthew). Queensland Aborigines Protection
Islanders were also required to Initially, the Islanders enjoyed Act 1897. However, this changed
take a second name. These were more independence under with his death in 1904. Thursday
selected in a number of ways: some European control than did Island, for example, then became a
because they were the name of mainland Aboriginal people. European settlement that Islanders
known Europeans (for example, This was mainly because the could now only visit, and only
Joe, Tom), some by a connection then Queensland Government during the day.
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Independence — lost and gained
The Queensland Government in the early twentieth
century systematically discriminated against
Islanders, deliberately limiting their freedom. They
were not, for example, permitted to enter bars, and
were not allowed to have sexual relations with anyone
outside their race. Those of mixed descent were
transferred to the islands of Moa and Kiriri. The
government also appointed representatives for the
Islanders, but these were ineffective and were later
replaced with elected Island Councils.
Frustrated by the loss of ability to run their own
affairs, Islanders working on government-owned
boats rebelled against the Queensland Government
in 1936 by staging a strike. It lasted nine months; the
outcome was that Island Councils were allowed to
have more substantial input into the management of
their boats and other affairs.
Side by side as soldiers
During World War II, around one-quarter of the
Islander population enlisted to fight, enjoying equal
treatment and acceptance alongside their fellow
Australian soldiers (even if receiving only half their
pay!). This experience was a turning point in the
attitudes of many white Australians (particularly
those who fought alongside Islanders), and former
restrictions against Islanders began to be lifted. In
1947, the first Islander was allowed on the mainland
to cut cane, and by the 1960s all were free to seek
work and settle anywhere on the mainland.
Torres Strait Islands today
In 1990, the status of Islanders as a separate
Indigenous group within Australia was acknowledged
with the formation of the Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Commission.
The isolated location of the Torres Strait Islands,
and the limited access Islanders have to adequate
finance and professional services and core skills, have
made advancing economic development challenging.
Despite these obstacles, many island communities
and individuals are becoming more proactive in
developing businesses and projects that contribute
towards employment and increasing income.
Economic opportunities are being boosted by
tourism; many visitors come to the Islands wanting
to see traditional Islander ceremonies such as the
Coming of the Light Festival (which celebrates the
arrival of Christianity) and the Tombstone Unveiling
Ceremony (which traditionally concludes a three-year
mourning period after the death of a loved one).
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European colonisation
and modern influences
have had an enormous
impact on the retention
of traditional island
customs. Currently,
K_\Kfii\jJkiX`k@jcXe[\iÕX^nXj efforts are being made
[\ZcXi\[XÕX^f]8ljkiXc`XYpk_\ to revitalise traditional
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COMMUNICATE
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(0'+XjXk`d\f]<lifg\Xej\kkc\d\ekfi<lifg\Xe history of Australia’s Indigenous peoples
`emXj`fe6<ogcX`e#Xe[aljk`]p#pflii\jgfej\% explain how Torres Strait Islanders and Europeans might
have reacted to each other and why
critically evaluate two sources of evidence to reach
conclusions.
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'$
What typical reactions did European settlers
and Indigenous people have to one another
immediately after the first settlers arrived? Why
did this change? (pp. 6–11)

($
Study the image below. Explain how it
demonstrates the vital dependence of Indigenous
people on the land and its resources. (p. 5)

)$
Why did the early settlers assume they could
simply take over the land on which Indigenous
people lived? (p. 4) Roleplay a conversation with
a partner to demonstrate the settlers’ attitudes.
Present your roleplay for the class if asked.

*$
Why might Pemulwuy and Yagan be called
two of the first Indigenous resistance fighters?
(pp. 14–15)

+$
List key factors that caused the dramatic
reduction in the Indigenous population following
European colonisation. (pp. 8–11)
(*
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)

,$
How would you feel if you heard that an
invading force was setting out to herd your
community into a corner of your local region?
(a) Describe your emotions in a diary entry.
(b) In a paragraph, suggest why Indigenous
people caught up in the Tasmanian Black
Line hunt may or may not have felt as you do.

-$
(a) Explain why the ‘Coranderrk experiment’ was
such a severe blow to Indigenous people.
(b) What impact might this venture have had on
the people’s attitudes and behaviour in the
longer term? (pp. 16–19)

.$
This primary source is a photograph of
Aboriginal trackers taken in the nineteenth
century. Their bush skills were extraordinarily
good.
What advantages would these skills have
provided Indigenous people in:
(a) evading capture
(b) making lightning raids on European camps
(c) surviving on the land?

/$
Give one example in each case to demonstrate
why the attitudes of many early settlers towards
Indigenous people were (a) ignorant, (b) arrogant,
(c) deceitful, (d) cruel.

'&$
Create a timeline listing some of the more
important events affecting Indigenous people
referred to in this chapter.

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Explain why the Mabo decision was such a
landmark for Torres Strait Islanders and for
Indigenous people generally. (p. 22)


'($
Early European settlers drove Indigenous people
off any land they wanted. Describe why this
action would have had such a significant long-
term effect on Indigenous people.

')$
Write a short speech that Truganini might give
if she were able to come back to our society. Be
prepared to present your speech to the class.

'*$
Many early settlers treated Indigenous people
very badly, but not everyone was unfair.
The poster below, called ‘Governor Davey’s
Proclamation to the Aborigines, 1816’, was
commissioned by Colonel George Arthur,
the fourth governor of Van Diemen’s Land
(Tasmania). He ordered that copies of this poster
be nailed to trees.
(+
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(a) What is the message of this poster?
(b) In what way does it show that the rights of
Indigenous people are to be respected?
(c) Why do you think the story shown in the
poster is depicted with no words?
(d) Suggest why Indigenous people might have
been suspicious of such a poster.

'+$
In 1868, an Aboriginal cricket team toured
England, scoring better than the first white
Australian team. Nearly 40 years later, despite
being regarded by many as the fastest bowler in
Australia, Jack Marsh was asked not to appear
at the NSW selection trials. He would not be
chosen as he was Aboriginal.
(a) Why was the treatment of Indigenous
cricketers so unfair in the nineteenth century
and early twentieth century?
(b) Based on what you know of Indigenous
sportspeople today, how have
attitudes changed? Why do you
think this is so?

',$

Jimmie Barker was only 11 when
he was recruited, along with other
Indigenous boys, to work as a
stockman. Kevin Gilbert recorded
in his book Living Black some
comments Jimmie made about his
early lessons in life:
@c\Xiek¿k_XkXe8Yfi`^`eXc¿
nXjc`kkc\Y\kk\ik_XeXeXe`dXc2
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Discuss in small groups what you
would say to Jimmie today if he
visited your classroom. Think of
three specific questions you would
like to ask him and indicate why
you would like them answered.

'-$
Think about what you have learnt
in this chapter and any activities
you could have done better.
Describe in what ways you expect
to do better on similar tasks in the
future.

IkccWho
e\
a[o
j[hci
ancestral beings: ancestors of
Aboriginal people believed to have
emerged during the Dreamtime. They
created all life forms and landscape
features, some merging back into these
when their work was done.
artefact: an object made by humans
bias: a leaning towards one particular
view
brutalised: describes a person who has
been so cruelly and harshly treated
that they, in turn, become heartless
and unfeeling towards the suffering of
others
cannibalism: the act of eating one’s own
species
clan: the part of an Indigenous language
group that owned a particular section
of land (about 100 people)
colony: a settlement whose ruling
authority is linked to or directly
controlled by that of another country
convict: a person declared guilty of
a crime and (during the nineteenth
century) sent to distant colonies to
serve out his/her term
Crown land: land belonging to the
government (the Crown)
cult: a branch of religious worship of
some kind, often (but not always)
associated with more extreme beliefs
and behaviour
dialect: a language that is a version of
another. Speakers of different dialects
will not necessarily understand one
another.
Dreaming: information that describes
the Dreamtime, explains Aboriginal
people’s relationship to the land and
sets out their traditional rules of
behaviour
economic resource: a resource that can
be used to make money
elder: an older Indigenous man or
woman highly respected for their
knowledge of culture and customs
exploit: to take full advantage of,
although this might mean disregarding
the rights of others
frontier: the outer boundary of a settled
area
Governor Macquarie: the fifth governor
of the colony of New South Wales
(from 1810 to 1821). After his term
in office, Britain began to regard the
colony more as a free settlement than as
just a convict prison.
hop: a plant, the dried parts of which are
used to brew beer
hypothesis: an opinion about how
something might have happened, based
on what evidence is available, but
which has not been proved correct
hunters and gatherers: people who are
members of what is usually a group that
wanders from time to time within a set
territory to find food
immunity: the state of being protected
from catching a particular disease
Indigenous: describes the original
known inhabitants of a region.
Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders
are Australia’s Indigenous people.
initiation: a sacred ceremony in
traditional Indigenous culture in which
a boy becomes a man
kinship: describes the relationship that
exists between members of an extended
family
language group: a group of Indigenous
people who speak the same language;
sometimes a language group is called a
‘tribe’.
Matthew Flinders: an English explorer
who was the first known European to
circumnavigate Australia in 1802
mind map: a sketch that connects
loosely arranged facts and ideas by
linking lines (and brief statements) to
show their connections
mixed descent: describes someone
whose parents do not come from the
same racial group (e.g. a Chinese
mother and a Afro-American father; or,
in the case of Australia, an Indigenous
father and a non-Indigenous mother)
(,
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7b_l[
)
moiety: describes one of two parts of
a clan. Children inherited the moiety
totem of either their mother or their
father. The other moiety totem of the
Kulin people besides the wedge-tailed
eagle was the Australian raven.
Native Police: Indigenous men who
were paid and trained to help European
officers put down resistance by other
Indigenous people
native title: a ‘bundle of rights’ that
may include the right to hunt, fish
and conduct ceremonies and to be
consulted about future development
ochre: a particular type of soil, which
ranges in colour from pale yellow to
dark red. Mixed with water, it becomes
a type of paint.
penal colony: a settlement for prisoners
being punished for their crimes by
being removed from the place or
country in which they lived
petition: a request for something that
is asked of a governing body (e.g. a
government agency) and detailed in a
formal document
prehistory: history before recorded
events
pioneer: a person who was among the
first to settle in a particular region
primary source: a source of evidence
that existed or was created during the
period being studied
reserve: a set area to which many
Indigenous people were sent to
live, initially under the control of
missionaries and, later, government
authorities
sovereignty: describes a situation where
a group of people has authority over
something (e.g. land)
stereotype: an image that someone may
have of another person or place based
on first impressions or preconceptions
(e.g. colour of skin, dress, observed
behaviours, general appearance)
superintendent: a person responsible for
overseeing the activity of a particular
operation
terra nullius: a Latin term that literally
means a land without owners, or ‘land
of no-one’